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</a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_effect_of_electric_force-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_of_two_kinds_of_charges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_of_two_kinds_of_charges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Discovery of two kinds of charges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_two_kinds_of_charges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_of_free_electrons_outside_matter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_of_free_electrons_outside_matter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Discovery of free electrons outside matter </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_free_electrons_outside_matter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atomic_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomic_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Atomic theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atomic_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantum_mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantum_mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Quantum mechanics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantum_mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particle_accelerators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particle_accelerators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Particle accelerators </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particle_accelerators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confinement_of_individual_electrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confinement_of_individual_electrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Confinement of individual electrons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confinement_of_individual_electrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Characteristics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Characteristics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fundamental_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fundamental_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Fundamental properties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fundamental_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantum_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantum_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Quantum properties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantum_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Virtual_particles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtual_particles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Virtual particles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtual_particles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Interaction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atoms_and_molecules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atoms_and_molecules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Atoms and molecules </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atoms_and_molecules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conductivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conductivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Conductivity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conductivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motion_and_energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motion_and_energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Motion and energy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motion_and_energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Formation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Observation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Observation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Observation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Observation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plasma_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plasma_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Plasma applications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Plasma_applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Plasma applications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Plasma_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Particle_beams" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particle_beams"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Particle beams </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particle_beams-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Imaging </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Other applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Electron</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 163 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-163" aria-hidden="true" > 163 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8" title="इलेक्ट्रॉन – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="इलेक्ट्रॉन" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86" title="إلكترون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إلكترون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B3n" title="Electrón – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Electrón" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A8" title="ইলেকট্ৰন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ইলেকট্ৰন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B3n" title="Electrón – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Electrón" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86" title="الکترون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="الکترون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89l%C3%A9ktron" title="Éléktron – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Éléktron" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8" title="ইলেকট্রন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইলেকট্রন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-ch%C3%BA" title="Tiān-chú – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiān-chú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Электрон – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Электрон" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Электрон – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Электрон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Электрон – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Электрон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8" title="इलेक्ट्रॉन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="इलेक्ट्रॉन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Електрон – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Електрон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B3" title="Electró – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Electró" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Электрон – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Электрон" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mhodzigetsi" title="Mhodzigetsi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Mhodzigetsi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Electron" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86" title="إليكطرون – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="إليكطرون" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Ηλεκτρόνιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηλεκτρόνιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletr%C3%B2un" title="Eletròun – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Eletròun" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B3n" title="Electrón – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Electrón" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrono" title="Elektrono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Elektrono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroi" title="Elektroi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Elektroi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86" title="الکترون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الکترون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Electron" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lectron" title="Électron – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Électron" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leictreon" title="Leictreon – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Leictreon" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B3n" title="Electrón – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Electrón" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%88%E0%AA%B2%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%A8" title="ઈલેક્ટ્રોન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઈલેક્ટ્રોન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Электрон – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Электрон" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EC%9E%90" title="전자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Էլեկտրոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էլեկտրոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8" title="इलेक्ट्रॉन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इलेक्ट्रॉन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Hulontalo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrono" title="Elektrono – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Elektrono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Electron" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ii-electrons" title="Ii-electrons – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ii-electrons" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/INxelesi" title="INxelesi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="INxelesi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafeind" title="Rafeind – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rafeind" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettrone" title="Elettrone – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Elettrone" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9F" title="אלקטרון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלקטרון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88l%C3%A8ktron" title="Èlèktron – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Èlèktron" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naz%C9%A9y%CA%8A_pe_(%C3%A9lectron)" title="Nazɩyʊ pe (électron) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Nazɩyʊ pe (électron)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%8E%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಎಲೆಕ್ಟ್ರಾನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಎಲೆಕ್ಟ್ರಾನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ელექტრონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ელექტრონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%9B%DB%86%D9%86" title="گرٛۆن – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="گرٛۆن" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Электрон – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Электрон" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroni" title="Elektroni – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Elektroni" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektwon" title="Elektwon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Elektwon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lektron" title="Élektron – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Élektron" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Электрон – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Электрон" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%AD%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%A3%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%87" title="ເອເລັກຕຣົງ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ເອເລັກຕຣົງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Electron" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrons" title="Elektrons – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Elektrons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronas" title="Elektronas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Elektronas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettron" title="Elettron – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Elettron" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%C3%A9ktron" title="Eléktron – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Eléktron" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletron" title="Eletron – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Eletron" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/dutydikca_kantu" title="dutydikca kantu – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="dutydikca kantu" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettron" title="Elettron – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Elettron" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Електрон – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Електрон" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektr%C3%B4na" title="Elektrôna – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Elektrôna" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA" title="ഇലക്ട്രോൺ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇലക്ട്രോൺ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettron" title="Elettron – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Elettron" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%82" title="विजाणू – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="विजाणू" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%AAng-c%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Diêng-cṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Diêng-cṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Электрон – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Электрон" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%91%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="အီလက်ထရွန် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အီလက်ထရွန်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8" title="इलेक्ट्रोन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="इलेक्ट्रोन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8" title="इलेक्ट्रोन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="इलेक्ट्रोन" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90" title="電子 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電子" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrone" title="Elektrone – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Elektrone" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Electron" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%87%E0%AC%B2%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%AC%9F%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%A8" title="ଇଲେକ୍‌ଟ୍ରୋନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଇଲେକ୍‌ଟ୍ରୋନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektiroonii" title="Elektiroonii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Elektiroonii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%82" title="ਬਿਜਲਾਣੂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਿਜਲਾਣੂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="الیکٹران – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="الیکٹران" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B2%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%91%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="အီလဲစ်ထရွန် – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="အီလဲစ်ထရွန်" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%90%D9%84%DB%90%DA%A9%D9%BC%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86" title="اېلېکټرون – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اېلېکټرون" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilekchran" title="Ilekchran – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ilekchran" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletron" title="Eletron – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Eletron" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%C3%A9tron" title="Elétron – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Elétron" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ripoarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Electron" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilikturun" title="Ilikturun – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Ilikturun" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Електрон – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Електрон" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Электрон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Электрон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Электрон – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Электрон" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%83" title="विद्युदणुः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="विद्युदणुः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%B4%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%B1" title="ᱤᱞᱮᱠᱴᱨᱚᱱ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱤᱞᱮᱠᱴᱨᱚᱱ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2" title="الیکٹرانز – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="الیکٹرانز" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletrone" title="Eletrone – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Eletrone" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Electron" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroni" title="Elektroni – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Elektroni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettr%C3%B9ni" title="Elettrùni – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Elettrùni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Electron" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%88" title="برقيو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="برقيو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektr%C3%B3n" title="Elektrón – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Elektrón" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektaroon" title="Elektaroon – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Elektaroon" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8E%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%86%D9%86" title="ئێلیکترۆن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئێلیکترۆن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Електрон – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Електрон" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89l%C3%A9ktron" title="Éléktron – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Éléktron" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroni" title="Elektroni – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Elektroni" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF" title="எதிர்மின்னி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எதிர்மின்னி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliktrun" title="Aliktrun – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Aliktrun" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Электрон – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Электрон" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8E%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="ఎలక్ట్రాన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఎలక్ట్రాన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99" title="อิเล็กตรอน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อิเล็กตรอน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="Buginese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Ugi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Електрон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Електрон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%DB%8C%DB%81" title="برقیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برقیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%82etron" title="Ełetron – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Ełetron" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Electron" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90" title="電子 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="電子" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron" title="Elektron – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Elektron" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Electron" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mb%C3%ABjfepp" title="Mbëjfepp – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Mbëjfepp" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="电子" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9F" title="עלעקטראן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="עלעקטראן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BA%B8%CC%80l%E1%BA%B9%CC%81ktr%E1%BB%8D%CC%81n%C3%B9" title="Ẹ̀lẹ́ktrọ́nù – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Elementary particle with negative charge</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Electron_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Electron (disambiguation)">Electron (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Electron</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Atomic-orbital-clouds_spd_m0.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Atomic-orbital-clouds_spd_m0.png/280px-Atomic-orbital-clouds_spd_m0.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Atomic-orbital-clouds_spd_m0.png/420px-Atomic-orbital-clouds_spd_m0.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Atomic-orbital-clouds_spd_m0.png/560px-Atomic-orbital-clouds_spd_m0.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1800" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Hydrogen <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">atomic orbitals</a> at different energy levels. The more opaque areas are where one is most likely to find an electron at any given time.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Particle#Composition" title="Particle">Composition</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">Elementary particle</a><a href="#cite_note-prl50-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Particle_statistics" title="Particle statistics">Statistics</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">Fermionic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Family</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">Lepton</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Generation_(particle_physics)" title="Generation (particle physics)">Generation</a></th><td class="infobox-data">First</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">Interactions</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">Weak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic interaction">electromagnetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravity</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Symbol</th><td class="infobox-data"> e− , β− </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">Antiparticle</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">Positron</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Theorized</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Laming" title="Richard Laming">Richard Laming</a> (1838–1851),<a href="#cite_note-farrar-3">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Johnstone_Stoney" title="George Johnstone Stoney">G. Johnstone Stoney</a> (1874) and others.<a href="#cite_note-arabatzis-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-buchwald1-5">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Discovered</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (1897)<a href="#cite_note-thomson-6">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">Mass</a></th><td class="infobox-data">9.1093837139(28)×10−31 kg‍<a href="#cite_note-physconst-me-7">[6]</a> 5.485799090441(97)×10−4 Da‍<a href="#cite_note-physconst-meDa-8">[7]</a> [1822.888486209(53)]−1 Da<a href="#cite_note-9">[b]</a> 0.51099895069(16) <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt#Mass" title="Electronvolt">MeV/c2</a><a href="#cite_note-physconst-mec2MeV-10">[8]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Mean_lifetime" class="mw-redirect" title="Mean lifetime">Mean lifetime</a></th><td class="infobox-data">> 6.6×1028 years<a href="#cite_note-bx2015-11">[9]</a> (stable)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">Electric charge</a></th><td class="infobox-data">−1 <a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">e</a> −1.602176634×10−19 C‍<a href="#cite_note-physconst-e-12">[10]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">Magnetic moment</a></th><td class="infobox-data">−9.2847646917(29)×10−24 J⋅T−1‍<a href="#cite_note-physconst-mue-13">[11]</a> −1.00115965218128(18) <a href="/wiki/Bohr_magneton" title="Bohr magneton">μB</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">Spin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>⁠ 1 /2⁠ <a href="/wiki/Reduced_Planck_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduced Planck constant">ħ</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Weak_isospin" title="Weak isospin">Weak isospin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chirality_(physics)" title="Chirality (physics)">LH</a>: −<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ 1 /2⁠, <a href="/wiki/Chirality_(physics)" title="Chirality (physics)">RH</a>: 0</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Weak_hypercharge" title="Weak hypercharge">Weak hypercharge</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chirality_(physics)" title="Chirality (physics)">LH</a>: −1, <a href="/wiki/Chirality_(physics)" title="Chirality (physics)">RH</a>: −2</td></tr></tbody></table> <style 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.sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="skin-invert-image noresize mw-ext-imagemap-desc-bottom-right" typeof="mw:File"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/240px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/360px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/480px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1390" data-file-height="1330" usemap="#ImageMap_af1b7d82cba73703" resource="/wiki/File:Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg" /><map name="ImageMap_af1b7d82cba73703"><area href="/wiki/Up_quark" shape="rect" coords="17,48,59,89" alt="Up quark" title="Up quark" /><area href="/wiki/Charm_quark" shape="rect" coords="60,48,102,89" alt="Charm quark" title="Charm quark" /><area href="/wiki/Top_quark" shape="rect" coords="104,48,145,89" alt="Top quark" title="Top quark" /><area href="/wiki/Gluon" shape="rect" coords="149,48,190,89" alt="Gluon" title="Gluon" /><area href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" shape="rect" coords="194,48,235,89" alt="Higgs boson" title="Higgs boson" /><area href="/wiki/Down_quark" shape="rect" coords="17,91,59,132" alt="Down quark" title="Down quark" /><area href="/wiki/Strange_quark" shape="rect" coords="60,91,102,132" alt="Strange quark" title="Strange quark" /><area href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" shape="rect" coords="104,91,145,132" alt="Bottom quark" title="Bottom quark" /><area href="/wiki/Photon" shape="rect" coords="149,91,190,132" alt="Photon" title="Photon" /><area href="/wiki/Electron" shape="rect" coords="17,137,59,178" alt="Electron" title="Electron" /><area href="/wiki/Muon" shape="rect" coords="60,137,102,178" alt="Muon" title="Muon" /><area href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" shape="rect" coords="104,137,145,178" alt="Tau (particle)" title="Tau (particle)" /><area href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons#Z_bosons}Z_boson" shape="rect" coords="149,137,190,178" alt="W and Z bosons#Z bosons}Z boson" title="W and Z bosons#Z bosons}Z boson" /><area href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" shape="rect" coords="17,180,59,221" alt="Electron neutrino" title="Electron neutrino" /><area href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" shape="rect" coords="60,180,102,221" alt="Muon neutrino" title="Muon neutrino" /><area href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" shape="rect" coords="104,180,145,221" alt="Tau neutrino" title="Tau neutrino" /><area href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" shape="rect" coords="149,180,190,221" alt="W and Z bosons" title="W and Z bosons" /><area href="/wiki/Standard_Model" shape="rect" coords="16,8,224,19" alt="Standard Model" title="Standard Model" /><area href="/wiki/Fermion" shape="rect" coords="17,24,145,38" alt="Fermion" title="Fermion" /><area href="/wiki/Boson" shape="rect" coords="149,24,235,38" alt="Boson" title="Boson" /><area href="/wiki/Quark" shape="rect" coords="6,93,14,133" alt="Quark" title="Quark" /><area href="/wiki/Lepton" shape="rect" coords="6,176,12,219" alt="Lepton" title="Lepton" /><area href="/wiki/Scalar_boson" shape="rect" coords="227,92,233,172" alt="Scalar boson" title="Scalar boson" /><area href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" shape="rect" coords="196,143,202,219" alt="Gauge boson" title="Gauge boson" /><area href="/wiki/Vector_boson" shape="rect" coords="205,165,209,219" alt="Vector boson" title="Vector boson" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">Elementary particles</a> of the Standard Model</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a> <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a> <a href="/wiki/Gauge_theory" title="Gauge theory">Gauge theory</a> <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking" title="Spontaneous symmetry breaking">Spontaneous symmetry breaking</a> <a href="/wiki/Higgs_mechanism" title="Higgs mechanism">Higgs mechanism</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Constituents</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Electroweak_interaction" title="Electroweak interaction">Electroweak interaction</a> <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">Quantum chromodynamics</a> <a href="/wiki/Cabibbo%E2%80%93Kobayashi%E2%80%93Maskawa_matrix" title="Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix">CKM matrix</a> <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_formulation_of_the_Standard_Model" title="Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model">Standard Model mathematics</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Limitations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Strong_CP_problem" title="Strong CP problem">Strong CP problem</a> <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_problem" title="Hierarchy problem">Hierarchy problem</a> <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">Neutrino oscillations</a> <a href="/wiki/Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model" title="Physics beyond the Standard Model">Physics beyond the Standard Model</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyendra_Nath_Bose" title="Satyendra Nath Bose">Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._C._George_Sudarshan" title="E. C. George Sudarshan">Sudarshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Davis Jr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Rubbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Gell-Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Taylor" title="Richard E. Taylor">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Warren_Anderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Warren Anderson">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow" title="Sheldon Glashow">Glashow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Iliopoulos" title="John Iliopoulos">Iliopoulos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Lederman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luciano_Maiani" title="Luciano Maiani">Maiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meer" title="Simon van der Meer">Meer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Cowan" title="Clyde Cowan">Cowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Nambu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Chamberlain" title="Owen Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicola_Cabibbo" title="Nicola Cabibbo">Cabibbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvin_Schwartz" title="Melvin Schwartz">Schwartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lewis_Perl" title="Martin Lewis Perl">Perl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ettore_Majorana" title="Ettore Majorana">Majorana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Lee" title="Tsung-Dao Lee">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Clive_Ward" title="John Clive Ward">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Salam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makoto_Kobayashi_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Makoto Kobayashi (physicist)">Kobayashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toshihide_Maskawa" title="Toshihide Maskawa">Maskawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Mills_(physicist)" title="Robert Mills (physicist)">Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Yukawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">'t Hooft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinus_J._G._Veltman" title="Martinus J. G. Veltman">Veltman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">Gross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Pais" title="Abraham Pais">Pais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_David_Politzer" title="Hugh David Politzer">Politzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Reines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Schwinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Wilczek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">Cronin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">Vleck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Higgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert" title="François Englert">Englert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brout" title="Robert Brout">Brout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._R._Hagen" title="C. R. Hagen">Hagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Guralnik" title="Gerald Guralnik">Guralnik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kibble" title="Tom Kibble">Kibble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ant%C3%BAnez_de_Mayolo" title="Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo">de Mayolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Lattes" title="César Lattes">Lattes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Zweig" title="George Zweig">Zweig</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Standard_model_of_particle_physics" title="Template:Standard model of particle physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Standard_model_of_particle_physics" title="Template talk:Standard model of particle physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Standard_model_of_particle_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Standard model of particle physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The electron ( e− , or β− in nuclear reactions) is a <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particle</a> with a negative one <a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">elementary electric charge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> Electrons belong to the first <a href="/wiki/Generation_(particle_physics)" title="Generation (particle physics)">generation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">lepton</a> particle family,<a href="#cite_note-curtis74-16">[14]</a> and are generally thought to be <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particles</a> because they have no known components or substructure.