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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Development in music of West Africa</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development_in_music_of_West_Africa-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Development in music of West Africa subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Development_in_music_of_West_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Colonisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Colonisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth_and_identity_of_West_African_music_on_global_music_markets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_and_identity_of_West_African_music_on_global_music_markets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Growth and identity of West African music on global music markets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_and_identity_of_West_African_music_on_global_music_markets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_Griots_in_preserving_and_transmitting_musical_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_Griots_in_preserving_and_transmitting_musical_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Role of Griots in preserving and transmitting musical tradition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_Griots_in_preserving_and_transmitting_musical_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_women_in_West_African_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_women_in_West_African_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Role of women in West African music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_women_in_West_African_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_of_religion_on_West_African_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_religion_on_West_African_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Influence of religion on West African music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_religion_on_West_African_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kora_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kora_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Kora music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kora_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhythmic_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhythmic_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Rhythmic structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rhythmic_structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rhythmic structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rhythmic_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Metre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Form" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Form</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drum_ensemble" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drum_ensemble"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Drum ensemble</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drum_ensemble-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artistry_of_Afro-Cuban_Batá_Drumming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artistry_of_Afro-Cuban_Batá_Drumming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Artistry of Afro-Cuban Batá Drumming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artistry_of_Afro-Cuban_Batá_Drumming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instrumentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instrumentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Instrumentation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Instrumentation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Instrumentation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Instrumentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Percussion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Percussion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Percussion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Percussion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Djembe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Djembe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.1</span> <span>Djembe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Djembe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balafon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balafon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1.2</span> <span>Balafon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balafon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stringed_instruments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stringed_instruments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Stringed instruments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stringed_instruments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.1</span> <span>Kora</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Xalam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xalam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.2</span> <span>Xalam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xalam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Goje" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Goje"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.3</span> <span>Goje</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Goje-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Dance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mirror_Children.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Mirror_Children.jpg/220px-Mirror_Children.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Mirror_Children.jpg/330px-Mirror_Children.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Mirror_Children.jpg/440px-Mirror_Children.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1446" /></a><figcaption>Yoruba musicians</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>music of West Africa</b> has a significant history, and its varied sounds reflect the wide range of influences from the area's regions and historical periods. </p><p>Traditional West African <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a> varies due to the regional separation of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, yet it can be distinguished by two distinct categories: <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> music and indigenous <a href="/wiki/Secular_music" title="Secular music">secular music</a>. The widespread influence of Islam on culture in West Africa dates back to at least the 9th century, facilitated by the introduction of camels to trade routes between the <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North of Africa</a> and West Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islam-influenced West African music commonly includes the use of stringed instruments like the <i><a href="/wiki/Goje" title="Goje">goje</a>,</i> while more secular traditional West African music incorporates greater use of drums such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Djembe" title="Djembe">djembe</a>.