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</div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Supersymmetry</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Supersymmetry" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li 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block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"SUSY" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Susy_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Susy (disambiguation)">Susy (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the TV series episode, see <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry_(Angel)" title="Supersymmetry (Angel)">Supersymmetry (Angel)</a>.</div> Supersymmetry is a <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theoretical framework</a> in <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> that suggests the existence of a symmetry between <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particles</a> with integer <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">bosons</a>) and particles with half-integer spin (<a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a>). It proposes that for every known particle, there exists a partner particle with different spin properties.<a href="#cite_note-CERN_Overview-1">[1]</a> There have been multiple experiments on supersymmetry that have failed to provide evidence that it exists in <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-quantamagazine.org-2">[2]</a> If evidence is found, supersymmetry could help explain certain phenomena, such as the nature of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_problem" title="Hierarchy problem">hierarchy problem</a> in particle physics. A supersymmetric theory is a theory in which the equations for <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a> and the equations for <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> are identical. In <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physics</a>, any theory with this property has the principle of supersymmetry (SUSY). Dozens of supersymmetric theories exist.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> In theory, supersymmetry is a type of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime_symmetries" title="Spacetime symmetries">spacetime symmetry</a> between two basic classes of particles: <a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">bosons</a>, which have an integer-valued <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a> and follow <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_statistics" title="Bose–Einstein statistics">Bose–Einstein statistics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a>, which have a half-integer-valued spin and follow <a href="/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Dirac_statistics" title="Fermi–Dirac statistics">Fermi–Dirac statistics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> The names of bosonic partners of fermions are prefixed with s-, because they are <a href="/wiki/Scalar_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Scalar particle">scalar particles</a>. For example, if the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> exists in a supersymmetric theory, then there would be a particle called a selectron (superpartner electron), a bosonic partner of the electron.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> In supersymmetry, each particle from the class of fermions would have an associated particle in the class of bosons, and vice versa, known as a <a href="/wiki/Superpartner" title="Superpartner">superpartner</a>. The spin of a particle's superpartner is different by a half-integer. In the simplest supersymmetry theories, with perfectly "<a href="/wiki/Broken_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Broken symmetry">unbroken</a>" supersymmetry, each pair of superpartners would share the same <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> and internal <a href="/wiki/Quantum_number" title="Quantum number">quantum numbers</a> besides spin. More complex supersymmetry theories have a <a href="/wiki/Spontaneously_broken_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Spontaneously broken symmetry">spontaneously broken symmetry</a>, allowing superpartners to differ in mass.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Supersymmetry has various applications to different areas of physics, such as <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stochastic_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stochastic dynamics">stochastic dynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>. Supersymmetry has also been applied to <a href="/wiki/High_energy_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="High energy physics">high energy physics</a>, where a supersymmetric extension of the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> is a possible candidate for <a href="/wiki/Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model" title="Physics beyond the Standard Model">physics beyond the Standard Model</a>. However, no supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model have been experimentally verified.<a href="#cite_note-Wolchover-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-quantamagazine.org-2">[2]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History">1 History</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Applications">2 Applications</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Extension_of_possible_symmetry_groups">2.1 Extension of possible symmetry groups</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#The_supersymmetry_algebra">2.1.1 The supersymmetry algebra</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Supersymmetric_quantum_mechanics">2.2 Supersymmetric quantum mechanics</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#In_finance">2.2.1 In finance</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Supersymmetry_in_quantum_field_theory">2.3 Supersymmetry in quantum field theory</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Supersymmetry_in_condensed_matter_physics">2.4 Supersymmetry in condensed matter physics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Supersymmetry_in_optics">2.5 Supersymmetry in optics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Supersymmetry_in_dynamical_systems">2.6 Supersymmetry in dynamical systems</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Supersymmetry_in_mathematics">2.7 Supersymmetry in mathematics</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Supersymmetry_in_string_theory">2.8 Supersymmetry in string theory</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Supersymmetry_in_particle_physics">3 Supersymmetry in particle physics</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Supersymmetric_extensions_of_the_Standard_Model">3.1 Supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Searches_and_constraints_for_supersymmetry">3.2 Searches and constraints for supersymmetry</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Current_status">3.3 Current status</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#General_supersymmetry">4 General supersymmetry</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Extended_supersymmetry">4.1 Extended supersymmetry</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Supersymmetry_in_alternate_numbers_of_dimensions">4.2 Supersymmetry in alternate numbers of dimensions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Fractional_supersymmetry">4.3 Fractional supersymmetry</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#See_also">5 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#References">6 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Further_reading">7 Further reading</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Theoretical_introductions,_free_and_online">7.1 Theoretical introductions, free and online</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Monographs">7.2 Monographs</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#On_experiments">7.3 On experiments</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#External_links">8 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> A supersymmetry relating <a href="/wiki/Mesons" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesons">mesons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">baryons</a> was first proposed, in the context of hadronic physics, by <a href="/wiki/Hironari_Miyazawa" title="Hironari Miyazawa">Hironari Miyazawa</a> in 1966. This supersymmetry did not involve spacetime, that is, it concerned internal symmetry, and was broken badly. Miyazawa's work was largely ignored at the time.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Loup_Gervais" title="Jean-Loup Gervais">J. L. Gervais</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bunji_Sakita" title="Bunji Sakita">B. Sakita</a> (in 1971),<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Golfand" title="Yuri Golfand">Yu. A. Golfand</a> and E. P. Likhtman (also in 1971), and D. V. Volkov and V. P. Akulov (1972),<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> independently rediscovered supersymmetry in the context of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a>, a radically new type of symmetry of spacetime and fundamental fields, which establishes a relationship between elementary particles of different quantum nature, bosons and fermions, and unifies spacetime and internal symmetries of microscopic phenomena. Supersymmetry with a consistent Lie-algebraic graded structure on which the Gervais−Sakita rediscovery was based directly first arose in 1971 in the context of an early version of <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string theory</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Ramond" title="Pierre Ramond">Pierre Ramond</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_H._Schwarz" class="mw-redirect" title="John H. Schwarz">John H. Schwarz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Neveu" title="André Neveu">André Neveu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-NS-19">[19]</a> In 1974, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Wess" title="Julius Wess">Julius