<a href="#cite_note-prl50-1">[1]</a> The electron's <a href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">mass</a> is approximately <a href="/wiki/Proton-to-electron_mass_ratio" title="Proton-to-electron mass ratio">1/1836</a> that of the <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nist_codata_mu-17">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanical</a> properties of the electron include an intrinsic <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a>) of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the <a href="/wiki/Planck_constant#Reduced_Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">reduced Planck constant</a>, ħ. Being <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a>, no two electrons can occupy the same <a href="/wiki/Quantum_state" title="Quantum state">quantum state</a>, per the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-curtis74-16">[14]</a> Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of <a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">both particles and waves</a>: They can collide with other particles and can be <a href="/wiki/Electron_diffraction" title="Electron diffraction">diffracted</a> like light. The <a href="#Quantum_properties">wave properties of electrons</a> are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a longer <a href="/wiki/De_Broglie_wavelength" class="mw-redirect" title="De Broglie wavelength">de Broglie wavelength</a> for a given energy. Electrons play an essential role in numerous <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physical</a> phenomena, such as <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a>; they also participate in <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_force" title="Lorentz force">electromagnetic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interactions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-anastopoulos1-18">[16]</a> Since an electron has charge, it has a surrounding <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a>; if that electron is moving relative to an observer, the observer will observe it to generate a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>. Electromagnetic fields produced from other sources will affect the motion of an electron according to the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_force_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentz force law">Lorentz force law</a>. Electrons radiate or absorb energy in the form of <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> when they are accelerated. Laboratory instruments are capable of trapping individual electrons as well as <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">electron plasma</a> by the use of electromagnetic fields. Special <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescopes</a> can detect electron plasma in outer space. Electrons are involved in many applications, such as <a href="/wiki/Tribology" title="Tribology">tribology</a> or frictional charging, electrolysis, electrochemistry, battery technologies, <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron_beam_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron beam welding">welding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tubes</a>, photoelectricity, photovoltaic solar panels, <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscopes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free-electron_laser" title="Free-electron laser">lasers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_ionization_detectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaseous ionization detectors">gaseous ionization detectors</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a>. Interactions involving electrons with other subatomic particles are of interest in fields such as <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb force</a> interaction between the positive <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> within <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nuclei</a> and the negative electrons without allows the composition of the two known as <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>. Ionization or differences in the proportions of negative electrons versus positive nuclei changes the <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a> of an atomic system. The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the main cause of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonding</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pauling-19">[17]</a> In 1838, British natural philosopher <a href="/wiki/Richard_Laming" title="Richard Laming">Richard Laming</a> first hypothesized the concept of an indivisible quantity of electric charge to explain the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_property" title="Chemical property">chemical properties</a> of atoms.<a href="#cite_note-arabatzis-4">[3]</a> Irish physicist <a href="/wiki/George_Johnstone_Stoney" title="George Johnstone Stoney">George Johnstone Stoney</a> named this charge "electron" in 1891, and <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> and his team of British physicists identified it as a particle in 1897 during the <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray" title="Cathode ray">cathode-ray tube experiment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-thomson-6">[5]</a> Electrons participate in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reactions</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">nucleosynthesis in stars</a>, where they are known as <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta particles</a>. Electrons can be created through <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> of <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radioactive isotopes</a> and in high-energy collisions, for instance, when <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a> enter the atmosphere. The <a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticle</a> of the electron is called the <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a>; it is identical to the electron, except that it carries electrical <a href="/wiki/Charge_(physics)" title="Charge (physics)">charge</a> of the opposite sign. When an <a href="/wiki/Electron%E2%80%93positron_annihilation" title="Electron–positron annihilation">electron collides with a positron</a>, both particles can be <a href="/wiki/Annihilation" title="Annihilation">annihilated</a>, producing <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma ray</a> <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">History of electromagnetism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_of_effect_of_electric_force">Discovery of effect of electric force</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Discovery of effect of electric force">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Science_and_technology" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greeks</a> noticed that <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a> attracted small objects when rubbed with fur. Along with <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a>, this phenomenon is one of humanity's earliest recorded experiences with <a href="/wiki/Electricity#History" title="Electricity">electricity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DictOrigins-20">[18]</a> In his 1600 treatise <a href="/wiki/De_Magnete" title="De Magnete">De Magnete</a>, the English scientist <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Gilbert (astronomer)">William Gilbert</a> coined the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> term electrica, to refer to those substances with property similar to that of amber which attract small objects after being rubbed.<a href="#cite_note-Benjamin-21">[19]</a> Both electric and electricity are derived from the Latin ēlectrum (also the root of the <a href="/wiki/Electrum" title="Electrum">alloy of the same name</a>), which came from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> word for amber, ἤλεκτρον (ēlektron). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_of_two_kinds_of_charges">Discovery of two kinds of charges</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Discovery of two kinds of charges">edit</a>]</div> In the early 1700s, French chemist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Cisternay_du_Fay" title="Charles François de Cisternay du Fay">Charles François du Fay</a> found that if a charged gold-leaf is repulsed by glass rubbed with silk, then the same charged gold-leaf is attracted by amber rubbed with wool. From this and other results of similar types of experiments, du Fay concluded that electricity consists of two <a href="/wiki/Aether_theories" title="Aether theories">electrical fluids</a>, vitreous fluid from glass rubbed with silk and resinous fluid from amber rubbed with wool. These two fluids can neutralize each other when combined.<a href="#cite_note-Benjamin-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> American scientist <a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Kinnersley" title="Ebenezer Kinnersley">Ebenezer Kinnersley</a> later also independently reached the same conclusion.<a href="#cite_note-Cajori1917-23">[21]</a>: 118  A decade later <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> proposed that electricity was not from different types of electrical fluid, but a single electrical fluid showing an excess (+) or deficit (−). He gave them the modern <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">charge</a> nomenclature of positive and negative respectively.<a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a> Franklin thought of the charge carrier as being positive, but he did not correctly identify which situation was a surplus of the charge carrier, and which situation was a deficit.<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> Between 1838 and 1851, British natural philosopher <a href="/wiki/Richard_Laming" title="Richard Laming">Richard Laming</a> developed the idea that an atom is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charges</a>.<a href="#cite_note-farrar-3">[2]</a> Beginning in 1846, German physicist <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Wilhelm Eduard Weber</a> theorized that electricity was composed of positively and negatively charged fluids, and their interaction was governed by the <a href="/wiki/Inverse-square_law" title="Inverse-square law">inverse square law</a>. After studying the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a> in 1874, Irish physicist <a href="/wiki/George_Johnstone_Stoney" title="George Johnstone Stoney">George Johnstone Stoney</a> suggested that there existed a "single definite quantity of electricity", the charge of a <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">monovalent</a> <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a>. He was able to estimate the value of this elementary charge e by means of <a href="/wiki/Faraday%27s_laws_of_electrolysis" title="Faraday's laws of electrolysis">Faraday's laws of electrolysis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a> However, Stoney believed these charges were permanently attached to atoms and could not be removed. In 1881, German physicist <a href="/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a> argued that both positive and negative charges were divided into elementary parts, each of which "behaves like atoms of electricity".<a href="#cite_note-arabatzis-4">[3]</a> Stoney initially coined the term electrolion in 1881. Ten years later, he switched to electron to describe these elementary charges, writing in 1894: "... an estimate was made of the actual amount of this most remarkable fundamental unit of electricity, for which I have since ventured to suggest the name electron". A 1906 proposal to change to electrion failed because <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a> preferred to keep electron.<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-GJStoney-28">[26]</a> The word electron is a combination of the words electric and ion.<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a> The suffix <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-on" class="extiw" title="wikt:-on">-on</a> which is now used to designate other subatomic particles, such as a proton or neutron, is in turn derived from electron.<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_of_free_electrons_outside_matter">Discovery of free electrons outside matter</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Discovery of free electrons outside matter">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson#Discovery_of_the_electron" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson § Discovery of the electron</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyclotron_motion_wider_view.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A round glass vacuum tube with a glowing circular beam inside" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Cyclotron_motion_wider_view.jpg/220px-Cyclotron_motion_wider_view.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Cyclotron_motion_wider_view.jpg/330px-Cyclotron_motion_wider_view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Cyclotron_motion_wider_view.jpg/440px-Cyclotron_motion_wider_view.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2939" data-file-height="1890" /></a><figcaption>A beam of electrons deflected by a magnetic field into a circle<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a></figcaption></figure> While studying electrical conductivity in <a href="/wiki/Rarefied" class="mw-redirect" title="Rarefied">rarefied</a> gases in 1859, the German physicist <a href="/wiki/Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker" title="Julius Plücker">Julius Plücker</a> observed the radiation emitted from the cathode caused phosphorescent light to appear on the tube wall near the cathode; and the region of the phosphorescent light could be moved by application of a magnetic field.<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> In 1869, Plücker's student <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Hittorf" title="Johann Wilhelm Hittorf">Johann Wilhelm Hittorf</a> found that a solid body placed in between the cathode and the phosphorescence would cast a shadow upon the phosphorescent region of the tube. Hittorf inferred that there are straight rays emitted from the cathode and that the phosphorescence was caused by the rays striking the tube walls. Furthermore, he also discovered that these rays are deflected by magnets just like lines of current.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> In 1876, the German physicist <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Goldstein" title="Eugen Goldstein">Eugen Goldstein</a> showed that the rays were emitted perpendicular to the cathode surface, which distinguished between the rays that were emitted from the cathode and the incandescent light. Goldstein dubbed the rays <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray" title="Cathode ray">cathode rays</a>.<a href="#cite_note-leicester-35">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Whittaker-36">[34]</a>: 393  Decades of experimental and theoretical research involving cathode rays were important in <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a>'s eventual discovery of electrons.<a href="#cite_note-arabatzis-4">[3]</a> Goldstein also experimented with double cathodes and hypothesized that one ray may repulse another, although he didn't believe that any particles might be involved.<a href="#cite_note-:0-37">[35]</a> During the 1870s, the English chemist and physicist Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> developed the first cathode-ray tube to have a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">high vacuum</a> inside.<a href="#cite_note-dekosky-38">[36]</a> He then showed in 1874 that the cathode rays can turn a small paddle wheel when placed in their path. Therefore, he concluded that the rays carried momentum. Furthermore, by applying a magnetic field, he was able to deflect the rays, thereby demonstrating that the beam behaved as though it were negatively charged.<a href="#cite_note-leicester-35">[33]</a> In 1879, he proposed that these properties could be explained by regarding cathode rays as composed of negatively charged gaseous <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> in a fourth state of matter in which the mean free path of the particles is so long that collisions may be ignored.<a href="#cite_note-Whittaker-36">[34]</a>: 394–395  In 1883, not yet well-known German physicist <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> tried to prove that cathode rays are electrically neutral and got what he interpreted as a confident absence of deflection in electrostatic, as opposed to magnetic, field. However, as <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> explained in 1897, Hertz placed the deflecting electrodes in a highly-conductive area of the tube, resulting in a strong screening effect close to their surface.<a href="#cite_note-:0-37">[35]</a> The German-born British physicist <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schuster" title="Arthur Schuster">Arthur Schuster</a> expanded upon Crookes's experiments by placing metal plates parallel to the cathode rays and applying an <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">electric potential</a> between the plates.<a href="#cite_note-schu1890-39">[37]</a> The field deflected the rays toward the positively charged plate, providing further evidence that the rays carried negative charge. By measuring the amount of deflection for a given <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>, in 1890 Schuster was able to estimate the <a href="/wiki/Mass-to-charge_ratio" title="Mass-to-charge ratio">charge-to-mass ratio</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[c]</a> of the ray components. However, this produced a value that was more than a thousand times greater than what was expected, so little credence was given to his calculations at the time.<a href="#cite_note-leicester-35">[33]</a> This is because it was assumed that the charge carriers were much heavier <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> atoms.<a href="#cite_note-schu1890-39">[37]</a> Schuster's estimates would subsequently turn out to be largely correct. In 1892 <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a> suggested that the mass of these particles (electrons) could be a consequence of their electric charge.<a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J.J_Thomson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg/170px-J.J_Thomson.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg/255px-J.J_Thomson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/J.J_Thomson.jpg/340px-J.J_Thomson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1563" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a></figcaption></figure> While studying naturally <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescing</a> minerals in 1896, the French physicist <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a> discovered that they emitted radiation without any exposure to an external energy source. These <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive</a> materials became the subject of much interest by scientists, including the New Zealand physicist <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> who discovered they emitted particles. He designated these particles <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta</a>, on the basis of their ability to penetrate matter.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a> In 1900, Becquerel showed that the beta rays emitted by <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a> could be deflected by an electric field, and that their mass-to-charge ratio was the same as for cathode rays.<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> This evidence strengthened the view that electrons existed as components of atoms.<a href="#cite_note-BaW9091-44">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> In 1897, the British physicist <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a>, with his colleagues <a href="/wiki/John_Sealy_Townsend" title="John Sealy Townsend">John S. Townsend</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harold_A._Wilson_(physicist)" title="Harold A. Wilson (physicist)">H. A. Wilson</a>, performed experiments indicating that cathode rays really were unique particles, rather than waves, atoms or molecules as was believed earlier.<a href="#cite_note-thomson-6">[5]</a> By 1899 he showed that their charge-to-mass ratio, e/m, was independent of cathode material. He further showed that the negatively charged particles produced by radioactive materials, by heated materials and by illuminated materials were universal.<a href="#cite_note-thomson-6">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> Thomson measured m/e for cathode ray "corpuscles", and made good estimates of the charge e, leading to value for the mass m, finding a value 1400 times less massive than the least massive ion known: hydrogen.<a href="#cite_note-Whittaker-36">[34]</a>: 364 <a href="#cite_note-thomson-6">[5]</a> In the same year <a href="/wiki/Emil_Wiechert" title="Emil Wiechert">Emil Wiechert</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(physicist)" title="Walter Kaufmann (physicist)">Walter Kaufmann</a> also calculated the e/m ratio but did not take the step of interpreting their results as showing a new particle, while J. J. Thomson would subsequently in 1899 give estimates for the electron charge and mass as well: e ~ 6.8×10−10 <a href="/wiki/Statcoulomb" title="Statcoulomb">esu</a> and m ~ 3×10−26 g<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Millikan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Millikan.jpg/170px-Millikan.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Millikan.jpg/255px-Millikan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Millikan.jpg/340px-Millikan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1692" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Robert Millikan</a></figcaption></figure> The name "electron" was adopted for these particles by the scientific community, mainly due to the advocation by <a href="/wiki/George_Francis_FitzGerald" title="George Francis FitzGerald">G. F. FitzGerald</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Larmor" title="Joseph Larmor">J. Larmor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">H. A. Lorentz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OHara1975-49">[46]</a>: 273  The term was originally coined by <a href="/wiki/George_Johnstone_Stoney" title="George Johnstone Stoney">George Johnstone Stoney</a> in 1891 as a tentative name for the basic unit of electrical charge (which had then yet to be discovered).<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-GJStoney-28">[26]</a> The electron's charge was more carefully measured by the American physicists <a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Robert Millikan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Fletcher" title="Harvey Fletcher">Harvey Fletcher</a> in their <a href="/wiki/Oil_drop_experiment" title="Oil drop experiment">oil-drop experiment</a> of 1909, the results of which were published in 1911. This experiment used an electric field to prevent a charged droplet of oil from falling as a result of gravity. This device could measure the electric charge from as few as 1–150 ions with an error margin of less than 0.3%. Comparable experiments had been done earlier by Thomson's team,<a href="#cite_note-thomson-6">[5]</a> using clouds of charged water droplets generated by electrolysis, and in 1911 by <a href="/wiki/Abram_Ioffe" title="Abram Ioffe">Abram Ioffe</a>, who independently obtained the same result as Millikan using charged microparticles of metals, then published his results in 1913.<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a> However, oil drops were more stable than water drops because of their slower evaporation rate, and thus more suited to precise experimentation over longer periods of time.<a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a> Around the beginning of the twentieth century, it was found that under certain conditions a fast-moving charged particle caused a condensation of <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">supersaturated</a> water vapor along its path. In 1911, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">Charles Wilson</a> used this principle to devise his <a href="/wiki/Cloud_chamber" title="Cloud chamber">cloud chamber</a> so he could photograph the tracks of charged particles, such as fast-moving electrons.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atomic_theory">Atomic theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Atomic theory">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bohr_atom_model_English.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three concentric circles about a nucleus, with an electron moving from the second to the first circle and releasing a photon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bohr_atom_model_English.svg/220px-Bohr_atom_model_English.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bohr_atom_model_English.svg/330px-Bohr_atom_model_English.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bohr_atom_model_English.svg/440px-Bohr_atom_model_English.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model of the atom</a>, showing states of an electron with energy <a href="/wiki/Quantum_number" title="Quantum number">quantized</a> by the number n. An electron dropping to a lower orbit emits a photon equal to the energy difference between the orbits</figcaption></figure> By 1914, experiments by physicists <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">Henry Moseley</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz" title="Gustav Ludwig Hertz">Gustav Hertz</a> had largely established the structure of an atom as a dense <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> of positive charge surrounded by lower-mass electrons.<a href="#cite_note-smirnov-54">[51]</a> In 1913, Danish physicist <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> postulated that electrons resided in quantized energy states, with their energies determined by the angular momentum of the electron's orbit about the nucleus. The electrons could move between those states, or orbits, by the emission or absorption of photons of specific frequencies. By means of these quantized orbits, he accurately explained the <a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">spectral lines</a> of the hydrogen atom.<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a> However, Bohr's model failed to account for the relative intensities of the spectral lines and it was unsuccessful in explaining the spectra of more complex atoms.<a href="#cite_note-smirnov-54">[51]</a> Chemical bonds between atoms were explained by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert Newton Lewis</a>, who in 1916 proposed that a <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bond</a> between two atoms is maintained by a pair of electrons shared between them.<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> Later, in 1927, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Heitler" title="Walter Heitler">Walter Heitler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_London" title="Fritz London">Fritz London</a> gave the full explanation of the electron-pair formation and chemical bonding in terms of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Arabatzis-57">[54]</a> In 1919, the American chemist <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a> elaborated on the Lewis's static model of the atom and suggested that all electrons were distributed in successive "concentric (nearly) spherical shells, all of equal thickness".<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a> In turn, he divided the shells into a number of cells each of which contained one pair of electrons. With this model Langmuir was able to qualitatively explain the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_property" title="Chemical property">chemical properties</a> of all elements in the periodic table,<a href="#cite_note-Arabatzis-57">[54]</a> which were known to largely repeat themselves according to the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> In 1924, Austrian physicist <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> observed that the shell-like structure of the atom could be explained by a set of four parameters that defined every quantum energy state, as long as each state was occupied by no more than a single electron. This prohibition against more than one electron occupying the same quantum energy state became known as the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> The physical mechanism to explain the fourth parameter, which had two distinct possible values, was provided by the Dutch physicists <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Goudsmit" title="Samuel Goudsmit">Samuel Goudsmit</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a>. In 1925, they suggested that an electron, in addition to the angular momentum of its orbit, possesses an intrinsic angular momentum and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_moment" title="Magnetic moment">magnetic dipole moment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-smirnov-54">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> This is analogous to the rotation of the Earth on its axis as it orbits the Sun. The intrinsic angular momentum became known as <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a>, and explained the previously mysterious splitting of spectral lines observed with a high-resolution <a href="/wiki/Spectrometer" title="Spectrometer">spectrograph</a>; this phenomenon is known as <a href="/wiki/Fine_structure" title="Fine structure">fine structure</a> splitting.