</i> </p><p>Contemporary styles of music in West Africa have been influenced by <a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">American music</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_African_jazz" title="South African jazz">African jazz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">gospel music</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith-1962_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-1962-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The forced migration of Africans to the Americas as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">transatlantic slave trade</a> gave rise to <i><a href="/wiki/Kaiso" title="Kaiso">kaiso</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> music, which has influenced the sounds of <a href="/wiki/Calypso_music" title="Calypso music">Calypso</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a style with major popularity throughout West Africa. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Griot" title="Griot">Griots</a>, also known as 'wandering musicians', have traditionally been a major part in the distribution of music throughout West Africa, as their purpose is to spread <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> through musical storytelling. The role of griots remains significant in preserving smaller ethnolinguistic groups' cultures. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Popular_music">Popular music</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Popular music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sounds of popular music throughout West Africa are comparable to a combination of Western, <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Latin_America" title="Music of Latin America">Latin American</a> and traditional African music. Genres such as <a href="/wiki/Highlife" title="Highlife">Highlife</a>, Afro-Calypso and African Jazz reflect this fusion<sup id="cite_ref-Smith-1962_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-1962-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and have developed upon these styles' sounds. </p><p>Highlife is an upbeat, multi-instrumental and jovial style of music which is sung in many regional languages including <a href="/wiki/Igbo_language" title="Igbo language">Igbo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ewe_language" title="Ewe language">Ewe</a>. Ghanaian music scholar <a href="/wiki/V._Kofi_Agawu" title="V. Kofi Agawu">V. Kofi Agawu</a> (2006) writes: "Highlife is invested with a bundle of attributes that include personal and communal pride, stateliness, self-satisfaction, and a strategic complacency".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Highlife is rarely sung in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith-1962_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-1962-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original form of highlife holds its origins in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, however most regions that have adopted highlife music compose their own variations on its sounds, altering the pace, instrumentation and lyrics. <a href="/wiki/E._T._Mensah" title="E. T. Mensah">E.T. Mensah</a> and <a href="/wiki/E.K._Nyame" title="E.K. Nyame">E.K. Nyame</a> were two Ghanaian musicians who pioneered the Highlife genre, gaining major popularity and acclaim throughout their careers.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Highlife is regularly played by big bands composed of a wide variety of instruments. The prevalence of modern, typically European instruments in large highlife bands dates back to the 19th century; when the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(British_colony)" title="Gold Coast (British colony)">Gold Coast</a> was established, European <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Merchant" title="Merchant">merchants</a> brought with them <a href="/wiki/Accordion" title="Accordion">accordions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brass_instrument" title="Brass instrument">brass instruments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guitar" title="Guitar">guitars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harmonica" title="Harmonica">harmonicas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Salm-2010_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salm-2010-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sounds of these instruments combined with the more traditional drum-focused music of West Africa to create the fusion that is highlife. A major factor in highlife's increase in popularity during the mid-20th century was the desire to raise spirits after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War Two</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Salm-2010_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salm-2010-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tony_Allen_med_band_cropped_(231308).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tony_Allen_med_band_cropped_%28231308%29.jpg/220px-Tony_Allen_med_band_cropped_%28231308%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tony_Allen_med_band_cropped_%28231308%29.jpg/330px-Tony_Allen_med_band_cropped_%28231308%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Tony_Allen_med_band_cropped_%28231308%29.jpg/440px-Tony_Allen_med_band_cropped_%28231308%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Afrobeat drummer Tony Allen in 2015</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Calypso_music" title="Calypso music">Calypso</a> music remains popular throughout West Africa. Developed from West African <i><a href="/wiki/Kaiso" title="Kaiso">kaiso</a></i>, the sounds of calypso are similar to those of highlife, however the two differ slightly in lyrics and instrumentation. Lyrics in highlife are generally repeated more than those in calypso songs, despite the two genres' subject matter remaining similar - both are commonly about romantic relationships and desire.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith-1962_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-1962-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many genres and styles of music popular throughout the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French Antilles</a> have their roots in West Africa due to <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">transatlantic slave trading</a> under various European <a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">colonial empires</a>. This involved mass transportation of West African people such as the <a href="/wiki/Ewe_people" title="Ewe people">Ewe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a>, who took with them the distinct sounds of their musical culture.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Afrobeat" title="Afrobeat">Afrobeat</a> is a music genre with major popularity throughout West Africa. Originating in Nigeria in the early 20th century<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afrobeat grew in popularity in the 1960s. This growth was mainly due to the considerable fame of <a href="/wiki/Fela_Kuti" title="Fela Kuti">Fela Kuti</a>, the ‘Father of Afrobeat’,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other pivotal artists such as <a href="/wiki/Tony_Allen_(musician)" title="Tony Allen (musician)">Tony Allen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ebo_Taylor" title="Ebo Taylor">Ebo Taylor</a>. Afrobeat is influenced by <a href="/wiki/Palm-wine_music" title="Palm-wine music">palm-wine music</a> and Ghanaian highlife,<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart-2013_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-2013-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Funk" title="Funk">funk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fuji_music" title="Fuji music">fuji</a>. Fela Kuti devised the term 'Afrobeat' as early as 1968 in his home