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aria-controls="toc-The_Two_Talmuds-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Two Talmuds subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Two_Talmuds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jerusalem_Talmud" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jerusalem_Talmud"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Jerusalem Talmud</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jerusalem_Talmud-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Babylonian_Talmud" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Babylonian_Talmud"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Babylonian Talmud</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Babylonian_Talmud-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Comparison</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mishnah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mishnah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Mishnah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mishnah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gemara" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gemara"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Gemara</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gemara-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baraita" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baraita"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Baraita</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baraita-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minor_tractates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minor_tractates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Minor tractates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minor_tractates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manuscripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manuscripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Manuscripts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manuscripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Dating</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dating-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dating subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Premodern_estimates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Premodern_estimates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Premodern estimates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Premodern_estimates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_estimates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_estimates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Modern estimates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_estimates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Jewish_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Jewish_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>In Jewish scholarship</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_Jewish_scholarship-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In Jewish scholarship subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_Jewish_scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Legal interpretation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commentaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commentaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Commentaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commentaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pilpul" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pilpul"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Pilpul</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pilpul-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sephardic_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sephardic_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Sephardic approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sephardic_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brisker_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brisker_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Brisker method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brisker_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Textual_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Textual_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Textual criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Textual_criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Textual criticism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Textual_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medieval_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Medieval era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Early modern era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Contemporary scholarship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Translations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Translations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Translations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Steinsaltz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steinsaltz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Steinsaltz</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steinsaltz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artscroll" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artscroll"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Artscroll</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artscroll-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soncino" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soncino"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Soncino</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soncino-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_English_translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_English_translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Other English translations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_English_translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translations_into_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translations_into_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Translations into other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translations_into_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Index" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Index"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Index</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Index-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Editions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Editions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Editions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Editions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Editions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Editions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bomberg_Talmud_1523" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bomberg_Talmud_1523"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Bomberg Talmud 1523</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bomberg_Talmud_1523-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Froben_Talmud_1578" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Froben_Talmud_1578"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Froben Talmud 1578</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Froben_Talmud_1578-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benveniste_Talmud_1645" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benveniste_Talmud_1645"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Benveniste Talmud 1645</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benveniste_Talmud_1645-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavita_Talmud_1795_and_Vilna_Talmud_1835" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavita_Talmud_1795_and_Vilna_Talmud_1835"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>Slavita Talmud 1795 and Vilna Talmud 1835</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavita_Talmud_1795_and_Vilna_Talmud_1835-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critical_editions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critical_editions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5</span> <span>Critical editions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critical_editions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Editions_for_a_wider_audience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Editions_for_a_wider_audience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.6</span> <span>Editions for a wider audience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Editions_for_a_wider_audience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incomplete_sets_from_prior_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incomplete_sets_from_prior_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.7</span> <span>Incomplete sets from prior centuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incomplete_sets_from_prior_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_notable_editions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_notable_editions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.8</span> <span>Other notable editions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_notable_editions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_visual_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_visual_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>In visual arts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_visual_arts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In visual arts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_visual_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_Carl_Schleicher's_paintings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Carl_Schleicher's_paintings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>In Carl Schleicher's paintings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Carl_Schleicher's_paintings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_art_and_photography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_art_and_photography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Jewish art and photography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_art_and_photography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_outside_of_Judaism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_outside_of_Judaism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Reception outside of Judaism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reception_outside_of_Judaism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reception outside of Judaism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reception_outside_of_Judaism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>South Korea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Iran</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century_and_after" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century_and_after"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>19th century and after</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century_and_after-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_accusations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_accusations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3</span> <span>Contemporary accusations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_accusations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.3</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Logic_and_methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logic_and_methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.3.1</span> <span>Logic and methodology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logic_and_methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_scholarly_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_scholarly_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.3.2</span> <span>Modern scholarly works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_scholarly_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Full_text_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Full_text_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.3.3</span> <span>Full text resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Full_text_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Talmud</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 95 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-95" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">95 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmoed" title="Talmoed – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Talmoed" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF" title="تلمود – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تلمود" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF" title="تلمود – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تلمود" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6" title="তালমুদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তালমুদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B4" title="Талмуд – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Талмуд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B4" title="Талмуд – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Талмуд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B4" title="Талмуд – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Талмуд" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Talmwd" title="Y Talmwd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Y Talmwd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%B4" title="Ταλμούδ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ταλμούδ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmudo" title="Talmudo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Talmudo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF" title="تلمود – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تلمود" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmoed" title="Talmoed – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Talmoed" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Talmud" title="An Talmud – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Talmud" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%88%EB%AC%B4%EB%93%9C" title="탈무드 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="탈무드" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A4" title="Թալմուդ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Թալմուդ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6" title="तालमुद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तालमुद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talm%C3%BAd" title="Talmúd – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Talmúd" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93" title="תלמוד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תלמוד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D" title="ಟಾಲ್ಮೂಡ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಟಾಲ್ಮೂಡ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%98" title="თალმუდი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თალმუდი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B4" title="Талмуд – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Талмуд" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B4" title="Талмуд – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Талмуд" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B4" title="Талмуд – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Талмуд" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кырык мары</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talm%C5%ABds" title="Talmūds – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Talmūds" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmudas" title="Talmudas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Talmudas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B4" title="Талмуд – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Талмуд" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmoda" title="Talmoda – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Talmoda" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D" title="തൽമൂദ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തൽമൂദ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF" title="تلمود – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تلمود" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmoed" title="Talmoed – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Talmoed" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6" title="तल्मुद – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="तल्मुद" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BF%E3%83%AB%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89" title="タルムード – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="タルムード" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talm%C3%BAd" title="Talmúd – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Talmúd" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A6" title="ਤਲਮੂਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਤਲਮੂਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF" title="تلمود – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تلمود" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF" title="تلمود – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تلمود" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmude" title="Talmude – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Talmude" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B4" title="Талмуд – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Талмуд" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmudi" title="Talmudi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Talmudi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%95%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D9%88%D8%AF" title="تەلموود – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تەلموود" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B4" title="Талмуд – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Талмуд" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D" title="தல்மூத் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தல்மூத்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B4" title="Талмуд – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Талмуд" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF" title="تلمود – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تلمود" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Talmud" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E6%9C%A8%E5%BE%B7" title="塔木德 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="塔木德" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%90" title="גמרא – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="גמרא" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E6%9C%A8%E5%BE%B7" title="塔木德 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="塔木德" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E6%9C%A8%E5%BE%B7" title="塔木德 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="塔木德" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q43290#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Babylonian Talmud. For the Jerusalem Talmud, see <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Talmudic" redirects here. "Talmudic Aramaic" refers to the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian Aramaic</a> as found in the Talmud.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Talmud-Druck_von_Daniel_Bomberg_und_Ambrosius_Froben.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Talmud-Druck_von_Daniel_Bomberg_und_Ambrosius_Froben.jpg/250px-Talmud-Druck_von_Daniel_Bomberg_und_Ambrosius_Froben.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Talmud-Druck_von_Daniel_Bomberg_und_Ambrosius_Froben.jpg/375px-Talmud-Druck_von_Daniel_Bomberg_und_Ambrosius_Froben.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Talmud-Druck_von_Daniel_Bomberg_und_Ambrosius_Froben.jpg/500px-Talmud-Druck_von_Daniel_Bomberg_und_Ambrosius_Froben.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2784" data-file-height="1856" /></a><figcaption>The Talmud on display in the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Switzerland" title="Jewish Museum of Switzerland">Jewish Museum of Switzerland</a> brings together parts from the first two Talmud prints by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bomberg" title="Daniel Bomberg">Daniel Bomberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ambrosius_Frobenius" title="Ambrosius Frobenius">Ambrosius Froben</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output 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literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Adolf_Behrman_-_Talmudysci.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Adolf_Behrman_-_Talmudysci.jpg/250px-Adolf_Behrman_-_Talmudysci.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Adolf_Behrman_-_Talmudysci.jpg/375px-Adolf_Behrman_-_Talmudysci.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Adolf_Behrman_-_Talmudysci.jpg/500px-Adolf_Behrman_-_Talmudysci.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="485" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption" style="font-style:italic"><i>Talmud Readers</i> by <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Behrman" title="Adolf Behrman">Adolf Behrman</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#9BB4EB"> Talmudic literature</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> <a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaitic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> <a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a>)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Babylonian Talmud</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> Later</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minor_tractate" title="Minor tractate">Minor Tractates</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#9BB4EB"> <a href="/wiki/Midrash_halakha" title="Midrash halakha">Halakhic Midrash</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> Exodus</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mekhilta_of_Rabbi_Ishmael" title="Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael">Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mekhilta_of_Rabbi_Shimon_bar_Yochai" class="mw-redirect" title="Mekhilta of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai">Mekhilta of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> Leviticus</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sifra" title="Sifra">Sifra (Torat Kohanim)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> Numbers and Deuteronomy</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sifre" title="Sifre">Sifre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sifri_Zutta" title="Sifri Zutta">Sifrei Zutta on Numbers</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Mekhilta_le-Sefer_Devarim" title="Mekhilta le-Sefer Devarim">Mekhilta le-Sefer Devarim</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#9BB4EB"> <a href="/wiki/Aggadah" title="Aggadah">Aggadic Midrash</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> Tannaitic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seder_Olam_Rabbah" title="Seder Olam Rabbah">Seder Olam Rabbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet_of_Rabbi_Akiva" title="Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva">Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baraita_of_the_Forty-nine_Rules" title="Baraita of the Forty-nine Rules">Baraita of the Forty-nine Rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baraita_on_the_Thirty-two_Rules" title="Baraita on the Thirty-two Rules">Baraita on the Thirty-two Rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baraita_on_the_Erection_of_the_Tabernacle" title="Baraita on the Erection of the Tabernacle">Baraita on the Erection of the Tabernacle</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> 400–600 CE</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_Rabbah" title="Genesis Rabbah">Genesis Rabbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamentations_Rabbah" title="Lamentations Rabbah">Lamentations Rabbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesikta_de-Rav_Kahana" title="Pesikta de-Rav Kahana">Pesikta de-Rav Kahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esther_Rabbah" title="Esther Rabbah">Esther Rabbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash_Iyyob" title="Midrash Iyyob">Midrash Iyyob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviticus_Rabbah" title="Leviticus Rabbah">Leviticus Rabbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seder_Olam_Zutta" title="Seder Olam Zutta">Seder Olam Zutta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanhuma" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanhuma">Tanhuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megillat_Antiochus" title="Megillat Antiochus">Megillat Antiochus</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> 650–900 CE</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avot_de-Rabbi_Natan" title="Avot de-Rabbi Natan">Avot de-Rabbi Natan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirkei_De-Rabbi_Eliezer" title="Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer">Pirkei De-Rabbi Eliezer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanna_Devei_Eliyahu" title="Tanna Devei Eliyahu">Tanna Devei Eliyahu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet_of_Sirach" title="Alphabet of Sirach">Alphabet of Sirach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastes_Rabbah" title="Ecclesiastes Rabbah">Ecclesiastes Rabbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shir_HaShirim_Rabbah" title="Shir HaShirim Rabbah">Shir HaShirim Rabbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuteronomy_Rabbah" title="Deuteronomy Rabbah">Deuteronomy Rabbah</a></li> <li>Devarim Zutta</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesikta_Rabbati" title="Pesikta Rabbati">Pesikta Rabbati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash_Shmuel_(aggadah)" title="Midrash Shmuel (aggadah)">Midrash Shmuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash_Proverbs" title="Midrash Proverbs">Midrash Proverbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Rabbah" title="Ruth Rabbah">Ruth Rabbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baraita_of_Samuel" title="Baraita of Samuel">Baraita of Samuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum_Sheni" title="Targum Sheni">Targum Sheni</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> 900–1000 CE</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li>Ruth Zuta</li> <li>Eichah Zuta</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash_Tehillim" title="Midrash Tehillim">Midrash Tehillim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash_Hashkem" title="Midrash Hashkem">Midrash Hashkem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_Rabbah" title="Exodus Rabbah">Exodus Rabbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shir_ha-Shirim_Zutta" title="Shir ha-Shirim Zutta">Shir ha-Shirim Zutta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iggeret_of_Rabbi_Sherira_Gaon" title="Iggeret of Rabbi Sherira Gaon">Iggeret of Rabbi Sherira Gaon</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> 1000–1200 CE</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midrash_Tadshe" title="Midrash Tadshe">Midrash Tadshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_haYashar_(midrash)" title="Sefer haYashar (midrash)">Sefer haYashar</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> Later</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yalkut_Shimoni" title="Yalkut Shimoni">Yalkut Shimoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yalkut_haMachiri" title="Yalkut haMachiri">Yalkut haMachiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash_Jonah" title="Midrash Jonah">Midrash Jonah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ein_Yaakov" title="Ein Yaakov">Ein Yaakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash_HaGadol" title="Midrash HaGadol">Midrash HaGadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbers_Rabbah" title="Numbers Rabbah">Numbers Rabbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smaller_midrashim" title="Smaller midrashim">Smaller midrashim</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#9BB4EB"> <a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum_Onkelos" title="Targum Onkelos">Targum Onkelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum_Pseudo-Jonathan" title="Targum Pseudo-Jonathan">Targum Pseudo-Jonathan</a></li> <li>Fragment Targum</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum_Neofiti" title="Targum Neofiti">Targum Neofiti</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> <a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum_Jonathan" title="Targum Jonathan">Targum Jonathan</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#becce8"> <a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li>Targum Tehillim</li> <li>Targum Mishlei</li> <li>Targum Iyyov</li> <li>Targum to the Five Megillot</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum_Sheni" title="Targum Sheni">Targum Sheni</a> to Esther</li> <li>Targum to Chronicles</li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/60px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/90px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/120px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments"><img alt="Ten Commandments" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg/60px-Lukhot_Habrit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg/90px-Lukhot_Habrit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg/120px-Lukhot_Habrit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="205" data-file-height="243" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Temple_menorah" title="Menorah"><img alt="Menorah" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/70px-Menora.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/105px-Menora.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/140px-Menora.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="621" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Movements</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservadox" title="Conservadox">Conservadox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Names</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musar_movement" title="Musar movement">Musar movement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Texts</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chumash_(Judaism)" title="Chumash (Judaism)">Ḥumash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piyyut" title="Piyyut">Piyutim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Law</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah_Berurah" title="Mishnah Berurah">Mishnah Berurah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruch_HaShulchan" title="Aruch HaShulchan">Aruch HaShulchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzniut" title="Tzniut">Tzniut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Laws_of_Noah" title="Seven Laws of Noah">Noahide laws</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Cities" title="Four Holy Cities">Holy cities</a>/<a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_holy_places" title="Category:Jewish holy places">places</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safed" title="Safed">Safed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beth_midrash" title="Beth midrash">Beth midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikveh" title="Mikveh">Mikveh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukkah" title="Sukkah">Sukkah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevra_kadisha" title="Chevra kadisha">Chevra kadisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Holy Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Important figures</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron" title="Aaron">Aaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarah" title="Sarah">Sarah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebecca" title="Rebecca">Rebecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel" title="Rachel">Rachel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leah" title="Leah">Leah</a></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_rabbis" title="List of rabbis">Rabbinic sages</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Chazal" title="Chazal">Chazal</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoraim" title="Savoraim">Savoraim</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geonim" title="Geonim">Geonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rishonim" title="Rishonim">Rishonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acharonim" title="Acharonim">Acharonim</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_religious_occupations" title="Category:Jewish religious occupations">Religious roles</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posek" title="Posek">Posek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">Hazzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beth_din" title="Beth din">Dayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosh_yeshiva" title="Rosh yeshiva">Rosh yeshiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohel" title="Mohel">Mohel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kohen" title="Kohen">Kohen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_education" title="Jewish education">education</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah">Bar and bat mitzvah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a 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mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilegesh" title="Pilegesh">Pilegesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Judaism" title="Criticism of Judaism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_Jesus" title="Jewish views on Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_Muhammad" title="Jewish views on Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="font-weight:bold;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/14px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/21px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/28px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Judaism" title="Template:Judaism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Judaism" title="Template talk:Judaism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Judaism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Talmud</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ʊ/: 'u' in 'push'">ʊ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span>-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span></span>-/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">תַּלְמוּד</span>‎</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">Talmūḏ</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'teaching') is the central text of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a> and the primary source of Jewish religious law (<i><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">halakha</a></i>) and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish theology">Jewish theology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Neusner_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neusner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until the advent of <a href="/wiki/Haskalah#Effects" title="Haskalah">modernity</a>, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the centerpiece of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish cultural life</a> and was foundational to "all Jewish thought and aspirations", serving also as "the guide for the daily life" of Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-Safrai_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Safrai-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Talmud includes the teachings and opinions of thousands of <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbis</a> on a variety of subjects, including <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">halakha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_customs" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish customs">customs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">history</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_folklore" title="Jewish folklore">folklore</a>, and many other topics. </p><p>The Talmud is constituted by the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a>, a written <a href="/wiki/Compendium" title="Compendium">compendium</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">Oral Torah</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">גמרא</span></span>), a commentary on the Mishnah and related <a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaitic</a> writings. Sometimes, the word "Talmud" may only refer to the Gemara. This text is made up of 63 <a href="/wiki/Masekhet" title="Masekhet">tractates</a>, each covering one subject area. The language of the Talmud is <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian Aramaic</a>. Talmudic tradition emerged and was compiled between the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> in 70 CE and the <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest">Arab conquest</a> in the early seventh century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESafrai1969305,_307_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESafrai1969305,_307-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, it is thought that the Talmud itself was compiled by <a href="/wiki/Rav_Ashi" title="Rav Ashi">Rav Ashi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ravina_II" title="Ravina II">Ravina II</a> around 500 CE, although it is more likely that this happened in the middle of the sixth century.