<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_mechanics">Quantum mechanics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Quantum mechanics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">History of quantum mechanics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="#Quantum_properties">§ Quantum properties</a></div> In his 1924 dissertation Recherches sur la théorie des quanta (Research on Quantum Theory), French physicist <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a> hypothesized that all matter can be represented as a <a href="/wiki/Matter_wave" title="Matter wave">de Broglie wave</a> in the manner of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a>.<a href="#cite_note-de_broglie-63">[60]</a> That is, under the appropriate conditions, electrons and other matter would show properties of either particles or waves. The <a href="/wiki/Corpuscular_theory_of_light" title="Corpuscular theory of light">corpuscular properties</a> of a particle are demonstrated when it is shown to have a localized position in space along its trajectory at any given moment.<a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> The wave-like nature of light is displayed, for example, when a beam of light is passed through parallel slits thereby creating <a href="/wiki/Interference_(wave_propagation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interference (wave propagation)">interference</a> patterns. In 1927, <a href="/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson" title="George Paget Thomson">George Paget Thomson</a> and Alexander Reid discovered the interference effect was produced when a beam of electrons was passed through thin celluloid foils and later metal films, and by American physicists <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Clinton Davisson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lester_Germer" title="Lester Germer">Lester Germer</a> by the reflection of electrons from a crystal of <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> Alexander Reid, who was Thomson's graduate student, performed the first experiments but he died soon after in a motorcycle accident<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a> and is rarely mentioned. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orbital_s1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A spherically symmetric blue cloud that decreases in intensity from the center outward" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Orbital_s1.png/220px-Orbital_s1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Orbital_s1.png/330px-Orbital_s1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Orbital_s1.png 2x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="543" /></a><figcaption>In quantum mechanics, the behavior of an electron in an atom is described by an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">orbital</a>, which is a probability distribution rather than an orbit. In the figure, the shading indicates the relative probability to "find" the electron, having the energy corresponding to the given <a href="/wiki/Quantum_number" title="Quantum number">quantum numbers</a>, at that point.</figcaption></figure> De Broglie's prediction of a wave nature for electrons led <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> to postulate a wave equation for electrons moving under the influence of the nucleus in the atom. In 1926, this equation, the <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a>, successfully described how electron waves propagated.<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> Rather than yielding a solution that determined the location of an electron over time, this wave equation also could be used to predict the probability of finding an electron near a position, especially a position near where the electron was bound in space, for which the electron wave equations did not change in time. This approach led to a second formulation of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> (the first by Heisenberg in 1925), and solutions of Schrödinger's equation, like Heisenberg's, provided derivations of the energy states of an electron in a hydrogen atom that were equivalent to those that had been derived first by Bohr in 1913, and that were known to reproduce the hydrogen spectrum.<a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> Once spin and the interaction between multiple electrons were describable, quantum mechanics made it possible to predict the configuration of electrons in atoms with atomic numbers greater than hydrogen.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a> In 1928, building on Wolfgang Pauli's work, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> produced a model of the electron – the <a href="/wiki/Dirac_equation" title="Dirac equation">Dirac equation</a>, consistent with <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_relativity" title="Principle of relativity">relativity</a> theory, by applying relativistic and symmetry considerations to the <a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_(quantum_mechanics)" title="Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)">hamiltonian</a> formulation of the quantum mechanics of the electro-magnetic field.<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> In order to resolve some problems within his relativistic equation, Dirac developed in 1930 a model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles with negative energy, later dubbed the <a href="/wiki/Dirac_sea" title="Dirac sea">Dirac sea</a>. This led him to predict the existence of a positron, the <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a> counterpart of the electron.<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> This particle was discovered in 1932 by <a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">Carl Anderson</a>, who proposed calling standard electrons negatrons and using electron as a generic term to describe both the positively and negatively charged variants.<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a> In 1947, <a href="/wiki/Willis_Lamb" title="Willis Lamb">Willis Lamb</a>, working in collaboration with graduate student <a href="/wiki/Robert_Retherford" title="Robert Retherford">Robert Retherford</a>, found that certain quantum states of the hydrogen atom, which should have the same energy, were shifted in relation to each other; the difference came to be called the <a href="/wiki/Lamb_shift" title="Lamb shift">Lamb shift</a>. About the same time, <a href="/wiki/Polykarp_Kusch" title="Polykarp Kusch">Polykarp Kusch</a>, working with <a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Foley" title="Henry M. Foley">Henry M. Foley</a>, discovered the magnetic moment of the electron is slightly larger than predicted by Dirac's theory. This small difference was later called <a href="/wiki/Anomalous_magnetic_dipole_moment" title="Anomalous magnetic dipole moment">anomalous magnetic dipole moment</a> of the electron. This difference was later explained by the theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">quantum electrodynamics</a>, developed by <a href="/wiki/Sin-Itiro_Tomonaga" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-Itiro Tomonaga">Sin-Itiro Tomonaga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> in the late 1940s.<a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particle_accelerators">Particle accelerators</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Particle accelerators">edit</a>]</div> With the development of the <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerator</a> during the first half of the twentieth century, physicists began to delve deeper into the properties of <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a> The first successful attempt to accelerate electrons using <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">electromagnetic induction</a> was made in 1942 by <a href="/wiki/Donald_William_Kerst" title="Donald William Kerst">Donald Kerst</a>. His initial <a href="/wiki/Betatron" title="Betatron">betatron</a> reached energies of 2.3 MeV, while subsequent betatrons achieved 300 MeV. In 1947, <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">synchrotron radiation</a> was discovered with a 70 MeV electron synchrotron at <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>. This radiation was caused by the acceleration of electrons through a magnetic field as they moved near the speed of light.<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a> With a beam energy of 1.5 GeV, the first high-energy particle <a href="/wiki/Collider" title="Collider">collider</a> was <a href="/wiki/ADONE" title="ADONE">ADONE</a>, which began operations in 1968.<a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a> This device accelerated electrons and positrons in opposite directions, effectively doubling the energy of their collision when compared to striking a static target with an electron.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Collider" title="Large Electron–Positron Collider">Large Electron–Positron Collider</a> (LEP) at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>, which was operational from 1989 to 2000, achieved collision energies of 209 GeV and made important measurements for the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of particle physics.<a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confinement_of_individual_electrons">Confinement of individual electrons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Confinement of individual electrons">edit</a>]</div> Individual electrons can now be easily confined in ultra small (L = 20 nm, W = 20 nm) CMOS transistors operated at cryogenic temperature over a range of −269 °C (4 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>) to about −258 °C (15 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>).<a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a> The electron wavefunction spreads in a semiconductor lattice and negligibly interacts with the valence band electrons, so it can be treated in the single particle formalism, by replacing its mass with the <a href="/wiki/Effective_mass_(solid-state_physics)" title="Effective mass (solid-state physics)">effective mass tensor</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Characteristics">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A table with four rows and four columns, with each cell containing a particle identifier" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/280px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/420px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/560px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1390" data-file-height="1330" /></a><figcaption>Standard Model of elementary particles. The electron (symbol e) is on the left.</figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of particle physics, electrons belong to the group of subatomic particles called <a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">leptons</a>, which are believed to be fundamental or <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particles</a>. Electrons have the lowest mass of any charged lepton (or electrically charged particle of any type) and belong to the first-<a href="/wiki/Generation_(particle_physics)" title="Generation (particle physics)">generation</a> of fundamental particles.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a> The second and third generation contain charged leptons, the <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">tau</a>, which are identical to the electron in charge, <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">interactions</a>, but are more massive. Leptons differ from the other basic constituent of matter, the <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a>, by their lack of <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interaction</a>. All members of the lepton group are fermions because they all have half-odd integer spin; the electron has spin <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/2⁠.<a href="#cite_note-raith-82">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fundamental_properties">Fundamental properties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fundamental properties">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">invariant mass</a> of an electron is approximately <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(mass)#The_least_massive_things:_below_10−24_kg" title="Orders of magnitude (mass)">9.109×10−31 kg</a>,<a href="#cite_note-CODATA-83">[80]</a> or 5.489×10−4 <a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">Da</a>. Due to <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">mass–energy equivalence</a>, this corresponds to a rest energy of <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(energy)#Electron_energy" title="Orders of magnitude (energy)">0.511 MeV (8.19×10−14 J)</a>. The ratio between the mass of a <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> and that of an electron is about 1836.<a href="#cite_note-nist_codata_mu-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zombeck2007-84">[81]</a> Astronomical measurements show that the <a href="/wiki/Proton-to-electron_mass_ratio" title="Proton-to-electron mass ratio">proton-to-electron mass ratio</a> has held the same value, as is predicted by the Standard Model, for at least half the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">age of the universe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a> Electrons have an <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> of −1.602176634×10−19 <a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulombs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-CODATA-83">[80]</a> which is used as a standard unit of charge for subatomic particles, and is also called the <a href="/wiki/Elementary_charge" title="Elementary charge">elementary charge</a>. Within the limits of experimental accuracy, the electron charge is identical to the charge of a proton, but with the opposite sign.<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a> The electron is commonly symbolized by e− , and the positron is symbolized by e+ .<a href="#cite_note-raith-82">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-CODATA-83">[80]</a> The electron has an intrinsic <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a> or spin of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ħ/2⁠.<a href="#cite_note-CODATA-83">[80]</a> This property is usually stated by referring to the electron as a <a href="/wiki/Spin-1/2" title="Spin-1/2">spin-1/2</a> particle.<a href="#cite_note-raith-82">[79]</a> For such particles the spin magnitude is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ħ/2⁠,<a href="#cite_note-Gupta2001-87">[84]</a> while the result of the measurement of a <a href="/wiki/Projection_(mathematics)" title="Projection (mathematics)">projection</a> of the spin on any axis can only be ±<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠ħ/2⁠. In addition to spin, the electron has an intrinsic <a href="/wiki/Electron_magnetic_moment" title="Electron magnetic moment">magnetic moment</a> along its spin axis.<a href="#cite_note-CODATA-83">[80]</a> It is approximately equal to one <a href="/wiki/Bohr_magneton" title="Bohr magneton">Bohr magneton</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Hanneke-88">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[d]</a> which is a physical constant that is equal to 9.2740100657(29)×10−24 J⋅T−1.<a href="#cite_note-physconst-muB-90">[86]</a> The orientation of the spin with respect to the momentum of the electron defines the property of elementary particles known as <a href="/wiki/Helicity_(particle_physics)" title="Helicity (particle physics)">helicity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-anastopoulos-91">[87]</a> The electron has no known <a href="/wiki/Preon" title="Preon">substructure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-prl50-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> Nevertheless, in <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93charge_separation" title="Spin–charge separation">spin–charge separation</a> can occur in some materials. In such cases, electrons 'split' into three independent particles, the <a href="/wiki/Spinon" title="Spinon">spinon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Orbiton" title="Orbiton">orbiton</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Holon_(physics)" title="Holon (physics)">holon</a> (or chargon). The electron can always be theoretically considered as a bound state of the three, with the spinon carrying the spin of the electron, the orbiton carrying the orbital degree of freedom and the chargon carrying the charge, but in certain conditions they can behave as independent <a href="/wiki/Quasiparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Quasiparticles">quasiparticles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bbc-93">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-gov-95">[91]</a> The issue of the radius of the electron is a challenging problem of modern theoretical physics. The admission of the hypothesis of a finite radius of the electron is incompatible to the premises of the theory of relativity. On the other hand, a point-like electron (zero radius) generates serious mathematical difficulties due to the <a href="/wiki/Self-energy" title="Self-energy">self-energy</a> of the electron tending to infinity.<a href="#cite_note-96">[92]</a> Observation of a single electron in a <a href="/wiki/Penning_trap" title="Penning trap">Penning trap</a> suggests the upper limit of the particle's radius to be 10−22 meters.<a href="#cite_note-97">[93]</a> The upper bound of the electron radius of 10−18 meters<a href="#cite_note-98">[94]</a> can be derived using the <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_relation" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncertainty relation">uncertainty relation</a> in energy. There is also a physical constant called the "<a href="/wiki/Classical_electron_radius" title="Classical electron radius">classical electron radius</a>", with the much larger value of 2.8179×10−15 m, greater than the radius of the proton. However, the terminology comes from a simplistic calculation that ignores the effects of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>; in reality, the so-called classical electron radius has little to do with the true fundamental structure of the electron.<a href="#cite_note-99">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-HakenWolfBrewer2005-100">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[e]</a> There are <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">elementary particles</a> that spontaneously <a href="/wiki/Particle_decay" title="Particle decay">decay</a> into less massive particles. An example is the <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muon</a>, with a <a href="/wiki/Exponential_decay#Mean_lifetime" title="Exponential decay">mean lifetime</a> of 2.2×10−6 seconds, which decays into an electron, a muon <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a> and an electron <a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">antineutrino</a>. The electron, on the other hand, is thought to be stable on theoretical grounds: the electron is the least massive particle with non-zero electric charge, so its decay would violate <a href="/wiki/Charge_conservation" title="Charge conservation">charge conservation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[97]</a> The experimental lower bound for the electron's mean lifetime is 6.6×1028 years, at a 90% <a href="/wiki/Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">confidence level</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bx2015-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_properties">Quantum properties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Quantum properties">edit</a>]</div> As with all particles, electrons can act as waves. This is called the <a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">wave–particle duality</a> and can be demonstrated using the <a href="/wiki/Double-slit_experiment" title="Double-slit experiment">double-slit experiment</a>. The wave-like nature of the electron allows it to pass through two parallel slits simultaneously, rather than just one slit as would be the case for a classical particle. In quantum mechanics, the wave-like property of one particle can be described mathematically as a <a href="/wiki/Complex_number" title="Complex number">complex</a>-valued function, the <a href="/wiki/Wave_function" title="Wave function">wave function</a>, commonly denoted by the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek letter</a> <a href="/wiki/Psi_(Greek)" title="Psi (Greek)">psi</a> (ψ). When the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_value#Complex_numbers" title="Absolute value">absolute value</a> of this function is <a href="/wiki/Square_(algebra)" title="Square (algebra)">squared</a>, it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a location—a <a href="/wiki/Probability_density_function" title="Probability density function">probability density</a>.<a href="#cite_note-munowitz-105">[100]</a>: 162–218  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asymmetricwave2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A three dimensional projection of a two dimensional plot. There are symmetric hills along one axis and symmetric valleys along the other, roughly giving a saddle-shape" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Asymmetricwave2.png/220px-Asymmetricwave2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Asymmetricwave2.png/330px-Asymmetricwave2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Asymmetricwave2.png/440px-Asymmetricwave2.png 2x" data-file-width="1814" data-file-height="1358" /></a><figcaption>Example of an antisymmetric wave function for a quantum state of <a href="/wiki/Particle_in_a_box" title="Particle in a box">two identical fermions in a one-dimensional box</a>, with each horizontal axis corresponding to the position of one particle. If the particles swap position, the wave function inverts its sign.</figcaption></figure> Electrons are <a href="/wiki/Identical_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Identical particles">identical particles</a> because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. The wave function of fermions, including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning that it changes sign when two electrons are swapped; that is, ψ(r1, r2) = −ψ(r2, r1), where the variables r1 and r2 correspond to the first and second electrons, respectively. Since the absolute value is not changed by a sign swap, this corresponds to equal probabilities. <a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">Bosons</a>, such as the photon, have symmetric wave functions instead.<a href="#cite_note-munowitz-105">[100]</a>: 162–218  In the case of antisymmetry, solutions of the wave equation for interacting electrons result in a <a href="/wiki/Zero_probability" class="mw-redirect" title="Zero probability">zero probability</a> that each pair will occupy the same location or state. This is responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a>, which precludes any two electrons from occupying the same quantum state. This principle explains many of the properties of electrons. For example, it causes groups of bound electrons to occupy different <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">orbitals</a> in an atom, rather than all overlapping each other in the same orbit.<a href="#cite_note-munowitz-105">[100]</a>: 162–218  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtual_particles">Virtual particles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Virtual particles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Virtual_particle" title="Virtual particle">Virtual particle</a></div> In a simplified picture, which often tends to give the wrong idea but may serve to illustrate some aspects, every photon spends some time as a combination of a virtual electron plus its antiparticle, the virtual positron, which rapidly <a href="/wiki/Annihilation" title="Annihilation">annihilate</a> each other shortly thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-106">[101]</a> The combination of the energy variation needed to create these particles, and the time during which they exist, fall under the threshold of detectability expressed by the <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Heisenberg uncertainty relation</a>, ΔE · Δt ≥ ħ. In effect, the energy needed to create these virtual particles, ΔE, can be "borrowed" from the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum state">vacuum</a> for a period of time, Δt, so that their product is no more than the <a href="/wiki/Reduced_Planck_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduced Planck constant">reduced Planck constant</a>, ħ ≈ 6.6×10−16 eV·s. Thus, for a virtual electron, Δt is at most 1.3×10−21 s.<a href="#cite_note-taylor-107">[102]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Virtual_pairs_near_electron.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A sphere with a minus sign at lower left symbolizes the electron, while pairs of spheres with plus and minus signs show the virtual particles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Virtual_pairs_near_electron.png/220px-Virtual_pairs_near_electron.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Virtual_pairs_near_electron.png/330px-Virtual_pairs_near_electron.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Virtual_pairs_near_electron.png/440px-Virtual_pairs_near_electron.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="418" /></a><figcaption>A schematic depiction of virtual electron–positron pairs appearing at random near an electron (at lower left)</figcaption></figure> While an electron–positron virtual pair is in existence, the <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb force</a> from the ambient <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a> surrounding an electron causes a created positron to be attracted to the original electron, while a created electron experiences a repulsion. This causes what is called <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_polarization" title="Vacuum polarization">vacuum polarization</a>. In effect, the vacuum behaves like a medium having a <a href="/wiki/Relative_permittivity" title="Relative permittivity">dielectric permittivity</a> more than <a href="/wiki/1" title="1">unity</a>. Thus the effective charge of an electron is actually smaller than its true value, and the charge decreases with increasing distance from the electron.<a href="#cite_note-genz-108">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[104]</a> This polarization was confirmed experimentally in 1997 using the Japanese <a href="/wiki/KEKB_(accelerator)" title="KEKB (accelerator)">TRISTAN</a> particle accelerator.<a href="#cite_note-110">[105]</a> Virtual particles cause a comparable <a href="/wiki/Shielding_effect" title="Shielding effect">shielding effect</a> for the mass of the electron.<a href="#cite_note-111">[106]</a> The interaction with virtual particles also explains the small (about 0.1%) deviation of the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron from the Bohr magneton (the <a href="/wiki/Anomalous_magnetic_dipole_moment" title="Anomalous magnetic dipole moment">anomalous magnetic moment</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Hanneke-88">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[107]</a> The extraordinarily precise agreement of this predicted difference with the experimentally determined value is viewed as one of the great achievements of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">quantum electrodynamics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[108]</a> The apparent paradox in <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a> of a point particle electron having intrinsic angular momentum and magnetic moment can be explained by the formation of <a href="/wiki/Virtual_particle" title="Virtual particle">virtual photons</a> in the electric field generated by the electron. These photons can heuristically be thought of as causing the electron to shift about in a jittery fashion (known as <a href="/wiki/Zitterbewegung" title="Zitterbewegung">zitterbewegung</a>), which results in a net circular motion with <a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">precession</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[109]</a> This motion produces both the spin and the magnetic moment of the electron.<a href="#cite_note-curtis74-16">[14]</a> In atoms, this creation of virtual photons explains the <a href="/wiki/Lamb_shift" title="Lamb shift">Lamb shift</a> observed in <a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">spectral lines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-genz-108">[103]</a> The Compton Wavelength shows that near elementary particles such as the electron, the uncertainty of the energy allows for the creation of virtual particles near the electron. This wavelength explains the "static" of virtual particles around elementary particles at a close distance. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interaction">Interaction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Interaction">edit</a>]</div> An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive charge, such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge. The strength of this force in nonrelativistic approximation is determined by <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb's inverse square law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths1998-115">[110]</a>: 58–61  When an electron is in motion, it generates a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>.<a href="#cite_note-munowitz-105">[100]</a>: 140  The <a href="/wiki/Amp%C3%A8re%27s_circuital_law" title="Ampère's circuital law">Ampère–Maxwell law</a> relates the magnetic field to the mass motion of electrons (the <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a>) with respect to an observer. This property of induction supplies the magnetic field that drives an <a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">electric motor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-116">[111]</a> The electromagnetic field of an arbitrary moving charged particle is expressed by the <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A9nard%E2%80%93Wiechert_potential" title="Liénard–Wiechert potential">Liénard–Wiechert potentials</a>, which are valid even when the particle's speed is close to that of light (<a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">relativistic</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths1998-115">[110]</a>: 429–434  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lorentz_force.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A graph with arcs showing the motion of charged particles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Lorentz_force.svg/220px-Lorentz_force.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Lorentz_force.svg/330px-Lorentz_force.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Lorentz_force.svg/440px-Lorentz_force.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>A particle with charge q (at left) is moving with velocity v through a magnetic field B that is oriented toward the viewer. For an electron, q is negative, so it follows a curved trajectory toward the top.</figcaption></figure> When an electron is moving through a magnetic field, it is subject to the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_force" title="Lorentz force">Lorentz force</a> that acts perpendicularly to the plane defined by the magnetic field and the electron velocity. This <a href="/wiki/Centripetal_force" title="Centripetal force">centripetal force</a> causes the electron to follow a <a href="/wiki/Helix" title="Helix">helical</a> trajectory through the field at a radius called the <a href="/wiki/Gyroradius" title="Gyroradius">gyroradius</a>. The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the form of synchrotron radiation.<a href="#cite_note-117">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[f]</a><a href="#cite_note-munowitz-105">[100]</a>: 160  The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the electron, known as the <a href="/wiki/Abraham%E2%80%93Lorentz_force#Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac_Force" title="Abraham–Lorentz force">Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac Force</a>, which creates a friction that slows the electron. This force is caused by a <a href="/wiki/Back-reaction" title="Back-reaction">back-reaction</a> of the electron's own field upon itself.