country of <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stewart-2013_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stewart-2013-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Afrobeat music is characterised by multi-instrumental bands playing a jazz and funk-inspired groove with a focus on guitar <a href="/wiki/Riff" title="Riff">riffs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horn_section" title="Horn section">horn sections</a>. The lyrics have historically been political in nature, with Fela Kuti's lyrics covering topics from <a href="/wiki/Black_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power">black power</a> to <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">dictatorship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoney_Roads_|_Latest_News_in_Electronic_and_Dance_Music_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoney_Roads_|_Latest_News_in_Electronic_and_Dance_Music-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earlier sounds of Afrobeat have influenced Western artists such as British producer <a href="/wiki/Brian_Eno" title="Brian Eno">Brian Eno</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and American rapper <a href="/wiki/Talib_Kweli" title="Talib Kweli">Talib Kweli</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Stoney_Roads_|_Latest_News_in_Electronic_and_Dance_Music_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoney_Roads_|_Latest_News_in_Electronic_and_Dance_Music-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while American <a href="/wiki/Electronic_dance_music" title="Electronic dance music">EDM</a> group <a href="/wiki/Major_Lazer" title="Major Lazer">Major Lazer</a> are known for the regular inclusion of rhythms inspired by Afrobeat in their music.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoney_Roads_|_Latest_News_in_Electronic_and_Dance_Music_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoney_Roads_|_Latest_News_in_Electronic_and_Dance_Music-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Afrobeat is commonly confused with <a href="/wiki/Afrobeats" title="Afrobeats">Afrobeats</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the latter being a more general term used to describe popular contemporary music throughout West Africa. A distinct trait of Afrobeats’ sound is its focus on drum rhythms, commonly made electronically. <a href="/wiki/Davido" title="Davido">Davido</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wizkid" title="Wizkid">Wizkid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burna_boy" class="mw-redirect" title="Burna boy">Burna Boy</a> <a href="/wiki/Tekno_(musician)" title="Tekno (musician)">Tekno</a> are highly popular West African Afrobeats artists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_in_music_of_West_Africa">Development in music of West Africa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Development in music of West Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid 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.mbox-text{padding:0!important;margin:0!important}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text-span{display:list-item;line-height:1.5em;list-style-type:disc}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-image,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-imageright,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-empty-cell,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, 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class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/40px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/60px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/80px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>may need to be rewritten</b> to comply with Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>, as Not at all encyclopedically written, not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NPOV">WP:NPOV</a>, and includes vague uninformative generalzations like those of the first few sentences.<span class="hide-when-compact"> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit">You can help</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Talk:Music_of_West_Africa" title="Talk:Music of West Africa">talk page</a> may contain suggestions.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-No_footnotes plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-No_footnotes" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section includes a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">list of references</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Further reading">related reading</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a>, <b>but its sources remain unclear because it lacks <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fact_and_Reference_Check" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check">improve</a> this section by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The land masses of West Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa are massive thus showing the diverse musical heritage, cultural vibrance and historical depth. These lands have a significant role in the continent’s overall well-being. Over many centuries, culture has changed due to evolution and many other internal and external effect and so has the changed. These changes have served as a mirror to the entire region’s culture, politics, economies and also religious practices. Music has evolved from the traditional rhythms, drumming and general instrumentation to a modern contemporary version. This has included fusion of the traditional and contemporary rhythms. The evolution has also been caused by various interactions between the local and foreign people especially during the colonial era. Having a better understanding of this evolution and development of music of this region helps one to have profound insights on the complexities of the music and cultural development of the region. </p><p>Sub-Sahara region refers to the region that lies south of the Sahara Desert. They include; Angola, Benin, Mali, Gambia, Cape Verde, Chad, Guinea, Guinea Bissau and Burkina Faso among others. Countries of West Africa include Nigeria, Niger, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghana and Togo. </p><p>African cultures and their music had a lot of instrumentation and dances since music and dance was and is still considered inseparable. The West African cultures were known for their art and craft in drums and stringed instruments. They had diverse array of instruments including drums such as the Djembe drums, talking drums and sabar among other prominent drum instruments. They also fancied their strengths in making stringed instruments such as the famous Ngoni, balafon and the legendary Kora which will be further discussed later on. They also had quite impressive taste in wind instruments also. During different ages before the colonial rule, the people had their way of transferring their musical knowledge from one generation to the other. This brings us to discuss ways of their information transfer. </p><p>Pedagogical methods of transferring music from one generation to another Apprenticeship- This involved a skilled individual teaching their musical skill through hands-on training and observation. </p><p>Oral traditions- This was the most common especially among the Griot families of Mali and The Gambia where the practices were transferred orally from generation to generation. This included telling stories of the cultural heritages and music so