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word Talmud commonly refers to the <b>Babylonian Talmud</b> (<i>Talmud Bavli</i>) and not the earlier <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a> (<span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">Talmud Yerushalmi</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Talmud" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Talmud">Talmud</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <p>Talmud translates as "instruction, learning", from the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic root</a> <i>lmd</i>, meaning "teach, study".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Two_Talmuds">The Two Talmuds</h2></div> <p>In antiquity, the two major centres of Jewish scholarship were located in <a href="/wiki/Talmudic_Academies_in_Syria_Palaestina" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmudic Academies in Syria Palaestina">Galilee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Talmudic_Academies_in_Babylonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmudic Academies in Babylonia">Babylonia</a>. A Talmud was compiled in each of these regional centres. The earlier of the two compilations took place in Galilee, either in the late fourth or early fifth century, and it came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a> (or <i>Talmud Yerushalmi</i>). Later on, and likely some time in the sixth century, the Babylonian Talmud was compiled (<i>Talmud Bavli</i>). This later Talmud is usually what is being referred to when the word "Talmud" is used without qualification.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditions of the Jerusalem Talmud and its sages had a significant influence on the milieu out of which the Babylonian Talmud arose.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jerusalem_Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yerushalmi_Talmud.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Yerushalmi_Talmud.jpg/220px-Yerushalmi_Talmud.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Yerushalmi_Talmud.jpg/330px-Yerushalmi_Talmud.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Yerushalmi_Talmud.jpg/440px-Yerushalmi_Talmud.jpg 2x" data-file-width="523" data-file-height="258" /></a><figcaption>A page of a medieval Jerusalem Talmud manuscript, from the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Geniza</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Jerusalem Talmud (<i>Talmud Yerushalmi</i>) is known by several other names, including the Palestinian Talmud<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (which is more accurate, as it was not compiled in Jerusalem), or the <span title="Hebrew-language text"><i lang="he">Talmuda de-Eretz Yisrael</i></span> ("Talmud of the Land of Israel").<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jerusalem Talmud was a written codification of oral tradition that had been circulating for centuries<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and represents a compilation of scholastic teachings and analyses on the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> (especially those concerning agricultural laws) found across regional centres of the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a> now known as the <a href="/wiki/Talmudic_Academies_in_Syria_Palaestina" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmudic Academies in Syria Palaestina">Academies in Galilee</a> (principally those of <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sepphoris" title="Sepphoris">Sepphoris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea</a>). It is written largely in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western Aramaic language</a> that differs from <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">its Babylonian counterpart</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JSTOR_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JSTOR-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Project_Gutenberg_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Project_Gutenberg-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The compilation was likely made between the late fourth to the first half of the fifth century.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite its incomplete state, the Jerusalem Talmud remains an indispensable source of knowledge of the development of the Jewish Law in the Holy Land. It was also an important primary source for the study of the Babylonian Talmud by the <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Chananel_ben_Chushiel" title="Chananel ben Chushiel">Chananel ben Chushiel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nissim_ben_Jacob" title="Nissim ben Jacob">Nissim ben Jacob</a>, with the result that opinions ultimately based on the Jerusalem Talmud found their way into both the <a href="/wiki/Tosafot" title="Tosafot">Tosafot</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a> of <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>. Ethical maxims contained in the Jerusalem Talmud are scattered and interspersed in the legal discussions throughout the several treatises, many of which differ from those in the Babylonian Talmud.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Babylonian_Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Talmud_set.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Talmud_set.JPG/220px-Talmud_set.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Talmud_set.JPG/330px-Talmud_set.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Talmud_set.JPG/440px-Talmud_set.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2239" data-file-height="1568" /></a><figcaption>A full set of the Babylonian Talmud</figcaption></figure> <p>The Babylonian Talmud (<i>Talmud Bavli</i>) consists of documents compiled over the period of <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> (3rd to 6th centuries).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, the most important of the Jewish centres in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, a region called "<a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>" in Jewish sources (see <a href="/wiki/Talmudic_academies_in_Babylonia" title="Talmudic academies in Babylonia">Talmudic academies in Babylonia</a>) and later known as <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, were <a href="/wiki/Nehardea" title="Nehardea">Nehardea</a>, Nisibis (modern <a href="/wiki/Nusaybin" title="Nusaybin">Nusaybin</a>), Mahoza (<a href="/wiki/Al-Mada%27in" title="Al-Mada'in">al-Mada'in</a>, just to the south of what is now <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>), <a href="/wiki/Pumbedita" title="Pumbedita">Pumbedita</a> (near present-day <a href="/wiki/Al_Anbar_Governorate" title="Al Anbar Governorate">al Anbar Governorate</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Sura_Academy" title="Sura Academy">Sura Academy</a>, probably located about 60 km (37 mi) south of Baghdad.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Babylonian Talmud comprises the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and the Babylonian Gemara, the latter representing the culmination of centuries of analysis and dialectic surrounding the Mishnah in the Talmudic Academies in Babylonia. According to tradition, the foundations of this process of analysis were laid by <a href="/wiki/Abba_Arika" class="mw-redirect" title="Abba Arika">Abba Arika</a> (175–247), a disciple of <a href="/wiki/Judah_ha-Nasi" title="Judah ha-Nasi">Judah ha-Nasi</a>. Tradition ascribes the compilation of the Babylonian Talmud in its present form to two Babylonian sages, <a href="/wiki/Rav_Ashi" title="Rav Ashi">Rav Ashi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ravina_II" title="Ravina II">Ravina II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rav Ashi was president of the Sura Academy from 375 to 427. In this time, he began the creation of the written Talmud, a written project passed onto and completed by Ravina, the final <a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraic</a> expounder. Accordingly, the latest traditional date for the Talmud is often placed at 475, the year Ravina died. However, even on traditional views, a final redaction is still thought to have been made by the <i><a href="/wiki/Savoraim" title="Savoraim">Savoraim</a></i> ("reasoners", "considerers") in the sixth century.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison">Comparison</h3></div> <p>Unlike the Western Aramaic dialect of the Jerusalem Talmud, the Babylonian Talmud has a Babylonian Aramaic dialect. The Jerusalem is also more fragmentary (and difficult to read) due to a less complete <a href="/wiki/Redaction_criticism" title="Redaction criticism">redactional process</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AZexile_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AZexile-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discussions in the Babylonian Talmud are more discursive, rambling, rely more on anecdote and argumentation by syllogism and <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">induction</a>, whereas those in the Jerusalem Talmud are more factual and apply argumentation through logical <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deduction</a>. The Babylonian Talmud is much longer, with about 2.5 million words in total. Proportionally, more Babylonian material is non-legal (<i><a href="/wiki/Aggadah" title="Aggadah">aggadah</a></i>), constituting a third of its material, compared to a sixth of the Jerusalem.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Babylonian Talmud has received significantly more interest and coverage from commentators.<sup id="cite_ref-JVLTalJ_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JVLTalJ-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> drew influence from both Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds, although he favored the latter over the former when principles between them conflicted.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the Palestinian Jewish community declined in influence and the Babylonian community became the intellectual center of the Diaspora, the Babylonian Talmud became the more widely accepted and popular version.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas the Jerusalem Talmud only includes the opinions of Israelite rabbis (the <i>Ma'arava</i>), the Babylonian Talmud also includes Babylonian authorities, in addition to later authorities because of its later date. As such, it is regarded as more comprehensive.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neither covers the entire Mishnah. For example, the Babylonian commentary only covers 37 of 63 Mishnaic tractates. In particular: </p> <ul><li>The Jerusalem Talmud covers all the tractates of <a href="/wiki/Zeraim" title="Zeraim">Zeraim</a>, while the Babylonian Talmud covers only tractate <a href="/wiki/Berakhot_(tractate)" title="Berakhot (tractate)">Berachot</a>. This might be because the agricultural concerns of Zeraim were not as notable in Babylonia.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the Jerusalem Talmud was produced in the Land of Israel, it consequently has a greater interest in Israelite geography.</li> <li>Unlike the Babylonian Talmud, the Jerusalem Talmud does not cover the Mishnaic <a href="/wiki/Kodashim" title="Kodashim">Kodashim</a>, which deals with sacrificial rites and laws pertaining to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Temple</a>. A good explanation for this is not available, although there is some evidence that a now-lost commentary on this text once existed in the Jerusalem Talmud.</li> <li>In both Talmuds, only one tractate of <a href="/wiki/Tohorot" title="Tohorot">Tohorot</a> (ritual purity laws) is examined, that of the menstrual laws (<a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2></div> <p>The structure of the Talmud follows that of the Mishnah, divided into Six Orders (known as the <i>Shisha Sedarim</i>, or <i>Shas</i>) of general subject matter are divided into 63 tractates (<i>masekhtot</i>; singular: <i><a href="/wiki/Masekhet" title="Masekhet">masekhet</a></i>) of more focused subject compilations, though not all tractates have Gemara. Each tractate is divided into chapters (<i>perakim</i>; singular: <i>perek</i>), 517 in total, that are both numbered according to the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a> and given names, usually using the first one or two words in the first Mishnah. A <i>perek</i> may continue over several (up to tens of) <a href="#Printing">pages</a>. Each <i>perek</i> will contain several <i>mishnayot</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mishnah">Mishnah</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> is a compilation of legal opinions and debates. Statements in the Mishnah are typically terse, recording brief opinions of the rabbis debating a subject; or recording only an unattributed ruling, apparently representing a consensus view. The rabbis recorded in the Mishnah are known as the <a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaim</a> (literally, "repeaters", or "teachers"). These tannaim—rabbis of the second century CE--"who produced the Mishnah and other tannaic works, must be distinguished from the rabbis of the third to fifth centuries, known as amoraim (literally, "speakers"), who produced the two Talmudim and other amoraic works".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since it sequences its laws by subject matter instead of by biblical context, the Mishnah discusses individual subjects more thoroughly than the <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a>, and it includes a much broader selection of halakhic subjects than the Midrash. The Mishnah's topical organization thus became the framework of the Talmud as a whole. But not every tractate in the Mishnah has a corresponding Gemara. Also, the order of the tractates in the Talmud differs in some cases from that in the <i>Mishnah</i>. </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_Six_Orders_of_the_Mishnah_(שִׁשָּׁה_סִדְרֵי_מִשְׁנָה)203" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#8090EE;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mishnah" title="Template:Mishnah"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mishnah" title="Template talk:Mishnah"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mishnah" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mishnah"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Six_Orders_of_the_Mishnah_(שִׁשָּׁה_סִדְרֵי_מִשְׁנָה)203" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">The Six Orders of the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> (<span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">שִׁשָּׁה סִדְרֵי מִשְׁנָה</span>‎)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;background:#66DD66;"><a href="/wiki/Zeraim" title="Zeraim">Zeraim</a> (Seeds)<br />(<span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">זְרָעִים</span>‎)</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background:#2299FF;"><a href="/wiki/Moed" title="Moed">Moed</a> (Festival)<br />(<span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">מוֹעֵד</span>‎)</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background:#E9967A;"><a href="/wiki/Nashim" title="Nashim">Nashim</a> (Women)<br />(<span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">נָשִׁים</span>‎)</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background:#FFA812;"><a href="/wiki/Nezikin" title="Nezikin">Nezikin</a> (Damages)<br />(<span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">נְזִיקִין</span>‎)</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background:#FFE303;"><a href="/wiki/Kodashim" title="Kodashim">Kodashim</a> (Holies)<br />(<span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">קָדָשִׁים</span>‎)</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background:#C8CCE8;"><a href="/wiki/Tohorot" title="Tohorot">Tohorot</a> (Purities)<br />(<span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">טָהֳרוֹת</span>‎)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center; padding:3px;background:#C0FFC0;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berakhot_(tractate)" title="Berakhot (tractate)">Berakhot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe%27ah" title="Pe'ah">Pe'ah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demai_(tractate)" title="Demai (tractate)">Demai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kil%27ayim_(tractate)" title="Kil'ayim (tractate)">Kil'ayim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shevi%27it_(tractate)" title="Shevi'it (tractate)">Shevi'it</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terumot" title="Terumot">Terumot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27aserot" title="Ma'aserot">Ma'aserot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27aser_Sheni" title="Ma'aser Sheni">Ma'aser Sheni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Challah_(tractate)" title="Challah (tractate)">Challah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlah_(tractate)" title="Orlah (tractate)">Orlah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikkurim_(tractate)" title="Bikkurim (tractate)">Bikkurim</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center; padding:3px;background:#C0EFEE;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabbat_(Talmud)" title="Shabbat (Talmud)">Shabbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eruvin_(Talmud)" title="Eruvin (Talmud)">Eruvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesachim_(tractate)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesachim (tractate)">Pesahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shekalim_(Tractate)" title="Shekalim (Tractate)">Shekalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoma" title="Yoma">Yoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukkah_(Talmud)" title="Sukkah (Talmud)">Sukkah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beitza" title="Beitza">Beitza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosh_Hashanah_(tractate)" title="Rosh Hashanah (tractate)">Rosh Hashanah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%27anit_(Talmud)" title="Ta'anit (Talmud)">Ta'anit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megillah_(Talmud)" title="Megillah (Talmud)">Megillah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo%27ed_Katan" title="Mo'ed Katan">Mo'ed Katan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagigah" title="Hagigah">Hagigah</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center; padding:3px;background:#F5CEC3;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yevamot" title="Yevamot">Yevamot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketubot_(tractate)" title="Ketubot (tractate)">Ketubot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nedarim_(Talmud)" title="Nedarim (Talmud)">Nedarim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazir_(Talmud)" title="Nazir (Talmud)">Nazir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotah_(Talmud)" title="Sotah (Talmud)">Sotah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gittin" title="Gittin">Gittin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiddushin_(Talmud)" title="Kiddushin (Talmud)">Kiddushin</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center; padding:3px;background:#FFD199;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bava_Kamma" title="Bava Kamma">Bava Kamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bava_Metzia" title="Bava Metzia">Bava Metzia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bava_Batra" title="Bava Batra">Bava Batra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin_(tractate)" title="Sanhedrin (tractate)">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makkot" title="Makkot">Makkot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shevu%27ot" title="Shevu'ot">Shevu'ot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduyot_(Talmud)" title="Eduyot (Talmud)">Eduyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avodah_Zarah" title="Avodah Zarah">Avodah Zarah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirkei_Avot" title="Pirkei Avot">Avot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horayot" title="Horayot">Horayot</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center; padding:3px;background:#EEFFA3;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zevachim" title="Zevachim">Zevachim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menachot" title="Menachot">Menachot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hullin" title="Hullin">Hullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bekhorot" title="Bekhorot">Bekhorot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arakhin" title="Arakhin">Arakhin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temurah_(Talmud)" title="Temurah (Talmud)">Temurah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keritot" title="Keritot">Keritot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me%27ilah" title="Me'ilah">Me'ilah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamid" title="Tamid">Tamid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middot_(Talmud)" title="Middot (Talmud)">Middot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinnim" title="Kinnim">Kinnim</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center; padding:3px;background:#E8ECF2;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keilim" title="Keilim">Keilim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oholot" title="Oholot">Oholot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nega%27im" title="Nega'im">Nega'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parah" title="Parah">Parah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tohorot_(tractate)" title="Tohorot (tractate)">Tohorot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikva%27ot" title="Mikva'ot">Mikva'ot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah_(Talmud)" title="Niddah (Talmud)">Niddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makhshirin" title="Makhshirin">Makhshirin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zavim" title="Zavim">Zavim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tevul_Yom" title="Tevul Yom">Tevul Yom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yadayim" title="Yadayim">Yadayim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uktzim" title="Uktzim">Uktzim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gemara">Gemara</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a></div> <p>The Gemara constitutes the commentary portion of the Talmud. The Mishnah, and its commentary (the Gemara), together constitute the Talmud. This commentary arises from a longstanding tradition of rabbis analyzing, debating, and discussing the Mishnah ever since it had been published. The rabbis who participated in the process that produced this commentarial tradition are known as the <a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each discussion is presented in a self-contained, edited passage known as a <a href="/wiki/Sugya" title="Sugya">sugya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of the Gemara is legal in nature. Each analysis begins with a Mishnaic legal statement. With each sugya, the statement may be analyzed and compared with other statements. This process can be framed as an exchange between two (often anonymous, possibly metaphorical) disputants, termed the <i><span title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (ca. 200-1200 CE)-language text"><i lang="tmr-Latn">makshan</i></span></i> (questioner) and <i><span title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (ca. 200-1200 CE)-language text"><i lang="tmr-Latn">tartzan</i></span></i> (answerer). Gemara also commonly tries to find the correct biblical basis for a given law in the Mishnah as well as the logical process that connects the biblical to the Mishnaic tradition. This process was known as <i>talmud</i>, long before the "Talmud" itself became a text.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, the Gemara contains a wide range of narratives, homiletical or exegetical passages, sayings, and other non-legal content, termed <a href="/wiki/Aggadah" title="Aggadah">aggadah</a>. A story told in a sugya of the Babylonian Talmud may draw upon the Mishnah, the Jerusalem Talmud, midrash, and other sources.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baraita">Baraita</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baraita" title="Baraita">Baraita</a></div> <p>The traditions that the Gemara comments on are not limited to what is found in the Mishnah, but the Baraita as well (a term that broadly designates <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">Oral Torah</a> traditions that did not end up in the Mishnah). The <i>baraitot</i> cited in the Gemara are often quotations from the <a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a> (a tannaitic compendium of halakha parallel to the Mishnah) and the <a href="/wiki/Midrash_halakha" title="Midrash halakha">Midrash halakha</a> (specifically <a href="/wiki/Midrash#Tannaitic" title="Midrash">Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre</a>). Some <a href="/wiki/Baraita" title="Baraita"><i>baraitot</i></a>, however, are known only through traditions cited in the Gemara, and are not part of any other collection.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minor_tractates">Minor tractates</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Minor_tractate" title="Minor tractate">Minor tractate</a></div> <p>In addition to the Six Orders, the Talmud contains a series of short treatises of a later date, usually printed at the end of Seder Nezikin. These are not divided into Mishnah and Gemara. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language">Language</h2></div> <p>The work is largely in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian Aramaic</a>, although quotations in the <a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a> of the Mishnah, the <a href="/wiki/Baraita" title="Baraita">Baraitas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a> appear in Mishnaic or Biblical Hebrew.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some other dialects of Aramaic occur in quotations of other older works, like the <a href="/wiki/Megillat_Taanit" title="Megillat Taanit">Megillat Taanit</a>. The reason why earlier texts occur in Hebrew, and later texts in Aramaic, is because of the adoption of the latter (which was the spoken vernacular) by rabbinic circles during the period of the <a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a> (rabbis cited in the Gemara) beginning around the year 200.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second Aramaic dialect is used in <a href="/wiki/Nedarim" class="mw-redirect" title="Nedarim">Nedarim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nazir_(Talmud)" title="Nazir (Talmud)">Nazir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temurah_(Talmud)" title="Temurah (Talmud)">Temurah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keritot" title="Keritot">Keritot</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Me%27ilah" title="Me'ilah">Me'ilah</a>; the second is closer in style to the <a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manuscripts">Manuscripts</h2></div> <p>The only complete manuscript of the Talmud, <a href="/wiki/Munich_Codex_Hebraica_95" title="Munich Codex Hebraica 95">Munich Codex Hebraica 95</a>, dates from 1342 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/~db/bsb00003409/images/index.html">view scan</a>). Other manuscripts of the Talmud include:<sup id="cite_ref-:2_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Cairo Genizah fragments<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger1992140_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger1992140-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Date: earliest ones from the late 7th or 8th century</li> <li>Context: earliest manuscript fragment of the Talmud of any kind</li></ul></li> <li>Ms. Oxford 2673<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Date: 1123</li> <li>Context: Contains a significant portion of tractate Keritot; earliest Talmudic manuscript whose precise date is know</li></ul></li> <li>Ms. Firenze 7 <ul><li>Date: 1177</li> <li>Context: earliest Talmudic whose precise date is known and contains complete tractates</li></ul></li> <li>MS JTS Rab. 15<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Date: 1290</li> <li>Location: Spain</li></ul></li> <li>Bologna, Archivio di Stato Fr. ebr. 145<sup id="cite_ref-:2_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Date: 13th century</li></ul></li> <li>Vatican 130<sup id="cite_ref-:2_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Date: January 14, 1381</li></ul></li> <li>Oxford Opp. 38 (368)<sup id="cite_ref-:2_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Date: 14th century</li></ul></li> <li>Arras 889<sup id="cite_ref-:2_44-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Date: 14th century</li></ul></li> <li>Vatican 114<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Date: 14th century</li></ul></li> <li>Vatican 140<sup id="cite_ref-:2_44-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Date: late 14th century</li></ul></li> <li>Bazzano, Archivio Storico Comunale Fr. ebr. 21<sup id="cite_ref-:2_44-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Date: 12th–15th centuries</li></ul></li> <li>St. Petersburg, RNL Evr. I 187<sup id="cite_ref-:2_44-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>Date: 13th or 15th century</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dating">Dating</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Premodern_estimates">Premodern estimates</h3></div> <p>The Talmud itself (BM 86a) incorporates a statement that "<a href="/wiki/Ravina_II" title="Ravina II">Ravina</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rav_Ashi" title="Rav Ashi">Rav Ashi</a> were the end of instruction". Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Sherira_ben_Hanina" title="Sherira ben Hanina">Sherira ben Hanina</a> writes that "instruction ended" with the death of <a href="/wiki/Ravina_II" title="Ravina II">Ravina II</a> in 811 <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_era" title="Seleucid era">SE</a> (500 CE), and "the Talmud stopped with the end of instruction in the days of <a href="/wiki/Rabbah_Jose" title="Rabbah Jose">Rabbah Jose</a> (fl. 476-514)".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Seder_Olam_Zutta" title="Seder Olam Zutta">Seder Olam Zutta</a></i> records that "in 811 SE (500 CE) Ravina the End of Instruction died, and the Talmud was stopped", and the same text is found in Codex Gaster 83.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another medieval chronicle records that "On Wednesday, 13 <a href="/wiki/Kislev" title="Kislev">Kislev</a>, 811 SE (500 CE), Ravina the End of Instruction son of Rav Huna died, and the Talmud stopped."<sup id="cite_ref-:5_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a> gives 821 SE (510 CE) for the same event, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_ibn_Tzaddik" title="Joseph ibn Tzaddik">Joseph ibn Tzaddik</a> writes that "<a href="/wiki/Maremar" title="Maremar">Mareimar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mar_bar_Rav_Ashi" title="Mar bar Rav Ashi">Mar bar Rav Assi</a> et al. completed the Babylonian Talmud . . . in 4265 <a href="/wiki/Anno_Mundi" title="Anno Mundi">AM</a> (505 CE)".<sup id="cite_ref-:5_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nachmanides" title="Nachmanides">Nachmanides</a> dated the Talmud's compilation to "400 years after the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">Destruction</a>", which is 470 CE if taken as exact.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Moses_da_Rieti" title="Moses da Rieti">Moses da Rieti</a>, "Ravina and Rav Ashi compiled the Talmud but they did not complete it, and Mar bar Rav Ashi and Mareimar et al. sealed it in the days of Rabbah Jose . . . he headed the academy for 38 years after succeeding Ravina, until 4274 AM (514 CE), and in his days the Babylonian Talmud was sealed, which was begun and largely redacted in the days of Rav Ashi and Ravina".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Wikkuah</i>, a description of the 1240 <a href="/wiki/Disputation_of_Paris" title="Disputation of Paris">Disputation of Paris</a>, records that <a href="/wiki/Yechiel_of_Paris" title="Yechiel of Paris">Yechiel of Paris</a> claimed that "the Talmud is 1,500 years old", which would put it in the 3rd century BCE. Pietro Capelli suggests that it must have been traditional among medieval Ashkenazic Jews to date the Talmud from its beginning instead of its completion. Later manuscripts of the <i>Wikkuah</i> adopt the usual system of dating it to the time of Ravina II. <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Donin" title="Nicholas Donin">Nicholas Donin</a>, by contrast, claimed that the Talmud was only composeed "400 years" before, i.e. around 840 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_estimates">Modern estimates</h3></div> <p>A wide range of dates have been proposed for the Babylonian Talmud by historians.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The text was most likely completed, however, in the 6th century, or prior to the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a> in the mid-7th century at the latest,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffman2024138_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffman2024138-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on the basis that the Talmud lacks loanwords or syntax deriving from <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recently, it has been extensively argued that Talmud is an expression and product of <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> culture,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as other <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>-<a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> sources up to the same period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The contents of the text likely trace to this time regardless of the date of the final redaction/compilation.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additional external evidence for a <a href="/wiki/Terminus_ad_quem" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminus ad quem">latest possible date</a> for the composition of the Babylonian Talmud are uses of it by external sources such as <i><a href="/wiki/Pirqoi_ben_Baboi#Work" title="Pirqoi ben Baboi">Letter of Baboi</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 813</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and chronicles like the <i>Seder Tannaim veAmoraim</i> (9th century) and the <i><a href="/wiki/Iggeret_of_Rabbi_Sherira_Gaon" title="Iggeret of Rabbi Sherira Gaon">Iggeret of Rabbi Sherira Gaon</a></i> (987).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As for a <a href="/wiki/Terminus_post_quem" title="Terminus post quem">lower boundary on the dating</a> of the Babylonian Talmud, it must post-date the early 5th century given its reliance on the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Jewish_scholarship">In Jewish scholarship</h2></div> <p>From the time of its completion, the Talmud became integral to Jewish scholarship. A maxim in <a href="/wiki/Pirkei_Avot" title="Pirkei Avot">Pirkei Avot</a> advocates its study from the age of 15.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This section outlines some of the major areas of Talmudic study. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_interpretation">Legal interpretation</h3></div> <p>One area of Talmudic scholarship developed out of the need to ascertain the <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a> (Jewish rabbinical law). Early commentators such as <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Alfasi" title="Isaac Alfasi">Isaac Alfasi</a> (North Africa, 1013–1103) attempted to extract and determine the binding legal opinions from the vast corpus of the Talmud. Alfasi's work was highly influential, attracted several commentaries in its own right and later served as a basis for the creation of halakhic codes. Another influential medieval Halakhic work following the order of the Babylonian Talmud, and to some extent modelled on Alfasi, was "the <i>Mordechai</i>", a compilation by <a href="/wiki/Mordechai_ben_Hillel" title="Mordechai ben Hillel">Mordechai ben Hillel</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1250–1298). A third such work was that of <a href="/wiki/Asher_ben_Yechiel" class="mw-redirect" title="Asher ben Yechiel">Asher ben Yechiel</a> (d. 1327). All these works and their commentaries are printed in the Vilna and many subsequent editions of the Talmud. </p><p>A 15th-century Spanish rabbi, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_ibn_Habib" title="Jacob ibn Habib">Jacob ibn Habib</a> (d. 1516), compiled the <i><a href="/wiki/Ein_Yaakov" title="Ein Yaakov">Ein Yaakov</a></i>, which extracts nearly all the <a href="/wiki/Aggadah" title="Aggadah">Aggadic</a> material from the Talmud. It was intended to familiarize the public with the ethical parts of the Talmud and to dispute many of the accusations surrounding its contents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commentaries">Commentaries</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic literature</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva#Talmud_study" title="Yeshiva">Yeshiva § Talmud study</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Geonim" title="Geonim">Geonic</a>-era (6th-11th centuries) commentaries have largely been lost, but are known to exist from partial quotations in later medieval and early modern texts. Because of this, it is known that now-lost commentaries on the Talmud were written by Paltoi Gaon, <a href="/wiki/Sherira_ben_Hanina" title="Sherira ben Hanina">Sherira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hai_ben_Sherira" title="Hai ben Sherira">Hai Gaon</a>, and Saadya (though in this case, Saadiya is not likely to be the true author).