<a href="#cite_note-119">[113]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bremsstrahlung.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A curve shows the motion of the electron, a red dot shows the nucleus, and a wiggly line the emitted photon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Bremsstrahlung.svg/170px-Bremsstrahlung.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Bremsstrahlung.svg/255px-Bremsstrahlung.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Bremsstrahlung.svg/340px-Bremsstrahlung.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="270" /></a><figcaption>Here, <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a> is produced by an electron e deflected by the electric field of an atomic nucleus. The energy change E2 − E1 determines the frequency f of the emitted photon.</figcaption></figure> Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">quantum electrodynamics</a>. An isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a>. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum between two charged particles. This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb force.<a href="#cite_note-120">[114]</a> Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The deceleration of the electron results in the emission of <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a> radiation.<a href="#cite_note-121">[115]</a> An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron is called <a href="/wiki/Compton_scattering" title="Compton scattering">Compton scattering</a>. This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the <a href="/wiki/Compton_scattering" title="Compton scattering">Compton shift</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[g]</a> The maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is h/mec, which is known as the <a href="/wiki/Compton_wavelength" title="Compton wavelength">Compton wavelength</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[116]</a> For an electron, it has a value of 2.43×10−12 m.<a href="#cite_note-CODATA-83">[80]</a> When the wavelength of the light is long (for instance, the wavelength of the <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">visible light</a> is 0.4–0.7 μm) the wavelength shift becomes negligible. Such interaction between the light and free electrons is called <a href="/wiki/Thomson_scattering" title="Thomson scattering">Thomson scattering</a> or linear Thomson scattering.<a href="#cite_note-Chen1998-124">[117]</a> The relative strength of the electromagnetic interaction between two charged particles, such as an electron and a proton, is given by the <a href="/wiki/Fine-structure_constant" title="Fine-structure constant">fine-structure constant</a>. This value is a dimensionless quantity formed by the ratio of two energies: the electrostatic energy of attraction (or repulsion) at a separation of one Compton wavelength, and the rest energy of the charge. It is given by α ≈ 0.007297353,<a href="#cite_note-physconst-alpha-125">[118]</a> which is approximately equal to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/137⁠. When electrons and positrons collide, they <a href="/wiki/Electron%E2%80%93positron_annihilation" title="Electron–positron annihilation">annihilate</a> each other, giving rise to two or more gamma ray photons. If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a <a href="/wiki/Positronium" title="Positronium">positronium atom</a> can form before annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1.022 MeV.<a href="#cite_note-126">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[120]</a> On the other hand, a high-energy photon can transform into an electron and a positron by a process called <a href="/wiki/Pair_production" title="Pair production">pair production</a>, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.<a href="#cite_note-128">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[122]</a> In the theory of <a href="/wiki/Electroweak_interaction" title="Electroweak interaction">electroweak interaction</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chirality_(physics)" title="Chirality (physics)">left-handed</a> component of electron's wavefunction forms a <a href="/wiki/Weak_isospin" title="Weak isospin">weak isospin</a> doublet with the <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">electron neutrino</a>. This means that during <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interactions</a>, electron neutrinos behave like electrons. Either member of this doublet can undergo a <a href="/wiki/Charged_current" title="Charged current">charged current</a> interaction by emitting or absorbing a <a href="/wiki/W_boson" class="mw-redirect" title="W boson"> W </a> and be converted into the other member. Charge is conserved during this reaction because the W boson also carries a charge, canceling out any net change during the transmutation. Charged current interactions are responsible for the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive</a> atom. Both the electron and electron neutrino can undergo a <a href="/wiki/Neutral_current" title="Neutral current">neutral current</a> interaction via a <a href="/wiki/Z_boson" class="mw-redirect" title="Z boson"> Z0 </a> exchange, and this is responsible for neutrino–electron <a href="/wiki/Elastic_scattering" title="Elastic scattering">elastic scattering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-quigg-130">[123]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atoms_and_molecules">Atoms and molecules</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Atoms and molecules">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A table of five rows and five columns, with each cell portraying a color-coded probability density" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png/280px-Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png/420px-Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png/560px-Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Probability densities for the first few hydrogen atom orbitals, seen in cross-section. The energy level of a bound electron determines the orbital it occupies, and the color reflects the probability of finding the electron at a given position.</figcaption></figure> An electron can be bound to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force. A system of one or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom. If the number of electrons is different from the nucleus's electrical charge, such an atom is called an <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a>. The wave-like behavior of a bound electron is described by a function called an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">atomic orbital</a>. Each orbital has its own set of quantum numbers such as energy, angular momentum and projection of angular momentum, and only a discrete set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus. According to the Pauli exclusion principle each orbital can be occupied by up to two electrons, which must differ in their <a href="/wiki/Spin_quantum_number" title="Spin quantum number">spin quantum number</a>. Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the emission or absorption of photons with an energy that matches the difference in potential.<a href="#cite_note-Tipler2003-131">[124]</a>: 159–160  Other methods of orbital transfer include collisions with particles, such as electrons, and the <a href="/wiki/Auger_effect" title="Auger effect">Auger effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[125]</a> To escape the atom, the energy of the electron must be increased above its <a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">binding energy</a> to the atom. This occurs, for example, with the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a>, where an incident photon exceeding the atom's <a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">ionization energy</a> is absorbed by the electron.<a href="#cite_note-Tipler2003-131">[124]</a>: 127–132  The orbital angular momentum of electrons is <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum_operator#Quantization" title="Angular momentum operator">quantized</a>. Because the electron is charged, it produces an orbital magnetic moment that is proportional to the angular momentum. The net magnetic moment of an atom is equal to the vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments of all electrons and the nucleus. The magnetic moment of the nucleus is negligible compared with that of the electrons. The magnetic moments of the electrons that occupy the same orbital, called paired electrons, cancel each other out.<a href="#cite_note-133">[126]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bond</a> between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions, as described by the laws of quantum mechanics.<a href="#cite_note-134">[127]</a> The strongest bonds are formed by the <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">sharing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electron_transfer" title="Electron transfer">transfer</a> of electrons between atoms, allowing the formation of <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pauling-19">[17]</a> Within a molecule, electrons move under the influence of several nuclei, and occupy <a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital" title="Molecular orbital">molecular orbitals</a>; much as they can occupy atomic orbitals in isolated atoms.<a href="#cite_note-135">[128]</a> A fundamental factor in these molecular structures is the existence of <a href="/wiki/Electron_pair" title="Electron pair">electron pairs</a>. These are electrons with opposed spins, allowing them to occupy the same molecular orbital without violating the Pauli exclusion principle (much like in atoms). Different molecular orbitals have different spatial distribution of the electron density. For instance, in bonded pairs (i.e. in the pairs that actually bind atoms together) electrons can be found with the maximal probability in a relatively small volume between the nuclei. By contrast, in non-bonded pairs electrons are distributed in a large volume around nuclei.<a href="#cite_note-136">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conductivity">Conductivity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Conductivity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lightning_over_Oradea_Romania_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Four bolts of lightning strike the ground" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Lightning_over_Oradea_Romania_cropped.jpg/220px-Lightning_over_Oradea_Romania_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Lightning_over_Oradea_Romania_cropped.jpg/330px-Lightning_over_Oradea_Romania_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Lightning_over_Oradea_Romania_cropped.jpg/440px-Lightning_over_Oradea_Romania_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1935" data-file-height="2038" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> discharge consists primarily of a flow of electrons.<a href="#cite_note-137">[130]</a> The electric potential needed for lightning can be generated by a triboelectric effect.<a href="#cite_note-138">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[132]</a></figcaption></figure> If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei, then that object has a net electric charge. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei, the object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the <a href="/wiki/Triboelectric_effect" title="Triboelectric effect">triboelectric effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[133]</a> Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed free electrons. Electrons in metals also behave as if they were free. In reality the particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other solids are quasi-electrons—<a href="/wiki/Quasiparticle" title="Quasiparticle">quasiparticles</a>, which have the same electrical charge, spin, and magnetic moment as real electrons but might have a different mass.<a href="#cite_note-Liang-fu_Lou-141">[134]</a> When free electrons—both in vacuum and metals—move, they produce a <a href="/wiki/Flow_network" title="Flow network">net flow</a> of charge called an <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a>, which generates a magnetic field. Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field. These interactions are described mathematically by <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[135]</a> At a given temperature, each material has an <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">electrical conductivity</a> that determines the value of electric current when an <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">electric potential</a> is applied. Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper and gold, whereas glass and <a href="/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylene" title="Polytetrafluoroethylene">Teflon</a> are poor conductors. In any <a href="/wiki/Dielectric" title="Dielectric">dielectric</a> material, the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">insulator</a>. Most <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a> have a variable level of conductivity that lies between the extremes of conduction and insulation.<a href="#cite_note-143">[136]</a> On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Metallic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Metallic bond">metals</a> have an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_band_structure" title="Electronic band structure">electronic band structure</a> containing partially filled electronic bands. The presence of such bands allows electrons in metals to behave as if they were free or <a href="/wiki/Delocalized_electron" title="Delocalized electron">delocalized electrons</a>. These electrons are not associated with specific atoms, so when an electric field is applied, they are free to move like a gas (called <a href="/wiki/Fermi_gas" title="Fermi gas">Fermi gas</a>)<a href="#cite_note-ziman-144">[137]</a> through the material much like free electrons. Because of collisions between electrons and atoms, the <a href="/wiki/Drift_velocity" title="Drift velocity">drift velocity</a> of electrons in a conductor is on the order of millimeters per second. However, the speed at which a change of current at one point in the material causes changes in currents in other parts of the material, the <a href="/wiki/Wave_propagation_speed" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave propagation speed">velocity of propagation</a>, is typically about 75% of light speed.<a href="#cite_note-145">[138]</a> This occurs because electrical signals propagate as a wave, with the velocity dependent on the <a href="/wiki/Relative_permittivity" title="Relative permittivity">dielectric constant</a> of the material.<a href="#cite_note-146">[139]</a> Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by the <a href="/wiki/Wiedemann%E2%80%93Franz_law" title="Wiedemann–Franz law">Wiedemann–Franz law</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ziman-144">[137]</a> which states that the ratio of <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a> to the electrical conductivity is proportional to the temperature. The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases the electrical <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">resistivity</a> of the material, producing a temperature dependence for electric current.<a href="#cite_note-durrant-147">[140]</a> When cooled below a point called the <a href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">critical temperature</a>, materials can undergo a phase transition in which they lose all resistivity to electric current, in a process known as <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductivity</a>. In <a href="/wiki/BCS_theory" title="BCS theory">BCS theory</a>, pairs of electrons called <a href="/wiki/Cooper_pair" title="Cooper pair">Cooper pairs</a> have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called <a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">phonons</a>, thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical resistance.<a href="#cite_note-148">[141]</a> (Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100 nm, so they can overlap each other.)<a href="#cite_note-149">[142]</a> However, the mechanism by which <a href="/wiki/Unconventional_superconductor" title="Unconventional superconductor">higher temperature superconductors</a> operate remains uncertain. Electrons inside conducting solids, which are quasi-particles themselves, when tightly confined at temperatures close to <a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a>, behave as though they had split into three other <a href="/wiki/Quasiparticle" title="Quasiparticle">quasiparticles</a>: <a href="/wiki/Spinon" title="Spinon">spinons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orbiton" title="Orbiton">orbitons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Holon_(physics)" title="Holon (physics)">holons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[144]</a> The former carries spin and magnetic moment, the next carries its orbital location while the latter electrical charge. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motion_and_energy">Motion and energy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Motion and energy">edit</a>]</div> According to <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein's</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>, as an electron's speed approaches the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>, from an observer's point of view its <a href="/wiki/Mass_in_special_relativity" title="Mass in special relativity">relativistic mass</a> increases, thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference. The speed of an electron can approach, but never reach, the speed of light in vacuum, c. However, when relativistic electrons—that is, electrons moving at a speed close to c—are injected into a dielectric medium such as water, where the local speed of light is significantly less than c, the electrons temporarily travel faster than light in the medium. As they interact with the medium, they generate a faint light called <a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[145]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lorentz_factor.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The plot starts at zero and curves sharply upward toward the right" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Lorentz_factor.svg/220px-Lorentz_factor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Lorentz_factor.svg/330px-Lorentz_factor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Lorentz_factor.svg/440px-Lorentz_factor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1102" data-file-height="1118" /></a><figcaption>Lorentz factor as a function of velocity. It starts at value 1 and goes to infinity as v approaches c.</figcaption></figure> The effects of special relativity are based on a quantity known as the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_factor" title="Lorentz factor">Lorentz factor</a>, defined as <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \gamma =1/{\sqrt {1-{v^{2}}/{c^{2}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="1"> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </msqrt> </mrow> </mstyle> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \gamma =1/{\sqrt {1-{v^{2}}/{c^{2}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/63762927b3be00f0e55a4d33065f71f78fcfc73d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:11.553ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \gamma =1/{\sqrt {1-{v^{2}}/{c^{2}}}}}"> where v is the speed of the particle. The kinetic energy Ke of an electron moving with velocity v is: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \displaystyle K_{\mathrm {e} }=(\gamma -1)m_{\mathrm {e} }c^{2},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>K</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \displaystyle K_{\mathrm {e} }=(\gamma -1)m_{\mathrm {e} }c^{2},}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e42637fd9232874fb72329a18d1ce7fdfc5addb8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:18.819ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \displaystyle K_{\mathrm {e} }=(\gamma -1)m_{\mathrm {e} }c^{2},}"></dd></dl> where me is the mass of electron. For example, the <a href="/wiki/SLAC_National_Accelerator_Laboratory" title="SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory">Stanford linear accelerator</a> can <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">accelerate</a> an electron to roughly 51 GeV.<a href="#cite_note-153">[146]</a> Since an electron behaves as a wave, at a given velocity it has a characteristic <a href="/wiki/Matter_wave" title="Matter wave">de Broglie wavelength</a>. This is given by λe = h/p where h is the <a href="/wiki/Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">Planck constant</a> and p is the momentum.<a href="#cite_note-de_broglie-63">[60]</a> For the 51 GeV electron above, the wavelength is about 2.4×10−17 m, small enough to explore structures well below the size of an atomic nucleus.<a href="#cite_note-154">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Formation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pair_production.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A photon approaches the nucleus from the left, with the resulting electron and positron moving off to the right" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Pair_production.png/220px-Pair_production.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Pair_production.png/330px-Pair_production.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Pair_production.png/440px-Pair_production.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pair_production" title="Pair production">Pair production</a> of an electron and positron, caused by the close approach of a photon with an atomic nucleus. The lightning symbol represents an exchange of a virtual photon, thus an electric force acts. The angle between the particles is very small.<a href="#cite_note-155">[148]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe.<a href="#cite_note-156">[149]</a> For the first millisecond of the Big Bang, the temperatures were over 10 billion <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvins</a> and photons had mean energies over a million <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">electronvolts</a>. These photons were sufficiently energetic that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons. Likewise, positron–electron pairs annihilated each other and emitted energetic photons: <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon"> γ </a> + γ ↔ <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron"> e+ </a> + e− </dd></dl> An equilibrium between electrons, positrons and photons was maintained during this phase of the evolution of the Universe. After 15 seconds had passed, however, the temperature of the universe dropped below the threshold where electron-positron formation could occur. Most of the surviving electrons and positrons annihilated each other, releasing gamma radiation that briefly reheated the universe.<a href="#cite_note-157">[150]</a> For reasons that remain uncertain, during the annihilation process there was an excess in the number of particles over antiparticles. Hence, about one electron for every billion electron–positron pairs survived. This excess matched the excess of protons over antiprotons, in a condition known as <a href="/wiki/Baryon_asymmetry" title="Baryon asymmetry">baryon asymmetry</a>, resulting in a net charge of zero for the universe.<a href="#cite_note-158">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[152]</a> The surviving protons and neutrons began to participate in reactions with each other—in the process known as <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">nucleosynthesis</a>, forming isotopes of hydrogen and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, with trace amounts of <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a>. This process peaked after about five minutes.<a href="#cite_note-160">[153]</a> Any leftover neutrons underwent negative <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a> with a half-life of about a thousand seconds, releasing a proton and electron in the process, <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron"> n </a> → <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton"> p </a> + e− + <a href="/wiki/Electron_antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron antineutrino"> ν e</a></dd></dl> For about the next 300000–400000 years, the excess electrons remained too energetic to bind with <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nuclei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[154]</a> What followed is a period known as <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe#Recombination,_photon_decoupling,_and_the_cosmic_microwave_background_(CMB)" title="Chronology of the universe">recombination</a>, when neutral atoms were formed and the expanding universe became transparent to radiation.<a href="#cite_note-science5789-162">[155]</a> Roughly one million years after the big bang, the first generation of <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> began to form.<a href="#cite_note-science5789-162">[155]</a> Within a star, <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">stellar nucleosynthesis</a> results in the production of positrons from the fusion of atomic nuclei. These antimatter particles immediately annihilate with electrons, releasing gamma rays. The net result is a steady reduction in the number of electrons, and a matching increase in the number of neutrons. However, the process of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">stellar evolution</a> can result in the synthesis of radioactive isotopes. Selected isotopes can subsequently undergo negative beta decay, emitting an electron and antineutrino from the nucleus.<a href="#cite_note-163">[156]</a> An example is the <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> (60Co) isotope, which decays to form <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_nickel" title="Isotopes of nickel">nickel-60</a> (60 Ni ).<a href="#cite_note-164">[157]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AirShower.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A branching tree representing the particle production" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/AirShower.svg/220px-AirShower.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/AirShower.svg/330px-AirShower.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/AirShower.svg/440px-AirShower.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>An extended air shower generated by an energetic cosmic ray striking the Earth's atmosphere</figcaption></figure> At the end of its lifetime, a star with more than about 20 <a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass">solar masses</a> can undergo <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">gravitational collapse</a> to form a <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[158]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a>, these massive stellar objects exert a <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitational attraction</a> that is strong enough to prevent anything, even <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>, from escaping past the <a href="/wiki/Schwarzschild_radius" title="Schwarzschild radius">Schwarzschild radius</a>. However, quantum mechanical effects are believed to potentially allow the emission of <a href="/wiki/Hawking_radiation" title="Hawking radiation">Hawking radiation</a> at this distance. Electrons (and positrons) are thought to be created at the <a href="/wiki/Event_horizon" title="Event horizon">event horizon</a> of these <a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">stellar remnants</a>. When a pair of virtual particles (such as an electron and positron) is created in the vicinity of the event horizon, random spatial positioning might result in one of them to appear on the exterior; this process is called <a href="/wiki/Quantum_tunnelling" title="Quantum tunnelling">quantum tunnelling</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_potential" title="Gravitational potential">gravitational potential</a> of the black hole can then supply the energy that transforms this virtual particle into a real particle, allowing it to radiate away into space.<a href="#cite_note-166">[159]</a> In exchange, the other member of the pair is given negative energy, which results in a net loss of mass–energy by the black hole. The rate of Hawking radiation increases with decreasing mass, eventually causing the black hole to evaporate away until, finally, it explodes.<a href="#cite_note-167">[160]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic rays</a> are particles traveling through space with high energies. Energy events as high as 3.0×1020 eV have been recorded.<a href="#cite_note-168">[161]</a> When these particles collide with nucleons in the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Earth's atmosphere</a>, a shower of particles is generated, including <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[162]</a> More than half of the cosmic radiation observed from the Earth's surface consists of <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muons</a>. The particle called a muon is a lepton produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion. <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion"> π− </a> → <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon"> μ− </a> + <a href="/wiki/Muon_antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Muon antineutrino"> ν μ</a></dd></dl> A muon, in turn, can decay to form an electron or positron.<a href="#cite_note-170">[163]</a> <dl><dd> μ− → e− + <a href="/wiki/Electron_antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron antineutrino"> ν e</a> + <a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino"> ν μ</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Observation">Observation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Observation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aurore_australe_-_Aurora_australis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A swirling green glow in the night sky above snow-covered ground" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Aurore_australe_-_Aurora_australis.jpg/220px-Aurore_australe_-_Aurora_australis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Aurore_australe_-_Aurora_australis.jpg/330px-Aurore_australe_-_Aurora_australis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Aurore_australe_-_Aurora_australis.jpg/440px-Aurore_australe_-_Aurora_australis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aurora_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora (astronomy)">Aurorae</a> are mostly caused by energetic electrons precipitating into the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[164]</a></figcaption></figure> Remote observation of electrons requires detection of their radiated energy. For example, in high-energy environments such as the <a href="/wiki/Stellar_corona" title="Stellar corona">corona</a> of a star, free electrons form a <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> that radiates energy due to <a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a> radiation. Electron gas can undergo <a href="/wiki/Plasma_oscillation" title="Plasma oscillation">plasma oscillation</a>, which is waves caused by synchronized variations in electron density, and these produce energy emissions that can be detected by using <a href="/wiki/Radio_telescope" title="Radio telescope">radio telescopes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-172">[165]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequency</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> is proportional to its energy. As a bound electron transitions between different energy levels of an atom, it absorbs or emits photons at characteristic frequencies. For instance, when atoms are irradiated by a source with a broad spectrum, distinct <a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">dark lines</a> appear in the spectrum of transmitted radiation in places where the corresponding frequency is absorbed by the atom's electrons. Each element or molecule displays a characteristic set of spectral lines, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_spectral_series" title="Hydrogen spectral series">hydrogen spectral series</a>. When detected, <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopic</a> measurements of the strength and width of these lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.