Wess</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Zumino" title="Bruno Zumino">Bruno Zumino</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> identified the characteristic renormalization features of four-dimensional supersymmetric field theories, which identified them as remarkable QFTs, and they and <a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Abdus Salam</a> and their fellow researchers introduced early particle physics applications. The mathematical structure of supersymmetry (<a href="/wiki/Graded_Lie_superalgebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Graded Lie superalgebra">graded Lie superalgebras</a>) has subsequently been applied successfully to other topics of physics, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Critical_phenomena" title="Critical phenomena">critical phenomena</a>,<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> to <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical physics</a>, and supersymmetry remains a vital part of many proposed theories in many branches of physics. In <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, the first realistic supersymmetric version of the Standard Model was proposed in 1977 by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Fayet" title="Pierre Fayet">Pierre Fayet</a> and is known as the <a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model</a> or MSSM for short. It was proposed to solve, amongst other things, the <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_problem" title="Hierarchy problem">hierarchy problem</a>. Supersymmetry was coined by Abdus Salam and John Strathdee in 1974 as a simplification of the term super-gauge symmetry used by Wess and Zumino, although Zumino also used the same term at around the same time.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> The term supergauge was in turn coined by Neveu and Schwarz in 1971 when they devised supersymmetry in the context of string theory.<a href="#cite_note-NS-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Applications" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extension_of_possible_symmetry_groups">Extension of possible symmetry groups</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Extension of possible symmetry groups" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> One reason that physicists explored supersymmetry is because it offers an extension to the more familiar symmetries of quantum field theory. These symmetries are grouped into the <a href="/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group" title="Poincaré group">Poincaré group</a> and internal symmetries and the <a href="/wiki/Coleman%E2%80%93Mandula_theorem" title="Coleman–Mandula theorem">Coleman–Mandula theorem</a> showed that under certain assumptions, the symmetries of the <a href="/wiki/S-matrix" title="S-matrix">S-matrix</a> must be a direct product of the Poincaré group with a <a href="/wiki/Compact_space" title="Compact space">compact</a> internal symmetry group or if there is not any <a href="/wiki/Mass_gap" title="Mass gap">mass gap</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Conformal_group" title="Conformal group">conformal group</a> with a compact internal symmetry group. In 1971 Golfand and Likhtman were the first to show that the Poincaré algebra can be extended through introduction of four anticommuting spinor generators (in four dimensions), which later became known as supercharges. In 1975, the <a href="/wiki/Haag%E2%80%93%C5%81opusza%C5%84ski%E2%80%93Sohnius_theorem" title="Haag–Łopuszański–Sohnius theorem">Haag–Łopuszański–Sohnius theorem</a> analyzed all possible superalgebras in the general form, including those with an extended number of the supergenerators and <a href="/wiki/Central_charge" title="Central charge">central charges</a>. This extended super-Poincaré algebra paved the way for obtaining a very large and important class of supersymmetric field theories. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_supersymmetry_algebra">The supersymmetry algebra</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The supersymmetry algebra" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry_algebra" title="Supersymmetry algebra">Supersymmetry algebra</a></div> Traditional symmetries of physics are generated by objects that transform by the <a href="/wiki/Tensor" title="Tensor">tensor</a> <a href="/wiki/Representations_of_Lie_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Representations of Lie groups">representations</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group" title="Poincaré group">Poincaré group</a> and internal symmetries. Supersymmetries, however, are generated by objects that transform by the <a href="/wiki/Spin_representation" title="Spin representation">spin representations</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Spin-statistics_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin-statistics theorem">spin-statistics theorem</a>, bosonic fields <a href="/wiki/Commutative_operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Commutative operation">commute</a> while fermionic fields <a href="/wiki/Anticommutativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticommutativity">anticommute</a>. Combining the two kinds of fields into a single <a href="/wiki/Lie_algebra" title="Lie algebra">algebra</a> requires the introduction of a <a href="/wiki/Graded_algebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Graded algebra">Z2-grading</a> under which the bosons are the even elements and the fermions are the odd elements. Such an algebra is called a <a href="/wiki/Lie_superalgebra" title="Lie superalgebra">Lie superalgebra</a>. The simplest supersymmetric extension of the <a href="/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_algebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Poincaré algebra">Poincaré algebra</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Super-Poincar%C3%A9_algebra" title="Super-Poincaré algebra">Super-Poincaré algebra</a>. Expressed in terms of two <a href="/wiki/Weyl_spinor" class="mw-redirect" title="Weyl spinor">Weyl spinors</a>, has the following <a href="/wiki/Commutator" title="Commutator">anti-commutation</a> relation: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \{Q_{\alpha },{\bar {Q}}_{\dot {\beta }}\}=2(\sigma ^{\mu })_{\alpha {\dot {\beta }}}P_{\mu }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>α</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>,</mo> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>Q</mi> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>β</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mi>σ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> </mrow> </msup> <msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>β</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{Q_{\alpha },{\bar {Q}}_{\dot {\beta }}\}=2(\sigma ^{\mu })_{\alpha {\dot {\beta }}}P_{\mu }}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/263c1bbf10058e59c2c079797ab753a6f72dc45b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:23.342ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \{Q_{\alpha },{\bar {Q}}_{\dot {\beta }}\}=2(\sigma ^{\mu })_{\alpha {\dot {\beta }}}P_{\mu }}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23.342ex;height: 3.509ex;vertical-align: -1.338ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/263c1bbf10058e59c2c079797ab753a6f72dc45b" data-alt="{\displaystyle \{Q_{\alpha },{\bar {Q}}_{\dot {\beta }}\}=2(\sigma ^{\mu })_{\alpha {\dot {\beta }}}P_{\mu }}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> </dd></dl> and all other anti-commutation relations between the Qs and commutation relations between the Qs and Ps vanish. In the above expression Pμ = −i ∂μ are the generators of translation and σμ are the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_matrices" title="Pauli matrices">Pauli matrices</a>. There are <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_a_Lie_superalgebra" title="Representation of a Lie superalgebra">representations of a Lie superalgebra</a> that are analogous to representations of a Lie algebra. Each Lie algebra has an associated <a href="/wiki/Lie_group" title="Lie group">Lie group</a> and a Lie superalgebra can sometimes be extended into representations of a <a href="/wiki/Lie_supergroup" class="mw-redirect" title="Lie supergroup">Lie supergroup</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supersymmetric_quantum_mechanics">Supersymmetric quantum mechanics</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Supersymmetric quantum mechanics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetric_quantum_mechanics" title="Supersymmetric quantum mechanics">Supersymmetric quantum mechanics</a></div> Supersymmetric quantum mechanics adds the SUSY superalgebra to quantum mechanics as opposed to quantum field theory. Supersymmetric quantum mechanics often becomes relevant when studying the dynamics of supersymmetric <a href="/wiki/Solitons" class="mw-redirect" title="Solitons">solitons</a>, and due to the simplified nature of having fields which are only functions of time (rather than space-time), a great deal of progress has been made in this subject and it is now studied in its own right. SUSY quantum mechanics involves pairs of <a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_(quantum_mechanics)" title="Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)">Hamiltonians</a> which share a particular mathematical relationship, which are called partner Hamiltonians. (The <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential energy</a> terms which occur in the Hamiltonians are then known as partner potentials.) An introductory theorem shows that for every <a href="/wiki/Eigenstate" class="mw-redirect" title="Eigenstate">eigenstate</a> of one Hamiltonian, its partner Hamiltonian has a corresponding eigenstate with the same energy. This fact can be exploited to deduce many properties of the eigenstate spectrum. It is analogous to the original description of SUSY, which referred to bosons and fermions. We can imagine a "bosonic Hamiltonian", whose eigenstates are the various bosons of our theory. The SUSY partner of this Hamiltonian would be "fermionic", and its eigenstates would be the theory's