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger2012217_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger2012217-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these, the commentary of <a href="/wiki/Paltoi_ben_Abaye" title="Paltoi ben Abaye">Paltoi ben Abaye</a> (<i>c.</i> 840) is the earliest. His son, <a href="/wiki/Zemah_ben_Paltoi" title="Zemah ben Paltoi">Zemah ben Paltoi</a> paraphrased and explained the passages which he quoted; and he composed, as an aid to the study of the Talmud, a lexicon which <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Zacuto" title="Abraham Zacuto">Abraham Zacuto</a> consulted in the fifteenth century. <a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a> is said to have composed commentaries on the Talmud, aside from his Arabic commentaries on the Mishnah.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first surviving commentary on the entire Talmud is that of <a href="/wiki/Chananel_ben_Chushiel" title="Chananel ben Chushiel">Chananel ben Chushiel</a>. Many medieval authors also composed commentaries focusing on the content of specific tractates, including <a href="/wiki/Nissim_ben_Jacob" title="Nissim ben Jacob">Nissim ben Jacob</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gershom_ben_Judah" title="Gershom ben Judah">Gershom ben Judah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger2012218–219_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger2012218–219-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The commentary of <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a>, covering most of the Talmud, has become a classic. Sections in the commentary covering a few tractates (Pes, BB and Mak) were completed by his students, especially <a href="/wiki/Judah_ben_Nathan" title="Judah ben Nathan">Judah ben Nathan</a>, and a sections dealing with specific tractates (Ned, Naz, Hor and MQ) of the commentary that appear in some print editions of Rashi's commentary today were not composed by him. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a genre of rabbinic literature emerged surrounding Rashi's commentary, with the purpose of supplementing it and addressing internal contradictions via the technique of <i>pilpul</i>. This genre of commentary is known as the <a href="/wiki/Tosafot" title="Tosafot">Tosafot</a> and focuses on specific passages instead of a running continuous commentary across the entire Talmud.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger2012219–220_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger2012219–220-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Talmudic passages are difficult to understand, sometimes owing to the use of Greek or Persian loanwords whose meaning had become obscure. A major area of Talmudic scholarship developed to explain these passages and words. Some early commentators such as Rabbenu <a href="/wiki/Gershom_ben_Judah" title="Gershom ben Judah">Gershom of Mainz</a> (10th century) and <a href="/wiki/Chananel_ben_Chushiel" title="Chananel ben Chushiel">Rabbenu Ḥananel</a> (early 11th century) produced running commentaries to various tractates. These commentaries could be read with the text of the Talmud and would help explain the meaning of the text. Another important work is the <i>Sefer ha-Mafteaḥ</i> (Book of the Key) by <a href="/wiki/Nissim_Ben_Jacob" class="mw-redirect" title="Nissim Ben Jacob">Nissim Gaon</a>, which contains a preface explaining the different forms of Talmudic argumentation and then explains abbreviated passages in the Talmud by cross-referring to parallel passages where the same thought is expressed in full. Commentaries (<i>ḥiddushim</i>) by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_ibn_Migash" title="Joseph ibn Migash">Joseph ibn Migash</a> on two tractates, Bava Batra and Shevuot, based on Ḥananel and Alfasi, also survive, as does a compilation by <a href="/wiki/Zechariah_Aghmati" title="Zechariah Aghmati">Zechariah Aghmati</a> called <i>Sefer ha-Ner</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Tosafot</i> are collected commentaries by various medieval Ashkenazic rabbis on the Talmud (known as <i><a href="/wiki/Tosafists" class="mw-redirect" title="Tosafists">Tosafists</a></i> or <i>Ba'alei Tosafot</i>). One of the main goals of the <i>Tosafot</i> is to explain and interpret contradictory statements in the Talmud. Unlike Rashi, the <i>Tosafot</i> is not a running commentary, but rather comments on selected matters. Often the explanations of <i>Tosafot</i> differ from those of Rashi.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the founders of the Tosafist school were <a href="/wiki/Rabbeinu_Tam" title="Rabbeinu Tam">Rabbeinu Tam</a>, who was a grandson of Rashi, and, Rabbenu Tam's nephew, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_ben_Samuel" title="Isaac ben Samuel">Isaac ben Samuel</a>. The Tosafot commentaries were collected in different editions in the various schools. The benchmark collection of Tosafot for Northern France was that of <a href="/wiki/Eliezer_of_Touques" title="Eliezer of Touques">Eliezer of Touques</a>. The standard collection for Spain was <a href="/wiki/Asher_ben_Jehiel" title="Asher ben Jehiel">Rabbenu Asher</a>'s <i>Tosefot haRosh.</i> The Tosafot that are printed in the standard Vilna edition of the Talmud are an edited version compiled from the various medieval collections, predominantly that of Touques.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A recent project, <i>Halacha Brura</i>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Isaac_Kook" title="Abraham Isaac Kook">Abraham Isaac Kook</a>, presents the Talmud and a summary of the halachic codes side by side, so as to enable the "collation" of Talmud with resultant Halacha.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pilpul">Pilpul</h3></div> <p>During the 15th and 16th centuries, a new intensive form of Talmud study arose. Complicated logical arguments were used to explain minor points of contradiction within the Talmud. The term <i><a href="/wiki/Pilpul" title="Pilpul">pilpul</a></i> was applied to this type of study. Usage of <i>pilpul</i> in this sense (that of "sharp analysis") harks back to the Talmudic era and refers to the intellectual sharpness this method demanded. </p><p>Pilpul practitioners posited that the Talmud could contain no redundancy or contradiction whatsoever. New categories and distinctions (<i>hillukim</i>) were therefore created, resolving seeming contradictions within the Talmud by novel logical means. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi</a> world the founders of <i>pilpul</i> are generally considered to be <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Pollak" title="Jacob Pollak">Jacob Pollak</a> (1460–1541) and <a href="/wiki/Shalom_Shachna" title="Shalom Shachna">Shalom Shachna</a>. This kind of study reached its height in the 16th and 17th centuries when expertise in pilpulistic analysis was considered an art form and became a goal in and of itself within the yeshivot of Poland and Lithuania. But the popular new method of Talmud study was not without critics; already in the 15th century, the ethical tract <i>Orhot Zaddikim</i> ("Paths of the Righteous" in Hebrew) criticized pilpul for an overemphasis on intellectual acuity. Many 16th- and 17th-century rabbis were also critical of pilpul. Among them are <a href="/wiki/Judah_Loew_ben_Bezalel" title="Judah Loew ben Bezalel">Judah Loew ben Bezalel</a> (the <i>Maharal</i> of Prague), <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Horowitz" title="Isaiah Horowitz">Isaiah Horowitz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yair_Bacharach" title="Yair Bacharach">Yair Bacharach</a>. </p><p>By the 18th century, pilpul study waned. Other styles of learning such as that of the school of Elijah b. Solomon, the <a href="/wiki/Vilna_Gaon" title="Vilna Gaon">Vilna Gaon</a>, became popular. The term "pilpul" was increasingly applied derogatorily to novellae deemed casuistic and hairsplitting. Authors referred to their own commentaries as "al derekh ha-peshat" (by the simple method)<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to contrast them with pilpul.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sephardic_approaches">Sephardic approaches</h3></div> <p>Among <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italian Jews</a> from the 15th century on, some authorities sought to apply the methods of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian logic">Aristotelian logic</a>, as reformulated by <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method was first recorded, though without explicit reference to Aristotle, by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Campanton" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac Campanton">Isaac Campanton</a> (d. Spain, 1463) in his <i>Darkhei ha-Talmud</i> ("The Ways of the Talmud"),<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is also found in the works of <a href="/wiki/Moses_Chaim_Luzzatto" class="mw-redirect" title="Moses Chaim Luzzatto">Moses Chaim Luzzatto</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the present-day Sephardi scholar <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Faur" title="José Faur">José Faur</a>, traditional Sephardic Talmud study could take place on any of three levels.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The most basic level consists of literary analysis of the text without the help of commentaries, designed to bring out the <i>tzurata di-shema'ta</i>, i.e. the logical and narrative structure of the passage.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The intermediate level, <i>iyyun</i> (concentration), consists of study with the help of commentaries such as <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tosafot" title="Tosafot">Tosafot</a>, similar to that practiced among the <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically Sephardim studied the <i>Tosefot ha-Rosh</i> and the commentaries of Nahmanides in preference to the printed Tosafot.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A method based on the study of Tosafot, and of Ashkenazi authorities such as <i><a href="/wiki/Maharsha" title="Maharsha">Maharsha</a></i> (Samuel Edels) and <i>Maharshal</i> (<a href="/wiki/Solomon_Luria" title="Solomon Luria">Solomon Luria</a>), was introduced in late seventeenth century <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tunisia" title="History of the Jews in Tunisia">Tunisia</a> by rabbis Abraham Hakohen (d. 1715) and Tsemaḥ Tsarfati (d. 1717) and perpetuated by rabbi <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Lumbroso" title="Isaac Lumbroso">Isaac Lumbroso</a><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is sometimes referred to as<i> 'Iyyun Tunisa'i</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The highest level, <i>halachah</i> (Jewish law), consists of collating the opinions set out in the Talmud with those of the halachic codes such as the <a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a>, so as to study the Talmud as a source of law; the equivalent Ashkenazi approach is sometimes referred to as being "<a href="/wiki/Aliba_dehilchasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Aliba dehilchasa">aliba dehilchasa</a>".</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brisker_method">Brisker method</h3></div> <p>In the late 19th century another trend in Talmud study arose. <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Soloveitchik" title="Chaim Soloveitchik">Hayyim Soloveitchik</a> (1853–1918) of Brisk (Brest-Litovsk) developed and refined this style of study. <a href="/wiki/Brisker_method" title="Brisker method">Brisker method</a> involves a <a href="/wiki/Reductionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductionist">reductionistic</a> analysis of rabbinic arguments within the Talmud or among the <a href="/wiki/Rishonim" title="Rishonim">Rishonim</a>, explaining the differing opinions by placing them within a categorical structure. The Brisker method is highly analytical and is often criticized as being a modern-day version of <a href="/wiki/Pilpul" title="Pilpul">pilpul</a>. Nevertheless, the influence of the Brisker method is great. Most modern-day Yeshivot study the Talmud using the Brisker method in some form. One feature of this method is the use of <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></i> as a guide to Talmudic interpretation, as distinct from its use as a source of practical <i>halakha</i>. </p><p>Rival methods were those of the <a href="/wiki/Mir_yeshiva_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mir yeshiva (Poland)">Mir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telz_yeshiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Telz yeshiva">Telz yeshivas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Rabinowitz#Telshe" title="Chaim Rabinowitz">Chaim Rabinowitz § Telshe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva_Ohel_Torah-Baranovich#Style_of_learning" title="Yeshiva Ohel Torah-Baranovich">Yeshiva Ohel Torah-Baranovich § Style of learning</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Textual_criticism">Textual criticism</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_era">Medieval era</h3></div> <p>The text of the Talmud has been subject to some level of critical scrutiny throughout its history. Rabbinic tradition holds that the people cited in both Talmuds did not have a hand in its writings; rather, their teachings were edited into a rough form around 450 CE (Talmud Yerushalmi) and 550 CE (Talmud Bavli.) The text of the Bavli especially was not firmly fixed at that time. </p><p>Gaonic responsa literature addresses this issue. Teshuvot Geonim Kadmonim, section 78, deals with mistaken biblical readings in the Talmud. This Gaonic responsum states: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... But you must examine carefully in every case when you feel uncertainty [as to the credibility of the text] – what is its source? Whether a scribal error? Or the superficiality of a second rate student who was not well versed?....after the manner of many mistakes found among those superficial second-rate students, and certainly among those rural memorizers who were not familiar with the biblical text. And since they erred in the first place... [they compounded the error.]</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Teshuvot Geonim Kadmonim, Ed. Cassel, Berlin 1858, Photographic reprint Tel Aviv 1964, 23b.</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In the early medieval era, Rashi already concluded that some statements in the extant text of the Talmud were insertions from later editors. On Shevuot 3b Rashi writes "A mistaken student wrote this in the margin of the Talmud, and copyists [subsequently] put it into the Gemara."<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_era">Early modern era</h3></div> <p>The emendations of <a href="/wiki/Yoel_Sirkis" class="mw-redirect" title="Yoel Sirkis">Yoel Sirkis</a> and the Vilna Gaon are included in all standard editions of the Talmud, in the form of marginal glosses entitled <i>Hagahot ha-Bach</i> and <i>Hagahot ha-Gra</i> respectively; further emendations by <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Luria" title="Solomon Luria">Solomon Luria</a> are set out in commentary form at the back of each tractate. The Vilna Gaon's emendations were often based on his quest for internal consistency in the text rather than on manuscript evidence;<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nevertheless many of the Gaon's emendations were later verified by textual critics, such as <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Schechter" title="Solomon Schechter">Solomon Schechter</a>, who had <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Genizah" class="mw-redirect" title="Cairo Genizah">Cairo Genizah</a> texts with which to compare our standard editions.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_scholarship">Contemporary scholarship</h3></div> <p>In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Nathan_Nota_Rabinovicz" title="Raphael Nathan Nota Rabinovicz">Raphael Nathan Nota Rabinovicz</a> published a multi-volume work entitled <i><a href="/wiki/Dikdukei_Soferim" title="Dikdukei Soferim">Dikdukei Soferim</a></i>, showing textual variants from the Munich and other early manuscripts of the Talmud, and further variants are recorded in the Complete Israeli Talmud and <i>Gemara Shelemah</i> editions (see <a href="#Critical_editions">Critical editions</a>, above). </p><p>Today many more manuscripts have become available, in particular from the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Geniza</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language" title="Academy of the Hebrew Language">Academy of the Hebrew Language</a> has prepared a text on CD-ROM for lexicographical purposes, containing the text of each tractate according to the manuscript it considers most reliable,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and images of some of the older manuscripts may be found on the website of the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel" title="National Library of Israel">National Library of Israel</a> (formerly the Jewish National and University Library).<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NLI, the Lieberman Institute (associated with the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Theological_Seminary_of_America" title="Jewish Theological Seminary of America">Jewish Theological Seminary of America</a>), the Institute for the Complete Israeli Talmud (part of Yad Harav Herzog) and the Friedberg Jewish Manuscript Society all maintain searchable websites on which the viewer can request variant manuscript readings of a given passage.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some trends within contemporary Talmud scholarship are listed below. </p> <ul><li>Orthodox Judaism maintains that the <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">oral Torah</a> was revealed, in some form, together with the written Torah. As such, some adherents, most notably <a href="/wiki/Samson_Raphael_Hirsch" title="Samson Raphael Hirsch">Samson Raphael Hirsch</a> and his followers, resisted any effort to apply historical methods that imputed specific motives to the authors of the Talmud. Other major figures in Orthodoxy, however, took issue with Hirsch on this matter, most prominently <a href="/wiki/David_Tzvi_Hoffman" class="mw-redirect" title="David Tzvi Hoffman">David Tzvi Hoffmann</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Some scholars hold that there has been extensive editorial reshaping of the stories and statements within the Talmud. Lacking outside confirming texts, they hold that we cannot confirm the origin or date of most statements and laws, and that we can say little for certain about their authorship. In this view, the questions above are impossible to answer. See, for example, the works of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacobs" title="Louis Jacobs">Louis Jacobs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaye_J.D._Cohen" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaye J.D. Cohen">Shaye J.D. Cohen</a>.</li> <li>Some scholars hold that the Talmud has been extensively shaped by later editorial redaction, but that it contains sources we can identify and describe with some level of reliability. In this view, sources can be identified by tracing the history and analyzing the geographical regions of origin. See, for example, the works of <a href="/wiki/Lee_I._Levine" title="Lee I. Levine">Lee I. Levine</a> and David Kraemer.</li> <li>Some scholars hold that many or most of the statements and events described in the Talmud usually occurred more or less as described, and that they can be used as serious sources of historical study. In this view, historians do their best to tease out later editorial additions (itself a very difficult task) and skeptically view accounts of miracles, leaving behind a reliable historical text. See, for example, the works of <a href="/wiki/Saul_Lieberman" title="Saul Lieberman">Saul Lieberman</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Weiss_Halivni" title="David Weiss Halivni">David Weiss Halivni</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Avraham_Goldberg" title="Avraham Goldberg">Avraham Goldberg</a>.</li> <li>Modern academic study attempts to separate the different "strata" within the text, to try to interpret each level on its own, and to identify the correlations between parallel versions of the same tradition. In recent years, the works of <a href="/wiki/David_Weiss_Halivni" title="David Weiss Halivni">David Weiss Halivni</a> and Shamma Friedman have suggested a paradigm shift in the understanding of the Talmud (Encyclopaedia Judaica 2nd ed. entry "Talmud, Babylonian"). The traditional understanding was to view the Talmud as a unified homogeneous work. While other scholars had also treated the Talmud as a multi-layered work, Halivni's innovation (primarily in the second volume of his <i>Mekorot u-Mesorot</i>) was to differentiate between the Amoraic statements, which are generally brief Halachic decisions or inquiries, and the writings of the later "Stammaitic" (or Saboraic) authors, which are characterised by a much longer analysis that often consists of lengthy dialectic discussion. The Jerusalem Talmud is very similar to the Babylonian Talmud minus Stammaitic activity (Encyclopaedia Judaica (2nd ed.), entry "Jerusalem Talmud"). Shamma Y. Friedman's <i>Talmud Aruch</i> on the sixth chapter of Bava Metzia (1996) is the first example of a complete analysis of a Talmudic text using this method. S. Wald has followed with works on Pesachim ch. 3 (2000) and Shabbat ch. 7 (2006). Further commentaries in this sense are being published by Friedman's "Society for the Interpretation of the Talmud".<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Some scholars are indeed using outside sources to help give historical and contextual understanding of certain areas of the Babylonian Talmud. See for example the works of Yaakov Elman<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and of his student Shai Secunda,<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which seek to place the Talmud in its Iranian context, for example by comparing it with contemporary <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a> texts.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Translations">Translations</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series of articles on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0 0.2 em; font-size:120%; font-weight:normal;">Editions of the <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Babylonian_Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Talmud_Set.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Talmud"><img alt="Talmud" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Talmud_Set.png/100px-Talmud_Set.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Talmud_Set.png/150px-Talmud_Set.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Talmud_Set.png/200px-Talmud_Set.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="462" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; background:transparent; text-align:left; font-weight:bold; padding-left:5px; padding-top:3px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Talmud_Bavli">Editions:</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Talmud_Bavli">Neusner Translation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Talmud_Bavli">Rodkinson Translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schottenstein_Edition_of_the_Babylonian_Talmud" title="Schottenstein Edition of the Babylonian Talmud">Schottenstein Edition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soncino_Press" title="Soncino Press">Soncino Edition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Talmud:_The_Steinsaltz_Edition" title="The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition">Steinsaltz Edition</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Editions_of_the_Talmud" title="Template:Editions of the Talmud"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Editions_of_the_Talmud" title="Template talk:Editions of the Talmud"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Editions_of_the_Talmud" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Editions of the Talmud"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>There are six contemporary translations of the Talmud into English: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Steinsaltz">Steinsaltz</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adin_Steinsaltz" title="Adin Steinsaltz">Adin Steinsaltz</a> began his translation of the Babylonian Talmud into modern Hebrew (the original is mostly Aramaic with some Mishnaic Hebrew) in 1969 and completed it in 2010. (He also translated some tractates of the Jerusalem Talmud.) The Hebrew edition is printed in two formats: the original one in a new layout and the later one in the format of the traditional Vilna Talmud page; both are available in several sizes. The first attempt to translate the Steinsaltz edition into English was <i><a href="/wiki/The_Talmud:_The_Steinsaltz_Edition" title="The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition">The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition</a></i> (Random House), which contains the original Hebrew-Aramaic text with punctuation and an English translation based on Steinsaltz' complete <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew language</a> translation of and commentary on the entire Talmud. This edition began to be released in 1989 but was never completed; only four tractates were printed in 21 volumes, with a matching Reference Guide translated from a separate work of Steinsaltz. Portions of the Steinsaltz Talmud have also been translated into French, Russian, and other languages.</li> <li>The Noé Edition of the <i>Koren Talmud Bavli</i>, published by <a href="/wiki/Koren_Publishers_Jerusalem" title="Koren Publishers Jerusalem">Koren Publishers Jerusalem</a> was launched in 2012. It has a new, modern English translation and the commentary of <a href="/wiki/Adin_Steinsaltz" title="Adin Steinsaltz">Adin Steinsaltz</a>, and was praised for its "beautiful page" with "clean type".<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the right side cover (the front side of Hebrew and Aramaic books), <a href="/wiki/The_Talmud:_The_Steinsaltz_Edition" title="The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition">the Steinsaltz Talmud</a> edition has the traditional Vilna page with vowels and punctuation in the original Aramaic text. The <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a> commentary appears in <a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi script</a> with vowels and punctuation. From the left side cover the edition features bilingual text with side-by-side English/Aramaic translation. The margins include color maps, illustrations and notes based on <a href="/wiki/Adin_Steinsaltz" title="Adin Steinsaltz">Adin Steinsaltz</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew language</a> translation and commentary of the Talmud. <a href="/wiki/Tzvi_Hersh_Weinreb" title="Tzvi Hersh Weinreb">Tzvi Hersh Weinreb</a> serves as the Editor-in-Chief. The entire set was completed in 42 volumes.</li> <li>In February 2017, the <i>William Davidson Talmud</i> was released to <a href="/wiki/Sefaria" title="Sefaria">Sefaria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This translation is a version of the Noé Steinsaltz edition above, which was released under <a href="/wiki/Creative_commons" class="mw-redirect" title="Creative commons">creative commons</a> license.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artscroll">Artscroll</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schottenstein_Edition_of_the_Babylonian_Talmud.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/95/Schottenstein_Edition_of_the_Babylonian_Talmud.jpg/220px-Schottenstein_Edition_of_the_Babylonian_Talmud.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/95/Schottenstein_Edition_of_the_Babylonian_Talmud.jpg/330px-Schottenstein_Edition_of_the_Babylonian_Talmud.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/95/Schottenstein_Edition_of_the_Babylonian_Talmud.jpg/440px-Schottenstein_Edition_of_the_Babylonian_Talmud.jpg 2x" data-file-width="538" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>The Schottenstein Babylonian Talmud in a synagogue in <a href="/wiki/Raanana" class="mw-redirect" title="Raanana">Raanana</a>, Israel</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Schottenstein_Edition_of_the_Babylonian_Talmud" title="Schottenstein Edition of the Babylonian Talmud">Schottenstein Edition of the Talmud</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Artscroll" class="mw-redirect" title="Artscroll">Artscroll</a>/Mesorah Publications), is 73 volumes,<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in an English translation edition<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a Hebrew translation edition.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the translated editions, each English or Hebrew page faces the Aramaic/Hebrew page it translates. Each Aramaic/Hebrew page of Talmud typically requires three to six English or Hebrew pages of translation and notes. The Aramaic/Hebrew pages are printed in the traditional Vilna format, with a gray bar added that shows the section translated on the facing page. The facing pages provide an expanded paraphrase in English or Hebrew, with translation of the text shown in bold and explanations interspersed in normal type, along with extensive footnotes. Pages are numbered in the traditional way but with a superscript added, e.g. 12b<sup>4</sup> is the fourth page translating the Vilna page 12b. Larger tractates require multiple volumes. The first volume was published in 1990, and the series was completed in 2004.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soncino">Soncino</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soncino_Press#Soncino_Talmud" title="Soncino Press"><i>The Soncino Talmud</i></a> (34 volumes, 1935–1948, with an additional index volume published in 1952 and a two-volume translation of the Minor Tractates later),<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Isidore_Epstein" title="Isidore Epstein">Isidore Epstein</a>, Soncino Press. An 18 volume edition was published in 1961. Notes on each page provide additional background material. This translation: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halakhah.com/tcontents.html"><i>Soncino Babylonian Talmud</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soncino+Babylonian+Talmud&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhalakhah.com%2Ftcontents.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span> is published both in English and in a parallel text edition, in which each English page faces the Aramaic/Hebrew page. It is also available on CD-ROM. Complete.</li> <li>In addition, a 7x5in travel or pocket edition<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was published in 1959. This edition opens from the left for English and the notes, and from the right for the Aramaic, which, unlike the other editions, does not use standard Vilna Talmud page; instead, another older edition is used, in which each standard Talmud page is divided in two.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_English_translations">Other English translations</h3></div> <ul><li><i>The Talmud of Babylonia. An American Translation</i>, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Jacob Neusner</a>, Tzvee Zahavy, others. Atlanta: 1984–1995: Scholars Press for Brown Judaic Studies. Complete.</li> <li><i>Rodkinson</i>: Portions<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the Babylonian Talmud were translated by <a href="/wiki/Michael_L._Rodkinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael L. Rodkinson">Michael L. Rodkinson</a> (1903). It has been linked to online, for copyright reasons (initially it was the only freely available translation on the web), but <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Talmud_(Rodkinson)">this</a> has been wholly superseded by the Soncino translation. (see below, under <a href="#Full_text_resources">Full text resources</a>).</li> <li>The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary, edited by Jacob Neusner<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, Alan Avery-Peck, B. Barry Levy, Martin S. Jaffe, and Peter Haas, Hendrickson Pub; 22-Volume Set Ed., 2011. It is a revision of "The Talmud of Babylonia: An Academic Commentary," published by the University of South Florida Academic Commentary Series (1994–1999). Neusner gives commentary on transition in use langes from Biblical Aramaic to Biblical Hebrew. Neusner also gives references to Mishnah, Torah, and other classical works in Orthodox Judaism.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translations_into_other_languages">Translations into other languages</h3></div> <ul><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Extractiones_de_Talmud" title="Extractiones de Talmud">Extractiones de Talmud</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> translation of some 1,922 passages from the Talmud, was made in Paris in 1244–1245. It survives in two recensions. There is a <a href="/wiki/Critical_edition" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical edition">critical edition</a> of the sequential recension:</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCeciniCruz_Palma2018" class="citation book cs1">Cecini, Ulisse; Cruz Palma, Óscar Luis de la, eds. (2018). <i>Extractiones de Talmud per ordinem sequentialem</i>. Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis 291. Brepols.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Extractiones+de+Talmud+per+ordinem+sequentialem&rft.series=Corpus+Christianorum+Continuatio+Mediaevalis+291&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=2018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>A circa 1000 CE translation of (some parts of)<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Talmud to Arabic is mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Sefer_ha-Qabbalah" title="Sefer ha-Qabbalah">Sefer ha-Qabbalah</a>. This version was commissioned by the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid">Fatimid</a> Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah">Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah</a> and was carried out by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_ibn_Abitur" title="Joseph ibn Abitur">Joseph ibn Abitur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Talmud was translated by <a href="/wiki/Shimon_Moyal" title="Shimon Moyal">Shimon Moyal</a> into Arabic in 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is one translation of the Talmud into Arabic, published in 2012 in Jordan by the Center for Middle Eastern Studies. The translation was carried out by a group of 90 Muslim and Christian scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The introduction was characterized by Raquel Ukeles, Curator of the Israel National Library's Arabic collection, as "racist", but she considers the translation itself as "not bad".<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>In 2018 Muslim-majority <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a> co-hosted an event at the United Nations with Catholic-majority Italy and Jewish-majority Israel celebrating the translation of the Talmud into Italian for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Albanian UN Ambassador <a href="/wiki/Besiana_Kadare" title="Besiana Kadare">Besiana Kadare</a> opined: "Projects like the Babylonian Talmud Translation open a new lane in intercultural and interfaith dialogue, bringing hope and understanding among people, the right tools to counter prejudice, stereotypical thinking and discrimination. By doing so, we think that we strengthen our social traditions, peace, stability — and we also counter violent extremist tendencies."<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2012, a first volume of the Talmud Bavli was published in Spanish by Tashema. It was translated in Jerusalem under the yeshiva directed by Rav Yaakov Benaim. It includes the translation and explanation of the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a>, and the commentaries by <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tosafot" title="Tosafot">Tosafot</a>. By 2023, 19 volumes have been published.