<a href="#cite_note-173">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[167]</a> In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of <a href="/wiki/Particle_detector" title="Particle detector">particle detectors</a>, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge.<a href="#cite_note-grupen-175">[168]</a> The development of the <a href="/wiki/Quadrupole_ion_trap" title="Quadrupole ion trap">Paul trap</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penning_trap" title="Penning trap">Penning trap</a> allows charged particles to be contained within a small region for long durations. This enables precise measurements of the particle properties. For example, in one instance a Penning trap was used to contain a single electron for a period of 10 months.<a href="#cite_note-nobel1989-176">[169]</a> The magnetic moment of the electron was measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant.<a href="#cite_note-177">[170]</a> The first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at <a href="/wiki/Lund_University" title="Lund University">Lund University</a> in Sweden, February 2008. The scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called <a href="/wiki/Attosecond" title="Attosecond">attosecond</a> pulses, which allowed an electron's motion to be observed for the first time.<a href="#cite_note-178">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mauritsson-179">[172]</a> The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can be visualized by <a href="/wiki/Angle-resolved_photoemission_spectroscopy" title="Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy">angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy</a> (ARPES). This technique employs the photoelectric effect to measure the <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_lattice" title="Reciprocal lattice">reciprocal space</a>—a mathematical representation of periodic structures that is used to infer the original structure. ARPES can be used to determine the direction, speed and scattering of electrons within the material.<a href="#cite_note-180">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plasma_applications">Plasma applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Plasma applications">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particle_beams">Particle beams</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Particle beams">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasa_Shuttle_Test_Using_Electron_Beam_full.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A violet beam from above produces a blue glow about a Space shuttle model" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Nasa_Shuttle_Test_Using_Electron_Beam_full.jpg/220px-Nasa_Shuttle_Test_Using_Electron_Beam_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Nasa_Shuttle_Test_Using_Electron_Beam_full.jpg/330px-Nasa_Shuttle_Test_Using_Electron_Beam_full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Nasa_Shuttle_Test_Using_Electron_Beam_full.jpg/440px-Nasa_Shuttle_Test_Using_Electron_Beam_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>During a <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> <a href="/wiki/Wind_tunnel" title="Wind tunnel">wind tunnel</a> test, a model of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> is targeted by a beam of electrons, simulating the effect of <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ionizing</a> gases during <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_entry" title="Atmospheric entry">re-entry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[174]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray" title="Cathode ray">Electron beams</a> are used in <a href="/wiki/Electron_beam_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron beam welding">welding</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[175]</a> They allow energy densities up to 107 W·cm−2 across a narrow focus diameter of 0.1–1.3 mm and usually require no filler material. This welding technique must be performed in a vacuum to prevent the electrons from interacting with the gas before reaching their target, and it can be used to join conductive materials that would otherwise be considered unsuitable for welding.<a href="#cite_note-183">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[177]</a> <a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_lithography" title="Electron-beam lithography">Electron-beam lithography</a> (EBL) is a method of etching semiconductors at resolutions smaller than a <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-185">[178]</a> This technique is limited by high costs, slow performance, the need to operate the beam in the vacuum and the tendency of the electrons to scatter in solids. The last problem limits the resolution to about 10 nm. For this reason, EBL is primarily used for the production of small numbers of specialized <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Electron_beam_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron beam processing">Electron beam processing</a> is used to irradiate materials in order to change their physical properties or <a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">sterilize</a> medical and food products.<a href="#cite_note-187">[180]</a> Electron beams fluidise or quasi-melt glasses without significant increase of temperature on intensive irradiation: e.g. intensive electron radiation causes a many orders of magnitude decrease of viscosity and stepwise decrease of its activation energy.<a href="#cite_note-188">[181]</a> <a href="/wiki/Linear_particle_accelerator" title="Linear particle accelerator">Linear particle accelerators</a> generate electron beams for treatment of superficial tumors in <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Electron_therapy" title="Electron therapy">Electron therapy</a> can treat such skin lesions as <a href="/wiki/Basal-cell_carcinoma" title="Basal-cell carcinoma">basal-cell carcinomas</a> because an electron beam only penetrates to a limited depth before being absorbed, typically up to 5 cm for electron energies in the range 5–20 MeV. An electron beam can be used to supplement the treatment of areas that have been irradiated by <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[183]</a> <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerators</a> use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies. These particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields. The dependency of the intensity of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam—a process known as the <a href="/wiki/Sokolov%E2%80%93Ternov_effect" title="Sokolov–Ternov effect">Sokolov–Ternov effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-191">[h]</a> Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments. <a href="/wiki/Synchrotron" title="Synchrotron">Synchrotron</a> radiation can also <a href="/wiki/Radiation_damping" title="Radiation damping">cool</a> the electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the particles. Electron and positron beams are collided upon the particles' accelerating to the required energies; <a href="/wiki/Particle_detector" title="Particle detector">particle detectors</a> observe the resulting energy emissions, which <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> studies.<a href="#cite_note-192">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imaging">Imaging</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Imaging">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Low-energy_electron_diffraction" title="Low-energy electron diffraction">Low-energy electron diffraction</a> (LEED) is a method of bombarding a crystalline material with a <a href="/wiki/Collimated_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Collimated light">collimated beam</a> of electrons and then observing the resulting diffraction patterns to determine the structure of the material. The required energy of the electrons is typically in the range 20–200 eV.<a href="#cite_note-193">[185]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Reflection_high-energy_electron_diffraction" title="Reflection high-energy electron diffraction">reflection high-energy electron diffraction</a> (RHEED) technique uses the reflection of a beam of electrons fired at various low angles to characterize the surface of crystalline materials. The beam energy is typically in the range 8–20 keV and the angle of incidence is 1–4°.<a href="#cite_note-194">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[187]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a> directs a focused beam of electrons at a specimen. Some electrons change their properties, such as movement direction, angle, and relative phase and energy as the beam interacts with the material. Microscopists can record these changes in the electron beam to produce atomically resolved images of the material.<a href="#cite_note-196">[188]</a> In blue light, conventional <a href="/wiki/Optical_microscope" title="Optical microscope">optical microscopes</a> have a diffraction-limited resolution of about 200 nm.<a href="#cite_note-197">[189]</a> By comparison, electron microscopes are limited by the <a href="/wiki/Matter_wave" title="Matter wave">de Broglie wavelength</a> of the electron. This wavelength, for example, is equal to 0.0037 nm for electrons accelerated across a 100,000-<a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volt</a> potential.<a href="#cite_note-198">[190]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Transmission_Electron_Aberration-Corrected_Microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected Microscope">Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected Microscope</a> is capable of sub-0.05 nm resolution, which is more than enough to resolve individual atoms.<a href="#cite_note-199">[191]</a> This capability makes the electron microscope a useful laboratory instrument for high resolution imaging. However, electron microscopes are expensive instruments that are costly to maintain. Two main types of electron microscopes exist: <a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Transmission electron microscopy">transmission</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">scanning</a>. Transmission electron microscopes function like <a href="/wiki/Overhead_projector" title="Overhead projector">overhead projectors</a>, with a beam of electrons passing through a slice of material then being projected by lenses on a <a href="/wiki/Reversal_film" title="Reversal film">photographic slide</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a>. Scanning electron microscopes <a href="/wiki/Raster_scan" title="Raster scan">rasteri</a> a finely focused electron beam, as in a TV set, across the studied sample to produce the image. Magnifications range from 100× to 1,000,000× or higher for both microscope types. The <a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope" title="Scanning tunneling microscope">scanning tunneling microscope</a> uses quantum tunneling of electrons from a sharp metal tip into the studied material and can produce atomically resolved images of its surface.<a href="#cite_note-bozzola_1999-200">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_applications">Other applications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Other applications">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Free-electron_laser" title="Free-electron laser">free-electron laser</a> (FEL), a <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_electron_beam" title="Relativistic electron beam">relativistic electron beam</a> passes through a pair of <a href="/wiki/Undulator" title="Undulator">undulators</a> that contain arrays of <a href="/wiki/Dipole_magnet" title="Dipole magnet">dipole magnets</a> whose fields point in alternating directions. The electrons emit synchrotron radiation that <a href="/wiki/Coherence_(physics)" title="Coherence (physics)">coherently</a> interacts with the same electrons to strongly amplify the radiation field at the <a href="/wiki/Resonance" title="Resonance">resonance</a> frequency. FEL can emit a coherent high-<a href="/wiki/Radiance" title="Radiance">brilliance</a> electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of frequencies, from <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwaves</a> to soft X-rays. These devices are used in manufacturing, communication, and in medical applications, such as soft tissue surgery.<a href="#cite_note-203">[195]</a> Electrons are important in <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tubes</a>, which have been extensively used as display devices in laboratory instruments, <a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">computer monitors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Television_set" title="Television set">television sets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[196]</a> In a <a href="/wiki/Photomultiplier" title="Photomultiplier">photomultiplier</a> tube, every photon striking the <a href="/wiki/Photocathode" title="Photocathode">photocathode</a> initiates an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable current pulse.<a href="#cite_note-205">[197]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a> use the flow of electrons to manipulate electrical signals, and they played a critical role in the development of electronics technology. However, they have been largely supplanted by <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_(electronics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state (electronics)">solid-state devices</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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title="One-electron universe">One-electron universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_systems_of_small_molecules" title="Periodic systems of small molecules">Periodic systems of small molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spintronics" title="Spintronics">Spintronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach_experiment" title="Stern–Gerlach experiment">Stern–Gerlach experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Townsend_discharge" title="Townsend discharge">Townsend discharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeeman_effect" title="Zeeman effect">Zeeman effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">Positron</a> or antielectron is a antiparticle or antimatter counter part of the electron</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> The positron is occasionally called the 'anti-electron'. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> The fractional version's denominator is the inverse of the decimal value (along with its relative standard uncertainty of 2.9×10−11). </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Older sources list charge-to-mass rather than the modern convention of mass-to-charge ratio. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Bohr magneton: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \textstyle \mu _{\mathrm {B} }={\frac {e\hbar }{2m_{\mathrm {e} }}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>e</mi> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \textstyle \mu _{\mathrm {B} }={\frac {e\hbar }{2m_{\mathrm {e} }}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4dfdb4e0d4015369b04eb2f4b0565c41a09df158" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.505ex; width:9.754ex; height:4.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \textstyle \mu _{\mathrm {B} }={\frac {e\hbar }{2m_{\mathrm {e} }}}}"></dd></dl> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> The classical electron radius is derived as follows. Assume that the electron's charge is spread uniformly throughout a spherical volume. Since one part of the sphere would repel the other parts, the sphere contains electrostatic potential energy. This energy is assumed to equal the electron's <a href="/wiki/Invariant_mass#Rest_energy" title="Invariant mass">rest energy</a>, defined by <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a> (E = mc2). From <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">electrostatics</a> theory, the <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential energy</a> of a sphere with radius r and charge e is given by: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {p} }={\frac {e^{2}}{8\pi \varepsilon _{0}r}},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mn>8</mn> <mi>π</mi> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {p} }={\frac {e^{2}}{8\pi \varepsilon _{0}r}},}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/238db178ce107ab71d2e0476ce4e45d4d5b36556" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:13.124ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {p} }={\frac {e^{2}}{8\pi \varepsilon _{0}r}},}"></dd></dl> where ε0 is the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_permittivity" title="Vacuum permittivity">vacuum permittivity</a>. For an electron with rest mass m0, the rest energy is equal to: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \textstyle E_{\mathrm {p} }=m_{0}c^{2},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \textstyle E_{\mathrm {p} }=m_{0}c^{2},}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/aa5cf5958808515b7ffc4151ff2c752cd232a63a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:11.762ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \textstyle E_{\mathrm {p} }=m_{0}c^{2},}"></dd></dl> where c is the speed of light in vacuum. Setting them equal and solving for r gives the classical electron radius. See: Haken, Wolf, & Brewer (2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Radiation from non-relativistic electrons is sometimes termed <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron_radiation" title="Cyclotron radiation">cyclotron radiation</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> The change in wavelength, Δλ, depends on the angle of the recoil, θ, as follows, <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \textstyle \Delta \lambda ={\frac {h}{m_{\mathrm {e} }c}}(1-\cos \theta ),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>λ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>h</mi> <mrow> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \textstyle \Delta \lambda ={\frac {h}{m_{\mathrm {e} }c}}(1-\cos \theta ),}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dd4615f4da3949de951dd32a057f8293b71c3aa5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:21.185ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \textstyle \Delta \lambda ={\frac {h}{m_{\mathrm {e} }c}}(1-\cos \theta ),}"></dd></dl> where c is the speed of light in vacuum and me is the electron mass. See Zombeck (2007).<a href="#cite_note-Zombeck2007-84">[81]</a>: 393, 396  </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> The polarization of an electron beam means that the spins of all electrons point into one direction. In other words, the projections of the spins of all electrons onto their momentum vector have the same sign. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Electron&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-prl50-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-prl50_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prl50_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prl50_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEichtenPeskinPeskin1983" class="citation journal cs1">Eichten, E.J.; Peskin, M.E.; Peskin, M. (1983). "New Tests for Quark and Lepton Substructure". <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters" title="Physical Review Letters">Physical Review Letters</a>. 50 (11): 811–814. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983PhRvL..50..811E">1983PhRvL..50..811E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.50.811">10.1103/PhysRevLett.50.811</a>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1446807">1446807</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119918703">119918703</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=New+Tests+for+Quark+and+Lepton+Substructure&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=811-814&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.50.811&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119918703%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1446807%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983PhRvL..50..811E&rft.aulast=Eichten&rft.aufirst=E.J.&rft.au=Peskin%2C+M.E.&rft.au=Peskin%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-farrar-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-farrar_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-farrar_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrar1969" class="citation journal cs1">Farrar, W.V. 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"Richard Laming and the Coal-Gas Industry, with His Views on the Structure of Matter". <a href="/wiki/Annals_of_Science" title="Annals of Science">Annals of Science</a>. 25 (3): 243–254. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033796900200141">10.1080/00033796900200141</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=Richard+Laming+and+the+Coal-Gas+Industry%2C+with+His+Views+on+the+Structure+of+Matter&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=243-254&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033796900200141&rft.aulast=Farrar&rft.aufirst=W.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-arabatzis-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-arabatzis_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-arabatzis_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-arabatzis_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-arabatzis_4-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArabatzis2006" class="citation book cs1">Arabatzis, T. 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Retrieved 2020-08-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Representing+Electrons%3A+A+Biographical+Approach+to+Theoretical+Entities&rft.pages=70-74%2C+96&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-226-02421-9&rft.aulast=Arabatzis&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrZHT-chpLmAC%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-buchwald1-5"><a href="#cite_ref-buchwald1_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="refBaW2001" class="citation book cs1">Buchwald, J.Z.; Warwick, A. 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Retrieved 2020-08-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histories+of+the+Electron%3A+The+Birth+of+Microphysics&rft.pages=195-203&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-262-52424-7&rft.aulast=Buchwald&rft.aufirst=J.Z.&rft.au=Warwick%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1yqqhlIdCOoC%26pg%3DPA195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-thomson-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thomson_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thomson_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thomson_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thomson_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thomson_6-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thomson_6-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson1897" class="citation journal cs1">Thomson, J.J. 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Retrieved 2022-02-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=Cathode+Rays&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=269&rft.pages=293-316&rft.date=1897&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786449708621070&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=J.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.lemoyne.edu%2F~GIUNTA%2Fthomson1897.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-physconst-me-7"><a href="#cite_ref-physconst-me_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?me">"2022 CODATA Value: electron mass"</a>. The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+NIST+Reference+on+Constants%2C+Units%2C+and+Uncertainty&rft.atitle=2022+CODATA+Value%3A+electron+mass&rft.date=2024-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcuu%2FValue%3Fme&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-physconst-meDa-8"><a href="#cite_ref-physconst-meDa_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?meu">"2022 CODATA Value: electron mass in u"</a>. The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+NIST+Reference+on+Constants%2C+Units%2C+and+Uncertainty&rft.atitle=2022+CODATA+Value%3A+electron+mass+in+u&rft.date=2024-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcuu%2FValue%3Fmeu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-physconst-mec2MeV-10"><a href="#cite_ref-physconst-mec2MeV_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mec2mev">"2022 CODATA Value: electron mass energy equivalent in MeV"</a>. The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+NIST+Reference+on+Constants%2C+Units%2C+and+Uncertainty&rft.atitle=2022+CODATA+Value%3A+electron+mass+energy+equivalent+in+MeV&rft.date=2024-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcuu%2FValue%3Fmec2mev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bx2015-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bx2015_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bx2015_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgostini2015" class="citation journal cs1">Agostini, M.; et al. (<a href="/wiki/Borexino" title="Borexino">Borexino</a> Collaboration) (2015). "Test of electric charge conservation with Borexino". <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters" title="Physical Review Letters">Physical Review Letters</a>. 115 (23): 231802. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1509.01223">1509.01223</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PhRvL.115w1802A">2015PhRvL.115w1802A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.115.231802">10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.231802</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26684111">26684111</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206265225">206265225</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Test+of+electric+charge+conservation+with+Borexino&rft.volume=115&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=231802&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206265225%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PhRvL.115w1802A&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1509.01223&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26684111&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.115.231802&rft.aulast=Agostini&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-physconst-e-12"><a href="#cite_ref-physconst-e_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?e">"2022 CODATA Value: elementary charge"</a>. The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+NIST+Reference+on+Constants%2C+Units%2C+and+Uncertainty&rft.atitle=2022+CODATA+Value%3A+elementary+charge&rft.date=2024-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcuu%2FValue%3Fe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-physconst-mue-13"><a href="#cite_ref-physconst-mue_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?muem">"2022 CODATA Value: electron magnetic moment"</a>. The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+NIST+Reference+on+Constants%2C+Units%2C+and+Uncertainty&rft.atitle=2022+CODATA+Value%3A+electron+magnetic+moment&rft.date=2024-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcuu%2FValue%3Fmuem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?muemsmub">"2018 CODATA Value: electron magnetic moment to Bohr magneton ratio"</a>. The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. 20 May 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20001202075600/https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?muemsmub">Archived</a> from the original on 2000-12-02. Retrieved 2022-11-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+NIST+Reference+on+Constants%2C+Units%2C+and+Uncertainty&rft.atitle=2018+CODATA+Value%3A+electron+magnetic+moment+to+Bohr+magneton+ratio&rft.date=2019-05-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcuu%2FValue%3Fmuemsmub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoffey2010" class="citation web cs1">Coffey, Jerry (10 September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.universetoday.com/73323/what-is-an-electron/">"What is an electron?"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121111231002/http://www.universetoday.com/73323/what-is-an-electron/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2012. Retrieved 10 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+an+electron%3F&rft.date=2010-09-10&rft.aulast=Coffey&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.universetoday.com%2F73323%2Fwhat-is-an-electron%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-curtis74-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-curtis74_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-curtis74_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-curtis74_16-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtis2003" class="citation book cs1">Curtis, L.J. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KmwCsuvxClAC&pg=PA74">Atomic Structure and Lifetimes: A conceptual approach</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53635-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53635-6"><bdi>978-0-521-53635-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200316220442/https://books.google.com/books?id=KmwCsuvxClAC&pg=PA74">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-03-16. Retrieved 2020-08-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atomic+Structure+and+Lifetimes%3A+A+conceptual+approach&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-53635-6&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=L.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKmwCsuvxClAC%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nist_codata_mu-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nist_codata_mu_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nist_codata_mu_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mpsme">"CODATA value: proton-electron mass ratio"</a>. 2006 CODATA recommended values. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190328001314/https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mpsme">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=2006+CODATA+recommended+values&rft.atitle=CODATA+value%3A+proton-electron+mass+ratio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcuu%2FValue%3Fmpsme&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-anastopoulos1-18"><a href="#cite_ref-anastopoulos1_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnastopoulos2008" class="citation book cs1">Anastopoulos, C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rDEvQZhpltEC&pg=PA236">Particle Or Wave: The Evolution of the Concept of Matter in Modern Physics</a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 236–237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13512-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13512-0"><bdi>978-0-691-13512-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140928082921/http://books.google.com/books?id=rDEvQZhpltEC&pg=PA236">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-09-28. Retrieved 2020-08-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Particle+Or+Wave%3A+The+Evolution+of+the+Concept+of+Matter+in+Modern+Physics&rft.pages=236-237&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13512-0&rft.aulast=Anastopoulos&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrDEvQZhpltEC%26pg%3DPA236&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pauling-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pauling_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pauling_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1960" class="citation book cs1">Pauling, L.C. (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical0000paul_3ed/page/4">The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry</a> (3rd ed.). Cornell University Press. pp. 4–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-0333-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-0333-0"><bdi>978-0-8014-0333-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Chemical+Bond+and+the+Structure+of+Molecules+and+Crystals%3A+an+introduction+to+modern+structural+chemistry&rft.pages=4-10&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-0333-0&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=L.