fermions. Each boson would have a fermionic partner of equal energy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_finance">In finance</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In finance" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In 2021, supersymmetric quantum mechanics was applied to <a href="/wiki/Option_pricing" class="mw-redirect" title="Option pricing">option pricing</a> and the analysis of <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">markets</a> in <a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">finance</a>,<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Financial_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial networks">financial networks</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Supersymmetry#Dubious" title="Talk:Supersymmetry">discuss</a>]<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supersymmetry_in_quantum_field_theory">Supersymmetry in quantum field theory</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Supersymmetry in quantum field theory" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In quantum field theory, supersymmetry is motivated by solutions to several theoretical problems, for generally providing many desirable mathematical properties, and for ensuring sensible behavior at high energies. Supersymmetric quantum field theory is often much easier to analyze, as many more problems become mathematically tractable. When supersymmetry is imposed as a local symmetry, Einstein's theory of <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> is included automatically, and the result is said to be a theory of <a href="/wiki/Supergravity" title="Supergravity">supergravity</a>. Another theoretically appealing property of supersymmetry is that it offers the only "loophole" to the <a href="/wiki/Coleman%E2%80%93Mandula_theorem" title="Coleman–Mandula theorem">Coleman–Mandula theorem</a>, which prohibits spacetime and internal <a href="/wiki/Symmetry_(physics)" title="Symmetry (physics)">symmetries</a> from being combined in any nontrivial way, for quantum field theories with very general assumptions. The <a href="/wiki/Haag%E2%80%93%C5%81opusza%C5%84ski%E2%80%93Sohnius_theorem" title="Haag–Łopuszański–Sohnius theorem">Haag–Łopuszański–Sohnius theorem</a> demonstrates that supersymmetry is the only way spacetime and internal symmetries can be combined consistently.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> While supersymmetry has not been discovered at <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">high energy</a>, see Section <a href="#Supersymmetry_in_particle_physics">Supersymmetry in particle physics</a>, supersymmetry was found to be effectively realized at the intermediate energy of <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadronic physics</a> where <a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">baryons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">mesons</a> are superpartners. An exception is the <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pion</a> that appears as a zero mode in the mass spectrum and thus protected by the supersymmetry: It has no baryonic partner.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The realization of this effective supersymmetry is readily explained in <a href="/wiki/Diquark" title="Diquark">quark–diquark models</a>: Because two different <a href="/wiki/Color_charge" title="Color charge">color charges</a> close together (e.g., blue and red) appear under coarse resolution as the corresponding anti-color (e.g. anti-green), a diquark cluster viewed with coarse resolution (i.e., at the energy-momentum scale used to study hadron structure) effectively appears as an antiquark. Therefore, a baryon containing 3 valence quarks, of which two tend to cluster together as a diquark, behaves likes a meson. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supersymmetry_in_condensed_matter_physics">Supersymmetry in condensed matter physics</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Supersymmetry in condensed matter physics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> SUSY concepts have provided useful <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetric_WKB_approximation" title="Supersymmetric WKB approximation">extensions</a> to the <a href="/wiki/WKB_approximation" title="WKB approximation">WKB approximation</a>. Additionally, SUSY has been applied to disorder averaged systems both quantum and non-quantum (through statistical mechanics), the <a href="/wiki/Fokker%E2%80%93Planck_equation" title="Fokker–Planck equation">Fokker–Planck equation</a> being an example of a non-quantum theory. The 'supersymmetry' in all these systems arises from the fact that one is modelling one particle and as such the 'statistics' do not matter. The use of the supersymmetry method provides a mathematical rigorous alternative to the <a href="/wiki/Replica_trick" title="Replica trick">replica trick</a>, but only in non-interacting systems, which attempts to address the so-called 'problem of the denominator' under disorder averaging. For more on the applications of supersymmetry in <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a> see Efetov (1997).<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> In 2021, a group of researchers showed that, in theory, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N=(0,1)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>N</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N=(0,1)}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1e0e791441cc9fd47eca523cfb8d658638af7654" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.33ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N=(0,1)}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 10.33ex;height: 2.843ex;vertical-align: -0.838ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1e0e791441cc9fd47eca523cfb8d658638af7654" data-alt="{\displaystyle N=(0,1)}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  SUSY could be realised at the edge of a Moore–Read <a href="/wiki/Quantum_Hall_effect" title="Quantum Hall effect">quantum Hall</a> state.<a href="#cite_note-ma_wang_yang-33">[33]</a> However, to date, no experiments have been done yet to realise it at an edge of a Moore–Read state. In 2022, a different group of researchers created a computer simulation of atoms in 1 dimensions that had supersymmetric <a href="/wiki/Topological_quantum_field_theory" title="Topological quantum field theory">topological</a> <a href="/wiki/Quasiparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Quasiparticles">quasiparticles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-minar_van_voorden_schoutens-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supersymmetry_in_optics">Supersymmetry in optics</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Supersymmetry in optics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In 2013, <a href="/wiki/Integrated_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated optics">integrated optics</a> was found<a href="#cite_note-miri13prl-35">[35]</a> to provide a fertile ground on which certain ramifications of SUSY can be explored in readily-accessible laboratory settings. Making use of the analogous mathematical structure of the quantum-mechanical <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wave_equation" title="Wave equation">wave equation</a> governing the evolution of light in one-dimensional settings, one may interpret the <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a> distribution of a structure as a potential landscape in which optical wave packets propagate. In this manner, a new class of functional optical structures with possible applications in <a href="/wiki/Phase_matching" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase matching">phase matching</a>, mode conversion<a href="#cite_note-heinrich14-36">[36]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiplexing" class="mw-redirect" title="Space-division multiplexing">space-division multiplexing</a> becomes possible. SUSY transformations have been also proposed as a way to address inverse scattering problems in optics and as a one-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Transformation_optics" title="Transformation optics">transformation optics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-miri14-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supersymmetry_in_dynamical_systems">Supersymmetry in dynamical systems</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Supersymmetry in dynamical systems" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetric_theory_of_stochastic_dynamics" title="Supersymmetric theory of stochastic dynamics">Supersymmetric theory of stochastic dynamics</a></div> All stochastic (partial) differential equations, the models for all types of continuous time dynamical systems, possess topological supersymmetry.