that it could bond with the people. Rituals and communities- Through certain rituals, generations had to understand the chants, the dance movements and the music performed in the ritual. This automatically made them to know and understand the music. </p><p>Mentorship- Kids born to musical families were most influenced by this as they got direct engagement with their parents or relatives which made them have them as musical mentors and they gained their knowledge through practice and advices. </p><p>The following are the factors that led to growth and development of music of West Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonisation">Colonisation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Colonisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Interaction of African people and the foreigners who came as missionaries and soldiers to induce colonial rule, had a very big impact in the growth of the music in general. This led to invention of new musical genres, new musical instruments, fusion of both the traditional African and Western and European musical styles. For example, the Kora instrument was developed and its tuning pegs were crafted into modernized guitar-like tuning pegs. Countries like Equatorial guitar which were colonised by the Portuguese got influenced by the Language and had introduction of the acoustic flamenco guitar that sky rocketed flamenco music in the region. European cultures such as the French who colonised a big portion of the Sub-Saharan region led to introduction of instruments such as the violins, guitar and brass instruments that were incorporated to music. Music such as the Yoruba music using the foreign musical instruments evolved into modern day Afrobeat. ( de Preameneu, J. B. (2020). From colonisation to globalisation (Doctoral dissertation, 서울대학교 대학원).) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Growth_and_identity_of_West_African_music_on_global_music_markets">Growth and identity of West African music on global music markets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Growth and identity of West African music on global music markets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>West African music is arguably the most famous version of African music. The diverse sounds and energies that make up the music and a little of language backing has led to an own original Afrobeat genre of music that has the whole respecting it. Afro music is known for its famous log drums and Shekere shakers that play throughout the songs. These instruments have proven to be the masterpiece in music as their timbre is unique and appeals to a larger crowd. The musical recognition has now put African music on the scope of the world and has made local musicians show case their talent to international stages. Consequently, the music has led to increased interest by other people in African countries and oversees countries therefore growth in the industry in general. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_of_Griots_in_preserving_and_transmitting_musical_tradition">Role of Griots in preserving and transmitting musical tradition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Role of Griots in preserving and transmitting musical tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Griots also known as the Jali, are traditional West African musicians, storytellers and oral tradition historians. They are responsible for preserving and passing knowledge from one generation to another. Griots were and still are very respectable people in the society as the compose, sing and praise songs that celebrate accomplishments of individuals, families and communities as a whole. Through these people music developed from generation to generation depending on the skill level and expertise of the Griot. With an example given, Sona Jobarteh a famous Gambian Kora player was born in a family of griots which explains her successful career as a female Kora player in a field dominated by male gender. </p> <pre>(Hoffman, B. G. (2017). The Roles of the Griot in the Future of Mali: A Twenty-First-Century Institutionalization of a Thirteenth-Century Traditional Institution. African Studies Review, 60(1), 101-122.) </pre> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_of_women_in_West_African_music">Role of women in West African music</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Role of women in West African music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the past, instrument playing was mostly restricted for the men and the ladies giving easier and more feminine role such as dancing. With the new era of music, women have been seen appearing more and more in fields dominated by men and are succeeding. This has led to development of newer sub-genres of music, new energy ad development of new movements both in instrumentations and dance choreography. Modern women have been given vital musical and communal roles such as; performing, acting as griots and ensuring cultural preservation, innovative and creativity role in the society and empowerment among other roles. In this way the women can now channel their views through music, they can show their talent through playing of instruments and performing and even empower other women through their music. Women like Sona Jobarteh and Tata Dindin Jobarteh are truly talented ladies that have proven real development in the music of Africa in general. (Olusola, K. (2022). Subverting Women’s Subjugation in West African Society: The Roles of Popular Music. Journal of Gender and Power, 18(2), 77-92.) The role of women in West African music has transformed from historically limited involvement to encompassing increased participation, success, and empowerment, with women now contributing to cultural preservation, innovative sub-genres, and societal empowerment through performance, instrument playing, and influential figures like Sona Jobarteh and Tata Dindin Jobarteh, thus reflecting broader societal changes and demonstrating the evolving landscape of musical expression in the region. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_of_religion_on_West_African_music">Influence of religion on West African music</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Influence of religion on West African music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>West Africa, Sub-Sahara Africa and Africa in general during the pre-colonial periods was considered as an outdated region of the world. This was mainly because traditional cultures encouraged rituals and sacrifices. Witchcraft was also prominent in the West African countries. Traditional music also accompanied the religious practices which was condemned by the missionaries and was made to change due to introduction of Islam and Christianity. This shift in religion killed some of the original ritual songs and developed new songs that adhered to the new religious rules. For example, Christianity came with hymn singing and Gospel music that led to abandonment of some musical instruments that were considered demonic. </p><p>An example that would further define the music of Sub-Sahara is the Kora music and Kora instrument. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kora_music">Kora music</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Kora music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kora is music and also an instrument that is made of a Calabash or gourd resonator, has twenty-one strings, has a long neck that is attached to the resonator and has leather or modern tuning rings or pegs. The player uses both hands to pluck the strings, with both thumbs and index fingers used to create melodies. It produces a sound close to a harp and a lute combined. It’s known for its complex tuning that gives a wide variety of tones across all strings thus producing rich and complex sound. Kora instrument was and still is played by the few chosen skilled maestro players as it requires a lot of mastery for one to be able to play it properly. Kora can be played solo and can also come with an ensemble made of other traditional stringed, percussion and wind instruments. It is tuned to a nonequitonal heptatonic scale system. </p><p>Some important players of Kora are Sona Jobarteh, Tata Jobarteh and Toumani Diabaté of The Gambia and Mali respectively. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rhythmic_structure">Rhythmic structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Rhythmic structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metre">Metre</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Metre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>African music can be divided into two broad categories: <sup id="cite_ref-Anku-2000_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anku-2000-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>d </p> <ul><li>Danceable music which can be further broken down into;</li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li>A 12-point set which can be similar to 6/8 music (ex. •••  ••• I •••  •••)</li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li>A 16-point set which can be similar to 2/4 music (ex. ••••  •••• I ••••  ••••)</li></ul></li></ul> <p><i>12 point tends to be used for formal occasions while 16 point tends to be more casual</i> </p> <ul><li>Music that is not considered danceable which can be further broken down into;</li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li>A cross-set with a 12-point set with tuplets</li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li>A cross-set with a 16-point set consisting of triplets</li></ul></li></ul> <p><i>This style is typically reserved for ritual or worship</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form">Form</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Form"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>West African songs can usually be broken down into two categories: <sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The solo part, which</li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li>Can be heavily altered by the vocalist</li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li>Tends to not be accented</li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>The chorus, which</li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li>Can act as a refrain to the solo part</li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li>Tends to be accented similar to Western music.</li></ul></li></ul> <p>Pitch can affect how the vocal parts are accented: </p> <ul><li>High tones are slightly accented</li></ul> <ul><li>Low tones have no accent</li></ul> <p><i>This accenting is a result of the local languages, where the pitch and accenting can determine what word is being said.</i> Compared to rhythm, melody is unimportant and can be altered at the musicians' discretion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drum_ensemble">Drum ensemble</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Drum ensemble"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The drum ensemble is critical in preserving the rhythm of a song. The responsibilities of the ensemble are typically divided into two categories: <sup id="cite_ref-Anku-2000_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anku-2000-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The ostinato – background drummers who focus on maintaining the circular rhythm</li> <li>The master drummer - “projects” rhythmic manipulations within the time structure</li></ul> <p>The master drummer's role can be further divided into; </p> <ul><li>Extrapolation and masking set units</li> <li>Staggered subsets and supersets</li> <li>Set interpolation</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artistry_of_Afro-Cuban_Batá_Drumming"><span id="Artistry_of_Afro-Cuban_Bat.C3.A1_Drumming"></span>Artistry of Afro-Cuban Batá Drumming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Artistry of Afro-Cuban Batá Drumming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This book shows us into the rich tradition of Afro-Cuban Batá drumming, by showing its aesthetics, transmission methods, the communal bonding it brings, and the creativity it inspires. The Writer Who is Schweitzer examines the rhythms, spiritual significance, and cultural heritage that are in Batá drumming, showing us on its historical roots and contemporary practices. The book also explores how Batá drumming is passed down through generations and its role in strengthening social ties within Afro-Cuban communities. Through this exploration, Schweitzer brings the artistic nuances concept of Batá drumming and its broader significance in both musical and cultural contexts </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Instrumentation">Instrumentation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Instrumentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Percussion">Percussion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Percussion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Djembe">Djembe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Djembe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Djembe002.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Djembe002.JPG/220px-Djembe002.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Djembe002.JPG/330px-Djembe002.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Djembe002.JPG/440px-Djembe002.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>A traditional <i>djembe</i> drum.</figcaption></figure> <p>Rhythm is the foundation of West Africa's traditional music,<sup id="cite_ref-Pilot_Guides_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pilot_Guides-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so <a href="/wiki/Percussion_instrument" title="Percussion instrument">percussion instruments</a> play a major role in constructing its sounds. Traditional music of West Africa incorporates the use of a variety of percussive instruments, the most popular of which is the <i><a href="/wiki/Djembe" title="Djembe">djembe</a></i>. Known also as the 'magic drum' or the 'healing drum', the <i>djembe</i> is spiritually important to West African tradition as it is believed that three <a href="/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)" title="Spirit (animating force)">spirits</a> reside within the drum<i>.</i> These spirits are those of the tree which provided the drum's wooden frame, the animal which gave its skin for the drumhead and the carver or drum assembler.<sup id="cite_ref-DrumConnection_World_Djembe_&_Drum_Shop_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DrumConnection_World_Djembe_&_Drum_Shop-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sounds of the <i>djembe</i> vary from low-pitched bass sounds (achieved by beating the centre of the drumhead with a flat, outstretched hand) to <i>tone</i> and <i>slap</i> sounds, which have a higher <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">pitch</a>, created by striking the drumhead closer to its edge with only fingertips. The greater tension of the drumhead skin towards the edge of the drum causes this higher-pitched note.