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnatureofchemical0000paul_3ed%2Fpage%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DictOrigins-20"><a href="#cite_ref-DictOrigins_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShipley1945" class="citation book cs1">Shipley, J.T. (1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00ship/page/133">Dictionary of Word Origins</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Philosophical_Library" title="The Philosophical Library">The Philosophical Library</a>. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88029-751-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88029-751-6"><bdi>978-0-88029-751-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Word+Origins&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=The+Philosophical+Library&rft.date=1945&rft.isbn=978-0-88029-751-6&rft.aulast=Shipley&rft.aufirst=J.T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdictionaryofword00ship%2Fpage%2F133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benjamin-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Benjamin_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benjamin_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenjamin1898" class="citation cs2">Benjamin, Park (1898), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924004128686/page/n10">A history of electricity (The intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin</a>, New York: J. Wiley, pp. 315, 484–5, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-313-10605-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-313-10605-4"><bdi>978-1-313-10605-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+electricity+%28The+intellectual+rise+in+electricity%29+from+antiquity+to+the+days+of+Benjamin+Franklin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=315%2C+484-5&rft.pub=J.+Wiley&rft.date=1898&rft.isbn=978-1-313-10605-4&rft.aulast=Benjamin&rft.aufirst=Park&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924004128686%2Fpage%2Fn10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeithley1999" class="citation book cs1">Keithley, J.F. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uwgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PR7">The Story of Electrical and Magnetic Measurements: From 500 B.C. to the 1940s</a>. <a href="/wiki/IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE Press</a>. pp. 19–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7803-1193-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7803-1193-0"><bdi>978-0-7803-1193-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220204082420/https://books.google.com/books?id=uwgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PR7">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-04. 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Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Physics+in+Its+Elementary+Branches%3A+Including+the+Evolution+of+Physical+Laboratories&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Cajori&rft.aufirst=Florian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofphysics00cajo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/FranklinBenjamin.html">"Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ScienceWorld" class="mw-redirect" title="ScienceWorld">Eric Weisstein's World of Biography</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wolfram_Research" title="Wolfram Research">Wolfram Research</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130827114343/http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/FranklinBenjamin.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 August 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Eric+Weisstein%27s+World+of+Biography&rft.atitle=Benjamin+Franklin+%281706%E2%80%931790%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscienceworld.wolfram.com%2Fbiography%2FFranklinBenjamin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyers2006" class="citation book cs1">Myers, R.L. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basicsofphysics0000myer/page/242">The Basics of Physics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. 242. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32857-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32857-2"><bdi>978-0-313-32857-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Basics+of+Physics&rft.pages=242&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32857-2&rft.aulast=Myers&rft.aufirst=R.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbasicsofphysics0000myer%2Fpage%2F242&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrow1983" class="citation journal cs1">Barrow, J.D. 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IOS Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5199-145-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5199-145-1"><bdi>978-90-5199-145-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160511214552/https://books.google.com/books?id=VHFyngmO95YC&pg=PR11">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2016. Retrieved 29 May 2015. <q>In 1881, Stoney named this electromagnetic 'electrolion'. It came to be called 'electron' from 1891. [...] In 1906, the suggestion to call cathode ray particles 'electrions' was brought up but through the opinion of Lorentz of Holland 'electrons' came to be widely used.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Electron+Tubes&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=IOS+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-90-5199-145-1&rft.aulast=Okamura&rft.aufirst=S%C5%8Dgo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVHFyngmO95YC%26pg%3DPR11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GJStoney-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GJStoney_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GJStoney_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoney1894" class="citation journal cs1">Stoney, G.J. (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1431209">"Of the "Electron," or Atom of Electricity"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Magazine" title="Philosophical Magazine">Philosophical Magazine</a>. 38 (5): 418–420. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786449408620653">10.1080/14786449408620653</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201031080323/https://zenodo.org/record/1431209">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-10-31. Retrieved 2019-08-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=Of+the+%22Electron%2C%22+or+Atom+of+Electricity&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=418-420&rft.date=1894&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786449408620653&rft.aulast=Stoney&rft.aufirst=G.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1431209&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> "electron, n.2". OED Online. March 2013. Oxford University Press. 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Retrieved 2020-08-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atomic+Physics&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Courier+Dover&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-486-65984-8&rft.aulast=Born&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Blin-Stoyle%2C+R.J.&rft.au=Radcliffe%2C+J.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNmM-KujxMtoC%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlücker1858" class="citation journal cs1">Plücker, M. (1858-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14786445808642591">"XLVI. Observations on the electrical discharge through rarefied gases"</a>. The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 16 (109): 408–418. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786445808642591">10.1080/14786445808642591</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1941-5982">1941-5982</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London%2C+Edinburgh%2C+and+Dublin+Philosophical+Magazine+and+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=XLVI.+Observations+on+the+electrical+discharge+through+rarefied+gases&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=109&rft.pages=408-418&rft.date=1858-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786445808642591&rft.issn=1941-5982&rft.aulast=Pl%C3%BCcker&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F14786445808642591&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarrigol2003" class="citation book cs1">Darrigol, Olivier (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ysMf2pAid94C&pg=PA277">Electrodynamics from Ampère to Einstein</a>. 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"Ersetzung der Hypothese vom unmechanischen Zwang durch eine Forderung bezüglich des inneren Verhaltens jedes einzelnen Elektrons". <a href="/wiki/Naturwissenschaften" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturwissenschaften">Die Naturwissenschaften</a> (in German). 13 (47): 953–954. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1925NW.....13..953E">1925NW.....13..953E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01558878">10.1007/BF01558878</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32211960">32211960</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Die+Naturwissenschaften&rft.atitle=Ersetzung+der+Hypothese+vom+unmechanischen+Zwang+durch+eine+Forderung+bez%C3%BCglich+des+inneren+Verhaltens+jedes+einzelnen+Elektrons&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=47&rft.pages=953-954&rft.date=1925&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32211960%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01558878&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1925NW.....13..953E&rft.aulast=Uhlenbeck&rft.aufirst=G.E.&rft.au=Goudsmith%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauli1923" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pauli, W. (1923). "Über die Gesetzmäßigkeiten des anomalen Zeemaneffektes". <a href="/wiki/European_Physical_Journal" title="European Physical Journal">Zeitschrift für Physik</a> (in German). 16 (1): 155–164. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1923ZPhy...16..155P">1923ZPhy...16..155P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01327386">10.1007/BF01327386</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122256737">122256737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+Gesetzm%C3%A4%C3%9Figkeiten+des+anomalen+Zeemaneffektes&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=155-164&rft.date=1923&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122256737%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01327386&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1923ZPhy...16..155P&rft.aulast=Pauli&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-de_broglie-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-de_broglie_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-de_broglie_63-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Broglie1929" class="citation web cs1">de Broglie, L. (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1929/broglie-lecture.pdf">"Nobel Lecture: The Wave Nature of the Electron"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Foundation" title="Nobel Foundation">The Nobel Foundation</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081004022001/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1929/broglie-lecture.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2008. Retrieved 30 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nobel+Lecture%3A+The+Wave+Nature+of+the+Electron&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=de+Broglie&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1929%2Fbroglie-lecture.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalkenburg2007" class="citation book cs1">Falkenburg, B. 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(1937). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1937/davisson-lecture.pdf">"Nobel Lecture: The Discovery of Electron Waves"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Foundation" title="Nobel Foundation">The Nobel Foundation</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080709090839/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1937/davisson-lecture.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 July 2008. Retrieved 30 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nobel+Lecture%3A+The+Discovery+of+Electron+Waves&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Davisson&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1937%2Fdavisson-lecture.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNavarro2010" class="citation journal cs1">Navarro, Jaume (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007087410000026/type/journal_article">"Electron diffraction chez Thomson: early responses to quantum physics in Britain"</a>. The British Journal for the History of Science. 43 (2): 245–275. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087410000026">10.1017/S0007087410000026</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-0874">0007-0874</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:171025814">171025814</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Electron+diffraction+chez+Thomson%3A+early+responses+to+quantum+physics+in+Britain&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=245-275&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A171025814%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0007-0874&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007087410000026&rft.aulast=Navarro&rft.aufirst=Jaume&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FS0007087410000026%2Ftype%2Fjournal_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrödinger1926" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schrödinger, E. (1926). "Quantisierung als Eigenwertproblem". <a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik" title="Annalen der Physik">Annalen der Physik</a> (in German). 385 (13): 437–490. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926AnP...385..437S">1926AnP...385..437S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19263851302">10.1002/andp.19263851302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.atitle=Quantisierung+als+Eigenwertproblem&rft.volume=385&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=437-490&rft.date=1926&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.19263851302&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1926AnP...385..437S&rft.aulast=Schr%C3%B6dinger&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRigden2003" class="citation book cs1">Rigden, J.S. 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Retrieved 1 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nobel+Lecture%3A+Theory+of+Electrons+and+Positrons&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Dirac&rft.aufirst=P.A.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1933%2Fdirac-lecture.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1933" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, Carl D. (1933-03-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.43.491">"The Positive Electron"</a>. Physical Review. 43 (6): 491–494. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933PhRv...43..491A">1933PhRv...43..491A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.43.491">10.1103/PhysRev.43.491</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-899X">0031-899X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Positive+Electron&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=491-494&rft.date=1933-03-15&rft.issn=0031-899X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.43.491&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1933PhRv...43..491A&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Carl+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRev.43.491&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1965/">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1965"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Foundation" title="Nobel Foundation">The Nobel Foundation</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081024052537/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1965/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2008. Retrieved 4 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1965&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1965%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPanofsky1997" class="citation journal cs1">Panofsky, W.K.H. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/beamline/27/1/27-1-panofsky.pdf">"The Evolution of Particle Accelerators & Colliders"</a> (PDF). Beam Line. 27 (1): 36–44. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080909234139/http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/beamline/27/1/27-1-panofsky.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 September 2008. Retrieved 15 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Beam+Line&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+Particle+Accelerators+%26+Colliders&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=36-44&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Panofsky&rft.aufirst=W.K.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slac.stanford.edu%2Fpubs%2Fbeamline%2F27%2F1%2F27-1-panofsky.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElder1947" class="citation journal cs1">Elder, F.R.; et al. (1947). "Radiation from Electrons in a Synchrotron". <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a>. 71 (11): 829–830. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947PhRv...71..829E">1947PhRv...71..829E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.71.829.5">10.1103/PhysRev.71.829.5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Radiation+from+Electrons+in+a+Synchrotron&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=829-830&rft.date=1947&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.71.829.5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1947PhRv...71..829E&rft.aulast=Elder&rft.aufirst=F.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoddeson1997" class="citation book cs1">Hoddeson, L.; et al. 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Retrieved 2020-08-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Standard+Model%3A+Particle+Physics+in+the+1960s+and+1970s&rft.pages=25-26&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57816-5&rft.aulast=Hoddeson&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DklLUs2XUmOkC%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernardini2004" class="citation journal cs1">Bernardini, C. (2004). "AdA: The First Electron–Positron Collider". <a href="/wiki/Physics_in_Perspective" title="Physics in Perspective">Physics in Perspective</a>. 6 (2): 156–183. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PhP.....6..156B">2004PhP.....6..156B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00016-003-0202-y">10.1007/s00016-003-0202-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122534669">122534669</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+in+Perspective&rft.atitle=AdA%3A+The+First+Electron%E2%80%93Positron+Collider&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=156-183&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122534669%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00016-003-0202-y&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004PhP.....6..156B&rft.aulast=Bernardini&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://public.web.cern.ch/PUBLIC/en/Research/LEPExp-en.html">"Testing the Standard Model: The LEP experiments"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080914164129/http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/Research/LEPExp-en.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 September 2008. Retrieved 15 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Testing+the+Standard+Model%3A+The+LEP+experiments&rft.pub=CERN&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublic.web.cern.ch%2FPUBLIC%2Fen%2FResearch%2FLEPExp-en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28335">"LEP reaps a final harvest"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CERN_Courier" title="CERN Courier">CERN Courier</a>. 40 (10). 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170930222305/http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28335">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-09-30. Retrieved 2022-02-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CERN+Courier&rft.atitle=LEP+reaps+a+final+harvest&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=10&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcerncourier.com%2Fcws%2Farticle%2Fcern%2F28335&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPratiDe_MichielisBelliCocco2012" class="citation journal cs1">Prati, E.; De Michielis, M.; Belli, M.; Cocco, S.; Fanciulli, M.; Kotekar-Patil, D.; Ruoff, M.; Kern, D.P.; Wharam, D.A.; Verduijn, J.; Tettamanzi, G.C.; Rogge, S.; Roche, B.; Wacquez, R.; Jehl, X.; Vinet, M.; Sanquer, M. (2012). "Few electron limit of n-type metal oxide semiconductor single electron transistors". Nanotechnology. 23 (21): 215204. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1203.4811">1203.4811</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Nanot..23u5204P">2012Nanot..23u5204P</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.756.4383">10.1.1.756.4383</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0957-4484%2F23%2F21%2F215204">10.1088/0957-4484/23/21/215204</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22552118">22552118</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206063658">206063658</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nanotechnology&rft.atitle=Few+electron+limit+of+n-type+metal+oxide+semiconductor+single+electron+transistors&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=215204&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206063658%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012Nanot..23u5204P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.756.4383%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22552118&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0957-4484%2F23%2F21%2F215204&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1203.4811&rft.aulast=Prati&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=De+Michielis%2C+M.&rft.au=Belli%2C+M.&rft.au=Cocco%2C+S.&rft.au=Fanciulli%2C+M.&rft.au=Kotekar-Patil%2C+D.&rft.au=Ruoff%2C+M.&rft.au=Kern%2C+D.P.&rft.au=Wharam%2C+D.A.&rft.au=Verduijn%2C+J.&rft.au=Tettamanzi%2C+G.C.&rft.au=Rogge%2C+S.&rft.au=Roche%2C+B.&rft.au=Wacquez%2C+R.&rft.au=Jehl%2C+X.&rft.au=Vinet%2C+M.&rft.au=Sanquer%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFramptonHungSher2000" class="citation journal cs1">Frampton, P.H.; Hung, P.Q.; Sher, Marc (2000). "Quarks and Leptons Beyond the Third Generation". <a href="/wiki/Physics_Reports" title="Physics Reports">Physics Reports</a>. 330 (5–6): 263–348. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9903387">hep-ph/9903387</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PhR...330..263F">2000PhR...330..263F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0370-1573%2899%2900095-2">10.1016/S0370-1573(99)00095-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119481188">119481188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Reports&rft.atitle=Quarks+and+Leptons+Beyond+the+Third+Generation&rft.volume=330&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=263-348&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-ph%2F9903387&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119481188%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0370-1573%2899%2900095-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PhR...330..263F&rft.aulast=Frampton&rft.aufirst=P.H.&rft.au=Hung%2C+P.Q.&rft.au=Sher%2C+Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-raith-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-raith_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-raith_82-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-raith_82-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaithMulvey2001" class="citation book cs1">Raith, W.; Mulvey, T. (2001). Constituents of Matter: Atoms, Molecules, Nuclei and Particles. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. pp. 777–781. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-1202-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-1202-1"><bdi>978-0-8493-1202-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constituents+of+Matter%3A+Atoms%2C+Molecules%2C+Nuclei+and+Particles&rft.pages=777-781&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-1202-1&rft.aulast=Raith&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Mulvey%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CODATA-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CODATA_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CODATA_83-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CODATA_83-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CODATA_83-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CODATA_83-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CODATA_83-5">f</a> The original source for CODATA is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohrTaylorNewell2008" class="citation journal cs1">Mohr, P.J.; Taylor, B.N.; Newell, D.B. (2008). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants". <a href="/wiki/Reviews_of_Modern_Physics" title="Reviews of Modern Physics">Reviews of Modern Physics</a>. 80 (2): 633–730. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0801.0028">0801.0028</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008RvMP...80..633M">2008RvMP...80..633M</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.150.1225">10.1.1.150.1225</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.80.633">10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=CODATA+recommended+values+of+the+fundamental+physical+constants&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=633-730&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0801.0028&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.80.633&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.150.1225%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008RvMP...80..633M&rft.aulast=Mohr&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+B.N.&rft.au=Newell%2C+D.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> <dl><dd>Individual physical constants from the CODATA are available at:</dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/">"The NIST Reference on Constants, Units and Uncertainty"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090116162522/http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-01-16. Retrieved 2009-01-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+NIST+Reference+on+Constants%2C+Units+and+Uncertainty&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcuu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zombeck2007-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zombeck2007_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zombeck2007_84-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZombeck2007" class="citation book cs1">Zombeck, M.V. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tp_G85jm6IAC&pg=PA14">Handbook of Space Astronomy and Astrophysics</a> (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78242-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78242-5"><bdi>978-0-521-78242-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220204082414/https://books.google.com/books?id=tp_G85jm6IAC&pg=PA14">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-04. Retrieved 2020-08-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Space+Astronomy+and+Astrophysics&rft.pages=14&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78242-5&rft.aulast=Zombeck&rft.aufirst=M.V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtp_G85jm6IAC%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2008" class="citation journal cs1">Murphy, M.T.; et al. (2008). 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"New Measurement of the Electron Magnetic Moment Using a One-Electron Quantum Cyclotron". <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters" title="Physical Review Letters">Physical Review Letters</a>. 97 (3): 030801. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhRvL..97c0801O">2006PhRvL..97c0801O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.97.030801">10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.030801</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16907490">16907490</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=New+Measurement+of+the+Electron+Magnetic+Moment+Using+a+One-Electron+Quantum+Cyclotron&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=030801&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16907490&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.97.030801&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006PhRvL..97c0801O&rft.aulast=Odom&rft.aufirst=B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-physconst-muB-90"><a href="#cite_ref-physconst-muB_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mub">"2022 CODATA Value: Bohr magneton"</a>. 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Physics. Harvard University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gabrielse.physics.harvard.edu/gabrielse/overviews/ElectronSubstructure/ElectronSubstructure.html">the original</a> on 2019-04-10. Retrieved 2016-06-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electron+Substructure&rft.pub=Harvard+University&rft.aulast=Gabrielse&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgabrielse.physics.harvard.edu%2Fgabrielse%2Foverviews%2FElectronSubstructure%2FElectronSubstructure.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeschede2004" class="citation book cs1">Meschede, D. 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(2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SPrAMy8glocC&pg=PA70">The Physics of Atoms and Quanta: Introduction to Experiments and Theory</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-67274-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-67274-6"><bdi>978-3-540-67274-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210510144005/https://books.google.com/books?id=SPrAMy8glocC&pg=PA70">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-05-10. 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Retrieved 2019-06-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radiation+Physics+and+Chemistry%3Cspan+class%3D%22noprint%22+style%3D%22font-size%3A85%25%3B+font-style%3A+normal%3B+%22%3E+%26%2391%3Bfr%26%2393%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.atitle=Electron+positron+pair+production+by+photons%3A+A+historical+overview&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=614-623&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.radphyschem.2005.10.008&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006RaPC...75..614H&rft.aulast=Hubbell&rft.aufirst=J.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1259327&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-quigg-130"><a href="#cite_ref-quigg_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuigg2000" class="citation conference cs1">Quigg, C. (4–30 June 2000). The Electroweak Theory. 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Boulder, Colorado. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0204104">hep-ph/0204104</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002hep.ph....4104Q">2002hep.ph....4104Q</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+Electroweak+Theory&rft.place=Boulder%2C+Colorado&rft.pages=80&rft.date=2000-06-04%2F2000-06-30&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-ph%2F0204104&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002hep.ph....4104Q&rft.aulast=Quigg&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tipler2003-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tipler2003_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tipler2003_131-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiplerLlewellyn2003" class="citation book cs1">Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2003). Modern Physics (illustrated ed.). Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4345-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4345-3"><bdi>978-0-7167-4345-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Physics&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-4345-3&rft.aulast=Tipler&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Llewellyn%2C+Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurhop1952" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Burhop" title="Eric Burhop">Burhop, E.H.S.</a> (1952). The Auger Effect and Other Radiationless Transitions. 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(2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XMv-vfsoRF8C&pg=PA162">Introduction to phonons and electrons</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Scientific" title="World Scientific">World Scientific</a>. pp. 162, 164. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ipe..book.....L">2003ipe..book.....L</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-238-461-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-238-461-4"><bdi>978-981-238-461-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220204071149/https://books.google.com/books?id=XMv-vfsoRF8C&pg=PA162">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-04. Retrieved 2020-08-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+phonons+and+electrons&rft.pages=162%2C+164&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003ipe..book.....L&rft.isbn=978-981-238-461-4&rft.aulast=Lou&rft.aufirst=L.-F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXMv-vfsoRF8C%26pg%3DPA162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuruHızıroğlu2004" class="citation book cs1">Guru, B.S.; Hızıroğlu, H.R. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electromagneticf0000bhag">Electromagnetic Field Theory Fundamentals</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 138, 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83016-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83016-4"><bdi>978-0-521-83016-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electromagnetic+Field+Theory+Fundamentals&rft.pages=138%2C+276&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83016-4&rft.aulast=Guru&rft.aufirst=B.S.&rft.au=H%C4%B1z%C4%B1ro%C4%9Flu%2C+H.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felectromagneticf0000bhag&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAchuthanBhat2007" class="citation book cs1">Achuthan, M.K.; Bhat, K.N. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=REQkwBF4cVoC&pg=PA49">Fundamentals of Semiconductor Devices</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tata_McGraw-Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Tata McGraw-Hill">Tata McGraw-Hill</a>. pp. 49–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-061220-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-061220-4"><bdi>978-0-07-061220-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210107160319/https://books.google.com/books?id=REQkwBF4cVoC&pg=PA49">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-07. Retrieved 2020-08-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Semiconductor+Devices&rft.pages=49-67&rft.pub=Tata+McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-07-061220-4&rft.aulast=Achuthan&rft.aufirst=M.K.&rft.au=Bhat%2C+K.N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DREQkwBF4cVoC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ziman-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ziman_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ziman_144-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiman2001" class="citation book cs1">Ziman, J.M. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UtEy63pjngsC&pg=PA260">Electrons and Phonons: The Theory of Transport Phenomena in Solids</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850779-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850779-6"><bdi>978-0-19-850779-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220224105543/https://books.google.com/books?id=UtEy63pjngsC&pg=PA260">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-24. Retrieved 2020-08-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electrons+and+Phonons%3A+The+Theory+of+Transport+Phenomena+in+Solids&rft.pages=260&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-850779-6&rft.aulast=Ziman&rft.aufirst=J.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUtEy63pjngsC%26pg%3DPA260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMain1993" class="citation journal cs1">Main, P. (12 June 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13818774.500-when-electrons-go-with-the-flow-remove-the-obstacles-thatcreate-electrical-resistance-and-you-get-ballistic-electrons-and-a-quantumsurprise.html">"When electrons go with the flow: Remove the obstacles that create electrical resistance, and you get ballistic electrons and a quantum surprise"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a>. 1887: 30. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150211085229/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13818774.500-when-electrons-go-with-the-flow-remove-the-obstacles-thatcreate-electrical-resistance-and-you-get-ballistic-electrons-and-a-quantumsurprise.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2015. Retrieved 9 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=When+electrons+go+with+the+flow%3A+Remove+the+obstacles+that+create+electrical+resistance%2C+and+you+get+ballistic+electrons+and+a+quantum+surprise&rft.volume=1887&rft.pages=30&rft.date=1993-06-12&rft.aulast=Main&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fmg13818774.500-when-electrons-go-with-the-flow-remove-the-obstacles-thatcreate-electrical-resistance-and-you-get-ballistic-electrons-and-a-quantumsurprise.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackwell2000" class="citation book cs1">Blackwell, G.R. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D0PBG53PQlUC&pg=SA6-PA39">The Electronic Packaging Handbook</a>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. pp. 6.39–6.40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-8591-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-8591-9"><bdi>978-0-8493-8591-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220204083743/https://books.google.com/books?id=D0PBG53PQlUC&pg=SA6-PA39">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-04. 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(2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AUVbPerNxTcC&pg=PA1">Reflection High-energy Electron Diffraction</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45373-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45373-8"><bdi>978-0-521-45373-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220204084445/https://books.google.com/books?id=AUVbPerNxTcC&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-04. 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(1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www-g.eng.cam.ac.uk/125/achievements/mcmullan/mcm.htm">"Scanning Electron Microscopy: 1928–1965"</a>. University of Cambridge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090316071650/http://www-g.eng.cam.ac.uk/125/achievements/mcmullan/mcm.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2009. Retrieved 23 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scanning+Electron+Microscopy%3A+1928%E2%80%931965&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=McMullan&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww-g.eng.cam.ac.uk%2F125%2Fachievements%2Fmcmullan%2Fmcm.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlayter1992" class="citation book cs1">Slayter, H.S. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LlePVS9oq7MC&pg=PA1">Light and electron microscopy</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33948-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33948-3"><bdi>978-0-521-33948-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220204084446/https://books.google.com/books?id=LlePVS9oq7MC&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-04. 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(1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RqSMzR-IXk0C&pg=PA12">Electron Microscopy: Principles and Techniques for Biologists</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jones_%26_Bartlett_Learning" title="Jones & Bartlett Learning">Jones & Bartlett Publishers</a>. pp. 12, 197–199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-0192-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-0192-5"><bdi>978-0-7637-0192-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220204084447/https://books.google.com/books?id=RqSMzR-IXk0C&pg=PA12">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-02-04. 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Diane Publishing. pp. 3–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7881-2100-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7881-2100-5"><bdi>978-0-7881-2100-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Television+Picture+Tubes+and+Other+Cathode-Ray+Tubes%3A+Industry+and+Trade+Summary&rft.pages=3-5&rft.pub=Diane+Publishing&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7881-2100-5&rft.aulast=Kitzmiller&rft.aufirst=J.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSclater1999" class="citation book cs1">Sclater, N. (1999). Electronic Technology Handbook. <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill">McGraw-Hill Professional</a>. pp. 227–228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-058048-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-058048-0"><bdi>978-0-07-058048-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electronic+Technology+Handbook&rft.pages=227-228&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-07-058048-0&rft.aulast=Sclater&rft.aufirst=N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/integrated_circuit/history/">"The History of the Integrated Circuit"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Foundation" title="Nobel Foundation">The Nobel Foundation</a>. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081201144536/http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/integrated_circuit/history/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2008. 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Center for History of Physics. <a href="/wiki/American_Institute_of_Physics" title="American Institute of Physics">American Institute of Physics</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Discovery+of+the+Electron&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Physics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.aip.org%2Fexhibits%2Felectron%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdg.lbl.gov/">"Particle Data Group"</a>. University of California.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Particle+Data+Group&rft.pub=University+of+California&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdg.lbl.gov%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectron" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBockVasilescu1998" class="citation book cs1">Bock, R.K.; Vasilescu, A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.web.cern.ch/ParticleDetector/BriefBook/">The Particle Detector BriefBook</a> (14th ed.). 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center;"><a href="/wiki/Scalar_boson" title="Scalar boson">Scalar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ghost_(physics)" title="Ghost (physics)">Ghost fields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost" title="Faddeev–Popov ghost">Faddeev–Popov ghosts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothetical particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Superpartner" title="Superpartner">Superpartners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gaugino" title="Gaugino">Gauginos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gluino" title="Gluino">Gluino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitino" title="Gravitino">Gravitino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photino" title="Photino">Photino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axino" title="Axino">Axino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chargino" title="Chargino">Chargino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higgsino" title="Higgsino">Higgsino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutralino" title="Neutralino">Neutralino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sfermion" title="Sfermion">Sfermion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stop_squark" title="Stop squark">Stop squark</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axion" title="Axion">Axion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curvaton" title="Curvaton">Curvaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilaton" title="Dilaton">Dilaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_graviton" title="Dual graviton">Dual graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviphoton" title="Graviphoton">Graviphoton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflaton" title="Inflaton">Inflaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptoquark" title="Leptoquark">Leptoquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">Magnetic monopole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majoron" title="Majoron">Majoron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majorana_fermion" title="Majorana fermion">Majorana fermion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_photon" title="Dark photon">Dark photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon" title="Preon">Preon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterile_neutrino" title="Sterile neutrino">Sterile neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachyon" title="Tachyon">Tachyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%E2%80%B2_and_Z%E2%80%B2_bosons" title="W′ and Z′ bosons">W′ and Z′ bosons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X_and_Y_bosons" title="X and Y bosons">X and Y bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bound_state" title="Bound state">Composite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hadrons" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">Hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">Baryons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">Proton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">Antiproton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antineutron" title="Antineutron">Antineutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_baryon" title="Delta baryon">Delta baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_baryon" title="Lambda baryon">Lambda baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigma_baryon" title="Sigma baryon">Sigma baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_baryon" title="Xi baryon">Xi baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_baryon" title="Omega baryon">Omega baryon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">Mesons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">Pion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rho_meson" title="Rho meson">Rho meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eta_meson" class="mw-redirect" title="Eta meson">Eta and eta prime mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_eta_meson" title="Bottom eta meson">Bottom eta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phi_meson" title="Phi meson">Phi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J/psi_meson" title="J/psi meson">J/psi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_meson" title="Omega meson">Omega meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upsilon_meson" title="Upsilon meson">Upsilon meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">Kaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_meson" title="B meson">B meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D_meson" title="D meson">D meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarkonium" title="Quarkonium">Quarkonium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Exotic_hadron" title="Exotic hadron">Exotic hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetraquark" title="Tetraquark">Tetraquark</a> (<a href="/wiki/Double-charm_tetraquark" title="Double-charm tetraquark">Double-charm tetraquark</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentaquark" title="Pentaquark">Pentaquark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nuclei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_atom" title="Exotic atom">Exotic atoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positronium" title="Positronium">Positronium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muonium" title="Muonium">Muonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tauonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Tauonium">Tauonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onium" title="Onium">Onia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pionium" title="Pionium">Pionium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protonium" title="Protonium">Protonium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superatom" title="Superatom">Superatoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Hypothetical_composite_particles" title="Category:Hypothetical composite particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Baryons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hexaquark" title="Hexaquark">Hexaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptaquark" title="Heptaquark">Heptaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skyrmion" title="Skyrmion">Skyrmion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mesons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glueball" title="Glueball">Glueball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theta_meson" title="Theta meson">Theta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_meson" title="T meson">T meson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesonic_molecule" title="Mesonic molecule">Mesonic molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeron" title="Pomeron">Pomeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquark" title="Diquark">Diquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-hadron" title="R-hadron">R-hadron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quasiparticle" title="Quasiparticle">Quasiparticles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anyon" title="Anyon">Anyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davydov_soliton" title="Davydov soliton">Davydov soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dropleton" title="Dropleton">Dropleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exciton" title="Exciton">Exciton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracton_(subdimensional_particle)" title="Fracton (subdimensional particle)">Fracton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">Hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnon" title="Magnon">Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">Phonon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmaron" title="Plasmaron">Plasmaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmon" title="Plasmon">Plasmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polariton" title="Polariton">Polariton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaron" title="Polaron">Polaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roton" title="Roton">Roton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trion_(physics)" title="Trion (physics)">Trion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_baryons" title="List of baryons">Baryons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mesons" title="List of mesons">Mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_particles" title="List of particles">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quasiparticles" title="List of quasiparticles">Quasiparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries" title="Timeline of particle discoveries">Timeline of particle discoveries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">History of subatomic physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics" title="Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_formulation_of_the_Standard_Model" title="Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model">mathematical formulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">Subatomic particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">Antiparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eightfold_way_(physics)" title="Eightfold way (physics)">Eightfold way</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark_model" title="Quark model">Quark model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter" title="Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massless_particle" title="Massless particle">Massless particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_particle" title="Relativistic particle">Relativistic particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_particle" title="Virtual particle">Virtual particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">Wave–particle duality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_chauvinism" title="Particle chauvinism">Particle chauvinism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Quantum_field_theories" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_field_theories" title="Template:Quantum field theories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Quantum_field_theories" title="Template talk:Quantum field theories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Quantum_field_theories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Quantum field theories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Quantum_field_theories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theories</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algebraic_quantum_field_theory" title="Algebraic quantum field theory">Algebraic QFT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiomatic_quantum_field_theory" title="Axiomatic quantum field theory">Axiomatic QFT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conformal_field_theory" title="Conformal field theory">Conformal field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lattice_field_theory" title="Lattice field theory">Lattice field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noncommutative_quantum_field_theory" title="Noncommutative quantum field theory">Noncommutative QFT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauge_theory" title="Gauge theory">Gauge theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory_in_curved_spacetime" title="Quantum field theory in curved spacetime">QFT in curved spacetime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">String theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergravity" title="Supergravity">Supergravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_quantum_field_theory" title="Thermal quantum field theory">Thermal QFT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topological_quantum_field_theory" title="Topological quantum field theory">Topological QFT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-dimensional_conformal_field_theory" title="Two-dimensional conformal field theory">Two-dimensional conformal field theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Regular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Infeld_model" title="Born–Infeld model">Born–Infeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Heisenberg_Lagrangian" title="Euler–Heisenberg Lagrangian">Euler–Heisenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginzburg%E2%80%93Landau_theory" title="Ginzburg–Landau theory">Ginzburg–Landau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-linear_sigma_model" title="Non-linear sigma model">Non-linear sigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proca_action" title="Proca action">Proca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">Quantum electrodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">Quantum chromodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartic_interaction" title="Quartic interaction">Quartic interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalar_electrodynamics" title="Scalar electrodynamics">Scalar electrodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalar_chromodynamics" title="Scalar chromodynamics">Scalar chromodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soler_model" title="Soler model">Soler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory" title="Yang–Mills theory">Yang–Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang%E2%80%93Mills%E2%80%93Higgs_equations" title="Yang–Mills–Higgs equations">Yang–Mills–Higgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukawa_interaction" title="Yukawa interaction">Yukawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Low dimensional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two-dimensional_Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory" title="Two-dimensional Yang–Mills theory">2D Yang–Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullough%E2%80%93Dodd_model" title="Bullough–Dodd model">Bullough–Dodd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross%E2%80%93Neveu_model" title="Gross–Neveu model">Gross–Neveu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwinger_model" title="Schwinger model">Schwinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sine-Gordon_equation" title="Sine-Gordon equation">Sine-Gordon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirring_model" title="Thirring model">Thirring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirring%E2%80%93Wess_model" title="Thirring–Wess model">Thirring–Wess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toda_field_theory" title="Toda field theory">Toda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Conformal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massless_free_scalar_bosons_in_two_dimensions" title="Massless free scalar bosons in two dimensions">2D free massless scalar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liouville_field_theory" title="Liouville field theory">Liouville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_model_(physics)" title="Minimal model (physics)">Minimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyakov_action" title="Polyakov action">Polyakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wess%E2%80%93Zumino%E2%80%93Witten_model" title="Wess–Zumino–Witten model">Wess–Zumino–Witten</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Supersymmetric</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4D_N_%3D_1_global_supersymmetry" title="4D N = 1 global supersymmetry">4D N = 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N_%3D_1_supersymmetric_Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory" title="N = 1 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory">N = 1 super Yang–Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiberg%E2%80%93Witten_theory" title="Seiberg–Witten theory">Seiberg–Witten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_QCD" title="Super QCD">Super QCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wess%E2%80%93Zumino_model" title="Wess–Zumino model">Wess–Zumino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Superconformal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/6D_(2,0)_superconformal_field_theory" title="6D (2,0) superconformal field theory">6D (2,0)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABJM_superconformal_field_theory" title="ABJM superconformal field theory">ABJM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N_%3D_4_supersymmetric_Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory" title="N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory">N = 4 super Yang–Mills</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Supergravity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pure_4D_N_%3D_1_supergravity" title="Pure 4D N = 1 supergravity">Pure 4D N = 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4D_N_%3D_1_supergravity" title="4D N = 1 supergravity">4D N = 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N_%3D_8_supergravity" title="N = 8 supergravity">4D N = 8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher-dimensional_supergravity" title="Higher-dimensional supergravity">Higher dimensional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_I_supergravity" title="Type I supergravity">Type I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_IIA_supergravity" title="Type IIA supergravity">Type IIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_IIB_supergravity" title="Type IIB supergravity">Type IIB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleven-dimensional_supergravity" title="Eleven-dimensional supergravity">11D</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Topological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BF_model" title="BF model">BF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chern%E2%80%93Simons_theory" title="Chern–Simons theory">Chern–Simons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Particle theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiral_model" title="Chiral model">Chiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermi%27s_interaction" title="Fermi's interaction">Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">MSSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambu%E2%80%93Jona-Lasinio_model" title="Nambu–Jona-Lasinio model">Nambu–Jona-Lasinio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-to-Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Next-to-Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">NMSSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stueckelberg_action" title="Stueckelberg action">Stueckelberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casimir_effect" title="Casimir effect">Casimir effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_string" title="Cosmic string">Cosmic string</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_quantum_field_theory" title="History of quantum field theory">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_quantum_gravity" title="Loop quantum gravity">Loop quantum gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_quantum_cosmology" title="Loop quantum cosmology">Loop quantum cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_shell_and_off_shell" title="On shell and off shell">On shell and off shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chaos" title="Quantum chaos">Quantum chaos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dynamics" title="Quantum dynamics">Quantum dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_foam" title="Quantum foam">Quantum foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation" title="Quantum fluctuation">Quantum fluctuations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Template:Quantum electrodynamics">links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_gravity" title="Template:Quantum gravity">links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_hadrodynamics" title="Quantum hadrodynamics">Quantum hadrodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_hydrodynamics" title="Quantum hydrodynamics">Quantum hydrodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information" title="Quantum information">Quantum information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_information" title="Template:Quantum information">links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_logic" title="Quantum logic">Quantum logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_thermodynamics" title="Quantum thermodynamics">Quantum thermodynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also: <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_mechanics_topics" title="Template:Quantum mechanics topics">Template:Quantum mechanics topics</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Quantum_gravity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_gravity" title="Template:Quantum gravity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Quantum_gravity" title="Template talk:Quantum gravity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Quantum_gravity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Quantum gravity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Quantum_gravity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AdS/CFT_correspondence" title="AdS/CFT correspondence">AdS/CFT correspondence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batalin%E2%80%93Vilkovisky_formalism" title="Batalin–Vilkovisky formalism">Batalin–Vilkovisky formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CA-duality" title="CA-duality">CA-duality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_patch" title="Causal patch">Causal patch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost" title="Faddeev–Popov ghost">Faddeev–Popov ghost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_anomaly" title="Gravitational anomaly">Gravitational anomaly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_principle" title="Holographic principle">Holographic principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IR/UV_mixing" title="IR/UV mixing">IR/UV mixing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck_units" title="Planck units">Planck units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_foam" title="Quantum foam">Quantum foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryu%E2%80%93Takayanagi_conjecture" title="Ryu–Takayanagi