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In the operator representation of stochastic evolution, the topological supersymmetry is the <a href="/wiki/Exterior_derivative" title="Exterior derivative">exterior derivative</a> which is commutative with the stochastic evolution operator defined as the stochastically averaged <a href="/wiki/Pullback_(differential_geometry)" title="Pullback (differential geometry)">pullback</a> induced on <a href="/wiki/Differential_forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential forms">differential forms</a> by SDE-defined <a href="/wiki/Diffeomorphism" title="Diffeomorphism">diffeomorphisms</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Phase_space" title="Phase space">phase space</a>. The topological sector of the so-emerging <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetric_theory_of_stochastic_dynamics" title="Supersymmetric theory of stochastic dynamics">supersymmetric theory of stochastic dynamics</a> can be recognized as the <a href="/wiki/Topological_quantum_field_theory" title="Topological quantum field theory">Witten-type topological field theory</a>. The meaning of the topological supersymmetry in dynamical systems is the preservation of the phase space continuity—infinitely close points will remain close during continuous time evolution even in the presence of noise. When the topological supersymmetry is broken spontaneously, this property is violated in the limit of the infinitely long temporal evolution and the model can be said to exhibit (the stochastic generalization of) the <a href="/wiki/Butterfly_effect" title="Butterfly effect">butterfly effect</a>. From a more general perspective, spontaneous breakdown of the topological supersymmetry is the theoretical essence of the ubiquitous dynamical phenomenon variously known as <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-organized_criticality" title="Self-organized criticality">self-organized criticality</a> etc. The <a href="/wiki/Goldstone_boson" title="Goldstone boson">Goldstone theorem</a> explains the associated emergence of the long-range dynamical behavior that manifests itself as <a href="/wiki/Pink_noise" title="Pink noise"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>⁠1/f⁠ noise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butterfly_effect" title="Butterfly effect">butterfly effect</a>, and the scale-free statistics of sudden (instantonic) processes, such as earthquakes, neuroavalanches, and solar flares, known as the <a href="/wiki/Zipf%27s_law" title="Zipf's law">Zipf's law</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Richter magnitude scale">Richter scale</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supersymmetry_in_mathematics">Supersymmetry in mathematics</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Supersymmetry in mathematics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> SUSY is also sometimes studied mathematically for its intrinsic properties. This is because it describes complex fields satisfying a property known as <a href="/wiki/Holomorphic_function" title="Holomorphic function">holomorphy</a>, which allows holomorphic quantities to be exactly computed. This makes supersymmetric models useful "<a href="/wiki/Toy_model" title="Toy model">toy models</a>" of more realistic theories. A prime example of this has been the demonstration of S-duality in four-dimensional gauge theories<a href="#cite_note-krasnitz02-40">[40]</a> that interchanges particles and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">monopoles</a>. The proof of the <a href="/wiki/Atiyah-Singer_index_theorem#Heat_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Atiyah-Singer index theorem">Atiyah–Singer index theorem</a> is much simplified by the use of supersymmetric quantum mechanics. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supersymmetry_in_string_theory">Supersymmetry in string theory</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Supersymmetry in string theory" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Superstring_theory" title="Superstring theory">Superstring theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">String theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/String_theory_landscape" title="String theory landscape">String theory landscape</a></div> Supersymmetry is an integral part of <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string theory</a>, a possible <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">theory of everything</a>. There are two types of string theory, supersymmetric string theory or <a href="/wiki/Superstring_theory" title="Superstring theory">superstring theory</a>, and non-supersymmetric string theory. By definition of superstring theory, supersymmetry is required in superstring theory at some level. However, even in non-supersymmetric string theory, a type of supersymmetry called misaligned supersymmetry is still required in the theory in order to ensure no physical <a href="/wiki/Tachyonic_field#Tachyons_in_string_theory" title="Tachyonic field">tachyons</a> appear.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Any string theories without some kind of supersymmetry, such as <a href="/wiki/Bosonic_string_theory" title="Bosonic string theory">bosonic string theory</a> and the <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{7}\times E_{7}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>×</mo> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{7}\times E_{7}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/446ef686e5da03bea08341e75ae79e5a7cef8998" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.379ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{7}\times E_{7}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 8.379ex;height: 2.509ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/446ef686e5da03bea08341e75ae79e5a7cef8998" data-alt="{\displaystyle E_{7}\times E_{7}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> , <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle SU(16)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>U</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>16</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle SU(16)}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/61993fa6ed5e9b8e99147f97f689b7e0d96f1d0f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.416ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle SU(16)}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 7.416ex;height: 2.843ex;vertical-align: -0.838ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/61993fa6ed5e9b8e99147f97f689b7e0d96f1d0f" data-alt="{\displaystyle SU(16)}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert"> , and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{8}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>8</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{8}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><noscript><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/48479e96d90b4cfabc7784106cc3cfff907dda34" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.769ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{8}}"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 2.769ex;height: 2.509ex;vertical-align: -0.671ex;" data-src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/48479e96d90b4cfabc7784106cc3cfff907dda34" data-alt="{\displaystyle E_{8}}" data-class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert">  <a href="/wiki/Heterotic_string_theory" title="Heterotic string theory">heterotic string theories</a>, will have a tachyon and therefore the <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a> <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum state">vacuum</a> itself would be unstable and would decay into some tachyon-free string theory usually in a lower spacetime dimension.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> There is no experimental evidence that either supersymmetry or misaligned supersymmetry holds in our universe, and many physicists have moved on from supersymmetry and string theory entirely due to the non-detection of supersymmetry at the LHC.<a href="#cite_note-Economist1-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Economist2-45">[45]</a> Despite the null results for supersymmetry at the LHC so far, some <a href="/wiki/Particle_physicists" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle physicists">particle physicists</a> have nevertheless moved to string theory in order to resolve the <a href="/wiki/Naturalness_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalness (physics)">naturalness crisis</a> for certain supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> According to the particle physicists, there exists a concept of "stringy naturalness" in <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string theory</a>,<a href="#cite_note-baer4-47">[47]</a> where the <a href="/wiki/String_theory_landscape" title="String theory landscape">string theory landscape</a> could have a power law statistical pull on soft SUSY breaking terms to large values (depending on the number of hidden sector SUSY breaking fields contributing to the soft terms).<a href="#cite_note-douglas1-48">[48]</a> If this is coupled with an anthropic requirement that contributions to the weak scale not exceed a factor between 2 and 5 from its measured value (as argued by Agrawal et al.),<a href="#cite_note-agrawal1-49">[49]</a> then the Higgs mass is pulled up to the vicinity of 125 GeV while most sparticles are pulled to values beyond the current reach of LHC.<a href="#cite_note-baer2-50">[50]</a> (The Higgs was determined to have a mass of 125 GeV ±0.15 GeV in 2022.) An exception occurs for <a href="/wiki/Higgsino" title="Higgsino">higgsinos</a> which gain mass not from SUSY breaking but rather from whatever mechanism solves the SUSY mu problem. Light higgsino pair production in association with hard initial state jet radiation leads to a soft opposite-sign dilepton plus jet plus missing transverse energy signal.<a href="#cite_note-baer3-51">[51]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Supersymmetry_in_particle_physics">Supersymmetry in particle physics</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Supersymmetry in particle physics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> In particle physics, a supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model is a possible candidate for <a href="/wiki/Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model" title="Physics beyond the Standard Model">undiscovered particle physics</a>, and seen by some physicists as an elegant solution to many current <a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">problems in particle physics</a> if confirmed correct, which could resolve various areas where current theories are believed to be incomplete and where limitations of current theories are well established.