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>djembe</i> plays an important role in traditional music as it is seen as a way to communicate emotional experiences in communal situations.<sup id="cite_ref-DrumConnection_World_Djembe_&_Drum_Shop_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DrumConnection_World_Djembe_&_Drum_Shop-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emphasis on the <i>djembe</i> and many other drums as having the ability to 'talk' shows how these drums are valued for their communication purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-Pilot_Guides_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pilot_Guides-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sounds of the West African <i>djembe</i> are growing increasingly popular in the Western world. Guinean musician <a href="/wiki/Fod%C3%A9ba_Ke%C3%AFta" title="Fodéba Keïta">Fodéba Keïta</a> incorporated use of the <i>djembe</i> throughout the 1950s worldwide tour of his dance company, <i><a href="/wiki/Les_Ballets_Africains" title="Les Ballets Africains">Les Ballets Africains</a></i>, which performed various traditional West African songs and dances. This considerably increased knowledge of the <i>djembe</i> and other West African instruments throughout <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DrumConnection_World_Djembe_&_Drum_Shop_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DrumConnection_World_Djembe_&_Drum_Shop-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some West African drummers famed for their <i>djembe</i> proficiency are <a href="/wiki/Famoudou_Konat%C3%A9" title="Famoudou Konaté">Famadou Konaté</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mamady_Ke%C3%AFta" title="Mamady Keïta">Mamady Keïta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babatunde_Olatunji" title="Babatunde Olatunji">Babatunde Olatunji</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abdoulaye_Diakit%C3%A9" title="Abdoulaye Diakité">Abdoulaye Diakité</a>. These people are what is known throughout <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> as <a href="/wiki/Master_drummer" title="Master drummer">master drummers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Balafon">Balafon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Balafon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bal%C3%A0fon_MDMB_655.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bal%C3%A0fon_MDMB_655.jpg/220px-Bal%C3%A0fon_MDMB_655.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bal%C3%A0fon_MDMB_655.jpg/330px-Bal%C3%A0fon_MDMB_655.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bal%C3%A0fon_MDMB_655.jpg/440px-Bal%C3%A0fon_MDMB_655.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2248" /></a><figcaption>A <i>balafon</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Balafon" title="Balafon">balafon</a></i> is an instrument similar to the <a href="/wiki/Xylophone" title="Xylophone">xylophone</a> in Western countries. A member of the <a href="/wiki/Idiophone" title="Idiophone">idiophone</a> family of instruments, the <i>balafon</i> is used by many Griots and is commonly found in <a href="/wiki/Brikama" title="Brikama">Brikama</a>, a location of great cultural and musical depth.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Susu_people" title="Susu people">Susu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mandinka_people" title="Mandinka people">Mandinka</a> peoples also regularly use the <i>balafon</i> in their traditional song and dance. </p><p>To create a sound, wooden keys on a bamboo structure are struck with gum-rubber <a href="/wiki/Mallet" title="Mallet">mallets</a>. A <i>balafon</i> typically has 17 to 21 keys, comprising three to four <a href="/wiki/Octave" title="Octave">octaves</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pentatonic_scale" title="Pentatonic scale">pentatonic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Diatonic_and_chromatic" title="Diatonic and chromatic">diatonic</a> tuning. The number of keys on a balafon depends on their width and the desired pitch. Wide keys produce a sound with a low pitch, while narrower keys produce a higher-pitched sound.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An instrument of great cultural significance, the <i>balafon</i> has many complex stories behind it, however many regional narratives state that <a href="/wiki/Non-physical_entity" title="Non-physical entity">supernatural beings</a> gifted the <i>balafon</i> and the skills to play it to a specific <a href="/wiki/Ancestor" title="Ancestor">ancestor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-garlandmag.com-2020_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garlandmag.com-2020-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ancestor then passed the musical knowledge down to younger generations. </p><p><i>Balafon</i> music is considered to be very similar to speaking, as it produces tonalities which are similar to human voices.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the <i>balafon</i> can be used for political or social commentary,<sup id="cite_ref-garlandmag.com-2020_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-garlandmag.com-2020-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> replacing lyrics with tones. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stringed_instruments">Stringed instruments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Stringed instruments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/String_instrument" title="String instrument">Stringed instruments</a> have been an important part of West African music since at least the <a href="/wiki/14th_century" title="14th century">14th century</a>, when it was recorded that they were played in a royal <a href="/wiki/Ceremony" title="Ceremony">ceremony</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Charry-1996_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charry-1996-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Soninke_people" title="Soninke people">Soninke</a> oral traditions indicate that their use goes back further, to the days of the <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Charry-1996_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charry-1996-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a variety of stringed instruments throughout West Africa. Common amongst this variety are <a href="/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">lutes</a> such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Xalam" title="Xalam">xalam</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Harp_lute" title="Harp lute">harp-lutes</a> like the <i><a href="/wiki/Kora_(instrument)" title="Kora (instrument)">kora</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Fiddle" title="Fiddle">fiddles</a>, including the <i><a href="/wiki/Goje" title="Goje">goje</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kora">Kora</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Kora"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Kora_(instrument)" title="Kora (instrument)">kora</a></i> is a stringed instrument originating in <a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-www.kaypacha.com.ar_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.kaypacha.com.ar-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It usually has 21 strings, however much like other instruments, there are variations depending on the regional origins of the instrument – it is not uncommon for the <i>kora</i> to have 22 strings in southern <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With a body made from <a href="/wiki/Calabash" title="Calabash">calabash</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Neck_(music)" title="Neck (music)">neck</a> that extends approximately one metre, the <i>kora</i> is stood upright and plucked by a seated player, commonly accompanying lyrics about a person or family.