conjecture">Ryu–Takayanagi conjecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Planckian_problem" title="Trans-Planckian problem">Trans-Planckian problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weinberg%E2%80%93Witten_theorem" title="Weinberg–Witten theorem">Weinberg–Witten theorem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Toy_model" title="Toy model">Toy models</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/(2%2B1)-dimensional_topological_gravity" title="(2+1)-dimensional topological gravity">2+1D topological gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGHS_model" title="CGHS model">CGHS model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackiw%E2%80%93Teitelboim_gravity" title="Jackiw–Teitelboim gravity">Jackiw–Teitelboim gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liouville_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Liouville gravity">Liouville gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RST_model" title="RST model">RST model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topological_quantum_field_theory" title="Topological quantum field theory">Topological quantum field theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory_in_curved_spacetime" title="Quantum field theory in curved spacetime">Quantum field theory in curved spacetime</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bunch%E2%80%93Davies_vacuum" title="Bunch–Davies vacuum">Bunch–Davies vacuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawking_radiation" title="Hawking radiation">Hawking radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiclassical_gravity" title="Semiclassical gravity">Semiclassical gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unruh_effect" title="Unruh effect">Unruh effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">Black holes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole_complementarity" title="Black hole complementarity">Black hole complementarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole_information_paradox" title="Black hole information paradox">Black hole information paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole_thermodynamics" title="Black hole thermodynamics">Black-hole thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bekenstein_bound" title="Bekenstein bound">Bekenstein bound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bousso%27s_holographic_bound" title="Bousso's holographic bound">Bousso's holographic bound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis" title="Cosmic censorship hypothesis">Cosmic censorship hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ER_%3D_EPR" title="ER = EPR">ER = EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewall_(physics)" title="Firewall (physics)">Firewall (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">Gravitational singularity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">String theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosonic_string_theory" title="Bosonic string theory">Bosonic string theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M-theory" title="M-theory">M-theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergravity" title="Supergravity">Supergravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstring_theory" title="Superstring theory">Superstring theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Canonical_quantum_gravity" title="Canonical quantum gravity">Canonical quantum gravity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loop_quantum_gravity" title="Loop quantum gravity">Loop quantum gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheeler%E2%80%93DeWitt_equation" title="Wheeler–DeWitt equation">Wheeler–DeWitt equation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Euclidean_quantum_gravity" title="Euclidean quantum gravity">Euclidean quantum gravity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hartle%E2%80%93Hawking_state" title="Hartle–Hawking state">Hartle–Hawking state</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_dynamical_triangulation" title="Causal dynamical triangulation">Causal dynamical triangulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_sets" title="Causal sets">Causal sets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_graviton" title="Dual graviton">Dual graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_field_theory" title="Group field theory">Group field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noncommutative_geometry" title="Noncommutative geometry">Noncommutative geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_foam" title="Spin foam">Spin foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superfluid_vacuum_theory" title="Superfluid vacuum theory">Superfluid vacuum theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twistor_theory" title="Twistor theory">Twistor theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cosmology" title="Quantum cosmology">Quantum cosmology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_inflation" title="Eternal inflation">Eternal inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FRW/CFT_duality" title="FRW/CFT duality">FRW/CFT duality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiverse" title="Multiverse">Multiverse</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also: <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_mechanics_topics" title="Template:Quantum mechanics topics">Template:Quantum mechanics topics</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Quantum_electrodynamics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Template:Quantum electrodynamics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Template talk:Quantum electrodynamics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Quantum electrodynamics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Quantum_electrodynamics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">Quantum electrodynamics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Heisenberg_Lagrangian" title="Euler–Heisenberg Lagrangian">Euler–Heisenberg Lagrangian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feynman_diagram" title="Feynman diagram">Feynman diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta%E2%80%93Bleuler_formalism" title="Gupta–Bleuler formalism">Gupta–Bleuler formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Path_integral_formulation" title="Path integral formulation">Path integral formulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Particles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_photon" title="Dual photon">Dual photon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost" title="Faddeev–Popov ghost">Faddeev–Popov ghost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">Photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">Positron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positronium" title="Positronium">Positronium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_particle" title="Virtual particle">Virtual particles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomalous_magnetic_dipole_moment" title="Anomalous magnetic dipole moment">Anomalous magnetic dipole moment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furry%27s_theorem" title="Furry's theorem">Furry's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klein%E2%80%93Nishina_formula" title="Klein–Nishina formula">Klein–Nishina formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landau_pole" title="Landau pole">Landau pole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QED_vacuum" title="QED vacuum">QED vacuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-energy" title="Self-energy">Self-energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwinger_limit" title="Schwinger limit">Schwinger limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uehling_potential" title="Uehling potential">Uehling potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_polarization" title="Vacuum polarization">Vacuum polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertex_function" title="Vertex function">Vertex function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ward%E2%80%93Takahashi_identity" title="Ward–Takahashi identity">Ward–Takahashi identity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhabha_scattering" title="Bhabha scattering">Bhabha scattering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breit%E2%80%93Wheeler_process" title="Breit–Wheeler process">Breit–Wheeler process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compton_scattering" title="Compton scattering">Compton scattering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delbr%C3%BCck_scattering" title="Delbrück scattering">Delbrück scattering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamb_shift" title="Lamb shift">Lamb shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B8ller_scattering" title="Møller scattering">Møller scattering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwinger_effect" title="Schwinger effect">Schwinger effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-photon_physics" title="Two-photon physics">Photon-photon scattering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also: <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_mechanics_topics" title="Template:Quantum mechanics topics">Template:Quantum mechanics topics</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Quantum_information_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_information" title="Template:Quantum information"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Quantum_information" title="Template talk:Quantum information"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Quantum_information" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Quantum information"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Quantum_information_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DiVincenzo%27s_criteria" title="DiVincenzo's criteria">DiVincenzo's criteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noisy_intermediate-scale_quantum_era" title="Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era">NISQ era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information" title="Quantum information">Quantum information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">Quantum programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_simulator" title="Quantum simulator">Quantum simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qubit" title="Qubit">Qubit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_and_logical_qubits" title="Physical and logical qubits">physical vs. logical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quantum_processors" title="List of quantum processors">Quantum processors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud-based_quantum_computing" title="Cloud-based quantum computing">cloud-based</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theorems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem" title="Bell's theorem">Bell's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastin%E2%80%93Knill_theorem" title="Eastin–Knill theorem">Eastin–Knill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gleason%27s_theorem" title="Gleason's theorem">Gleason's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottesman%E2%80%93Knill_theorem" title="Gottesman–Knill theorem">Gottesman–Knill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holevo%27s_theorem" title="Holevo's theorem">Holevo's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-broadcasting_theorem" title="No-broadcasting theorem">No-broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-cloning_theorem" title="No-cloning theorem">No-cloning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-communication_theorem" title="No-communication theorem">No-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-deleting_theorem" title="No-deleting theorem">No-deleting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-hiding_theorem" title="No-hiding theorem">No-hiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-teleportation_theorem" title="No-teleportation theorem">No-teleportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PBR_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="PBR theorem">PBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_speed_limit_theorems" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum speed limit theorems">Quantum speed limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threshold_theorem" title="Threshold theorem">Threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solovay%E2%80%93Kitaev_theorem" title="Solovay–Kitaev theorem">Solovay–Kitaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger%E2%80%93HJW_theorem" title="Schrödinger–HJW theorem">Purification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Quantum communication</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_capacity" title="Classical capacity">Classical capacity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entanglement-assisted_classical_capacity" title="Entanglement-assisted classical capacity">entanglement-assisted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_capacity" title="Quantum capacity">quantum capacity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entanglement_distillation" title="Entanglement distillation">Entanglement distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_of_entanglement" title="Monogamy of entanglement">Monogamy of entanglement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LOCC" title="LOCC">LOCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_channel" title="Quantum channel">Quantum channel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_network" title="Quantum network">quantum network</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_teleportation" title="Quantum teleportation">Quantum teleportation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gate_teleportation" title="Quantum gate teleportation">quantum gate teleportation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superdense_coding" title="Superdense coding">Superdense coding</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Quantum_cryptography" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cryptography" title="Quantum cryptography">Quantum cryptography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-quantum_cryptography" title="Post-quantum cryptography">Post-quantum cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_coin_flipping" title="Quantum coin flipping">Quantum coin flipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_money" title="Quantum money">Quantum money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_key_distribution" title="Quantum key distribution">Quantum key distribution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BB84" title="BB84">BB84</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARG04" title="SARG04">SARG04</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quantum_key_distribution_protocols" title="List of quantum key distribution protocols">other protocols</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_secret_sharing" title="Quantum secret sharing">Quantum secret sharing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_algorithm" title="Quantum algorithm">Quantum algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amplitude_amplification" title="Amplitude amplification">Amplitude amplification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernstein%E2%80%93Vazirani_algorithm" title="Bernstein–Vazirani algorithm">Bernstein–Vazirani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BHT_algorithm" title="BHT algorithm">BHT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boson_sampling" title="Boson sampling">Boson sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsch%E2%80%93Jozsa_algorithm" title="Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm">Deutsch–Jozsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover%27s_algorithm" title="Grover's algorithm">Grover's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HHL_algorithm" title="HHL algorithm">HHL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_subgroup_problem" title="Hidden subgroup problem">Hidden subgroup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_annealing" title="Quantum annealing">Quantum annealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_counting_algorithm" title="Quantum counting algorithm">Quantum counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Fourier_transform" title="Quantum Fourier transform">Quantum Fourier transform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_optimization_algorithms" title="Quantum optimization algorithms">Quantum optimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_phase_estimation_algorithm" title="Quantum phase estimation algorithm">Quantum phase estimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shor%27s_algorithm" title="Shor's algorithm">Shor's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon%27s_problem" title="Simon's problem">Simon's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variational_quantum_eigensolver" title="Variational quantum eigensolver">VQE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_complexity_theory" title="Quantum complexity theory">Quantum complexity theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BQP" title="BQP">BQP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_quantum_polynomial_time" title="Exact quantum polynomial time">EQP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QIP_(complexity)" title="QIP (complexity)">QIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QMA" title="QMA">QMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PostBQP" title="PostBQP">PostBQP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Quantum processor benchmarks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_supremacy" title="Quantum supremacy">Quantum supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_volume" title="Quantum volume">Quantum volume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_benchmarking" title="Randomized benchmarking">Randomized benchmarking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-entropy_benchmarking" title="Cross-entropy benchmarking">XEB</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relaxation_(NMR)" title="Relaxation (NMR)">Relaxation times</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93lattice_relaxation" title="Spin–lattice relaxation">T1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93spin_relaxation" title="Spin–spin relaxation">T2</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Quantum <a href="/wiki/Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">computing models</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_quantum_computation" title="Adiabatic quantum computation">Adiabatic quantum computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous-variable_quantum_information" title="Continuous-variable quantum information">Continuous-variable quantum information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-way_quantum_computer" title="One-way quantum computer">One-way quantum computer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_state" title="Cluster state">cluster state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_circuit" title="Quantum circuit">Quantum circuit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_logic_gate" title="Quantum logic gate">quantum logic gate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_machine_learning" title="Quantum machine learning">Quantum machine learning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_neural_network" title="Quantum neural network">quantum neural network</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Turing_machine" title="Quantum Turing machine">Quantum Turing machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topological_quantum_computer" title="Topological quantum computer">Topological quantum computer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_error_correction" title="Quantum error correction">Quantum error correction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Codes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CSS_code" title="CSS code">CSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_convolutional_code" title="Quantum convolutional code">quantum convolutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabilizer_code" title="Stabilizer code">stabilizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shor_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Shor code">Shor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacon%E2%80%93Shor_code" title="Bacon–Shor code">Bacon–Shor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steane_code" title="Steane code">Steane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toric_code" title="Toric code">Toric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnu_code" title="Gnu code">gnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entanglement-assisted_stabilizer_formalism" title="Entanglement-assisted stabilizer formalism">Entanglement-assisted</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical implementations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_optics" title="Quantum optics">Quantum optics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_quantum_electrodynamics" title="Cavity quantum electrodynamics">Cavity QED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_quantum_electrodynamics" title="Circuit quantum electrodynamics">Circuit QED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_optical_quantum_computing" title="Linear optical quantum computing">Linear optical QC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KLM_protocol" title="KLM protocol">KLM protocol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ultracold_atom" title="Ultracold atom">Ultracold atoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_atom_quantum_computer" title="Neutral atom quantum computer">Neutral atom QC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trapped-ion_quantum_computer" title="Trapped-ion quantum computer">Trapped-ion QC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">Spin</a>-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kane_quantum_computer" title="Kane quantum computer">Kane QC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_qubit_quantum_computer" title="Spin qubit quantum computer">Spin qubit QC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-vacancy_center" title="Nitrogen-vacancy center">NV center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_quantum_computer" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer">NMR QC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Superconducting_quantum_computing" title="Superconducting quantum computing">Superconducting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charge_qubit" title="Charge qubit">Charge qubit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flux_qubit" title="Flux qubit">Flux qubit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_qubit" title="Phase qubit">Phase qubit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmon" title="Transmon">Transmon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">Quantum programming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/OpenQASM" title="OpenQASM">OpenQASM</a>–<a href="/wiki/Qiskit" title="Qiskit">Qiskit</a>–<a href="/wiki/IBM_Quantum_Experience" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM Quantum Experience">IBM QX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quil_(instruction_set_architecture)" title="Quil (instruction set architecture)">Quil</a>–<a href="/wiki/Rigetti_Computing" title="Rigetti Computing">Forest/Rigetti QCS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirq" title="Cirq">Cirq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q_Sharp" title="Q Sharp">Q#</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libquantum" title="Libquantum">libquantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">many others...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Quantum_information_science" title="Category:Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Template:Quantum_mechanics_topics" title="Template:Quantum mechanics topics">Quantum mechanics topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Radiation_oncology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation_oncology" title="Template:Radiation oncology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation_oncology" title="Template talk:Radiation oncology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation_oncology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation oncology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radiation_oncology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Specific therapies</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/External_beam_radiotherapy" title="External beam radiotherapy">Teletherapy</a>1</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">by <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superficial_X-rays" title="Superficial X-rays">Superficial X-rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthovoltage_X-rays" title="Orthovoltage X-rays">Orthovoltage X-rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megavoltage_X-rays" title="Megavoltage X-rays">Megavoltage X-rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">Radiosurgery</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stereotactic_radiation_therapy" title="Stereotactic radiation therapy">Stereotactic radiation therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberknife_(device)" title="Cyberknife (device)">Cyberknife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_Knife" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma Knife">Gamma Knife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_therapy" title="Cobalt therapy">Cobalt therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">by <a class="mw-selflink selflink">electron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_therapy" title="Electron therapy">Electron therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">by <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Particle_therapy" title="Particle therapy">Particle therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_therapy" title="Fast neutron therapy">fast neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer" title="Neutron capture therapy of cancer">neutron-capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">proton</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">Brachytherapy</a>2</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostate_brachytherapy" title="Prostate brachytherapy">Prostate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iodine-125" title="Iodine-125">125I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladium-103" class="mw-redirect" title="Palladium-103">103Pd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaque_radiotherapy" title="Plaque radiotherapy">Plaque radiotherapy</a> (125I)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_internal_radiation_therapy" title="Selective internal radiation therapy">Selective internal radiation therapy</a> / <a href="/wiki/SIR-Spheres" title="SIR-Spheres">SIR-Spheres</a> / <a href="/wiki/TheraSphere" title="TheraSphere">TheraSphere</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yttrium-90" title="Yttrium-90">90Y</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height: 1.15em"><a href="/wiki/Unsealed_source_radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsealed source radiotherapy">Unsealed source radiotherapy</a>3 </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iobenguane" title="Iobenguane">Iobenguane</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">131I</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yttrium-90" title="Yttrium-90">90Y</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarium_(153Sm)_lexidronam" title="Samarium (153Sm) lexidronam">Lexidronam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Samarium-153" class="mw-redirect" title="Samarium-153">153Sm</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strontium-89" title="Strontium-89">89Sr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioimmunotherapy" title="Radioimmunotherapy">Radioimmunotherapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibritumomab_tiuxetan" title="Ibritumomab tiuxetan">ibritumomab tiuxetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intraoperative_radiation_therapy" title="Intraoperative radiation therapy">Intraoperative radiation therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intraoperative_electron_radiation_therapy" title="Intraoperative electron radiation therapy">electron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TARGIT" class="mw-redirect" title="TARGIT">TARGIT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomotherapy" title="Tomotherapy">Tomotherapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_burn" title="Radiation burn">Radiation burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_proctitis" title="Radiation proctitis">Radiation proctitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_lung_injury" title="Radiation-induced lung injury">Radiation-induced lung injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bystander_effect_(radiobiology)" title="Bystander effect (radiobiology)">Bystander effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abscopal_effect" title="Abscopal effect">Abscopal effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Features and equipment</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: none;;background: whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BEAMnrc" class="mw-redirect" title="BEAMnrc">BEAMnrc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolus_(radiation_therapy)" title="Bolus (radiation therapy)">Bolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bragg_peak" title="Bragg peak">Bragg peak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D50_(radiotherapy)" title="D50 (radiotherapy)">D50</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dose_profile" title="Dose profile">Dose profile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dose_verification_system" title="Dose verification system">Dose verification system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dose-volume_histogram" title="Dose-volume histogram">Dose-volume histogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimetry" title="Dosimetry">Dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isocenter" title="Isocenter">Isocenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobetron" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobetron">Mobetron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monitor_unit" title="Monitor unit">Monitor unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multileaf_collimator" title="Multileaf collimator">Multileaf collimator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoimpellers" title="Nanoimpellers">Nanoimpellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Neutron generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_enhancement_ratio" title="Oxygen enhancement ratio">Oxygen enhancement ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pencil_(optics)" title="Pencil (optics)">Pencil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pencil-beam_scanning" title="Pencil-beam scanning">Pencil-beam scanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percentage_depth_dose_curve" title="Percentage depth dose curve">Percentage depth dose curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_oncologist" title="Radiation oncologist">Radiation oncologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapist" title="Radiation therapist">Radiation Therapist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_treatment_planning" title="Radiation treatment planning">Radiation treatment planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue-to-air_ratio" title="Tissue-to-air ratio">Tissue to Air Ratio (TAR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1 Also known as external-beam radiotherapy.   </li> <li>2 Also known as sealed-source radiation therapy.   </li> <li>3 Also known as systemic <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotope</a> therapy.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electron&oldid=1256689916">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electron&oldid=1256689916</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Electron" title="Category:Electron">Electron</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Leptons" title="Category:Leptons">Leptons</a></li><li><a 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