<a href="#cite_note-ATLAS2017Sep-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-CMS2017Sep-53">[53]</a> In particular, one supersymmetric extension of the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model</a> (MSSM), became popular in theoretical particle physics, as the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model is the simplest supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model that could resolve major hierarchy problems within the Standard Model, by guaranteeing that quadratic <a href="/wiki/The_problem_of_infinities" class="mw-redirect" title="The problem of infinities">divergences</a> of all orders will <a href="/wiki/Cancel_out" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancel out">cancel out</a> in <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_theory" title="Perturbation theory">perturbation theory</a>. If a supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model is correct, superpartners of the existing <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Elementary particles">elementary particles</a> would be new and undiscovered particles and supersymmetry is expected to be spontaneously broken. There is no experimental evidence that a supersymmetric extension to the Standard Model is correct, or whether or not other extensions to current models might be more accurate. It is only since around 2010 that <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerators</a> specifically designed to study physics beyond the Standard Model have become operational (i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> (LHC)), and it is not known where exactly to look, nor the energies required for a successful search. However, the negative results from the LHC since 2010 have already ruled out some supersymmetric extensions to the Standard Model, and many physicists believe that the <a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model</a>, while not ruled out, is no longer able to fully resolve the hierarchy problem.<a href="#cite_note-status-of-supersymmetry-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supersymmetric_extensions_of_the_Standard_Model">Supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model</a></div> Incorporating supersymmetry into the Standard Model requires doubling the number of particles since there is no way that any of the particles in the Standard Model can be superpartners of each other. With the addition of new particles, there are many possible new interactions. The simplest possible supersymmetric model consistent with the Standard Model is the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) which can include the necessary additional new particles that are able to be superpartners of those in the Standard Model. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hqmc-vector.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Hqmc-vector.svg/290px-Hqmc-vector.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="226" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="234"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 226px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Hqmc-vector.svg/290px-Hqmc-vector.svg.png" data-width="290" data-height="226" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Hqmc-vector.svg/435px-Hqmc-vector.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Hqmc-vector.svg/580px-Hqmc-vector.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Cancellation of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a> quadratic <a href="/wiki/Mass_renormalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass renormalization">mass renormalization</a> between fermionic <a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">top quark</a> loop and <a href="/wiki/Scalar_field" title="Scalar field">scalar</a> stop <a href="/wiki/Squark" class="mw-redirect" title="Squark">squark</a> <a href="/wiki/Tadpole_(physics)" title="Tadpole (physics)">tadpole</a> <a href="/wiki/Feynman_diagram" title="Feynman diagram">Feynman diagrams</a> in a supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model</figcaption></figure> One of the original motivations for the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model came from the <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_problem" title="Hierarchy problem">hierarchy problem</a>. Due to the quadratically divergent contributions to the Higgs mass squared in the Standard Model, the quantum mechanical interactions of the Higgs boson causes a large renormalization of the Higgs mass and unless there is an accidental cancellation, the natural size of the Higgs mass is the greatest scale possible. Furthermore, the electroweak scale receives enormous <a href="/wiki/Planck_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck mass">Planck-scale</a> quantum corrections. The observed hierarchy between the electroweak scale and the Planck scale must be achieved with extraordinary <a href="/wiki/Fine-tuning_(physics)" title="Fine-tuning (physics)">fine tuning</a>. This problem is known as the hierarchy problem. Supersymmetry close to the <a href="/wiki/Electroweak_scale" title="Electroweak scale">electroweak scale</a>, such as in the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, would solve the <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_problem" title="Hierarchy problem">hierarchy problem</a> that afflicts the Standard Model.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> It would reduce the size of the quantum corrections by having automatic cancellations between fermionic and bosonic Higgs interactions, and Planck-scale quantum corrections cancel between partners and superpartners (owing to a minus sign associated with fermionic loops). The hierarchy between the electroweak scale and the Planck scale would be achieved in a <a href="/wiki/Naturalness_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalness (physics)">natural</a> manner, without extraordinary fine-tuning. If supersymmetry were restored at the weak scale, then the Higgs mass would be related to supersymmetry breaking which can be induced from small non-perturbative effects explaining the vastly different scales in the weak interactions and gravitational interactions. Another motivation for the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model comes from <a href="/wiki/Grand_unified_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand unified theory">grand unification</a>, the idea that the gauge symmetry groups should unify at high-energy. In the Standard Model, however, the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak interactions">weak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strong_interactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong interactions">strong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic</a> gauge couplings fail to unify at high energy. In particular, the <a href="/wiki/Renormalization_group" title="Renormalization group">renormalization group</a> evolution of the three gauge <a href="/wiki/Coupling_constant" title="Coupling constant">coupling constants</a> of the Standard Model is somewhat sensitive to the present particle content of the theory. These coupling constants do not quite meet together at a common energy scale if we run the renormalization group using the Standard Model.<a href="#cite_note-GKane-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> After incorporating minimal SUSY at the electroweak scale, the running of the gauge couplings are modified, and joint convergence of the gauge coupling constants is projected to occur at approximately 1016 <a href="/wiki/GeV" class="mw-redirect" title="GeV">GeV</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GKane-56">[56]</a> The modified running also provides a natural mechanism for radiative <a href="/wiki/Electroweak_symmetry_breaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroweak symmetry breaking">electroweak symmetry breaking</a>. In many supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model, such as the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, there is a heavy stable particle (such as the <a href="/wiki/Neutralino" title="Neutralino">neutralino</a>) which could serve as a <a href="/wiki/Weakly_interacting_massive_particle" title="Weakly interacting massive particle">weakly interacting massive particle</a> (WIMP) <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> candidate. The existence of a supersymmetric dark matter candidate is related closely to <a href="/wiki/R-parity" title="R-parity">R-parity</a>. Supersymmetry at the electroweak scale (augmented with a discrete symmetry) typically provides a candidate dark matter particle at a mass scale consistent with thermal relic abundance calculations.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The standard paradigm for incorporating supersymmetry into a realistic theory is to have the underlying dynamics of the theory be supersymmetric, but the ground state of the theory does not respect the symmetry and supersymmetry is <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking" title="Spontaneous symmetry breaking">broken spontaneously</a>. The supersymmetry break can not be done permanently by the particles of the MSSM as they currently appear. This means that there is a new sector of the theory that is responsible for the breaking. The only constraint on this new sector is that it must break supersymmetry permanently and must give superparticles TeV scale masses. There are many models that can do this and most of their details do not matter. In order to parameterize the relevant features of supersymmetry breaking, arbitrary <a href="/wiki/Soft_SUSY_breaking" title="Soft SUSY breaking">soft SUSY breaking</a> terms are added to the theory which temporarily break SUSY explicitly but could never arise from a complete theory of supersymmetry breaking. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Searches_and_constraints_for_supersymmetry">Searches and constraints for supersymmetry</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Searches and constraints for supersymmetry" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> SUSY extensions of the <a href="/wiki/Standard_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard model">standard model</a> are constrained by a variety of experiments, including measurements of low-energy observables – for example, the <a href="/wiki/Anomalous_magnetic_dipole_moment" title="Anomalous magnetic dipole moment">anomalous magnetic moment of the muon</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a>; the <a href="/wiki/WMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="WMAP">WMAP</a> dark matter density measurement and direct detection experiments – for example, <a href="/wiki/XENON" title="XENON">XENON</a>-100 and <a href="/wiki/Large_Underground_Xenon_experiment" title="Large Underground Xenon experiment">LUX</a>; and by particle collider experiments, including <a href="/wiki/B-physics" class="mw-redirect" title="B-physics">B-physics</a>, Higgs phenomenology and direct searches for superpartners (sparticles), at the <a href="/wiki/Large_Electron%E2%80%93Positron_Collider" title="Large Electron–Positron Collider">Large Electron–Positron Collider</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tevatron" title="Tevatron">Tevatron</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">LHC</a>. In fact, CERN publicly states that if a supersymmetric model of the Standard Model "is correct, supersymmetric particles should appear in collisions at the LHC."