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Index">Index</h2></div> <p>"A widely accepted and accessible index"<sup id="cite_ref-TIndex.NYT_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TIndex.NYT-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the goal driving several such projects.: </p> <ul><li><i>Mafteah haTalmud</i> (1910-1930). Breslau: D. Rotenberg. The individual work of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Guttmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Guttmann (page does not exist)">Michael Guttmann</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%90%D7%9C_%D7%92%D7%95%D7%98%D7%9E%D7%9F_(%D7%A8%D7%91)" class="extiw" title="he:מיכאל גוטמן (רב)">he</a>]</span>. Only four volumes were released before the remainder was lost in manuscript during the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Index Volume to the Soncino Talmud</i> (1952). <a href="/wiki/Soncino_Press" title="Soncino Press">Soncino Press</a>. 749 pages.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Michlul haMa'amarim</i> (1960). <a href="/wiki/Mossad_Harav_Kook" title="Mossad Harav Kook">Mossad Harav Kook</a>. A three-volume index of the Bavli and Yerushalmi, containing more than 100,000 entries.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>HaMafteah</i> (2011). <a href="/wiki/Feldheim_Publishers" title="Feldheim Publishers">Feldheim Publishers</a>. has over 30,000 entries.<sup id="cite_ref-TIndex.NYT_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TIndex.NYT-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Editions">Editions</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bomberg_Talmud_1523">Bomberg Talmud 1523</h3></div> <p>The first complete edition of the Babylonian Talmud was printed in Venice by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bomberg" title="Daniel Bomberg">Daniel Bomberg</a> 1520–23<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the support of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDalin201225_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalin201225-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGottheilBroydé1906_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGottheilBroydé1906-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeller200573_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller200573-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmram1909162_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmram1909162-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the <i>Mishnah</i> and <i>Gemara</i>, Bomberg's edition contained the commentaries of <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tosafot" title="Tosafot">Tosafot</a>. Almost all printings since Bomberg have followed the same pagination. Bomberg's edition was considered relatively free of censorship.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Froben_Talmud_1578">Froben Talmud 1578</h3></div> <p>Ambrosius Frobenius collaborated with the scholar Israel Ben Daniel Sifroni from Italy. His most extensive work was a Talmud edition published, with great difficulty, in 1578–81.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benveniste_Talmud_1645">Benveniste Talmud 1645</h3></div> <p>Following <a href="/wiki/Ambrosius_Frobenius" title="Ambrosius Frobenius">Ambrosius Frobenius</a>'s publication of most of the Talmud in installments in Basel, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Benveniste" title="Immanuel Benveniste">Immanuel Benveniste</a> published the whole Talmud in installments in Amsterdam 1644–1648,<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although according to Raphael Rabbinovicz the Benveniste Talmud may have been based on the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lublin_Talmud&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lublin Talmud (page does not exist)">Lublin Talmud</a> and included many of the censors' errors.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "It is noteworthy due to the inclusion of <i>Avodah Zarah</i>, omitted due to Church censorship from several previous editions, and when printed, often lacking a title page.<sup id="cite_ref-TalmudAmsterdamBen16_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TalmudAmsterdamBen16-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavita_Talmud_1795_and_Vilna_Talmud_1835">Slavita Talmud 1795 and Vilna Talmud 1835</h3></div> <p>The edition of the Talmud published by the Szapira brothers in <a href="/wiki/Slavuta" title="Slavuta">Slavita</a><sup id="cite_ref-Modia.15_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Modia.15-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was published in 1817,<sup id="cite_ref-Tell.185_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tell.185-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it is particularly prized by many <a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">rebbes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic Judaism</a>. In 1835, after a religious community copyright<sup id="cite_ref-Talmud.17xx_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talmud.17xx-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was nearly over,<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and following an acrimonious dispute with the Szapira family, a new edition of the Talmud was printed by Menachem Romm of <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilna</a>. </p><p>Known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Vilna_Edition_Shas" title="Vilna Edition Shas">Vilna Edition Shas</a></i>, this edition (and later ones printed by his widow and sons, the <a href="/wiki/Romm_publishing_house" title="Romm publishing house">Romm publishing house</a>) has been used in the production of more recent editions of Talmud Bavli. </p><p>A page number in the Vilna Talmud refers to a double-sided page, known as a <i>daf</i>, or folio in English; each daf has two <i>amudim</i> labeled <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">א</span></span> and <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">ב</span></span>, sides A and B (<a href="/wiki/Recto_and_verso" title="Recto and verso">recto and verso</a>). The convention of referencing by <i>daf</i> is relatively recent and dates from the early Talmud printings of the 17th century, though the actual pagination goes back to the Bomberg edition. Earlier <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">rabbinic literature</a> generally refers to the tractate or chapters within a tractate (e.g. Berachot Chapter 1, <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">ברכות פרק א׳</span></span>). It sometimes also refers to the specific Mishnah in that chapter, where "Mishnah" is replaced with "Halakha", here meaning route, to "direct" the reader to the entry in the Gemara corresponding to that Mishna (e.g. Berachot Chapter 1 Halakha 1, <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">ברכות פרק א׳ הלכה א׳</span></span>, would refer to the first Mishnah of the first chapter in Tractate Berachot, and its corresponding entry in the Gemara). However, this form is nowadays more commonly (though not exclusively) used when referring to the Jerusalem Talmud. Nowadays, reference is usually made in format [<i>Tractate daf a/b</i>] (e.g. Berachot 23b, <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">ברכות כג ב׳</span></span>). Increasingly, the symbols "." and ":" are used to indicate Recto and Verso, respectively (thus, e.g. Berachot 23:, <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">:ברכות כג</span></span>). These references always refer to the pagination of the Vilna Talmud. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critical_editions">Critical editions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Critical_edition" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical edition">Critical edition</a></div> <p>The text of the Vilna editions is considered by scholars not to be uniformly reliable, and there have been a number of attempts to collate textual variants. </p> <ol><li>In the late 19th century, Nathan Rabinowitz published a series of volumes called <i>Dikduke Soferim</i> showing textual variants from early manuscripts and printings.</li> <li>In 1960, work started on a new edition under the name of <i>Gemara Shelemah</i> (complete Gemara) under the editorship of <a href="/wiki/Menachem_Mendel_Kasher" title="Menachem Mendel Kasher">Menachem Mendel Kasher</a>: only the volume on the first part of tractate Pesachim appeared before the project was interrupted by his death. This edition contained a comprehensive set of textual variants and a few selected commentaries.</li> <li>Some thirteen volumes have been published by the Institute for the Complete Israeli Talmud (a division of Yad Harav Herzog), on lines similar to Rabinowitz, containing the text and a comprehensive set of textual variants (from manuscripts, early prints and citations in secondary literature) but no commentaries.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>There have been critical editions of particular tractates (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Malter" title="Henry Malter">Henry Malter</a>'s edition of <i><a href="/wiki/Ta%27anit" title="Ta'anit">Ta'anit</a></i>), but there is no modern critical edition of the whole Talmud. Modern editions such as those of the Oz ve-Hadar Institute correct misprints and restore passages that in earlier editions were modified or excised by censorship but do not attempt a comprehensive account of textual variants. One edition, by Yosef Amar,<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> represents the Yemenite tradition, and takes the form of a photostatic reproduction of a Vilna-based print to which Yemenite vocalization and textual variants have been added by hand, together with printed introductory material. Collations of the Yemenite manuscripts of some tractates have been published by Columbia University.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Editions_for_a_wider_audience">Editions for a wider audience</h3></div> <p>A number of editions have been aimed at bringing the Talmud to a wider audience. Aside from the Steinsaltz and Artscroll/Schottenstein sets there are: </p> <ul><li>The Metivta edition, published by the Oz ve-Hadar Institute. This contains the full text in the same format as the Vilna-based editions,<sup id="cite_ref-Talmud.Link2017_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talmud.Link2017-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a full explanation in modern Hebrew on facing pages as well as an improved version of the traditional commentaries.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A previous project of the same kind, called <a href="/wiki/Arnost_Zvi_Ehrman#The_Talmud_El_Am" title="Arnost Zvi Ehrman">Talmud El Am</a>, "Talmud to the people", was published in Israel in the 1960s–80s. It contains Hebrew text, English translation and commentary by <a href="/wiki/Arnost_Zvi_Ehrman" title="Arnost Zvi Ehrman">Arnost Zvi Ehrman</a>, with short 'realia', marginal notes, often illustrated, written by experts in the field for the whole of Tractate Berakhot, 2 chapters of Bava Mezia and the halachic section of Qiddushin, chapter 1.</li> <li>Tuvia's <i>Gemara Menukad</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-Talmud.Link2017_140-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talmud.Link2017-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> includes vowels and punctuation (<i>Nekudot</i>), including for Rashi and Tosafot.<sup id="cite_ref-Talmud.Link2017_140-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talmud.Link2017-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also includes "all the abbreviations of that <i>amud</i> on the side of each page."<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incomplete_sets_from_prior_centuries">Incomplete sets from prior centuries</h3></div> <ul><li><b>Amsterdam</b> (1714, <i>Proops</i> Talmud and <i>Marches/de Palasios</i> Talmud): Two sets were begun in Amsterdam in 1714, a year in which "acrimonious disputes between publishers within and between cities" regarding reprint rights also began. The latter ran 1714–1717. Neither set was completed, although a third set was printed 1752–1765.<sup id="cite_ref-Talmud.17xx_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talmud.17xx-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_notable_editions">Other notable editions</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lazarus_Goldschmidt" title="Lazarus Goldschmidt">Lazarus Goldschmidt</a> published an edition from the "uncensored text" of the Babylonian Talmud with a German translation in 9 volumes (commenced Leipzig, 1897–1909, edition completed, following emigration to England in 1933, by 1936).<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Twelve volumes of the Babylonian Talmud were published by Mir Yeshiva refugees during the years 1942 thru 1946 while they were in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TalmudMoedKatan.OU_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TalmudMoedKatan.OU-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The major tractates, one per volume, were: "Shabbat, Eruvin, Pesachim, Gittin, Kiddushin, Nazir, Sotah, Bava Kama, Sanhedrin, Makot, Shevuot, Avodah Zara"<sup id="cite_ref-Talmud.Shang_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talmud.Shang-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (with some volumes having, in addition, "Minor Tractates").<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Survivors%27_Talmud" title="Survivors' Talmud">Survivors' Talmud</a> was published, encouraged by President Truman's "responsibility toward these victims of persecution" statement. The U.S. Army (despite "the acute shortage of paper in Germany") agreed to print "fifty copies of the Talmud, packaged into 16-volume sets" during 1947–1950.<sup id="cite_ref-TalmudUSArmy.Aish_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TalmudUSArmy.Aish-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plan was extended: 3,000 copies, in 19-volume sets. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_visual_arts">In visual arts</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Carl_Schleicher's_paintings"><span id="In_Carl_Schleicher.27s_paintings"></span>In Carl Schleicher's paintings</h3></div> <p>Rabbis and Talmudists studying and debating Talmud abound in the art of Austrian painter <a href="/wiki/Carl_Schleicher" title="Carl Schleicher">Carl Schleicher</a> (1825–1903); active in Vienna, especially <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1859</span>–1871. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish Scene I"><img alt="Jewish Scene I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_1.jpg/210px-Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_1.jpg/315px-Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_1.jpg/420px-Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1486" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Jewish Scene I</i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish Scene II"><img alt="Jewish Scene II" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_2.jpg/210px-Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_2.jpg/315px-Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_2.jpg/420px-Carl_Schleicher_J%C3%BCdische_Szene_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1475" data-file-height="1206" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Jewish Scene II</i></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Schleicher_Eine_Streitfrage_aus_dem_Talmud.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Controversy Whatsoever on Talmud[147]"><img alt="A Controversy Whatsoever on Talmud[147]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Carl_Schleicher_Eine_Streitfrage_aus_dem_Talmud.jpg/210px-Carl_Schleicher_Eine_Streitfrage_aus_dem_Talmud.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Carl_Schleicher_Eine_Streitfrage_aus_dem_Talmud.jpg/315px-Carl_Schleicher_Eine_Streitfrage_aus_dem_Talmud.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Carl_Schleicher_Eine_Streitfrage_aus_dem_Talmud.jpg/420px-Carl_Schleicher_Eine_Streitfrage_aus_dem_Talmud.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4236" data-file-height="3477" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>A Controversy Whatsoever on Talmud</i><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_Schleicher_Beim_Rabbi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="At the Rabbi's"><img alt="At the Rabbi's" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Carl_Schleicher_Beim_Rabbi.jpg/210px-Carl_Schleicher_Beim_Rabbi.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Carl_Schleicher_Beim_Rabbi.jpg/315px-Carl_Schleicher_Beim_Rabbi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Carl_Schleicher_Beim_Rabbi.jpg/420px-Carl_Schleicher_Beim_Rabbi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4236" data-file-height="3419" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>At the Rabbi's</i></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_art_and_photography">Jewish art and photography</h3></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Juden_beim_Talmudstudium_Paris_19-20Jh.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jews studying Talmud, París, c. 1880–1905"><img alt="Jews studying Talmud, París, c. 1880–1905" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Juden_beim_Talmudstudium_Paris_19-20Jh.jpg/210px-Juden_beim_Talmudstudium_Paris_19-20Jh.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Juden_beim_Talmudstudium_Paris_19-20Jh.jpg/315px-Juden_beim_Talmudstudium_Paris_19-20Jh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Juden_beim_Talmudstudium_Paris_19-20Jh.jpg/420px-Juden_beim_Talmudstudium_Paris_19-20Jh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="876" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Jews studying Talmud</i>, París, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1880–1905</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuel_Hirszenberg_%27Szko%C5%82a_talmudyst%C3%B3w%27.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Samuel Hirszenberg, Talmudic School, c. 1895–1908"><img alt="Samuel Hirszenberg, Talmudic School, c. 1895–1908" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Samuel_Hirszenberg_%27Szko%C5%82a_talmudyst%C3%B3w%27.jpg/210px-Samuel_Hirszenberg_%27Szko%C5%82a_talmudyst%C3%B3w%27.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Samuel_Hirszenberg_%27Szko%C5%82a_talmudyst%C3%B3w%27.jpg/315px-Samuel_Hirszenberg_%27Szko%C5%82a_talmudyst%C3%B3w%27.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Samuel_Hirszenberg_%27Szko%C5%82a_talmudyst%C3%B3w%27.jpg/420px-Samuel_Hirszenberg_%27Szko%C5%82a_talmudyst%C3%B3w%27.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3297" data-file-height="2129" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Samuel Hirszenberg, <i>Talmudic School</i>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1895–1908</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Talmud_students.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ephraim Moses Lilien, The Talmud Students, engraving, 1915"><img alt="Ephraim Moses Lilien, The Talmud Students, engraving, 1915" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_Talmud_students.jpg/198px-The_Talmud_students.jpg" decoding="async" width="198" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_Talmud_students.jpg/298px-The_Talmud_students.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/The_Talmud_students.jpg/397px-The_Talmud_students.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="499" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ephraim_Moses_Lilien" title="Ephraim Moses Lilien">Ephraim Moses Lilien</a>, <i>The Talmud Students</i>, engraving, 1915</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:La_dispute.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Maurycy Trębacz, The Dispute, c. 1920–1940"><img alt="Maurycy Trębacz, The Dispute, c. 1920–1940" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/La_dispute.jpg/210px-La_dispute.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/La_dispute.jpg/315px-La_dispute.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/La_dispute.jpg/420px-La_dispute.jpg 2x" data-file-width="430" data-file-height="319" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Maurycy Trębacz, <i>The Dispute</i>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1920–1940</span></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Knesset_Menora_Salomo.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Solomon's Haggadoth, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah, Jerusalem, by Benno Elkan, 1956"><img alt="Solomon's Haggadoth, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah, Jerusalem, by Benno Elkan, 1956" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Knesset_Menora_Salomo.jpg/157px-Knesset_Menora_Salomo.jpg" decoding="async" width="157" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Knesset_Menora_Salomo.jpg/236px-Knesset_Menora_Salomo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Knesset_Menora_Salomo.jpg/315px-Knesset_Menora_Salomo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="489" data-file-height="559" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Solomon's Haggadoth</i>, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah, Jerusalem, by Benno Elkan, 1956</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Knesset_Menorah_P5200009_Hilel.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Hilel's Teachings, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah"><img alt="Hilel's Teachings, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Knesset_Menorah_P5200009_Hilel.JPG/124px-Knesset_Menorah_P5200009_Hilel.JPG" decoding="async" width="124" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Knesset_Menorah_P5200009_Hilel.JPG/186px-Knesset_Menorah_P5200009_Hilel.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Knesset_Menorah_P5200009_Hilel.JPG/248px-Knesset_Menorah_P5200009_Hilel.JPG 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="590" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Hilel's Teachings</i>, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Knesset_Menorah_Jochanan_ben_Sakkai.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jewish Mysticism: Jochanan ben Sakkai, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah"><img alt="Jewish Mysticism: Jochanan ben Sakkai, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Knesset_Menorah_Jochanan_ben_Sakkai.jpg/116px-Knesset_Menorah_Jochanan_ben_Sakkai.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Knesset_Menorah_Jochanan_ben_Sakkai.jpg/174px-Knesset_Menorah_Jochanan_ben_Sakkai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Knesset_Menorah_Jochanan_ben_Sakkai.jpg/233px-Knesset_Menorah_Jochanan_ben_Sakkai.jpg 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="668" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Jewish Mysticism: Jochanan ben Sakkai</i>, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 245px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 240px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yemenite_Jews_studying_Torah_in_Sana%27a.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Yemenite Jews studying Torah in Sana'a"><img alt="Yemenite Jews studying Torah in Sana'a" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Yemenite_Jews_studying_Torah_in_Sana%27a.jpg/210px-Yemenite_Jews_studying_Torah_in_Sana%27a.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Yemenite_Jews_studying_Torah_in_Sana%27a.jpg/315px-Yemenite_Jews_studying_Torah_in_Sana%27a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Yemenite_Jews_studying_Torah_in_Sana%27a.jpg/420px-Yemenite_Jews_studying_Torah_in_Sana%27a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1614" data-file-height="1074" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Yemenite Jews studying Torah in Sana'a</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception_outside_of_Judaism">Reception outside of Judaism</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3></div> <p>The study of Talmud is not restricted to those of the Jewish religion and has attracted interest in other cultures. Christian scholars have long expressed an interest in the study of Talmud, which has helped illuminate their own scriptures. Talmud contains biblical exegesis and commentary on <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a> that will often clarify elliptical and esoteric passages. The Talmud contains possible references to <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> and his disciples, while the <a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canons" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canons">Christian canon</a> makes mention of Talmudic figures and contains teachings that can be paralleled within the Talmud and <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a>. The Talmud provides cultural and historical context to the <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospel</a> and the writings of the <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Korea">South Korea</h3></div> <p>South Koreans reportedly hope to emulate Jews' high academic standards by studying Jewish literature. Almost every household has a translated copy of a book they call "Talmud", which parents read to their children, and the book is part of the primary-school curriculum.<sup id="cite_ref-hirschfield20110512_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hirschfield20110512-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-alper20110512_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alper20110512-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "Talmud" in this case is usually one of several possible volumes, the earliest translated into Korean from the Japanese. The original Japanese books were created through the collaboration of Japanese writer <a href="/wiki/Hideaki_Kase" title="Hideaki Kase">Hideaki Kase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Tokayer" title="Marvin Tokayer">Marvin Tokayer</a>, an Orthodox American rabbi serving in Japan in the 1960s and 70s. The first collaborative book was <i>5,000 Years of Jewish Wisdom: Secrets of the Talmud Scriptures</i>, created over a three-day period in 1968 and published in 1971. The book contains actual stories from the Talmud, proverbs, ethics, Jewish legal material, biographies of Talmudic rabbis, and personal stories about Tokayer and his family. Tokayer and Kase published a number of other books on Jewish themes together in Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-Arbes_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arbes-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first South Korean publication of <i>5,000 Years of Jewish Wisdom</i> was in 1974, by Tae Zang publishing house. Many different editions followed in both Korea and China, often by black-market publishers. Between 2007 and 2009, Yong-soo Hyun of the Shema Yisrael Educational Institute published a 6-volume edition of the Korean Talmud, bringing together material from a variety of Tokayer's earlier books. He worked with Tokayer to correct errors and Tokayer is listed as the author. Tutoring centers based on this and other works called "Talmud" for both adults and children are popular in Korea and "Talmud" books (all based on Tokayer's works and not the original Talmud) are widely read and known.<sup id="cite_ref-Arbes_152-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arbes-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iran">Iran</h3></div> <p>In 2012, then-Vice President of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Rahimi" title="Mohammad Reza Rahimi">Mohammad Reza Rahimi</a>, claimed that the Talmud was the cause of the spread of <a href="/wiki/Narcotic" title="Narcotic">narcotics</a> in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:black">Criticism of religion</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By religion</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of the Bahá'í Faith">Baháˈí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Buddhism" title="Criticism of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Criticism of the Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" title="Criticism of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Criticism of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_movement#Controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Unification movement">Unification movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Unification_Church_in_Japan" title="Criticism of Unification Church in Japan">Unification Church in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westboro_Baptist_Church#Criticisms" title="Westboro Baptist Church">Westboro Baptist Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Hinduism" title="Criticism of Hinduism">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Swaminarayan_sect" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of Swaminarayan sect">Swaminarayan sect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islamism" title="Criticism of Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Twelver_Shia_Islam" title="Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam">Twelver Shia Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism#Criticism_and_controversy" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Jainism" title="Criticism of Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Judaism" title="Criticism of Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monotheism" title="Criticism of monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement#Opposition" title="New religious movement">New religious movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_modern_paganism" title="Criticism of modern paganism">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology_controversies" title="Scientology controversies">Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Sikhism" title="Criticism of Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism#Criticism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Zoroastrianism" title="Criticism of Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By religious figure</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shia_view_of_Aisha" title="Shia view of Aisha">Aisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taze_Russell#Controversies" title="Charles Taze Russell">Charles Taze Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Ellen_G._White" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of Ellen G. White">Ellen White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Jesus" title="Criticism of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses#Criticism_of_Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirza_Ghulam_Ahmad#Legacy" title="Mirza Ghulam Ahmad">Mirza Ghulam Ahmad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul#Biblical_criticism" title="Saul">Saul</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By text</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Bible" title="Criticism of the Bible">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_hadith" title="Criticism of hadith">Hadith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Mormon_sacred_texts" title="Criticism of Mormon sacred texts">Mormon sacred texts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Book_of_Mormon" title="Criticism of the Book of Mormon">Book of Mormon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Criticism">Talmud</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Religious violence</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_violence" title="Buddhism and violence">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_violence" title="Christianity and violence">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_violence" title="Mormonism and violence">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_violence" title="Judaism and violence">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_violence" title="Islam and violence">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_terrorism" title="Christian terrorism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_terrorism" title="Hindu terrorism">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_extremist_terrorism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish extremist terrorism">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_thought_on_persecution_and_tolerance" title="History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance">Christian thought on persecution and tolerance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_war" title="Islam and war">In Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_warfare" title="Judaism and warfare">In Judaism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian violence</a></li> <li>By country <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_India" title="Religious violence in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_Christians_in_India" title="Violence against Christians in India">Anti-Christian violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_Odisha" title="Religious violence in Odisha">In Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence_in_Nigeria" title="Religious violence in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_in_Pakistan" title="Religious discrimination in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Bibliographies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_books_critical_of_Christianity" title="Bibliography of books critical of Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_books_critical_of_Islam" title="Bibliography of books critical of Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_books_critical_of_Judaism" title="Bibliography of books critical of Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_books_critical_of_Mormonism" title="Bibliography of books critical of Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_books_critical_of_Scientology" title="Bibliography of books critical of Scientology">Scientology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_abuse" title="Religious abuse">Abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">In Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Christianity" title="Apostasy in Christianity">In Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_atheism" title="Criticism of atheism">Criticism of atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monotheism" title="Criticism of monotheism">Criticism of monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_sexuality" title="Religion and sexuality">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Superstitions">Superstitions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superstitions_in_Muslim_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Superstitions in Muslim societies">Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstition_in_Judaism" title="Superstition in Judaism">Jewish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criticism_of_religion_sidebar" title="Template:Criticism of religion sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criticism_of_religion_sidebar" title="Template talk:Criticism of religion sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criticism_of_religion_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criticism of religion sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Michael_Levi_Rodkinson" title="Michael Levi Rodkinson">Michael Levi Rodkinson</a>, in his book <i>The History of the Talmud</i>, wrote that detractors of the Talmud, both during and subsequent to its formation, "have varied in their character, objects and actions" and the book documents a number of critics and persecutors, including <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Donin" title="Nicholas Donin">Nicholas Donin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Pfefferkorn" title="Johannes Pfefferkorn">Johannes Pfefferkorn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Andreas_Eisenmenger" title="Johann Andreas Eisenmenger">Johann Andreas Eisenmenger</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Frankists_(Sabbateanism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankists (Sabbateanism)">Frankists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/August_Rohling" title="August Rohling">August Rohling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodkinson_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodkinson-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many attacks come from antisemitic sources such as <a href="/wiki/Justinas_Pranaitis" title="Justinas Pranaitis">Justinas Pranaitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Dilling" title="Elizabeth Dilling">Elizabeth Dilling</a>, or <a href="/wiki/David_Duke" title="David Duke">David Duke</a>. Criticisms also arise from Christian, Muslim,<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Jewish sources,<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as from atheists and skeptics.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accusations against the Talmud include alleged:<sup id="cite_ref-Rodkinson_154-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodkinson-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Anti-Christian or anti-gentile content<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Absurd or sexually immoral content<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Falsification of scripture<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Defenders of the Talmud point out that many of these criticisms, particularly those in antisemitic sources, are based on quotations that are taken out of context, and thus misrepresent the meaning of the Talmud's text and its basic character as a detailed record of discussions that preserved statements by a variety of sages, and from which statements and opinions that were rejected were never edited out. </p><p>Sometimes the misrepresentation is deliberate, and other times simply due to an inability to grasp the subtle and sometimes confusing and multi-faceted narratives in the Talmud. Some quotations provided by critics deliberately omit passages in order to generate quotes that appear to be offensive or insulting.