<sup id="cite_ref-www.kaypacha.com.ar_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.kaypacha.com.ar-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>kora</i> is typically tuned <a href="/wiki/Diatonic_and_chromatic" title="Diatonic and chromatic">diatonically</a> and has a range of over three octaves.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Papa_Susso" title="Papa Susso">Papa Susso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toumani_Diabat%C3%A9" title="Toumani Diabaté">Toumani Diabaté</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jaliba_Kuyateh" title="Jaliba Kuyateh">Jaliba Kuyateh</a> are renowned <i>kora</i> players famed for their instrumental proficiency. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Xalam">Xalam</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Xalam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Xalam" title="Xalam">xalam</a></i> is a lute which has two melody strings and between two and four additional octave strings. The <i>xalam</i> originated with the <a href="/wiki/Wolof_people" title="Wolof people">Wolof people</a> and is often played in pairs,<sup id="cite_ref-Charry-1996_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charry-1996-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which one player repeats a musical motif while another tells a narrative.<sup id="cite_ref-www.accessgambia.com_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.accessgambia.com-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has a long, wooden body, typically one that is rectangular or in the shape of an oval. A <a href="/wiki/Cowhide" title="Cowhide">cowhide</a> face is stretched over the body underneath the strings, and a circular hole is cut out towards the bottom of this membrane. </p><p>The playing position and method are similar to the ways in which a player would use a guitar, however the left hand, which supports the instrument's neck, is only used to pluck the two melody strings.<sup id="cite_ref-www.accessgambia.com_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.accessgambia.com-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other strings can be plucked or strummed, like a <i>kora</i>. </p><p>Traditional songs played on the <i>xalam</i> are most often accompanied by lyrics about historical events, commonly the victories of warriors and leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Goje">Goje</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Goje"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>goje</i> is a fiddle with one to two strings, played with a <a href="/wiki/Bowstring" title="Bowstring">bowstring</a>. Its origins are with the <a href="/wiki/Hausa_people" title="Hausa people">Hausa people</a>, and the <i>goje</i> is culturally significant because of the belief that it is imbued with the ability to communicate with spirits.<sup id="cite_ref-RefinedNG-2020_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RefinedNG-2020-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Secular performances of <i>goje</i> music take place to celebrate births, marriages and political inaugurations.<sup id="cite_ref-RefinedNG-2020_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RefinedNG-2020-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dance">Dance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Dance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A major element of experiencing West African music, both traditional and contemporary (especially gospel music), is physical expression through <a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">dance</a>. Dances are commonly named after the musical tunes which they follow, such as <i>Yankadi</i>, which originated in Southwest <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a slow dance which has an emphasis on seduction; two rows of men and women face one another and dance with an emphasis on eye contact and 'touching each other's hands and heart region'.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This develops into <i>Makru</i>, a faster-paced element of this courting dance which is danced separate from one's partner. </p><p>In many regions in West Africa, traditional dance is considered to be a part of language, a way to translate and communicate experiences. Dance is also a way by which different linguistic and cultural groups can represent and distinguish themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-BAM.org_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BAM.org-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mbalax" title="Mbalax">Mbalax</a></i> dance is a significant cultural hallmark of <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, and the <i>Bata</i> dance is traditional to the Yoruba people of Southwest <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most traditional dances throughout West Africa are designated to a specific gender, requiring careful practice and coordination in order for a dancer to fully express the meaning behind a given dance.<sup id="cite_ref-BAM.org_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BAM.org-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <i>Mbalax</i> dance holds its origins as a part of <a href="/wiki/Ndut_initiation_rite" title="Ndut initiation rite"><i>ndut</i> rite of passage</a> ceremonies and is thus traditionally valued as a sacred process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Countries">Countries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Benin" title="Music of Benin">Music of Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Burkina_Faso" title="Music of Burkina Faso">Music of Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Cape_Verde" title="Music of Cape Verde">Music of Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_The_Gambia" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of The Gambia">Music of The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Ghana" title="Music of Ghana">Music of Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Guinea" title="Music of Guinea">Music of Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Guinea-Bissau" title="Music of Guinea-Bissau">Music of Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Ivory_Coast" title="Music of Ivory Coast">Music of Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Liberia" title="Music of Liberia">Music of Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mali" title="Music of Mali">Music of Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mauritania" title="Music of Mauritania">Music of Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Niger" title="Music of Niger">Music of Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Nigeria" title="Music of Nigeria">Music of Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Senegal" title="Music of Senegal">Music of Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Sierra_Leone" title="Music of Sierra Leone">Music of Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Togo" title="Music of Togo">Music of Togo</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_West_Africa&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/7chapter6.shtml#:~:text=Islam%20first%20came%20to%20West,most%20end%20of%20the%20route">"The Story of Africa| BBC World Service"</a>. <i>www.bbc.co.