<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Historically, the tightest limits were from direct production at colliders. The first mass limits for squarks and gluinos were made at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> by the <a href="/wiki/UA1_experiment" title="UA1 experiment">UA1 experiment</a> and the <a href="/wiki/UA2_experiment" title="UA2 experiment">UA2 experiment</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Super_Proton_Synchrotron" title="Super Proton Synchrotron">Super Proton Synchrotron</a>. LEP later set very strong limits,<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> which in 2006 were extended by the D0 experiment at the Tevatron.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> From 2003 to 2015, WMAP's and <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck</a>'s dark matter density measurements have strongly constrained supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model, which, if they explain dark matter, have to be tuned to invoke a particular mechanism to sufficiently reduce the <a href="/wiki/Neutralino" title="Neutralino">neutralino</a> density. Prior to the beginning of the LHC, in 2009, fits of available data to CMSSM and NUHM1 indicated that squarks and gluinos were most likely to have masses in the 500 to 800 GeV range, though values as high as 2.5 TeV were allowed with low probabilities. Neutralinos and sleptons were expected to be quite light, with the lightest neutralino and the lightest stau most likely to be found between 100 and 150 GeV.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The first runs of the LHC surpassed existing experimental limits from the Large Electron–Positron Collider and Tevatron and partially excluded the aforementioned expected ranges.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> In 2011–12, the LHC discovered a <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a> with a mass of about 125 GeV, and with couplings to fermions and bosons which are consistent with the Standard Model. The MSSM predicts that the mass of the lightest Higgs boson should not be much higher than the mass of the <a href="/wiki/Z_boson" class="mw-redirect" title="Z boson">Z boson</a>, and, in the absence of <a href="/wiki/Fine-tuning_(physics)" title="Fine-tuning (physics)">fine tuning</a> (with the supersymmetry breaking scale on the order of 1 TeV), should not exceed 135 GeV.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The LHC found <a href="/wiki/Desert_(particle_physics)" title="Desert (particle physics)">no previously unknown particles</a> other than the Higgs boson which was already suspected to exist as part of the Standard Model, and therefore no evidence for any supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model.<a href="#cite_note-ATLAS2017Sep-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-CMS2017Sep-53">[53]</a> Indirect methods include the search for a permanent electric dipole moment (EDM) in the known Standard Model particles, which can arise when the Standard Model particle interacts with the supersymmetric particles. The current best constraint on the <a href="/wiki/Electron_electric_dipole_moment" title="Electron electric dipole moment">electron electric dipole moment</a> put it to be smaller than 10−28 e·cm, equivalent to a sensitivity to new physics at the TeV scale and matching that of the current best particle colliders.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> A permanent EDM in any fundamental particle points towards <a href="/wiki/T-symmetry" title="T-symmetry">time-reversal</a> violating physics, and therefore also <a href="/wiki/CP-symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="CP-symmetry">CP-symmetry</a> violation via the <a href="/wiki/CPT_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="CPT theorem">CPT theorem</a>. Such EDM experiments are also much more scalable than conventional particle accelerators and offer a practical alternative to detecting physics beyond the standard model as accelerator experiments become increasingly costly and complicated to maintain. The current best limit for the electron's EDM has already reached a sensitivity to rule out so called 'naive' versions of supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Research in the late 2010s and early 2020s from experimental data on the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant" title="Cosmological constant">cosmological constant</a>, <a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">LIGO</a> <a href="/wiki/Noise" title="Noise">noise</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pulsar_timing" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulsar timing">pulsar timing</a>, suggests it's very unlikely that there are any new particles with masses much higher than those which can be found in the standard model or the LHC.<a href="#cite_note-cosmological-bounds-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-ligo-noise-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-pulsar-timing-71">[71]</a> However, this research has also indicated that <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Perturbative" class="mw-redirect" title="Perturbative">perturbative</a> quantum field theory will become strongly coupled before 1 PeV, leading to other new physics in the TeVs.<a href="#cite_note-cosmological-bounds-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_status">Current status</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Current status" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The negative findings in the experiments disappointed many physicists, who believed that supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model (and other theories relying upon it) were by far the most promising theories for "new" physics beyond the Standard Model, and had hoped for signs of unexpected results from the experiments.<a href="#cite_note-Wolchover-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-quantamagazine.org-2">[2]</a> In particular, the LHC result seems problematic for the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, as the value of 125 GeV is relatively large for the model and can only be achieved with large radiative loop corrections from top <a href="/wiki/Squarks" class="mw-redirect" title="Squarks">squarks</a>, which many theorists consider to be "unnatural" (see naturalness and fine tuning).<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> In response to the so-called "naturalness crisis" in the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, some researchers have abandoned naturalness and the original motivation to solve the hierarchy problem naturally with supersymmetry, while other researchers have moved on to other supersymmetric models such as <a href="/wiki/Split_supersymmetry" title="Split supersymmetry">split supersymmetry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-status-of-supersymmetry-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-WittenCERN-73">[73]</a> Still others have moved to string theory as a result of the naturalness crisis.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-baer4-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-douglas1-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-baer2-50">[50]</a> Former enthusiastic supporter <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Shifman" title="Mikhail Shifman">Mikhail Shifman</a> went as far as urging the theoretical community to search for new ideas and accept that supersymmetry was a failed theory in particle physics.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> However, some researchers suggested that this "naturalness" crisis was premature because various calculations were too optimistic about the limits of masses which would allow a supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model as a solution.<a href="#cite_note-naturalness_crisis-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-baer1-77">[77]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="General_supersymmetry">General supersymmetry</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: General supersymmetry" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> Supersymmetry appears in many related contexts of theoretical physics. It is possible to have multiple supersymmetries and also have supersymmetric extra dimensions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extended_supersymmetry">Extended supersymmetry</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Extended supersymmetry" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> It is possible to have more than one kind of supersymmetry transformation. Theories with more than one supersymmetry transformation are known as <a href="/wiki/Extended_supersymmetry" title="Extended supersymmetry">extended supersymmetric</a> theories. The more supersymmetry a theory has, the more constrained are the field content and interactions. Typically the number of copies of a supersymmetry is a power of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8...). In four dimensions, a spinor has four degrees of freedom and thus the minimal number of supersymmetry generators is four in four dimensions and having eight copies of supersymmetry means that there are 32 supersymmetry generators. The maximal number of supersymmetry generators possible is 32. Theories with more than 32 supersymmetry generators automatically have massless fields with spin greater than 2. It is not known how to make massless fields with spin greater than two interact, so the maximal number of supersymmetry generators considered is 32. This is due to the <a href="/wiki/Weinberg%E2%80%93Witten_theorem" title="Weinberg–Witten