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3></div> <p>At the very time that the <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylonian</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Savoraim" title="Savoraim">savoraim</a></i> put the finishing touches to the redaction of the Talmud, the <a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a> issued his edict against <i>deuterosis</i> (doubling, repetition) of the <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Hebrew Bible</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is disputed whether, in this context, <i>deuterosis</i> means "Mishnah" or "<a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a>": in <a href="/wiki/Patristics" title="Patristics">patristic</a> literature, the word is used in both senses. </p><p>Full-scale attacks on the Talmud took place in the 13th century in France, where Talmudic study was then flourishing. In the 1230s <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Donin" title="Nicholas Donin">Nicholas Donin</a>, a Jewish convert to Christianity, pressed 35 charges against the Talmud to <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_IX" title="Pope Gregory IX">Pope Gregory IX</a> by translating a series of allegedly blasphemous passages about <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_(mother_of_Jesus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary (mother of Jesus)">Mary</a> or Christianity. There is a quoted Talmudic passage, for example, where a person named Yeshu who some people have claimed is <a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_the_Talmud" title="Jesus in the Talmud">Jesus of Nazareth</a> is sent to Gehenna to be <a href="/wiki/Tzoah_Rotachat" title="Tzoah Rotachat">boiled in excrement</a> for eternity. Donin also selected an injunction of the Talmud that permits Jews to kill non-Jews. This led to the <a href="/wiki/Disputation_of_Paris" title="Disputation of Paris">Disputation of Paris</a>, which took place in 1240 at the court of <a href="/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France" title="Louis IX of France">Louis IX of France</a>, where four rabbis, including <a href="/wiki/Yechiel_of_Paris" title="Yechiel of Paris">Yechiel of Paris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moses_ben_Jacob_of_Coucy" title="Moses ben Jacob of Coucy">Moses ben Jacob of Coucy</a>, defended the Talmud against the accusations of Nicholas Donin. The translation of the Talmud from Aramaic to non-Jewish languages stripped Jewish discourse from its covering, something that was resented by Jews as a profound violation.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Disputation of Paris led to the condemnation and the first burning of copies of the Talmud in Paris in 1242.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The burning of copies of the Talmud continued.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Talmud was likewise the subject of the <a href="/wiki/Disputation_of_Barcelona" title="Disputation of Barcelona">Disputation of Barcelona</a> in 1263 between <a href="/wiki/Nahmanides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahmanides">Nahmanides</a> and Christian converts in which they argued if Jesus was the messiah prophesized in Judaism, <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Christiani" title="Pablo Christiani">Pablo Christiani</a>. This same Pablo Christiani made an attack on the Talmud that resulted in a <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> against the Talmud and in the first censorship, which was undertaken at Barcelona by a commission of <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominicans</a>, who ordered the cancellation of passages deemed objectionable from a Christian perspective (1264).<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maccoby_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maccoby-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Disputation_of_Tortosa" title="Disputation of Tortosa">Disputation of Tortosa</a> in 1413, Geronimo de Santa Fé brought forward a number of accusations, including the fateful assertion that the condemnations of "pagans", "heathens", and "apostates" found in the Talmud were, in reality, veiled references to Christians. These assertions were denied by the Jewish community and its scholars, who contended that Judaic thought made a sharp distinction between those classified as heathen or pagan, being polytheistic, and those who acknowledge one true God (such as the Christians) even while worshipping the true monotheistic God incorrectly. Thus, Jews viewed Christians as misguided and in error, but not among the "heathens" or "pagans" discussed in the Talmud.<sup id="cite_ref-Maccoby_183-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maccoby-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both Pablo Christiani and Geronimo de Santa Fé, in addition to criticizing the Talmud, also regarded it as a source of authentic traditions, some of which could be used as arguments in favor of Christianity. Examples of such traditions were statements that the Messiah was born around the time of the destruction of the Temple and that the Messiah sat at the right hand of God.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1415, <a href="/wiki/Antipope_Benedict_XIII" title="Antipope Benedict XIII">Antipope Benedict XIII</a>, who had convened the Tortosa disputation, issued a <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> (which was destined, however, to remain inoperative) forbidding the Jews to read the Talmud, and ordering the destruction of all copies of it. Far more important were the charges made in the early part of the 16th century by the convert <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Pfefferkorn" title="Johannes Pfefferkorn">Johannes Pfefferkorn</a>, the agent of the Dominicans. The result of these accusations was a struggle in which the emperor and the pope acted as judges, the advocate of the Jews being <a href="/wiki/Johann_Reuchlin" title="Johann Reuchlin">Johann Reuchlin</a>, who was opposed by the obscurantists; and this controversy, which was carried on for the most part by means of pamphlets, became in the eyes of some a precursor of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maccoby_183-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maccoby-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An unexpected result of this affair was the complete printed edition of the Babylonian Talmud issued in 1520 by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bomberg" title="Daniel Bomberg">Daniel Bomberg</a> at <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, under the protection of a papal privilege.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three years later, in 1523, Bomberg published the first edition of the Jerusalem Talmud. After thirty years the Vatican, which had first permitted the Talmud to appear in print, undertook a campaign of destruction against it. On the New Year, Rosh Hashanah (September 9, 1553) the copies of the Talmud confiscated in compliance with a decree of the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> were burned at <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, in Campo dei Fiori (auto de fé). Other burnings took place in other Italian cities, such as the one instigated by <a href="/wiki/Joshua_dei_Cantori" title="Joshua dei Cantori">Joshua dei Cantori</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cremona" title="Cremona">Cremona</a> in 1559. Censorship of the Talmud and other Hebrew works was introduced by a papal bull issued in 1554; five years later the Talmud was included in the first <a href="/wiki/Index_Expurgatorius" class="mw-redirect" title="Index Expurgatorius">Index Expurgatorius</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IV" title="Pope Pius IV">Pope Pius IV</a> commanded, in 1565, that the Talmud be deprived of its very name. The convention of referring to the work as "Shas" (<i>shishah sidre Mishnah</i>) instead of "Talmud" dates from this time.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first edition of the expurgated Talmud, on which most subsequent editions were based, appeared at <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a> (1578–1581) with the omission of the entire treatise of 'Abodah Zarah and of passages considered inimical to Christianity, together with modifications of certain phrases. A fresh attack on the Talmud was decreed by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII" title="Pope Gregory XIII">Pope Gregory XIII</a> (1575–85), and in 1593 <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_VIII" title="Pope Clement VIII">Clement VIII</a> renewed the old interdiction against reading or owning it.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The increasing study of the Talmud in Poland led to the issue of a complete edition (<a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>, 1602–05), with a restoration of the original text; an edition containing, so far as known, only two treatises had previously been published at <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a> (1559–76). After an attack on the Talmud took place in Poland (in what is now Ukrainian territory) in 1757, when <a href="/wiki/Mikolaj_Dembowski" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikolaj Dembowski">Bishop Dembowski</a>, at the instigation of the <a href="/wiki/Frankists_(Sabbateanism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankists (Sabbateanism)">Frankists</a>, convened a public disputation at <a href="/wiki/Kamieniec_Podolski" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamieniec Podolski">Kamieniec Podolski</a>, and ordered all copies of the work found in his bishopric to be confiscated and burned.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A "1735 edition of Moed Katan, printed in Frankfurt am Oder" is among those that survived from that era.<sup id="cite_ref-TalmudMoedKatan.OU_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TalmudMoedKatan.OU-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Situated on the Oder River, Three separate editions of the Talmud were printed there between 1697 and 1739." </p><p>The external history of the Talmud includes also the literary attacks made upon it by some Christian theologians after the Reformation since these onslaughts on Judaism were directed primarily against that work, the leading example being <a href="/wiki/Johann_Andreas_Eisenmenger" title="Johann Andreas Eisenmenger">Eisenmenger</a>'s <i>Entdecktes Judenthum</i> (Judaism Unmasked) (1700).<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, the Talmud was a subject of rather more sympathetic study by many Christian theologians, jurists and Orientalists from the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> on, including <a href="/wiki/Johann_Reuchlin" title="Johann Reuchlin">Johann Reuchlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Selden" title="John Selden">John Selden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Cunaeus" title="Petrus Cunaeus">Petrus Cunaeus</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Lightfoot" title="John Lightfoot">John Lightfoot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Buxtorf" title="Johannes Buxtorf">Johannes Buxtorf</a> father and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Buxtorf_II" title="Johannes Buxtorf II">son</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century_and_after">19th century and after</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Vilna_Edition_Shas" title="Vilna Edition Shas">Vilna edition of the Talmud</a> was subject to Russian government censorship, or self-censorship to meet government expectations, though this was less severe than some previous attempts: the title "Talmud" was retained and the tractate Avodah Zarah was included. Most modern editions are either copies of or closely based on the Vilna edition, and therefore still omit most of the disputed passages. Although they were not available for many generations, the removed sections of the Talmud, Rashi, Tosafot and Maharsha were preserved through rare printings of lists of <i>errata</i>, known as <i>Chesronos Hashas</i> ("Omissions of the Talmud").<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these censored portions were recovered from uncensored manuscripts in the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Library" title="Vatican Library">Vatican Library</a>. Some modern editions of the Talmud contain some or all of this material, either at the back of the book, in the margin, or in its original location in the text.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1830, during a debate in the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Peers_(France)" title="Chamber of Peers (France)">French Chamber of Peers</a> regarding state recognition of the Jewish faith, Admiral <a href="/wiki/Carel_Hendrik_Ver_Huell" title="Carel Hendrik Ver Huell">Verhuell</a> declared himself unable to forgive the Jews whom he had met during his travels throughout the world either for their refusal to recognize <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Messiah" title="Messiah">Messiah</a> or for their possession of the Talmud.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same year the <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Chiarini_(abbot)" title="Luigi Chiarini (abbot)">Abbé Chiarini</a> published a voluminous work entitled <i>Théorie du Judaïsme</i>, in which he announced a translation of the Talmud, advocating for the first time a version that would make the work generally accessible, and thus serve for attacks on Judaism: only two out of the projected six volumes of this translation appeared.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a like spirit 19th-century antisemitic agitators often urged that a translation be made; and this demand was even brought before legislative bodies, as in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>. The Talmud and the "Talmud Jew" thus became objects of antisemitic attacks, for example in <a href="/wiki/August_Rohling" title="August Rohling">August Rohling</a>'s <i>Der Talmudjude</i> (1871), although, on the other hand, they were defended by many Christian students of the Talmud, notably <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Strack" title="Hermann Strack">Hermann Strack</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further attacks from antisemitic sources include <a href="/wiki/Justinas_Pranaitis" title="Justinas Pranaitis">Justinas Pranaitis</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/The_Talmud_Unmasked" title="The Talmud Unmasked">The Talmud Unmasked: The Secret Rabbinical Teachings Concerning Christians</a></i> (1892)<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Dilling" title="Elizabeth Dilling">Elizabeth Dilling</a>'s <i>The Plot Against Christianity</i> (1964).<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The criticisms of the Talmud in many modern pamphlets and websites are often recognizable as verbatim quotations from one or other of these.<sup id="cite_ref-Internet_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Internet-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Durant" title="Ariel Durant">Ariel Durant</a> noted a lack of consistency between the many authors of the Talmud, with some tractates in the wrong order, or subjects dropped and resumed without reason. According to the Durants, the Talmud "is not the product of deliberation, it is the deliberation itself."<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_accusations">Contemporary accusations</h3></div> <p>The Internet is another source of criticism of the Talmud.<sup id="cite_ref-Internet_200-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Internet-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a>'s report on this topic states that antisemitic critics of the Talmud frequently use erroneous translations or selective quotations in order to distort the meaning of the Talmud's text, and sometimes fabricate passages. In addition, the critics rarely provide the full context of the quotations and fail to provide contextual information about the culture that the Talmud was composed in, nearly 2,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-ADL_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ADL-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One such example concerns the line: "If a Jew be called upon to explain any part of the rabbinic books, he ought to give only a false explanation. One who transgresses this commandment will be put to death." This is alleged to be a quote from a book titled <i>Libbre David</i> (alternatively <i>Livore David</i> ). No such book exists in the Talmud or elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The title is assumed to be a corruption of <i>Dibre David</i>, a work published in 1671.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reference to the quote is found in an early <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a> book, <i>The Six Million Reconsidered</i> by William Grimstad.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gil_Student" title="Gil Student">Gil Student</a>, Book Editor of the Orthodox Union's <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Action" title="Jewish Action">Jewish Action</a> magazine, states that many attacks on the Talmud are merely recycling discredited material that originated in the 13th-century disputations, particularly from <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Marti" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond Marti">Raymond Marti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Donin" title="Nicholas Donin">Nicholas Donin</a>, and that the criticisms are based on quotations taken out of context and are sometimes entirely fabricated.<sup id="cite_ref-Student_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Student-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/24px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/36px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/48px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadran_(Talmud)" title="Hadran (Talmud)">Hadran (Talmud)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logical_arguments_in_the_Talmud" class="mw-redirect" title="List of logical arguments in the Talmud">List of logical arguments in the Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Talmudic_tractates" title="List of Talmudic tractates">List of Talmudic tractates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shas_Pollak" title="Shas Pollak">Shas Pollak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siyum" title="Siyum">Siyum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siyum_HaShas" title="Siyum HaShas">Siyum HaShas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmudical_hermeneutics" title="Talmudical hermeneutics">Talmudical hermeneutics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As Yonah Fraenkel shows in his book <i>Darko Shel Rashi be-Ferusho la-Talmud ha-Bavli</i>, one of Rashi's major accomplishments was textual emendation. Rabbenu Tam, Rashi's grandson and one of the central figures in the Tosafist academies, polemicizes against textual emendation in his less studied work <i>Sefer ha-Yashar</i>. However, the Tosafists, too, emended the Talmudic text (See e.g. <i>Baba Kamma</i> 83b <i>s.v.</i> <i>af haka'ah ha'amurah</i> or <i>Gittin</i> 32a <i>s.v. mevutelet</i>) as did many other medieval commentators (see e.g. R. Shlomo ben Aderet, <i>Hiddushei ha-Rashb"a al ha-Sha"s</i> to <i>Baba Kamma</i> 83b, or Rabbenu Nissim's commentary to Alfasi on <i>Gittin</i> 32a).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a Hebrew account of the Paris Disputation, see Jehiel of Paris, "The Disputation of Jehiel of Paris" (Hebrew), in <i>Collected Polemics and Disputations</i>, ed. J.D. Eisenstein, Hebrew Publishing Company, 1922; Translated and reprinted by Hyam Maccoby in <i>Judaism on Trial: Jewish-Christian Disputations in the Middle Ages</i>, 1982</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.juedisches-museum.ch/en/provenance-research-is-always-an-adventure/">"Catrina Langenegger on the Basel Talmud"</a>. 13 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catrina+Langenegger+on+the+Basel+Talmud&rft.date=2022-10-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.juedisches-museum.ch%2Fen%2Fprovenance-research-is-always-an-adventure%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFishman2011" class="citation book cs1">Fishman, Talya (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LXByzyf-mFIC&q=Becoming+the+People+of+the+Talmud"><i>Becoming the People of the Talmud: Oral Torah as Written Tradition in Medieval Jewish Cultures</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4313-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4313-0"><bdi>978-0-8122-4313-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Becoming+the+People+of+the+Talmud%3A+Oral+Torah+as+Written+Tradition+in+Medieval+Jewish+Cultures&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4313-0&rft.aulast=Fishman&rft.aufirst=Talya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLXByzyf-mFIC%26q%3DBecoming%2Bthe%2BPeople%2Bof%2Bthe%2BTalmud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Neusner-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Neusner_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeusner2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c-lKAwAAQBAJ&q=%22primary+source+for+Jewish+law%22&pg=PR9"><i>The Formation of the Babylonian Talmud</i></a>. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. ix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781592442195" title="Special:BookSources/9781592442195"><bdi>9781592442195</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Formation+of+the+Babylonian+Talmud&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781592442195&rft.aulast=Neusner&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc-lKAwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522primary%2Bsource%2Bfor%2BJewish%2Blaw%2522%26pg%3DPR9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinsaltz1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adin_Steinsaltz" title="Adin Steinsaltz">Steinsaltz, Adin</a> (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Essential_Talmud/dLxFo4zNEMQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover&bsq=central%20pillar"><i>The Essential Talmud</i></a>. BasicBooks. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02063-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02063-8"><bdi>978-0-465-02063-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Essential+Talmud&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=BasicBooks&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02063-8&rft.aulast=Steinsaltz&rft.aufirst=Adin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FThe_Essential_Talmud%2FdLxFo4zNEMQC%3Fhl%3Den%26gbpv%3D1%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26bsq%3Dcentral%2520pillar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinbergGreenstein_Potter2007" class="citation book cs1">Steinberg, Paul; Greenstein Potter, Janet (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Celebrating_the_Jewish_Year/rbfHFFfxj2MC?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover&bsq=central%20and%20most%20important%20body"><i>Celebrating the Jewish Year: The Fall Holidays: Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur</i></a>. The Jewish Publication Society. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780827608429" title="Special:BookSources/9780827608429"><bdi>9780827608429</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celebrating+the+Jewish+Year%3A+The+Fall+Holidays%3A+Rosh+Hashanah%2C+Yom+Kippur&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=The+Jewish+Publication+Society&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780827608429&rft.aulast=Steinberg&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Greenstein+Potter%2C+Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FCelebrating_the_Jewish_Year%2FrbfHFFfxj2MC%3Fhl%3Den%26gbpv%3D1%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26bsq%3Dcentral%2520and%2520most%2520important%2520body&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Safrai-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Safrai_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSafrai1969" class="citation book cs1">Safrai, S. (1969). "The Era of the Mishnah and Talmud (70–640)". In Ben-Sasson, H.H. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC&q=talmud+primary&pg=PA379"><i>A History of the Jewish People</i></a>. Translated by Weidenfeld, George. Harvard University Press (published 1976). p. 379. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674397316" title="Special:BookSources/9780674397316"><bdi>9780674397316</bdi></a>. <q>The influence of the Babylonian geonim ... also weighted the scales in favour of the Talmud of their land, which they introduced and taught in all the Diaspora communities of the Middle Ages, as well as in the Land of Israel. Thus the Babylonian Talmud gained primary influence on Jewish history throughout the ages. It became the basic - and in many places almost the exclusive ~ asset of Jewish tradition, the foundation of all Jewish thought and aspirations and the guide for the daily life of the Jew. Other components of national culture were made known only in so far as they were embedded in the Talmud. In almost every period and community until the modern age, the Talmud was the main object of Jewish study and education; all the external conditions and events of life seemed to be but passing incidents, and the only true, permanent reality was that of the Talmud.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Era+of+the+Mishnah+and+Talmud+%2870%E2%80%93640%29&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=379&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780674397316&rft.aulast=Safrai&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2kSovzudhFUC%26q%3Dtalmud%2Bprimary%26pg%3DPA379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESafrai1969305,_307-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESafrai1969305,_307_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSafrai1969">Safrai 1969</a>, p. 305, 307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEisenberg2010" class="citation book cs1">Eisenberg, Ronald L. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cK72EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT89"><i>What the Rabbis Said: 250 Topics From the Talmud</i></a>. Praeger. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38450-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38450-9"><bdi>978-0-313-38450-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/548555671">548555671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+the+Rabbis+Said%3A+250+Topics+From+the+Talmud&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F548555671&rft.isbn=978-0-313-38450-9&rft.aulast=Eisenberg&rft.aufirst=Ronald+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcK72EAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldberg1987" class="citation book cs1">Goldberg, Abraham (1987). "The Palestinian Talmud". In Safrai, Shmuel (ed.). <i>The Literature of the Jewish People in the Period of the Second Temple and the Talmud, Volume 3 The Literature of the Sages</i>. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">303–</span>322. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004275133_008">10.1163/9789004275133_008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004275133" title="Special:BookSources/9789004275133"><bdi>9789004275133</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Palestinian+Talmud&rft.btitle=The+Literature+of+the+Jewish+People+in+the+Period+of+the+Second+Temple+and+the+Talmud%2C+Volume+3+The+Literature+of+the+Sages&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E303-%3C%2Fspan%3E322&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004275133_008&rft.isbn=9789004275133&rft.aulast=Goldberg&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://henryabramson.com/2013/11/19/his-155-1-7-the-talmud/">"HIS 155 1.7 the Talmud | Henry Abramson"</a>. 19 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HIS+155+1.7+the+Talmud+%26%23124%3B+Henry+Abramson&rft.date=2013-11-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhenryabramson.com%2F2013%2F11%2F19%2Fhis-155-1-7-the-talmud%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatch2019" class="citation book cs1">Hatch, Trevan G. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rpafDwAAQBAJ&dq=galilee+babylon+talmud+sixth+fifth+century&pg=PA7"><i>A stranger in Jerusalem: seeing Jesus as a Jew</i></a>. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5326-4671-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5326-4671-3"><bdi>978-1-5326-4671-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+stranger+in+Jerusalem%3A+seeing+Jesus+as+a+Jew&rft.place=Eugene%2C+Oregon&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Wipf+%26+Stock&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-5326-4671-3&rft.aulast=Hatch&rft.aufirst=Trevan+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrpafDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dgalilee%2Bbabylon%2Btalmud%2Bsixth%2Bfifth%2Bcentury%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2017" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Barak S. (2017). <i>For Out of Babylonia Shall Come Torah and the Word of the Lord from Nehar Peqod: The Quest for Babylonian Tannaitic Traditions</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34702-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34702-1"><bdi>978-90-04-34702-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+Out+of+Babylonia+Shall+Come+Torah+and+the+Word+of+the+Lord+from+Nehar+Peqod%3A+The+Quest+for+Babylonian+Tannaitic+Traditions&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-90-04-34702-1&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Barak+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2009" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, Barak Shlomo (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ajs-review/article/abs/in-quest-of-babylonian-tannaitic-traditions-the-case-of-tanna-dbei-shmuel/84044099BD0D4958E1ADC044C3E9E725">"In Quest of Babylonian Tannaitic Traditions: The Case of Tanna D'Bei Shmuel"</a>. <i>AJS Review</i>. <b>33</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">271–</span>303. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS036400940999002X">10.1017/S036400940999002X</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1475-4541">1475-4541</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AJS+Review&rft.atitle=In+Quest+of+Babylonian+Tannaitic+Traditions%3A+The+Case+of+Tanna+D%27Bei+Shmuel&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E271-%3C%2Fspan%3E303&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS036400940999002X&rft.issn=1475-4541&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Barak+Shlomo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fajs-review%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fin-quest-of-babylonian-tannaitic-traditions-the-case-of-tanna-dbei-shmuel%2F84044099BD0D4958E1ADC044C3E9E725&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoscovitz2021" class="citation web cs1">Moscovitz, Leib (January 12, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199840731/obo-9780199840731-0151.xml">"Palestinian Talmud/Yerushalmi"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Bibliographies_Online" title="Oxford Bibliographies Online">Oxford Bibliographies Online</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2FOBO%2F9780199840731-0151">10.1093/OBO/9780199840731-0151</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-984073-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-984073-1"><bdi>978-0-19-984073-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 19,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Bibliographies+Online&rft.atitle=Palestinian+Talmud%2FYerushalmi&rft.date=2021-01-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2FOBO%2F9780199840731-0151&rft.isbn=978-0-19-984073-1&rft.aulast=Moscovitz&rft.aufirst=Leib&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fdisplay%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780199840731%2Fobo-9780199840731-0151.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiffman1991" class="citation book cs1">Schiffman, Lawrence (1991). <i>From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism</i>. Ktav Publishing House. p. 227. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-372-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-372-6"><bdi>978-0-88125-372-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Text+to+Tradition%3A+A+History+of+Second+Temple+and+Rabbinic+Judaism&rft.pages=227&rft.pub=Ktav+Publishing+House&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-88125-372-6&rft.aulast=Schiffman&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/439785/Palestinian-Talmud">"Palestinian Talmud"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 4,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Palestinian+Talmud&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2010&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F439785%2FPalestinian-Talmud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JSTOR-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JSTOR_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevine2005" class="citation journal cs1">Levine, Baruch A. (2005). "Scholarly Dictionaries of Two Dialects of Jewish Aramaic". <i>AJS Review</i>. <b>29</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">131–</span>144. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0364009405000073">10.1017/S0364009405000073</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4131813">4131813</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163069011">163069011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AJS+Review&rft.atitle=Scholarly+Dictionaries+of+Two+Dialects+of+Jewish+Aramaic&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E131-%3C%2Fspan%3E144&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163069011%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4131813%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0364009405000073&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=Baruch+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Project_Gutenberg-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Project_Gutenberg_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynold_Nicholson2011" class="citation book cs1">Reynold Nicholson (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/37985/37985-h/37985-h.htm"><i>A Literary History of the Arabs</i></a>. Project Gutenberg, with Fritz Ohrenschall, Turgut Dincer, Sania Ali Mirza<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Literary+History+of+the+Arabs&rft.pub=Project+Gutenberg%2C+with+Fritz+Ohrenschall%2C+Turgut+Dincer%2C+Sania+Ali+Mirza&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Reynold+Nicholson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F37985%2F37985-h%2F37985-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmsler2023" class="citation book cs1">Amsler, Monika (2023). <i>The Babylonian Talmud and late antique book culture</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29733-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29733-2"><bdi>978-1-009-29733-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Babylonian+Talmud+and+late+antique+book+culture&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Cambridge+university+press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-009-29733-2&rft.aulast=Amsler&rft.aufirst=Monika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHezser2018" class="citation journal cs1">Hezser, Catherine (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/26503937">"The Creation of the Talmud Yerushalmi and Apophthegmata Patrum as Monuments to the Rabbinic and Monastic Movements in Early Byzantine Times"</a>. <i>Jewish Studies Quarterly</i>. <b>25</b> (4): 368. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1628%2Fjsq-2018-0019">10.1628/jsq-2018-0019</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0944-5706">0944-5706</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Creation+of+the+Talmud+Yerushalmi+and+Apophthegmata+Patrum+as+Monuments+to+the+Rabbinic+and+Monastic+Movements+in+Early+Byzantine+Times&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=368&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1628%2Fjsq-2018-0019&rft.issn=0944-5706&rft.aulast=Hezser&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F26503937&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mielziner, M. (Moses), Introduction to the Talmud (3rd edition), New York 1925, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015013247625;view=1up;seq=7">xx</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/581644/Talmud-and-Midrash/34869/The-making-of-the-Talmuds-3rd-6th-century#ref=ref24372">"Talmud and Midrash (Judaism) / The making of the Talmuds: 3rd–6th century"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Talmud+and+Midrash+%28Judaism%29+%2F+The+making+of+the+Talmuds%3A+3rd%E2%80%936th+century&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F581644%2FTalmud-and-Midrash%2F34869%2FThe-making-of-the-Talmuds-3rd-6th-century%23ref%3Dref24372&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoshe_Gil2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Moshe_Gil" title="Moshe Gil">Moshe Gil</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8vTTCwG0nKIC&pg=PA507"><i>Jews in Islamic Countries in the Middle Ages</i></a>. BRILL. p. 507. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004138827" title="Special:BookSources/9789004138827"><bdi>9789004138827</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+in+Islamic+Countries+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=507&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9789004138827&rft.au=Moshe+Gil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8vTTCwG0nKIC%26pg%3DPA507&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nosson Dovid Rabinowich (ed), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Iggeres_of_Rav_Sherira_Gaon" class="mw-redirect" title="The Iggeres of Rav Sherira Gaon">The Iggeres of Rav Sherira Gaon</a></i>, Jerusalem 1988, pp. 79, 116</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nosson Dovid Rabinowich (ed), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Iggeres_of_Rav_Sherira_Gaon" class="mw-redirect" title="The Iggeres of Rav Sherira Gaon">The Iggeres of Rav Sherira Gaon</a></i>, Jerusalem 1988, p. 116</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEisenberg2010" class="citation book cs1">Eisenberg, Ronald L. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cK72EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT89"><i>What the Rabbis Said: 250 Topics From the Talmud</i></a>. Praeger. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38450-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38450-9"><bdi>978-0-313-38450-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/548555671">548555671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+the+Rabbis+Said%3A+250+Topics+From+the+Talmud&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F548555671&rft.isbn=978-0-313-38450-9&rft.aulast=Eisenberg&rft.aufirst=Ronald+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcK72EAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AZexile-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AZexile_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAM_Gray2005" class="citation book cs1">AM Gray (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/book/75475"><i>Talmud in Exile: The Influence of Yerushalmi Avodah Zarah</i></a>. Brown Judaic Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-93067-523-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-93067-523-0"><bdi>978-1-93067-523-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Talmud+in+Exile%3A+The+Influence+of+Yerushalmi+Avodah+Zarah&rft.pub=Brown+Judaic+Studies&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-93067-523-0&rft.au=AM+Gray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fbook%2F75475&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPasachoffLittman2005" class="citation book cs1">Pasachoff, Naomi E.; Littman, Robert J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z4eaj09hscAC&dq=influence+of+the+jerusalem+talmud+on+the+babylonian+talmud&pg=PA110"><i>A concise history of the Jewish people</i></a>. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-4366-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-4366-9"><bdi>978-0-7425-4366-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+concise+history+of+the+Jewish+people&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Md.&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-4366-9&rft.aulast=Pasachoff&rft.aufirst=Naomi+E.&rft.au=Littman%2C+Robert+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz4eaj09hscAC%26dq%3Dinfluence%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bjerusalem%2Btalmud%2Bon%2Bthe%2Bbabylonian%2Btalmud%26pg%3DPA110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JVLTalJ-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JVLTalJ_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/talmud-jerusalem"><i>Bavli and Yerushalmi – Similarities and Differences</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Gale_(publisher)" title="Gale (publisher)">Gale</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bavli+and+Yerushalmi+%E2%80%93+Similarities+and+Differences&rft.pub=Gale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Ftalmud-jerusalem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-MenahemEdreiHecht2024" class="citation book cs1">Ben-Menahem, Hanina; Edrei, Arye; Hecht, Neil S., eds. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OX25O1Zqj7gC&dq=maimonides+deference+to+the+babylonian+talmud&pg=RA1-PA77"><i>Windows onto Jewish Legal Culture: Fourteen Exploratory Essays</i></a>. Routledge. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-50049-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-50049-4"><bdi>978-0-415-50049-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Windows+onto+Jewish+Legal+Culture%3A+Fourteen+Exploratory+Essays&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-0-415-50049-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOX25O1Zqj7gC%26dq%3Dmaimonides%2Bdeference%2Bto%2Bthe%2Bbabylonian%2Btalmud%26pg%3DRA1-PA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-oral-law-talmud-and-mishna">"Judaism: The Oral Law -Talmud & Mishna"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a></i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft.atitle=Judaism%3A+The+Oral+Law+-Talmud+%26+Mishna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fthe-oral-law-talmud-and-mishna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Telushkin1991" class="citation cs2">Joseph Telushkin (26 April 1991), <i>Literacy: The Most Important Things to Know About the Jewish Religion, Its People and Its History</i>, HarperCollins, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-68808-506-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-68808-506-7"><bdi>0-68808-506-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literacy%3A+The+Most+Important+Things+to+Know+About+the+Jewish+Religion%2C+Its+People+and+Its+History&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1991-04-26&rft.isbn=0-68808-506-7&rft.au=Joseph+Telushkin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinsaltz1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adin_Steinsaltz" title="Adin Steinsaltz">Steinsaltz, Adin</a> (1976). <i>The Essential Talmud</i>. BasicBooks, A Division of HarperCollins Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02063-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02063-8"><bdi>978-0-465-02063-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Essential+Talmud&rft.pub=BasicBooks%2C+A+Division+of+HarperCollins+Publishers&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02063-8&rft.aulast=Steinsaltz&rft.aufirst=Adin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2019)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacobs, Louis, <i>Structure and form in the Babylonian Talmud</i>, Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2006" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Shaye J. D. (January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H5hLLIrh6n8C&q=206date=2006"><i>From the Maccabees to the Mishnah</i></a> (Second ed.). Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22743-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22743-2"><bdi>978-0-664-22743-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+Maccabees+to+the+Mishnah&rft.place=Louisville&rft.pages=206&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=2006-01&rft.isbn=978-0-664-22743-2&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Shaye+J.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH5hLLIrh6n8C%26q%3D206date%3D2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingerAdler1916" class="citation book cs1">Singer, Isidore; Adler, Cyrus (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=47o5AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA528"><i>The Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day</i></a>. Funk and Wagnalls. pp. <span class="nowrap">527–</span>528.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia%3A+A+Descriptive+Record+of+the+History%2C+Religion%2C+Literature%2C+and+Customs+of+the+Jewish+People+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E527-%3C%2Fspan%3E528&rft.pub=Funk+and+Wagnalls&rft.date=1916&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Isidore&rft.au=Adler%2C+Cyrus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D47o5AQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA528&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrackStembergerBockmuehlStrack1996" class="citation book cs1">Strack, Hermann L.; Stemberger, Günter; Bockmuehl, Markus N. A.; Strack, Hermann L. (1996). <i>Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash</i> (2. Fortress Press ed., with amendations and updates ed.). Minneapolis, Minn: Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-2524-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-2524-5"><bdi>978-0-8006-2524-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Talmud+and+Midrash&rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+Minn&rft.edition=2.+Fortress+Press+ed.%2C+with+amendations+and+updates&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8006-2524-5&rft.aulast=Strack&rft.aufirst=Hermann+L.&rft.au=Stemberger%2C+G%C3%BCnter&rft.au=Bockmuehl%2C+Markus+N.+A.&rft.au=Strack%2C+Hermann+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <a href="/wiki/Pirkei_Avot" title="Pirkei Avot">Pirkei Avot</a> 5.21: "five for the Torah, ten for Mishnah, thirteen for the commandments, fifteen for <i>talmud</i>".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubenstein1999" class="citation book cs1">Rubenstein, Jeffrey L. (1999). <i>Talmudic stories: narrative art, composition, and culture</i>. Baltimore, MD London: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6146-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6146-8"><bdi>978-0-8018-6146-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Talmudic+stories%3A+narrative+art%2C+composition%2C+and+culture&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+MD+London&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6146-8&rft.aulast=Rubenstein&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Halivni, <i>Midrash, Mishnah, and Gemara: The Jewish Predilection for Justified Law</i> (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 93–101. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674038158" title="Special:BookSources/9780674038158">9780674038158</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/loc/Talmud.html">"Judaic Treasures of the Library of Congress: The Talmud"</a>. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Judaic+Treasures+of+the+Library+of+Congress%3A+The+Talmud&rft.pub=American-Israeli+Cooperative+Enterprise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fjsource%2Floc%2FTalmud.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sáenz-Badillos, Ángel and John Elwolde. 1996. A history of the Hebrew language. pp. 170–171: "There is general agreement that two main periods of RH (Rabbinical Hebrew) can be distinguished. The first, which lasted until the close of the Tannaitic era (around 200 CE), is characterized by RH as a spoken language gradually developing into a literary medium in which the Mishnah, Tosefta, <i>baraitot</i>, and Tannaitic <i>midrashim</i> would be composed. The second stage begins with the <i>Amoraim</i>, and sees RH being replaced by Aramaic as the spoken vernacular, surviving only as a literary language. Then it continued to be used in later rabbinic writings until the 10th century in, for example, the Hebrew portions of the two Talmuds and in midrashic and haggadic literature."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/keritot">"Encyclopedia.com Keritot"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia.com+Keritot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Freligion%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Fkeritot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmsler2023" class="citation book cs1">Amsler, Monika (2023). <i>The Babylonian Talmud and late antique book culture</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. pp. <span class="nowrap">219–</span>220. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29733-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29733-2"><bdi>978-1-009-29733-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Babylonian+Talmud+and+late+antique+book+culture&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E219-%3C%2Fspan%3E220&rft.pub=Cambridge+university+press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-009-29733-2&rft.aulast=Amsler&rft.aufirst=Monika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger1992140-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger1992140_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrackStemberger1992">Strack & Stemberger 1992</a>, p. 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrauch_Schick2021" class="citation book cs1">Strauch Schick, Shana (2021). <i>Intention in Talmudic law: between thought and deed</i>. The Brill Reference Library of Judaism. Leiden Boston (Mass.): Brill. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-43303-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-43303-8"><bdi>978-90-04-43303-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intention+in+Talmudic+law%3A+between+thought+and+deed&rft.place=Leiden+Boston+%28Mass.%29&rft.series=The+Brill+Reference+Library+of+Judaism&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-90-04-43303-8&rft.aulast=Strauch+Schick&rft.aufirst=Shana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBickart2022" class="citation book cs1">Bickart, Noah (2022-10-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.31826/9781463244668"><i>The Scholastic Culture of the Babylonian Talmud</i></a>. Gorgias Press. pp. 4, n. 14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31826%2F9781463244668">10.31826/9781463244668</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4632-4466-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4632-4466-8"><bdi>978-1-4632-4466-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scholastic+Culture+of+the+Babylonian+Talmud&rft.pages=4%2C+n.+14&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press&rft.date=2022-10-21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31826%2F9781463244668&rft.isbn=978-1-4632-4466-8&rft.aulast=Bickart&rft.aufirst=Noah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.31826%2F9781463244668&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBickart2022" class="citation book cs1">Bickart, Noah (2022-10-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.31826/9781463244668"><i>The Scholastic Culture of the Babylonian Talmud</i></a>. Gorgias Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">165–</span>166. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.31826%2F9781463244668">10.31826/9781463244668</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4632-4466-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4632-4466-8"><bdi>978-1-4632-4466-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scholastic+Culture+of+the+Babylonian+Talmud&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E165-%3C%2Fspan%3E166&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press&rft.date=2022-10-21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31826%2F9781463244668&rft.isbn=978-1-4632-4466-8&rft.aulast=Bickart&rft.aufirst=Noah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.31826%2F9781463244668&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeubauer1887" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Neubauer, Adolf (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nDRNAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA61"><i>Mediaeval Jewish Chronicles and Chronological Notes</i></a> (in Hebrew). Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mediaeval+Jewish+Chronicles+and+Chronological+Notes&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1887&rft.aulast=Neubauer&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnDRNAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStembergerCordoniLanger2016" class="citation book cs1">Stemberger, Günter; Cordoni, Constanza; Langer, Gerhard (2016). <i>Let the wise listen and add to their learning (Prov. 1:5): festschrift for Günter Stemberger on the occasion of his 75th birthday</i>. Studia Judaica. Berlin Boston (Mass.): De Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">606–</span>609. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-044103-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-044103-1"><bdi>978-3-11-044103-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Let+the+wise+listen+and+add+to+their+learning+%28Prov.+1%3A5%29%3A+festschrift+for+G%C3%BCnter+Stemberger+on+the+occasion+of+his+75th+birthday&rft.place=Berlin+Boston+%28Mass.%29&rft.series=Studia+Judaica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E606-%3C%2Fspan%3E609&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-11-044103-1&rft.aulast=Stemberger&rft.aufirst=G%C3%BCnter&rft.au=Cordoni%2C+Constanza&rft.au=Langer%2C+Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFof_Rieti1851" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">of Rieti, Moses ben Isaac (1851). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RAY-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA25"><i>מקדש מעט</i></a> (in Hebrew). דפוס אלמנת י"פ זולינגער. pp. <span class="nowrap">93r –</span> <span class="nowrap">93v</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%A9+%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%98&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E93r+-%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E93v%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.pub=%D7%93%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A1+%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%AA+%D7%99%22%D7%A4+%D7%96%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A8&rft.date=1851&rft.aulast=of+Rieti&rft.aufirst=Moses+ben+Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRAY-AAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The New Testament and rabbinic literature</i>. Supplements to the journal for the study of Judaism. Leiden: Brill. 2010. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17588-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17588-4"><bdi>978-90-04-17588-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Testament+and+rabbinic+literature&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Supplements+to+the+journal+for+the+study+of+Judaism&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-04-17588-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmsler2023" class="citation book cs1">Amsler, Monika (2023). <i>The Babylonian Talmud and late antique book culture</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. pp. <span class="nowrap">122–</span>123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29733-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29733-2"><bdi>978-1-009-29733-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Babylonian+Talmud+and+late+antique+book+culture&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E122-%3C%2Fspan%3E123&rft.pub=Cambridge+university+press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-009-29733-2&rft.aulast=Amsler&rft.aufirst=Monika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiffman2024138-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiffman2024138_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchiffman2024">Schiffman 2024</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmsler2023" class="citation book cs1">Amsler, Monika (2023). <i>The Babylonian Talmud and late antique book culture</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. p. 123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29733-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29733-2"><bdi>978-1-009-29733-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Babylonian+Talmud+and+late+antique+book+culture&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=Cambridge+university+press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-009-29733-2&rft.aulast=Amsler&rft.aufirst=Monika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiel2016" class="citation book cs1">Kiel, Yishai (2016). <i>Sexuality in the Babylonian Talmud: Christian and Sasanian contexts in late antiquity</i>. New York (N.Y.): Cambridge university press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-15551-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-15551-0"><bdi>978-1-107-15551-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sexuality+in+the+Babylonian+Talmud%3A+Christian+and+Sasanian+contexts+in+late+antiquity&rft.place=New+York+%28N.Y.%29&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Cambridge+university+press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-107-15551-0&rft.aulast=Kiel&rft.aufirst=Yishai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSecunda2014" class="citation book cs1">Secunda, Shai (2014). <i>The Iranian Talmud: reading the Bavli in its Sasanian context</i>. Divinations: rereading late ancient religion. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4570-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4570-7"><bdi>978-0-8122-4570-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iranian+Talmud%3A+reading+the+Bavli+in+its+Sasanian+context&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.series=Divinations%3A+rereading+late+ancient+religion&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4570-7&rft.aulast=Secunda&rft.aufirst=Shai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSecunda2020" class="citation book cs1">Secunda, Shai (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/on1127664734"><i>The Talmud's red fence: menstrual impurity and difference in Babylonian Judaism and its Sasanian context</i></a>. Oxford, United Kingdom ; New York, NY: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-885682-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-885682-5"><bdi>978-0-19-885682-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1127664734">1127664734</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Talmud%27s+red+fence%3A+menstrual+impurity+and+difference+in+Babylonian+Judaism+and+its+Sasanian+context&rft.place=Oxford%2C+United+Kingdom+%3B+New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Fon1127664734&rft.isbn=978-0-19-885682-5&rft.aulast=Secunda&rft.aufirst=Shai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Fon1127664734&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstone2019" class="citation journal cs1">Goldstone, Matthew (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12317">"The Babylonian Talmud in its cultural context"</a>. <i>Religion Compass</i>. <b>13</b> (6). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Frec3.12317">10.1111/rec3.12317</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1749-8171">1749-8171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion+Compass&rft.atitle=The+Babylonian+Talmud+in+its+cultural+context&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=6&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Frec3.12317&rft.issn=1749-8171&rft.aulast=Goldstone&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcompass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Frec3.12317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSecunda2016" class="citation journal cs1">Secunda, Shai (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/37709046">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"This, but Also That": Historical, Methodological, and Theoretical Reflections on Irano-Talmudica"</a>. <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>. <b>106</b> (2): 236. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjqr.2016.0013">10.1353/jqr.2016.0013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1553-0604">1553-0604</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Quarterly+Review&rft.atitle=%22This%2C+but+Also+That%22%3A+Historical%2C+Methodological%2C+and+Theoretical+Reflections+on+Irano-Talmudica&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=236&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjqr.2016.0013&rft.issn=1553-0604&rft.aulast=Secunda&rft.aufirst=Shai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F37709046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmsler2023" class="citation book cs1">Amsler, Monika (2023). <i>The Babylonian Talmud and late antique book culture</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29733-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29733-2"><bdi>978-1-009-29733-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Babylonian+Talmud+and+late+antique+book+culture&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Cambridge+university+press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-009-29733-2&rft.aulast=Amsler&rft.aufirst=Monika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span> On the precise date of Pirkoi's letter cf. I. Gafni, 'How Babylonia Became Zion: Shifting Identities in Late Antiquity', in: L.I. Levine and D.R. Schwartz (eds), <i>Jewish Identities in Antiquity: Studies in Memory of Menahem Stern</i> (Tübingen, 2009), p. 333 n. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmsler2023" class="citation book cs1">Amsler, Monika (2023). <i>The Babylonian Talmud and late antique book culture</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. pp. <span class="nowrap">127–</span>131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29733-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-29733-2"><bdi>978-1-009-29733-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Babylonian+Talmud+and+late+antique+book+culture&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E127-%3C%2Fspan%3E131&rft.pub=Cambridge+university+press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-009-29733-2&rft.aulast=Amsler&rft.aufirst=Monika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As Pirkei Avot is a tractate of the Mishnah, and reached its final form centuries before the compilation of either Talmud, this refers to <i><a href="#Gemara">talmud</a></i> as an activity rather than to any written compilation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger2012217-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger2012217_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrackStemberger2012">Strack & Stemberger 2012</a>, p. 217.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFStrackStemberger2012 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14214-talmud-commentaries">"Talmud Commentaries"</a>. <i>JewishEncyclopedia.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-06-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=JewishEncyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Talmud+Commentaries&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F14214-talmud-commentaries&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger2012218–219-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger2012218–219_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrackStemberger2012">Strack & Stemberger 2012</a>, p. 218–219.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFStrackStemberger2012 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger2012219–220-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrackStemberger2012219–220_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStrackStemberger2012">Strack & Stemberger 2012</a>, p. 219–220.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFStrackStemberger2012 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/40633">"HebrewBooks.org Sefer Detail: ספר הנר – ברכות – אגמתי, זכריה בן יהודה"</a>. <i>hebrewbooks.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hebrewbooks.org&rft.atitle=HebrewBooks.org+Sefer+Detail%3A+%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8+%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%A8+%E2%80%93+%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%AA+%E2%80%93+%D7%90%D7%92%D7%9E%D7%AA%D7%99%2C+%D7%96%D7%9B%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94+%D7%91%D7%9F+%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhebrewbooks.org%2F40633&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a list see Ephraim Urbach, s.v. "Tosafot," in <i>Encyclopedia of Religion</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRav_Avraham_Yitzchok_Ha-Cohen_Kook2008" class="citation web cs1">Rav Avraham Yitzchok Ha-Cohen Kook (February 17, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.halachabrura.org/">"A labor of great magnitude stands before us, to repair the break between the Talmudic deliberations and the halachic decisions... to accustom students of the Gemara to correlate knowledge of all the halacha with its source and reason..."</a> Halacha Brura and Birur Halacha Institute<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+labor+of+great+magnitude+stands+before+us%2C+to+repair+the+break+between+the+Talmudic+deliberations+and+the+halachic+decisions...+to+accustom+students+of+the+Gemara+to+correlate+knowledge+of+all+the+halacha+with+its+source+and+reason...&rft.pub=Halacha+Brura+and+Birur+Halacha+Institute&rft.date=2008-02-17&rft.au=Rav+Avraham+Yitzchok+Ha-Cohen+Kook&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.halachabrura.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span> It should not be confused with the halachic compendium of the same name by rabbi David Yosef.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Al</i> means on. <i>Derekh</i> mean path. PaShoot, the Hebrew root in <i>ha-peshat</i>, means <i>simple</i>. The prefix "ha-" means <i>the</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191003071413/https://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/mishpat/kap.html">"691 Kapah"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/mishpat/kap.html">the original</a> on 2019-10-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-03</span></span>. <q>According to the plain sense (ve-al derekh ha-peshat)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=691+Kapah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biu.ac.il%2FJH%2FParasha%2Feng%2Fmishpat%2Fkap.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i>Pilpul</i>, <a href="/wiki/Mordechai_Breuer" title="Mordechai Breuer">Mordechai Breuer</a>, in <i>Encyclopaedia Judaica</i>, Vol. 16, 2nd Ed (2007), Macmillan Reference and H.H. Ben Sasson, <i>A History of the Jewish People</i>, pp. 627, 717.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Kol Melechet Higgayon</i>, the Hebrew translation of Averroes' epitome of Aristotle's logical works, was widely studied in northern Italy, particularly <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padua</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boyarin, <i>Sephardi Speculation</i> (Hebrew) (Jerusalem 1989).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a comprehensive treatment, see Ravitzky, below.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Faur is here describing the tradition of Damascus, though the approach in other places may have been similar.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Examples of lessons using this approach may be found <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.moreshetsepharad.org/GEMARA.html">here</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. the distinction in the Ashkenazi yeshivah curriculum between <i>beki'ut</i> (basic familiarization) and<i> 'iyyun</i> (in-depth study).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/David_ben_Judah_Messer_Leon" title="David ben Judah Messer Leon">David ben Judah Messer Leon</a>, <i>Kevod Ḥakhamim</i>, cited by Zimmels, <i>Ashkenazim and Sephardim</i>, pp. 151, 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Chaim_Joseph_David_Azulai" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaim Joseph David Azulai">Chaim Joseph David Azulai</a>, <i>Shem Gedolim</i>, cited Hirschberg, <i>A History of the Jews in North Africa</i>, pp. 125–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joseph Ringel, "A Third Way: <i>Iyyun Tunisai</i> as a Traditional Critical Method of Talmud Study", <i>Tradition</i> 2013 46:3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a humorous description of the different methods, see Gavriel Bechhofer's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aishdas.org/rygb/derachim.htm">An Analysis of Darchei HaLimud (Methodologies of Talmud Study) Centering on a Cup of Tea</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEtkes2002" class="citation book cs1">Etkes, Immanuel (2002). <i>The Gaon of Vilna</i>. University of California Press. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22394-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22394-3"><bdi>978-0-520-22394-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gaon+of+Vilna&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22394-3&rft.aulast=Etkes&rft.aufirst=Immanuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Solomon Schechter, <i>Studies in Judaism</i> p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Introduction to Sokoloff, <i>Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic</i>. The texts themselves may be found at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://maagarim.hebrew-academy.org.il/Pages/PMain.aspx">http://maagarim.hebrew-academy.org.il/Pages/PMain.aspx</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.nli.org.il/sites/nli/hebrew/collections/jewish-collection/talmud/pages/default.aspx/">"עיון בכתבי היד"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F+%D7%91%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%91%D7%99+%D7%94%D7%99%D7%93&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.nli.org.il%2Fsites%2Fnli%2Fhebrew%2Fcollections%2Fjewish-collection%2Ftalmud%2Fpages%2Fdefault.aspx%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See under <a href="#Manuscripts_and_textual_variants">#Manuscripts and textual variants</a>, below.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See particularly his controversial dissertation, <i>Mar Samuel</i>, available at <a href="//archive.org/details/MN41459ucmf_6" class="extiw" title="iarchive:MN41459ucmf 6">archive.org</a> (German).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talmudha-igud.org.il/default.asp?lang=en">"Igud HaTalmud"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Igud+HaTalmud&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.talmudha-igud.org.il%2Fdefault.asp%3Flang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaacov_Elman2012" class="citation book cs1">Yaacov Elman (2012). Steven Fine; Shai Secunda (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QdjGEVo0bVEC&q=shoshannat+yaakov"><i>Shoshannat Yaakov: Jewish and Iranian Studies in Honor of Yaakov Elman</i></a>. Brill Academic Pub Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004235441" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004235441"><bdi>978-9004235441</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shoshannat+Yaakov%3A+Jewish+and+Iranian+Studies+in+Honor+of+Yaakov+Elman&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Pub+Publishers&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-9004235441&rft.au=Yaacov+Elman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQdjGEVo0bVEC%26q%3Dshoshannat%2Byaakov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShai_Secunda2013" class="citation book cs1">Shai Secunda (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TdFAAQAAQBAJ"><i>The Iranian Talmud: Reading the Bavli in Its Sasanian Context</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812245707" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812245707"><bdi>978-0812245707</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iranian+Talmud%3A+Reading+the+Bavli+in+Its+Sasanian+Context&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0812245707&rft.au=Shai+Secunda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTdFAAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-life-and-religion/123338/queen-for-a-day">"Queen for a Day"</a>, <i>Tablet Magazine</i>, 5 February 2013</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sefaria.org/texts/Talmud">"Talmud (William Davidson)"</a>. <i>sefaria.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sefaria.org&rft.atitle=Talmud+%28William+Davidson%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sefaria.org%2Ftexts%2FTalmud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jta.org/2017/02/07/news-opinion/united-states/with-full-talmud-translation-online-library-hopes-to-make-sages-accessible">"With full Talmud translation, online library hopes to make sages accessible"</a>. <i>jta.org</i>. JTA (<a href="/wiki/Jewish_Telegraphic_Agency" title="Jewish Telegraphic Agency">Jewish Telegraphic Agency</a>). 