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21504%2Famj.v3i1.732">"Popular Music in West Africa"</a>. <i>African Music</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 11–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21504%2Famj.v3i1.732">10.21504/amj.v3i1.732</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0065-4019">0065-4019</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30250154">30250154</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Music&rft.atitle=Popular+Music+in+West+Africa&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=11-17&rft.date=1962&rft.issn=0065-4019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30250154%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21504%2Famj.v3i1.732&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Edna+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.21504%252Famj.v3i1.732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic+of+West+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060301144114/http://library2.nalis.gov.tt/Default.aspx?tabid=138">"Calypso"</a>. 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The Rhythmic Structure of West African Music. <i>The Journal of Musicology</i>, 5(3), 400–418.</li> <li>Robotham, D. K. (18 January 2002). <i>African music</i>. Retrieved 19 March 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/art/African-music</li> <li>Nketia, J. (1957). Modern Trends in Ghana Music. <i>African Music, 1</i>(4), 13–17.</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media 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"}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Africa_topic" title="Template:Africa topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topic" title="Template talk:Africa topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Africa_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Africa topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Music_of_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Africa" title="Music of Africa">Music of Africa </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Algeria" title="Music of Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Angola" title="Music of Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Benin" title="Music of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Botswana" title="Music of Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Burkina_Faso" title="Music of Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Burundi" title="Music of Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Cameroon" title="Music of Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Cape_Verde" title="Music of Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Music of the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Chad" title="Music of Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Comoros" title="Music of the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Music of the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Djibouti" title="Music of Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Music of Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Eritrea" title="Music of Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Eswatini" title="Music of Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Ethiopia" title="Music of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Gabon" title="Music of Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Gambia" title="Music of the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Ghana" title="Music of Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Guinea" title="Music of Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Guinea-Bissau" title="Music of Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Ivory_Coast" title="Music of Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Kenya" title="Music of Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Lesotho" title="Music of Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Liberia" title="Music of Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Libya" title="Music of Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Madagascar" title="Music of Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Malawi" title="Music of Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mali" title="Music of Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mauritania" title="Music of Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mauritius" title="Music of Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Morocco" title="Music of Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mozambique" title="Music of Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Namibia" title="Music of Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Niger" title="Music of Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Nigeria" title="Music of Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Rwanda" title="Music of Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Music of São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Senegal" title="Music of Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Seychelles" title="Music of Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Sierra_Leone" title="Music of Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Somalia" title="Music of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_South_Africa" title="Music of South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_South_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Sudan" title="Music of Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Tanzania" title="Music of Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Togo" title="Music of Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Tunisia" title="Music of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Uganda" title="Music of Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Zambia" title="Music of Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Zimbabwe" title="Music of Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited<br />recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Somaliland" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Music of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_Ceuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Music of Ceuta (page does not exist)">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_Melilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Music of Melilla (page does not exist)">Melilla</a>  <span style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Madeira" title="Music of Madeira">Madeira</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mayotte" title="Music of Mayotte">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/wiki/Music_of_R%C3%A9union" title="Music of Réunion">Réunion</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(France)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Saint_Helena" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Music_of_Ascension_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Music of Ascension Island (page does not exist)">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Tristan_da_Cunha" class="mw-redirect" title="Music of Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Western_Sahara" title="Music of Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a 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