theorem">Weinberg–Witten theorem</a>. This corresponds to an N = 8[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] supersymmetry theory. Theories with 32 supersymmetries automatically have a <a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">graviton</a>. For four dimensions there are the following theories, with the corresponding multiplets<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> (CPT adds a copy, whenever they are not invariant under such symmetry): <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="4">N = 1 </th> <td>Chiral multiplet</td> <td style="border-right:none">(0,</td> <td style="border-left:none" colspan="8"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/2⁠) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vector multiplet</td> <td style="border-right:none">(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/2⁠,</td> <td style="border-left:none" colspan="8">1) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gravitino multiplet</td> <td style="border-right:none">(1,</td> <td style="border-left:none" colspan="8"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠3/2⁠) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Graviton multiplet</td> <td style="border-right:none">(<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠3/2⁠,</td> <td style="border-left:none" colspan="8">2) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">N = 2 </th> <td>Hypermultiplet</td> <td style="border-right:none">(−<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/2⁠,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none">02,</td> <td style="border-left:none" colspan="7"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/2⁠) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vector multiplet</td> <td style="border-right:none">(0,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/2⁠ 2,</td> <td style="border-left:none" colspan="7">1) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Supergravity multiplet</td> <td style="border-right:none">(1,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠3/2⁠ 2,</td> <td style="border-left:none" colspan="7">2) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">N = 4 </th> <td>Vector multiplet</td> <td style="border-right:none">(−1,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none">−<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/2⁠ 4,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none">06,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/2⁠ 4,</td> <td style="border-left:none" colspan="5">1) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Supergravity multiplet</td> <td style="border-right:none">(0,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/2⁠ 4,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none">16,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠3/2⁠ 4,</td> <td style="border-left:none" colspan="5">2) </td></tr> <tr> <th>N = 8 </th> <td>Supergravity multiplet</td> <td style="border-right:none">(−2,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none">−<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠3/2⁠ 8,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none">−128,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none">−<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/2⁠ 56,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none">070,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/2⁠ 56,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none">128,</td> <td style="border-left:none;border-right:none"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠3/2⁠ 8,</td> <td style="border-left:none">2) </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supersymmetry_in_alternate_numbers_of_dimensions">Supersymmetry in alternate numbers of dimensions</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Supersymmetry in alternate numbers of dimensions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> It is possible to have supersymmetry in dimensions other than four. Because the properties of spinors change drastically between different dimensions, each dimension has its characteristic. In d dimensions, the size of spinors is approximately 2d/2 or 2(d − 1)/2. Since the maximum number of supersymmetries is 32, the greatest number of dimensions in which a supersymmetric theory can exist is eleven.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fractional_supersymmetry">Fractional supersymmetry</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Fractional supersymmetry" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Fractional supersymmetry is a generalization of the notion of supersymmetry in which the minimal positive amount of spin does not have to be <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/2⁠ but can be an arbitrary <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035">⁠1/N⁠ for integer value of N. Such a generalization is possible in two or fewer <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a> dimensions. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4D_N_%3D_1_global_supersymmetry" title="4D N = 1 global supersymmetry">4D N = 1 global supersymmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anyon" title="Anyon">Anyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-to-Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Next-to-Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">Next-to-Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_group#Quantum_groups_and_non-commutative_geometry" title="Quantum group">Quantum group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_supersymmetry" title="Split supersymmetry">Split supersymmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercharge" title="Supercharge">Supercharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supermultiplet" title="Supermultiplet">Supermultiplet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergeometry" title="Supergeometry">Supergeometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergravity" title="Supergravity">Supergravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergroup_(physics)" title="Supergroup (physics)">Supergroup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superpartner" title="Superpartner">Superpartner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superspace" title="Superspace">Superspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersplit_supersymmetry" title="Supersplit supersymmetry">Supersplit supersymmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersymmetric_gauge_theory" title="Supersymmetric gauge theory">Supersymmetric gauge theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry_nonrenormalization_theorems" title="Supersymmetry nonrenormalization theorems">Supersymmetry nonrenormalization theorems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wess%E2%80%93Zumino_model" title="Wess–Zumino model">Wess–Zumino model</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CERN_Overview-1"><a href="#cite_ref-CERN_Overview_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230714210240/https://home.web.cern.ch/science/physics/supersymmetry">"Supersymmetry"</a>. CERN. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://home.web.cern.ch/science/physics/supersymmetry">the original</a> on 2023-07-14. 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Physical Review D. 88 (9): 095013. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1309.2984">1309.2984</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PhRvD..88i5013B">2013PhRvD..88i5013B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.88.095013">10.1103/PhysRevD.88.095013</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119288477">119288477</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=How+conventional+measures+overestimate+electroweak+fine-tuning+in+supersymmetric+theory&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=095013&rft.date=2013-09&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1309.2984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119288477%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.88.095013&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PhRvD..88i5013B&rft.aulast=Baer&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft.au=Barger%2C+Vernon&rft.au=Mickelson%2C+Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupersymmetry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-baer1-77"><a href="#cite_ref-baer1_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaerBargerHuangMickelson2012" class="citation journal cs1">Baer, Howard; Barger, Vernon; Huang, Peisi; Mickelson, Dan; Mustafayev, Azar; Tata, Xerxes (December 2012). "Radiative natural supersymmetry: Reconciling electroweak fine-tuning and the Higgs boson mass". Physical Review D. 87 (11): 115028. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1212.2655">1212.2655</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PhRvD..87k5028B">2013PhRvD..87k5028B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.87.115028">10.1103/PhysRevD.87.115028</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73588737">73588737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Radiative+natural+supersymmetry%3A+Reconciling+electroweak+fine-tuning+and+the+Higgs+boson+mass&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=115028&rft.date=2012-12&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1212.2655&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73588737%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.87.115028&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PhRvD..87k5028B&rft.aulast=Baer&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft.au=Barger%2C+Vernon&rft.au=Huang%2C+Peisi&rft.au=Mickelson%2C+Dan&rft.au=Mustafayev%2C+Azar&rft.au=Tata%2C+Xerxes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupersymmetry" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Polchinski, J. String Theory. Vol. 2: Superstring theory and beyond, Appendix B </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stringwiki.org/wiki/Supersymmetry_and_Supergravity">Supersymmetry and Supergravity</a> page in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stringwiki.org/wiki/String_Theory_Wiki">String Theory Wiki</a> lists more books and reviews.