2017-02-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jta.org&rft.atitle=With+full+Talmud+translation%2C+online+library+hopes+to+make+sages+accessible&rft.date=2017-02-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jta.org%2F2017%2F02%2F07%2Fnews-opinion%2Funited-states%2Fwith-full-talmud-translation-online-library-hopes-to-make-sages-accessible&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Berger2005" class="citation news cs1">Joseph Berger (February 10, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/10/books/an-english-talmud-for-daily-readers-and-debaters.html">"An English Talmud for Daily Readers and Debaters"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 12,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=An+English+Talmud+for+Daily+Readers+and+Debaters&rft.date=2005-02-10&rft.au=Joseph+Berger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F02%2F10%2Fbooks%2Fan-english-talmud-for-daily-readers-and-debaters.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maroon-colored</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blue</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halakhah.com/tcontents.html"><i>Soncino Babylonian Talmud</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soncino+Babylonian+Talmud&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhalakhah.com%2Ftcontents.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_S_Farkas2021" class="citation cs2">David S Farkas (29 August 2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://seforimblog.com/2021/08/in-praise-of-the-soncino-talmud"><i>In Praise of the Soncino Talmud</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 11,</span> 2022</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Praise+of+the+Soncino+Talmud&rft.date=2021-08-29&rft.au=David+S+Farkas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fseforimblog.com%2F2021%2F08%2Fin-praise-of-the-soncino-talmud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarvin_J._Heller2021" class="citation cs2">Marvin J. Heller (2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gyU9EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA513"><i>Essays on the Making of the Early Hebrew Book</i></a>, BRILL, p. 513, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004441163" title="Special:BookSources/9789004441163"><bdi>9789004441163</bdi></a>, <q>However, in the Rebecca Bennet Publications (1959) Soncino edition</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essays+on+the+Making+of+the+Early+Hebrew+Book&rft.pages=513&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9789004441163&rft.au=Marvin+J.+Heller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgyU9EAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA513&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">64 volumes, including index and 'minor tractates'" <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblio.com/book/babylonian-talmud-64-volume-set-english/d/1017057179"><i>New York: Rebecca Bennet, 1959. 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Trans. Jackie Feldman. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007. viii + 314 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4011-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4011-5">978-0-8122-4011-5</a>. p. 104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBattegay,_Lubrich2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Battegay, Lubrich, Caspar, Naomi (2018). <i>Jewish Switzerland: 50 Objects Tell Their Stories</i> (in German and English). Basel: Christoph Merian. pp. <span class="nowrap">54–</span>57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-85616-847-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-85616-847-6"><bdi>978-3-85616-847-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Switzerland%3A+50+Objects+Tell+Their+Stories&rft.place=Basel&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E54-%3C%2Fspan%3E57&rft.pub=Christoph+Merian&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-85616-847-6&rft.aulast=Battegay%2C+Lubrich&rft.aufirst=Caspar%2C+Naomi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiane Berkvens-Stevelinck <i>Le Magasin De L'Univers – The Dutch Republic As the Centre of the European Book Trade (Brill's Studies in Intellectual History) </i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Printing the Talmud: a history of the individual treatises p. 239, Marvin J. 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February 12, 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hamodia.com/2015/02/12/loan-heart/">the original</a> on August 5, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 25,</span> 2019</span>. <q>.. a copy of the greatly valued Slavita Shas.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hamodia&rft.atitle=A+loan+from+the+heart&rft.date=2015-02-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhamodia.com%2F2015%2F02%2F12%2Floan-heart%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tell.185-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tell.185_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanoch_Teller1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hanoch_Teller" title="Hanoch Teller">Hanoch Teller</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/soulsurvivorstru00tell/page/185"><i>Soul Survivors</i></a>. New York City Publishing Company. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/soulsurvivorstru00tell/page/185">185–203</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-961-4772-0-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-961-4772-0-2"><bdi>0-961-4772-0-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soul+Survivors&rft.pages=185-203&rft.pub=New+York+City+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-961-4772-0-2&rft.au=Hanoch+Teller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsoulsurvivorstru00tell%2Fpage%2F185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Talmud.17xx-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Talmud.17xx_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Talmud.17xx_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarvin_J._Heller2018" class="citation web cs1">Marvin J. Heller (May 28, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://seforimblog.com/2018/05/approbations-and-restrictions-printing">"Approbations and Restrictions: Printing the Talmud in Eighteenth Century Amsterdam and Two Frankfurts"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Approbations+and+Restrictions%3A+Printing+the+Talmud+in+Eighteenth+Century+Amsterdam+and+Two+Frankfurts&rft.date=2018-05-28&rft.au=Marvin+J.+Heller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fseforimblog.com%2F2018%2F05%2Fapprobations-and-restrictions-printing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"embroiled leading rabbis in Europe .. rival editions of the Talmud"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">the wording was that the sets printed could be sold. All full sets were sold, although individual volumes remained. The systems of dealers did not facilitate knowing exactly how many individual volumes were still in dealer hands.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, "Variant Readings in the Babylonian Talmud – A Methodological Study Marking the Appearance of 13 Volumes of the Institute for the Complete Israeli Talmud's Edition," Tarbiz 68 (1998).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmar,_Yosef" class="citation web cs1">Amar, Yosef. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717212402/http://www.nosachteiman.co.il/?CategoryID=856&ArticleID=3022&Page=1">"Talmud Bavli be-niqqud Temani"</a>. Nosachteiman.co.il. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nosachteiman.co.il/?CategoryID=856&ArticleID=3022&Page=1">the original</a> on 2011-07-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-05-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Talmud+Bavli+be-niqqud+Temani&rft.pub=Nosachteiman.co.il&rft.au=Amar%2C+Yosef&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nosachteiman.co.il%2F%3FCategoryID%3D856%26ArticleID%3D3022%26Page%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Julius Joseph Price, <i>The Yemenite ms. of Megilla (in the Library of Columbia university)</i>, 1916; <i>Pesahim</i>, 1913; <i>Mo'ed Katon</i>, 1920.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Talmud.Link2017-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Talmud.Link2017_140-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Talmud.Link2017_140-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Talmud.Link2017_140-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_E._Y._Sarna2017" class="citation web cs1">David E. Y. Sarna (February 2, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jewishlink.news/features/16990-studying-talmud-the-good-the-not-so-good-and-how-to-make-talmud-more-accessible-3">"Studying Talmud: The Good, the Not-So-Good and How to Make Talmud More Accessible"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Studying+Talmud%3A+The+Good%2C+the+Not-So-Good+and+How+to+Make+Talmud+More+Accessible&rft.date=2017-02-02&rft.au=David+E.+Y.+Sarna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjewishlink.news%2Ffeatures%2F16990-studying-talmud-the-good-the-not-so-good-and-how-to-make-talmud-more-accessible-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The other Oz ve-Hadar editions are similar but without the explanation in modern Hebrew.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.monseyjudaica.com/making-gemara-menukad">"Making of the Gemara Menukad"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Making+of+the+Gemara+Menukad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.monseyjudaica.com%2Fmaking-gemara-menukad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia</i>. Isaac Landman (1941) "His greatest work was the translation of the entire Babylonian Talmud into German, which, as it was made from the uncensored text and was the only complete translation in a European language, was of great value for students."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TalmudMoedKatan.OU-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TalmudMoedKatan.OU_144-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TalmudMoedKatan.OU_144-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEli_Genauer" class="citation magazine cs1">Eli Genauer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jewishaction.com/jewish-world/history/when-books-can-speak-a-glimpse-into-the-world-of-sefarim-collecting">"When Books Can Speak: A Glimpse Into The World of Sefarim Collecting"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Action" title="Jewish Action">Jewish Action</a> (OU)</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Action+%28OU%29&rft.atitle=When+Books+Can+Speak%3A+A+Glimpse+Into+The+World+of+Sefarim+Collecting&rft.au=Eli+Genauer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjewishaction.com%2Fjewish-world%2Fhistory%2Fwhen-books-can-speak-a-glimpse-into-the-world-of-sefarim-collecting&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Talmud.Shang-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Talmud.Shang_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.auctionzip.com/auction-lot/Babylonian-Talmud-Shanghai,-1942-1946-Printed_2AD4E0F840">"Lot 96: Babylonian Talmud – Shanghai, 1942–1946 – Printed by Holocaust Refugees"</a>. Kedem Public Auction House Ltd. August 28, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lot+96%3A+Babylonian+Talmud+%E2%80%93+Shanghai%2C+1942%E2%80%931946+%E2%80%93+Printed+by+Holocaust+Refugees&rft.pub=Kedem+Public+Auction+House+Ltd&rft.date=2018-08-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.auctionzip.com%2Fauction-lot%2FBabylonian-Talmud-Shanghai%2C-1942-1946-Printed_2AD4E0F840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gittin. Rest of inside coverpage Hebrew, but bottom has (in English) Jewish Bookstore, J. Geseng, Shanghai, 1942: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSh.B._Eliezer1999" class="citation news cs1">Sh.B. Eliezer (October 29, 1999). "More on Holocaust Auctions on the Internet". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Press" title="The Jewish Press">The Jewish Press</a></i>. p. 89.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jewish+Press&rft.atitle=More+on+Holocaust+Auctions+on+the+Internet&rft.pages=89&rft.date=1999-10-29&rft.au=Sh.B.+Eliezer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TalmudUSArmy.Aish-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TalmudUSArmy.Aish_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDr._Yvette_Alt_Miller2020" class="citation web cs1">Dr. Yvette Alt Miller (April 19, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aish.com/jw/s/The-Survivors-Talmud-When-the-US-Army-Printed-the-Talmud.html">"The Survivors' Talmud: When the US Army Printed the Talmud"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Survivors%27+Talmud%3A+When+the+US+Army+Printed+the+Talmud&rft.date=2020-04-19&rft.au=Dr.+Yvette+Alt+Miller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aish.com%2Fjw%2Fs%2FThe-Survivors-Talmud-When-the-US-Army-Printed-the-Talmud.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Schleicher's paintings at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mutualart.com/Artist/Carl-Schleicher/3C265BD646F5426E/Artworks">MutualArt</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120720224747/http://www.bridgesforpeace.com/teaching-letter/article/why-christians-should-study-torah-and-talmud/">"Why Christians Should Study Torah and Talmud"</a>. Bridges for Peace. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bridgesforpeace.com/teaching-letter/article/why-christians-should-study-torah-and-talmud/">the original</a> on July 20, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 3,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Christians+Should+Study+Torah+and+Talmud&rft.pub=Bridges+for+Peace&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bridgesforpeace.com%2Fteaching-letter%2Farticle%2Fwhy-christians-should-study-torah-and-talmud%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hirschfield20110512-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hirschfield20110512_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirschfield,_Tzofia2011" class="citation news cs1">Hirschfield, Tzofia (2011-05-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4065672,00.html">"Why Koreans study Talmud"</a>. <i>Jewish World</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+World&rft.atitle=Why+Koreans+study+Talmud&rft.date=2011-05-12&rft.au=Hirschfield%2C+Tzofia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ynetnews.com%2Farticles%2F0%2C7340%2CL-4065672%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-alper20110512-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-alper20110512_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlper,_Tim2011" class="citation news cs1">Alper, Tim (May 5, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140903064029/https://www.thejc.com/lifestyle/lifestyle-features/48771/why-south-koreans-are-love-judaism">"Why South Koreans are in love with Judaism"</a>. <i>The Jewish Chronicle</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thejc.com/lifestyle/lifestyle-features/48771/why-south-koreans-are-love-judaism">the original</a> on September 3, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jewish+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Why+South+Koreans+are+in+love+with+Judaism&rft.date=2011-05-05&rft.au=Alper%2C+Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thejc.com%2Flifestyle%2Flifestyle-features%2F48771%2Fwhy-south-koreans-are-love-judaism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arbes-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arbes_152-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arbes_152-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss_Arbes2015" class="citation magazine cs1">Ross Arbes (June 23, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/how-the-talmud-became-a-best-seller-in-south-korea">"How the Talmud Became a Best-Seller in South Korea"</a>. <i>The New Yorker</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=How+the+Talmud+Became+a+Best-Seller+in+South+Korea&rft.date=2015-06-23&rft.au=Ross+Arbes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fbooks%2Fpage-turner%2Fhow-the-talmud-became-a-best-seller-in-south-korea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErdbrink2012" class="citation web cs1">Erdbrink, Thomas (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/27/world/middleeast/irans-vice-president-rahimi-makes-anti-semitic-speech.html">"Iran's Vice President Makes Anti-Semitic Speech at Forum"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Iran%27s+Vice+President+Makes+Anti-Semitic+Speech+at+Forum&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Erdbrink&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F06%2F27%2Fworld%2Fmiddleeast%2Firans-vice-president-rahimi-makes-anti-semitic-speech.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rodkinson-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rodkinson_154-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rodkinson_154-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodkinson</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, Bernard, <i>Semites and anti-Semites: an inquiry into conflict and prejudice</i>, W.W. Norton & Company, 1999, p. 134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson, Paul, <i>A history of the Jews</i>, HarperCollins, 1988, p. 577</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Arab attitudes to Israel</i>, Yehoshafat Harkabi, pp. 248, 272</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Such as <a href="/wiki/Uriel_da_Costa" title="Uriel da Costa">Uriel da Costa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel_Shahak" title="Israel Shahak">Israel Shahak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Kimmerling" title="Baruch Kimmerling">Baruch Kimmerling</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Such as <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hitchens" title="Christopher Hitchens">Christopher Hitchens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Hyam_Maccoby" title="Hyam Maccoby">Hyam Maccoby</a>, <i>Judaism on Trial</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ADL report <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adl.org/presrele/asus_12/the_talmud.pdf">The Talmud in Anti-Semitic Polemics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100805220714/http://www.adl.org/presrele/asus_12/the_talmud.pdf">Archived</a> 2010-08-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gil_Student" title="Gil Student">Student, Gil</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://talmud.faithweb.com/">Rebuttals to criticisms of Talmud</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Bacher" title="Wilhelm Bacher">Bacher, Wilhelm</a>, "Talmud", article in <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1901</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=32&letter=T">"Talmud"</a>. JewishEncyclopedia.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Talmud&rft.pub=JewishEncyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Fview.jsp%3Fartid%3D32%26letter%3DT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=32&letter=T&search=talmud#145">"Talmud"</a>. JewishEncyclopedia.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Talmud&rft.pub=JewishEncyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Fview.jsp%3Fartid%3D32%26letter%3DT%26search%3Dtalmud%23145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fraade, pp. 144–146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Kimmerling" title="Baruch Kimmerling">Kimmerling, Baruch</a>, "Images of Gentiles" (book review), <i>Journal of Palestine Studies</i>, April 1997, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 96–98</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Siedman, p. 137</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cohn-Sherbok, p. 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steinsaltz, pp. 268–270</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, Uriel DaCosta, quoted by Nadler, p. 68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cohn-Sherbok, p. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilhelm Bacher, "Talmud", article in <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://talmud.faithweb.com/">"The Real Truth About The Talmud"</a>. <i>talmud.faithweb.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=talmud.faithweb.com&rft.atitle=The+Real+Truth+About+The+Talmud&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftalmud.faithweb.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ADL report, pp. 1–2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Novellae_Constitutiones" title="Novellae Constitutiones">Nov.</a> 146.1.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeidman2010" class="citation book cs1">Seidman, Naomi (February 15, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rZGx-bS3vcgC&q=disputation+of+paris&pg=PA137"><i>Faithful Renderings: Jewish-Christian Difference and the Politics of Translation</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226745077" title="Special:BookSources/9780226745077"><bdi>9780226745077</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Faithful+Renderings%3A+Jewish-Christian+Difference+and+the+Politics+of+Translation&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2010-02-15&rft.isbn=9780226745077&rft.aulast=Seidman&rft.aufirst=Naomi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrZGx-bS3vcgC%26q%3Ddisputation%2Bof%2Bparis%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodkinson, pp. 66–69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levy, p. 701</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Carroll <i>Constantine's sword: the church and the Jews : a history</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cohn-Sherbok, pp. 50–54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maccoby-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maccoby_183-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maccoby_183-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maccoby_183-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maccoby</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Hyam_Maccoby" title="Hyam Maccoby">Hyam Maccoby</a>, op. cit.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roth, Norman, <i>Medieval Jewish civilization: an encyclopedia</i>, Taylor & Francis, 2003, p. 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodkinson, p. 98</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hastings, James. <i>Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 23</i>, p. 186</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodkinson, pp. 100–103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodkinson, p. 105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levy, p. 210</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boettcher, Susan R., "Entdecktes Judenthum", article in Levy, p. 210</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berlin, George L., <i>Defending the faith: nineteenth-century American Jewish writings on Christianity and Jesus</i>, SUNY Press, 1989, p. 156</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dhengah.org/torah/chhashas.pdf">Chesronos Hashas</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081002041052/http://www.dhengah.org/torah/chhashas.pdf">Archived</a> 2008-10-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/The_Talmud:_The_Steinsaltz_Edition" title="The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition">The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition</a>, pp. 103–104 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeller1999" class="citation book cs1">Heller, Marvin J. (1999). <i>Printing the Talmud: a history of the individual treatises printed from 1700 to 1750</i>. Basel: Brill Publishers. pp. 17, 166.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Printing+the+Talmud%3A+a+history+of+the+individual+treatises+printed+from+1700+to+1750&rft.place=Basel&rft.pages=17%2C+166&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Heller&rft.aufirst=Marvin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Archives_israelites_1851_tome12.djvu/647">"Page:Archives israelites 1851 tome12.djvu/647"</a>. Wikisource.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Page%3AArchives+israelites+1851+tome12.djvu%2F647&rft.pub=Wikisource&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffr.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FPage%3AArchives_israelites_1851_tome12.djvu%2F647&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4319-chiarini-luigi">"Chiarni, Luigi"</a>. JewishEncyclopedia.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chiarni%2C+Luigi&rft.pub=JewishEncyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F4319-chiarini-luigi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodkinson, pp. 109–114</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levy, p. 564</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeansonne, Glen, <i>Women of the Far Right: The Mothers' Movement and World War II</i>, University of Chicago Press, 1997, pp. 168–169</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Internet-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Internet_200-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Internet_200-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1999" class="citation web cs1">Jones, Jeremy (June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020330032614/http://www.aijac.org.au/review/1999/246/talmudic.html">"Talmudic Terrors"</a>. <i>Australia/Israel Review</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aijac.org.au/review/1999/246/talmudic.html">the original</a> on 2002-03-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-06-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australia%2FIsrael+Review&rft.atitle=Talmudic+Terrors&rft.date=1999-06&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aijac.org.au%2Freview%2F1999%2F246%2Ftalmudic.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ariel_Durant" title="Ariel Durant">Durant, Ariel</a> (2011) [1950]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cusRoE1OJvEC&pg=PP388"><i>The Story of Civilization: The Age of Faith</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. p. 388. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781451647617" title="Special:BookSources/9781451647617"><bdi>9781451647617</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Civilization%3A+The+Age+of+Faith&rft.pages=388&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781451647617&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcusRoE1OJvEC%26pg%3DPP388&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ADL-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ADL_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100805220714/http://www.adl.org/presrele/asus_12/the_talmud.pdf">"The Talmud in Anti-Semitic Polemics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Press release). <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a>. February 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adl.org/presrele/asus_12/the_talmud.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on August 5, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 16,</span> 2010</span>. <q>By selectively citing various passages from the Talmud and <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a>, polemicists have sought to demonstrate that Judaism espouses hatred for non-Jews (and specifically for Christians), and promotes obscenity, sexual perversion, and other immoral behavior. To make these passages serve their purposes, these polemicists frequently mistranslate them or cite them out of context (wholesale fabrication of passages is not unknown)....In distorting the normative meanings of rabbinic texts, anti-Talmud writers frequently remove passages from their textual and historical contexts. Even when they present their citations accurately, they judge the passages based on contemporary moral standards, ignoring the fact that the majority of these passages were composed close to two thousand years ago by people living in cultures radically different from our own. They are thus able to ignore Judaism's long history of social progress and paint it instead as a primitive and parochial religion. Those who attack the Talmud frequently cite ancient rabbinic sources without noting subsequent developments in Jewish thought, and without making a good-faith effort to consult with contemporary Jewish authorities who can explain the role of these sources in normative Jewish thought and practice.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Talmud+in+Anti-Semitic+Polemics&rft.pub=Anti-Defamation+League&rft.date=2003-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adl.org%2Fpresrele%2Fasus_12%2Fthe_talmud.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKominsky1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Morris_Kominsky" title="Morris Kominsky">Kominsky, Morris</a> (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/anti-masonry/van_hyning.html"><i>The hoaxers: plain liars, fancy liars, and damned liars</i></a>. Boston: Branden Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">169–</span>176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-08283-1288-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-08283-1288-2"><bdi>978-08283-1288-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/76109134">76109134</a>. <q>Libbre David 37. This is a complete fabrication. No such book exists in the Talmud or in the entire Jewish literature.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+hoaxers%3A+plain+liars%2C+fancy+liars%2C+and+damned+liars&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E169-%3C%2Fspan%3E176&rft.pub=Branden+Press&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F76109134&rft.isbn=978-08283-1288-2&rft.aulast=Kominsky&rft.aufirst=Morris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffreemasonry.bcy.ca%2Fanti-masonry%2Fvan_hyning.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_J._Hurley1991" class="citation book cs1">Andrew J. Hurley (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/israelnewworldor00hurl"><i>Israel and the New World Order</i></a>. Foundation for a New World Order, Santa Barbara: Fithian Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-09318-3299-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-09318-3299-4"><bdi>978-09318-3299-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israel+and+the+New+World+Order&rft.place=Foundation+for+a+New+World+Order%2C+Santa+Barbara&rft.pub=Fithian+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-09318-3299-4&rft.au=Andrew+J.+Hurley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisraelnewworldor00hurl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Six Million Reconsidered: A Special Report by the Committee for Truth in History, p. 16 <a href="/wiki/Historical_Review_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical Review Press">Historical Review Press</a>, 1979</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Student-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Student_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStudent2000" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gil_Student" title="Gil Student">Student, Gil</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://talmud.faithweb.com/articles/intro.html">"The Real Truth About The Talmud"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 16,</span> 2010</span>. <q>Anti-Talmud accusations have a long history dating back to the 13th century when the associates of the Inquisition attempted to defame Jews and their religion [see Yitzchak Baer, <i>A History of Jews in Christian Spain</i>, vol. I pp. 150–185]. The early material compiled by hateful preachers like Raymond Martini and Nicholas Donin remain the basis of all subsequent accusations against the Talmud. Some are true, most are false and based on quotations taken out of context, and some are total fabrications [see Baer, ch. 4 f. 54, 82 that it has been proven that Raymond Martini forged quotations]. On the Internet today we can find many of these old accusations being rehashed...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Real+Truth+About+The+Talmud&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Student&rft.aufirst=Gil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftalmud.faithweb.com%2Farticles%2Fintro.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmram1909" class="citation book cs1">Amram, David Werner (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924029498213#page/n187/mode/2up"><i>The Makers of Hebrew Books in Italy</i></a>. Philadelphia: J.H. Greenstone.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Makers+of+Hebrew+Books+in+Italy&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=J.H.+Greenstone&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Amram&rft.aufirst=David+Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fcu31924029498213%23page%2Fn187%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo <i>The Infinite Chain: Torah, Masorah, and Man</i> (Philipp Feldheim, 1989). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-944070-15-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-944070-15-9">0-944070-15-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAryeh_Carmell1986" class="citation book cs1">Aryeh Carmell (December 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rq-kVjTnlP0C"><i>Aiding Talmud study</i></a>. Feldheim Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87306-428-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87306-428-6"><bdi>978-0-87306-428-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aiding+Talmud+study&rft.pub=Feldheim+Publishers&rft.date=1986-12&rft.isbn=978-0-87306-428-6&rft.au=Aryeh+Carmell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRq-kVjTnlP0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span> (includes Samuel ha-Nagid's <i>Mevo ha-Talmud</i>, see next section)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zvi_Hirsch_Chajes" title="Zvi Hirsch Chajes">Zvi Hirsch Chajes</a> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604115652/http://hebrewbooks.org/22253">Mevo Hatalmud</a></i>, transl. Jacob Shachter: <i>The Students' Guide Through The Talmud</i> (Yashar Books, 2005). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-933143-05-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-933143-05-3">1-933143-05-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalin2012" class="citation book cs1">Dalin, D.G. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FnDoBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25"><i>The Myth of Hitler's Pope: Pope Pius XII And His Secret War Against Nazi Germany</i></a>. Regnery Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59698-185-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59698-185-0"><bdi>978-1-59698-185-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+Hitler%27s+Pope%3A+Pope+Pius+XII+And+His+Secret+War+Against+Nazi+Germany&rft.pub=Regnery+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-59698-185-0&rft.aulast=Dalin&rft.aufirst=D.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFnDoBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDan_Cohn-Sherbok1994" class="citation book cs1">Dan Cohn-Sherbok (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YjSckdMCFWcC"><i>Judaism and other faiths</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-10384-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-10384-2"><bdi>978-0-312-10384-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judaism+and+other+faiths&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-312-10384-2&rft.au=Dan+Cohn-Sherbok&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYjSckdMCFWcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fraade, Steven D, "Navigating the Anomalous: Non-Jews at the Intersection of Early Rabbinic Law and Narrative", in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurence_Jay_SilbersteinRobert_L._Cohn1994" class="citation book cs1">Laurence Jay Silberstein; Robert L. Cohn (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Aawa_AqjINQC"><i>The Other in Jewish thought and history: constructions of Jewish culture and identity</i></a>. NYU Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">145–</span>165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-7990-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-7990-3"><bdi>978-0-8147-7990-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Other+in+Jewish+thought+and+history%3A+constructions+of+Jewish+culture+and+identity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E145-%3C%2Fspan%3E165&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-7990-3&rft.au=Laurence+Jay+Silberstein&rft.au=Robert+L.+Cohn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAawa_AqjINQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottheilBroydé1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Gottheil, Richard; Broydé, Isaac (1906). "Leo X. (Giovanni De Medici)". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/9753-leo-x-giovanni-de-medici"><i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leo+X.+%28Giovanni+De+Medici%29&rft.btitle=Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Gottheil&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Broyd%C3%A9%2C+Isaac&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F9753-leo-x-giovanni-de-medici&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeller2005" class="citation journal cs1">Heller, Marvin J (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160815204146/http://www.jewishhistory.com/PRINTINGTHETALMUD/essays/7.pdf">"Earliest Printings of the Talmud: From Bomberg to Schottenstein"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Yeshiva University Museum</i>: 73. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishhistory.com/PRINTINGTHETALMUD/essays/7.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-08-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-08-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yeshiva+University+Museum&rft.atitle=Earliest+Printings+of+the+Talmud%3A+From+Bomberg+to+Schottenstein&rft.pages=73&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Heller&rft.aufirst=Marvin+J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishhistory.com%2FPRINTINGTHETALMUD%2Fessays%2F7.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Travers_Herford2007" class="citation book cs1">R. Travers Herford (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v2uXn-8ZB-oC"><i>Christianity in Talmud and Midrash</i></a>. KTAV Publishing House, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-930-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-930-8"><bdi>978-0-88125-930-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+in+Talmud+and+Midrash&rft.pub=KTAV+Publishing+House%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-88125-930-8&rft.au=R.+Travers+Herford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv2uXn-8ZB-oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>D. Landesman <i>A Practical Guide to Torah Learning</i> (<a href="/wiki/Jason_Aronson" title="Jason Aronson">Jason Aronson</a>, 1995). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56821-320-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-56821-320-4">1-56821-320-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmmanuel_LévinasAnnette_Aronowicz1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Lévinas</a>; Annette Aronowicz (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mT3VNPeVXuIC"><i>Nine Talmudic readings</i></a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20876-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20876-7"><bdi>978-0-253-20876-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nine+Talmudic+readings&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-253-20876-7&rft.au=Emmanuel+L%C3%A9vinas&rft.au=Annette+Aronowicz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmT3VNPeVXuIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Levy, Richard S., <i>Antisemitism: a historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution, Volume 2</i>, ABC-CLIO, 2005. See articles: "Talmud Trials", "Entdecktes Judenthum", "The Talmud Jew", "David Duke", "August Rohling", and "Johannes Pfefferkorn".</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyam_MaccobyJehiel_ben_Joseph_(of_Paris)1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hyam_Maccoby" title="Hyam Maccoby">Hyam Maccoby</a>; Jehiel ben Joseph (of Paris) (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hD1sQgAACAAJ"><i>Judaism on trial: Jewish-Christian disputations in the Middle Ages</i></a>. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-874774-16-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-874774-16-7"><bdi>978-1-874774-16-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judaism+on+trial%3A+Jewish-Christian+disputations+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Fairleigh+Dickinson+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-874774-16-7&rft.au=Hyam+Maccoby&rft.au=Jehiel+ben+Joseph+%28of+Paris%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhD1sQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span> A compendium of primary source materials, with commentary.</li> <li>Maimonides <i>Introduction to the <a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/e0000.htm">English translation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034621/https://mechon-mamre.org/e/e0000.htm">Archived</a> 2023-03-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li>Maimonides <i>Introduction to the <a href="/wiki/Maimonides#Works_and_bibliography" title="Maimonides">Commentary on the Mishnah</a></i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.daat.ac.il/daat/mahshevt/hakdama/tohen-m-2.htm">Hebrew Fulltext</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210509113350/http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/mahshevt/hakdama/tohen-m-2.htm">Archived</a> 2021-05-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>), transl. Zvi Lampel (Judaica Press, 1998). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-880582-28-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-880582-28-7">1-880582-28-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Parry" title="Aaron Parry">Aaron Parry</a> <i>The Complete Idiot's Guide to The Talmud</i> (Alpha Books, 2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59257-202-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-59257-202-2">1-59257-202-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Levi_Rodkinson" title="Michael Levi Rodkinson">Rodkinson, Michael Levi</a>, <i>The history of the Talmud from the time of its formation, about 200 B.C., up to the present time</i>, The Talmud Society, 1918</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_Rosen2001" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan Rosen (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GaAyUAKmm00C"><i>The Talmud and the Internet: A Journey Between Worlds</i></a>. Continuum International Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-5534-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-5534-5"><bdi>978-0-8264-5534-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Talmud+and+the+Internet%3A+A+Journey+Between+Worlds&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-5534-5&rft.au=Jonathan+Rosen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGaAyUAKmm00C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiffman2024" class="citation book cs1">Schiffman, Lawrence H. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/handle/1887/3761723">"Textual Criticism and the Evolution of Rabbinic Texts: Will There Ever Be a Final Text?"</a>. In Finsterbusch, Karin; Fuller, Russell; Lange, Armin; Driesbach, Jason (eds.). <i>The Comparative Textual Criticism of Religious Scriptures</i>. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">133–</span>151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004693623_009">10.1163/9789004693623_009</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F3761723">1887/3761723</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-69362-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-69362-3"><bdi>978-90-04-69362-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Textual+Criticism+and+the+Evolution+of+Rabbinic+Texts%3A+Will+There+Ever+Be+a+Final+Text%3F&rft.btitle=The+Comparative+Textual+Criticism+of+Religious+Scriptures&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E133-%3C%2Fspan%3E151&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1887%2F3761723&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004693623_009&rft.isbn=978-90-04-69362-3&rft.aulast=Schiffman&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2Fhandle%2F1887%2F3761723&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinsaltz1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adin_Steinsaltz" title="Adin Steinsaltz">Steinsaltz, Adin</a> (1996). <i>The Talmud: A Reference Guide</i>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-77367-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-77367-3"><bdi>0-679-77367-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Talmud%3A+A+Reference+Guide&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-679-77367-3&rft.aulast=Steinsaltz&rft.aufirst=Adin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdin_Steinsaltz2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adin_Steinsaltz" title="Adin Steinsaltz">Adin Steinsaltz</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=keXGJjd4ThcC&pg=PA10"><i>The essential Talmud</i></a>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-08273-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-08273-5"><bdi>978-0-465-08273-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+essential+Talmud&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-465-08273-5&rft.au=Adin+Steinsaltz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkeXGJjd4ThcC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span> Read more <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060829004122/http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/book_details.asp?id%3D22">here</a>. See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060525191901/http://www.steinsaltz.org/dynamic/essay_details.asp?id=6&sub=1">here</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrackStemberger1992" class="citation book cs1">Strack, H.L.; Stemberger, Giinter (1992). <i>Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash</i>. Fortress Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Talmud+and+Midrash&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Strack&rft.aufirst=H.L.&rft.au=Stemberger%2C+Giinter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATalmud" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Logic_and_methodology">Logic and methodology</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_ibn_Naghrela" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel ibn Naghrela">Samuel ha-Nagid</a>, <i>Mevo ha-Talmud</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ben_Judah_ibn_Aknin" title="Joseph ben Judah ibn Aknin">Joseph ben Judah ibn Aknin</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/33105">Mevo ha-Talmud</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zerachiah_ha-Levi_of_Girona" title="Zerachiah ha-Levi of Girona">Zerachiah Halevi</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/24968">Sefer ha-Tzava</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samson_of_Chinon" title="Samson of Chinon">Samson of Chinon</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/32813">Sefer ha-Keritut</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Hagiz" title="Jacob Hagiz">Jacob Hagiz</a>, <i>Teḥillat Ḥochmah</i> (included in most editions of <i>Keritut</i>)</li> <li>collective, ed. <a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Akra" title="Abraham ibn Akra">Abraham ibn Akra</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/7049">Meharere Nemarim</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ibn_Verga" title="Joseph ibn Verga">Joseph ibn Verga</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/11888">She'erit Yosef</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Campanton" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaac Campanton">Isaac Campanton</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/21689">Darche ha-Talmud</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_ben_Solomon_ibn_Abi_Zimra" title="David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra">David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra</a>, <i>Kelale ha-Gemara</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bezalel_Ashkenazi" title="Bezalel Ashkenazi">Bezalel Ashkenazi</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/38786">Kelale ha-Gemara</a></i></li> <li>Yeshu’ah b. Yosef ha-Levi, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/11511">Halichot Olam</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caro" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Caro">Joseph Caro</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/24850">Kelale ha-Gemara</a></i> (commentary on <i>Halichot Olam</i>)</li> <li>Solomon Algazi, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/24722">Yavin Shemu’ah</a></i> (commentary on <i>Halichot Olam</i>)</li></ul></li> <li>Yisrael Ya'akov Algazi, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/31452">Ar'a de-Rabbanan</a></i></li> <li>Serillo, Samuel, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/20305">Kelale Shemuel</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Horowitz" title="Isaiah Horowitz">Horowitz, Isaiah</a>, <i>Shene Luchot ha-Berit</i> (section on <i>Torah she-be-al-Pe</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Chaim_Luzzatto" class="mw-redirect" title="Moses Chaim Luzzatto">Moses Chaim Luzzatto</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/19760">Derech Tevunot</a></i>, translated into English as <i>The Ways of Reason</i>, Feldheim 1988, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87306-495-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87306-495-8">978-0-87306-495-8</a> <ul><li>same, <i>Sefer ha-Higgayon</i>, translated into English as <i>The Book of Logic</i>, Feldheim 1995, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87306-707-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87306-707-2">978-0-87306-707-2</a></li></ul></li> <li>de Oliveira, Solomon, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/42077">Darche Noam</a></i></li> <li>Malachi ha-Cohen, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/14122">Yad Malachi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryeh_Leib_HaCohen_Heller" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryeh Leib HaCohen Heller">Aryeh Leib HaCohen Heller</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Shev_Shema%27tata" title="Shev Shema'tata">Shev Shema'tata</a></i></li> <li>Goitein, B., <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/19582">Kesef Nivhar</a></i></li> <li>Ezechia Bolaffi, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/30816"><i>Ben Zekunim</i> vol. 1</a></li> <li>Moshe Amiel, <i>Ha-Middot le-Ḥeqer ha-Halachah</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/33168">vol. 1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/33170">vol. 2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hebrewbooks.org/33169">vol. 3</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_scholarly_works">Modern scholarly works</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Hanoch Albeck, <i>Mavo la-talmudim</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Boyarin" title="Daniel Boyarin">Daniel Boyarin</a>, <i>Sephardi Speculation: A Study in Methods of Talmudic Interpretation</i> (Hebrew), Machon Ben Zvi: Jerusalem, 1989</li> <li>Yaakov Elman, "Order, Sequence, and Selection: The Mishnah’s Anthological Choices,” in <a href="/wiki/David_Stern_(academic)" title="David Stern (academic)">David Stern</a>, ed. <i>The Anthology in Jewish Literature</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) 53–80</li> <li>Y.N. Epstein, <i>Mevo-ot le-Sifrut haTalmudim</i></li> <li>Uziel Fuchs, <i>Talmudam shel Geonim: yaḥasam shel geone Bavel lenosaḥ ha-Talmud ha-Bavli</i> (The Geonic Talmud: the Attitude of Babylonian Geonim to the Text of the Babylonian Talmud): Jerusalem 2017</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Weiss_Halivni" title="David Weiss Halivni">David Weiss Halivni</a>, <i>Mekorot u-Mesorot</i> (Jerusalem: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1982 on)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacobs" title="Louis Jacobs">Louis Jacobs</a>, "How Much of the Babylonian Talmud is Pseudepigraphic?" Journal of Jewish Studies 28, No. 1 (1977), pp. 46–59</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Lieberman" title="Saul Lieberman">Saul Lieberman</a>, <i>Hellenism in Jewish Palestine</i> (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mielziner" title="Moses Mielziner">Moses Mielziner</a>, <i>Introduction to the Talmud</i>: repr. 1997, hardback <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8197-0156-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8197-0156-5">978-0-8197-0156-5</a>, paperback <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8197-0015-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8197-0015-5">978-0-8197-0015-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Jacob Neusner</a>, <i>Sources and Traditions: Types of Compositions in the Talmud of Babylonia</i> (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992).</li> <li>Aviram Ravitzky, <i>Aristotelian Logic and Talmudic Methodology</i> (Hebrew): Jerusalem 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-493-459-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-493-459-6">978-965-493-459-6</a></li> <li>Andrew Schumann, <i>Talmudic Logic</i>: (London: College Publications 2012), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84890-072-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84890-072-1">978-1-84890-072-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Strack" title="Hermann Strack">Strack, Herman L.</a> and Stemberger, Günter, <i>Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash</i>, tr. <a href="/wiki/Markus_Bockmuehl" title="Markus Bockmuehl">Markus Bockmuehl</a>: repr. 1992, hardback <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-09509-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-09509-1">978-0-567-09509-1</a>, paperback <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-2524-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-2524-5">978-0-8006-2524-5</a></li></ul> </div> <p><b>On individual tractates</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Moshe Benovitz, Berakhot chapter 1: <i>Iggud le-Farshanut ha-Talmud</i> (Hebrew, with English summary)</li> <li>Stephen Wald, Shabbat chapter 7: <i>Iggud le-Farshanut ha-Talmud</i> (Hebrew, with English summary)</li> <li>Aviad Stollman, Eruvin chapter 10: <i>Iggud le-Farshanut ha-Talmud</i> (Hebrew, with English summary)</li> <li>Aaron Amit, Pesachim chapter 4: <i>Iggud le-Farshanut ha-Talmud</i> (Hebrew, with English summary)</li> <li>Netanel Baadani, Sanhedrin chapter 5: <i>Iggud le-Farshanut ha-Talmud</i> (Hebrew, with English summary)</li> <li>Moshe Benovitz, Sukkah chapters 4–5: <i>Iggud le-Farshanut ha-Talmud</i> (Hebrew, with English summary)</li></ul> </div> <p><b>Historical study</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Shalom Carmy (ed.) <i>Modern Scholarship in the Study of Torah: Contributions and Limitations</i> Jason Aronson, Inc.</li> <li>Richard Kalmin <i>Sages, Stories, Authors and Editors in Rabbinic Babylonia</i> Brown Judaic Studies</li> <li>David C. Kraemer, <i>On the Reliability of Attributions in the Babylonian Talmud,</i> Hebrew Union College Annual 60 (1989), pp. 175–90</li> <li>Lee Levine, <i>Ma'amad ha-Hakhamim be-Eretz Yisrael</i> (Jerusalem: Yad Yizhak Ben-Zvi, 1985), (=The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Lieberman" title="Saul Lieberman">Saul Lieberman</a>, <i>Hellenism in Jewish Palestine</i> (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1950)</li> <li>John W. McGinley, '<i>The Written' as the Vocation of Conceiving Jewishly</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-595-40488-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-595-40488-X">0-595-40488-X</a></li> <li>David Bigman, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edah.org/backend/coldfusion/displayissue.cfm?volume=2&issue=1">Finding A Home for Critical Talmud Study</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040905170257/http://www.edah.org/backend/coldfusion/displayissue.cfm?volume=2&issue=1">Archived</a> 2004-09-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Full_text_resources">Full text resources</h4></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sefaria.org/texts/Talmud">Talmud and English translation, from the Steinsaltz edition</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.halakhah.com">Talmud Bavli (Soncino translation)</a> (English). The Soncino Press translation of the Talmud Bavli in <a href="/wiki/Portable_Document_Format" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Document Format">Portable Document Format</a>. No index volume and no <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5423306">minor-tractates</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/h/h0.htm">Mishnah</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121205052431/http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/h/h0.htm">Archived</a> 2012-12-05 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a> (Hebrew)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/f/f0.htm">Tosefta</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021222185646/http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/f/f0.htm">Archived</a> 2002-12-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Hebrew)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/r/r0.htm">Talmud Yerushalmi</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020805202330/http://mechon-mamre.org/b/r/r0.htm">Archived</a> 2002-08-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Hebrew)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/l/l0.htm">Talmud Bavli</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020805201824/http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/l/l0.htm">Archived</a> 2002-08-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Hebrew)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kodesh.snunit.k12.il/">Full searchable Talmud on Snunit</a> (Hebrew)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/talmud.htm">Rodkinson English translation</a> See above, under <a href="#Talmud_Bavli">#Talmud Bavli</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.e-daf.com">E-Daf</a> Images of each page of the Babylonian Talmud</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nosachteiman.co.il/?CategoryID=1160&ArticleID=5713&SearchParam=%D7%AA%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93">Tractate Megillah</a>: .pdf download showing Yemenite vocalization</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shas.org/dafviewer">Shas.org Daf Viewer</a> (Hebrew)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" 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style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Babylonian_Talmud" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Babylonian Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sefaria.org/">Sefaria.org</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14213-talmud/">Jewish Encyclopedia: Talmud</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aish.com/literacy/jewishhistory/Crash_Course_in_Jewish_History_Part_39_-_Talmud.asp">Jewish History: Talmud</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141118034335/http://www.aish.com/literacy/jewishhistory/Crash_Course_in_Jewish_History_Part_39_-_Talmud.asp">Archived</a> 2014-11-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, aish.com</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/talmud_&_mishna.html">Talmud/Mishnah/Gemara</a>, jewishvirtuallibrary.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080705164241/http://www.law.miami.edu/library/judaicguide.php">Jewish Law Research Guide</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Miami" title="University of Miami">University of Miami</a> Law Library</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ohr.edu/judaism/survey/survey.htm">A survey of rabbinic literature</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ohr_Somayach,_Jerusalem" title="Ohr Somayach, Jerusalem">Ohr Somayach</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yibuffalo.org/divrei_torah/Intro_Talmud_06.pdf">Introduction to the Talmud</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160902074949/http://yibuffalo.org/divrei_torah/Intro_Talmud_06.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-09-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by M. Taub</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.e-codices.ch/en/list/one/sbs/min0071">Talmud translation, 13th–14th century</a>, at <a href="/w/index.php?title=E-codices&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="E-codices (page does not exist)">E-codices</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jews_and_Judaism715" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner-Jews" title="Afrikaner-Jews">Afrikaner-Jode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuts" title="Chuts">Chuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galitzianers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Lita'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlander_Jews" title="Oberlander Jews">Oberlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Udmurtia_and_Tatarstan" title="History of the Jews in Udmurtia and Tatarstan">Udmurt and Tatar Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unterlander_Jews" title="Unterlander Jews">Unterlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekke" title="Yekke">Yekkes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Abraham" title="Beta Abraham">Beta Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falash_Mura" title="Falash Mura">Falash Mura</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desi_Jews" title="Desi Jews">Desi Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Kochinim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzínim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinopolitan_Karaites" title="Constantinopolitan Karaites">Constantinopolitan Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdish Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Alexandria" title="History of the Jews in Alexandria">Alexandrian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Jews" title="Baghdadi Jews">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egyptian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urfalim" title="Urfalim">Urfalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adeni_Jews" title="Adeni Jews">Adeni Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbani_Jews" title="Habbani Jews">Ḥabbanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hadramaut" title="History of the Jews in Hadramaut">Hadhrami Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saada" title="History of the Jews in Saada">Saada Jews</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musta%27arabi_Jews" title="Musta'arabi Jews">Mustaʿravim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Jewish tribes of Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Eastern Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Livorno" title="History of the Jews in Livorno">Livornese Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_Sephardim" title="North African Sephardim">North African Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradesi_Jews" title="Paradesi Jews">Paradesi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meshuchrarim" title="Meshuchrarim">Meshuchrarim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Sephardic Bnei Anusim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xuetes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">Diasporic</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language#List_of_signed_languages" title="Manually coded language">Signed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Catalanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Amazigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Yahudic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judeo-Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Judaeo-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judeo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judeo-Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judeo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Borujerdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Borujerdi">Judeo-Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judeo-Golpaygani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Hamedani">Judeo-Hamedani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Juhuri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judeo-Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayliñña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Kivruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Koiné Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwareña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Shassagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Shuadit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_authority" title="Rabbinic authority">Rabbinic authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosen people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Eschatology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_in_Judaism" title="Holiness in Judaism">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Names of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sefirot" title="Sefirot">Sefirot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of Judaism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Religious movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvishe" class="mw-redirect" title="Litvishe">Litvaks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidism" title="Neo-Hasidism">Neo-Hasidism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolog_Judaism" title="Neolog Judaism">Neolog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationships_between_Jewish_religious_movements" title="Relationships between Jewish religious movements">relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Sifrei Kodesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a>/Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_texts_of_Kabbalah" title="Primary texts of Kabbalah">Kabbalah texts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hekhalot_literature" title="Hekhalot literature">Hekhalot literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_Rimonim" title="Pardes Rimonim">Pardes Rimonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_HaBahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer HaBahir">Sefer HaBahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etz_Chaim_(book)" title="Etz Chaim (book)">Sefer HaEtz Chaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Raziel_HaMalakh" title="Sefer Raziel HaMalakh">Sefer Raziel HaMalakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Yetzirah" title="Sefer Yetzirah">Sefer Yetzirah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_astrology" title="Jewish astrology">Astrology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_astrology" title="Jewish views on astrology">perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monen" title="Monen">Monen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_education" title="Jewish education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leadership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Divorce in Judaism">Divorce</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_name" title="Jewish name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">Hazzan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_symbolism" title="Jewish symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_studies" title="Jewish studies">Studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Jewish_History" title="Center for Jewish History">Center for Jewish History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Historical_Society" title="American Jewish Historical Society">American Jewish Historical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sephardi_Federation" title="American Sephardi Federation">American Sephardi Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baeck_Institute_New_York" title="Leo Baeck Institute New York">Leo Baeck Institute New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva_University_Museum" title="Yeshiva University Museum">Yeshiva University Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO Institute for Jewish Research</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_of_Contemporary_Jewish_Documentation" title="Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation">Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Jew (word)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel" title="National Library of Israel">National Library of Israel</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_YIVO_Encyclopedia_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Europe" title="The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe">YIVO Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum" title="United States Holocaust Memorial Museum">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Holocaust" title="Encyclopedia of the Holocaust">Encyclopedia of the Holocaust</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Encyclopedia">Holocaust Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_other_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and other religions">Relations with other religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Anabaptist–Jewish relations">Anabaptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Mormonism" title="Judaism and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Judaism" title="Protestantism and Judaism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Halloween" title="Jews and Halloween">Jews and Halloween</a></li></ul></li> <li>non-Christian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Hinduism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" 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= 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonathan_Rosen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph_Berger2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph_Berger2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph_Telushkin1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiel2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKominsky1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaurence_Jay_SilbersteinRobert_L._Cohn1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevine2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMJ_Heller2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarlios2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMarvin_J._Heller2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarvin_J._Heller2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoscovitz2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoshe_Gil2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeubauer1887\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeusner2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeusner2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOster2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPasachoffLittman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR._Travers_Herford2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRav_Avraham_Yitzchok_Ha-Cohen_Kook2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynold_Nicholson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoss_Arbes2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubenstein1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSafrai1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchiffman1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchiffman2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartz2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSecunda2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSecunda2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSecunda2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeidman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSh.B._Eliezer1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShai_Secunda2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingerAdler1916\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinbergGreenstein_Potter2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinsaltz1976\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSteinsaltz1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStembergerCordoniLanger2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrackStemberger1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrackStembergerBockmuehlStrack1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrauch_Schick2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStudent2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYaacov_Elman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFof_Rieti1851\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFrivki\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 4,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 6,\n [\"Citation\"] = 11,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 64,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite press release\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 36,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Criticism of religion sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Cvt\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Editions of the Talmud\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Hsp\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 16,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 1,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Jews and Judaism\"] = 1,\n [\"Judaism\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 10,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Mishnah\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Rabbinic Literature\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 5,\n [\"Refend\"] = 5,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Script/Hebrew\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 10,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Slink\"] = 2,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 11,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisource\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\nno target: CITEREFStrackStemberger2012\nno target: CITEREFStrackStemberger2012\nno target: CITEREFStrackStemberger2012\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","300","20.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","180","12.0"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","9.3"],["recursiveClone 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