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theoretical_introductions,_free_and_online">Theoretical introductions, free and online</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Theoretical introductions, free and online" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArygres2001" class="citation cs2">Arygres, P. (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepages.uc.edu/~argyrepc/cu661-gr-SUSY/susy2001.pdf">An Introduction to Global Supersymmetry</a> (PDF)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Global+Supersymmetry&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Arygres&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhomepages.uc.edu%2F~argyrepc%2Fcu661-gr-SUSY%2Fsusy2001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupersymmetry" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBilal2001" class="citation arxiv cs1">Bilal, A. (2001). "Introduction to Supersymmetry". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0101055">hep-th/0101055</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Supersymmetry&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-th%2F0101055&rft.aulast=Bilal&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupersymmetry" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManuel1996" class="citation arxiv cs1">Manuel, D. (1996). "An Introduction to Supersymmetry". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9611409">hep-ph/9611409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=An+Introduction+to+Supersymmetry&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-ph%2F9611409&rft.aulast=Manuel&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupersymmetry" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooperKhareSukhatme1995" class="citation journal cs1">Cooper, F.; Khare, A.; Sukhatme, U. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/262851">"Supersymmetry and quantum mechanics"</a>. Physics Reports (Submitted manuscript). 251 (5–6): 267–385. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9405029">hep-th/9405029</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhR...251..267C">1995PhR...251..267C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0370-1573%2894%2900080-M">10.1016/0370-1573(94)00080-M</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119379742">119379742</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Reports&rft.atitle=Supersymmetry+and+quantum+mechanics&rft.volume=251&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=267-385&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-th%2F9405029&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119379742%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0370-1573%2894%2900080-M&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995PhR...251..267C&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Khare%2C+A.&rft.au=Sukhatme%2C+U.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcds.cern.ch%2Frecord%2F262851&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupersymmetry" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLykken1996" class="citation arxiv cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lykken" title="Joseph Lykken">Lykken, J. D.</a> (1996). "Introduction to Supersymmetry". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9612114">hep-th/9612114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Supersymmetry&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-th%2F9612114&rft.aulast=Lykken&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupersymmetry" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2011" class="citation book cs1">Martin, S. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/perspectivesonsu0000unse_y6n5/page/1">"A Supersymmetry Primer"</a>. Perspectives on Supersymmetry. Advanced Series on Directions in High Energy Physics. Vol. 18. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/perspectivesonsu0000unse_y6n5/page/1">1–98</a>. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9709356">hep-ph/9709356</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2F9789812839657_0001">10.1142/9789812839657_0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-3553-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-02-3553-6"><bdi>978-981-02-3553-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118973381">118973381</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Supersymmetry+Primer&rft.btitle=Perspectives+on+Supersymmetry&rft.series=Advanced+Series+on+Directions+in+High+Energy+Physics&rft.pages=1-98&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-ph%2F9709356&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118973381%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2F9789812839657_0001&rft.isbn=978-981-02-3553-6&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fperspectivesonsu0000unse_y6n5%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupersymmetry" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTong2021" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Tong_(physicist)" title="David Tong (physicist)">Tong, D.</a> (2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/tong/susy/susy.pdf">Supersymmetric Field Theory</a> (PDF)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supersymmetric+Field+Theory&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Tong&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.damtp.cam.ac.uk%2Fuser%2Ftong%2Fsusy%2Fsusy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupersymmetry" class="Z3988">.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monographs">Monographs</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Monographs" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Baer, H., and Tata, X., Weak Scale Supersymmetry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (1999). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813341194" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813341194">978-0813341194</a>.</li> <li>Binetruy, P., Supersymmetry: Theory, Experiment, and Cosmology, Oxford University Press, Oxford, (2012). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199652730" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199652730">978-0199652730</a>.</li> <li>Cecotti, S., Supersymmetric Field Theories: Geometric Structures and Dualities, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (2015). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107053816" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107053816">978-1107053816</a>.</li> <li>Drees, M., Godbole, R., and Roy, P., Theory & Phenomenology of Sparticles, World Scientific, Singapore (2005). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-810-23739-1" title="Special:BookSources/9-810-23739-1">9-810-23739-1</a>.</li> <li>Dreiner, H.K., <a href="/wiki/Howard_E._Haber" title="Howard E. Haber">Haber</a>, H.E., Martin, S.P., From Spinors to Supersymmetry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (2023). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521800884" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521800884">978-0521800884</a>.</li> <li>Duplij, S., Siegel, W., and Bagger, J.,Concise Encyclopedia of Supersymmetry, Springer, (2003). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1338-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1338-6">978-1-4020-1338-6</a>.</li> <li>Freud, P.G.O., Introduction to Supersymmetry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (1988). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521356756" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521356756">978-0521356756</a>.</li> <li>Junker, G., Supersymmetric Methods in Quantum and Statistical Physics, Springer, (2011). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-61591-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-61591-0">978-3-540-61591-0</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_L._Kane" title="Gordon L. Kane">Kane</a>, G.L., Supersymmetry: Unveiling the Ultimate Laws of Nature, Basic Books, New York (2001). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7382-0489-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7382-0489-7">0-7382-0489-7</a>.</li> <li>Kane, G.L., and Shifman, M., eds. The Supersymmetric World: The Beginnings of the Theory, World Scientific, Singapore (2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-02-4522-X" title="Special:BookSources/981-02-4522-X">981-02-4522-X</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_J._W._Mueller-Kirsten" title="Harald J. W. Mueller-Kirsten">Müller-Kirsten</a>, H.J.W., and Wiedemann, A., Introduction to Supersymmetry, 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore (2010). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4293-41-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4293-41-9">978-981-4293-41-9</a>.</li> <li>Nath, P., Supersymmetry, Supergravity and Unification, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (2016). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-19702-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-19702-3">0-521-19702-3</a>.</li> <li>Raby, S., Supersymmetric Grand Unified Theories, Springer, (2017). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319552538" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319552538">978-3319552538</a>.</li> <li>Tachikawa, Y., N=2 Supersymmetric Dynamics for Pedestrians, Springer, (2014). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3319088211" title="Special:BookSources/978-3319088211">978-3319088211</a>.</li> <li>Terning, J., Modern Supersymmetry: Dynamics and Duality, Oxford University Press, Oxford, (2009). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199559510" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199559510">978-0199559510</a>.</li> <li>Wegner, F., Supermathematics and its Applications in Statistical Physics, Springer, (2016). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3662491683" title="Special:BookSources/978-3662491683">978-3662491683</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg</a>, S., The Quantum Theory of Fields, Volume 3: Supersymmetry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (1999). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-66000-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-66000-9">0-521-66000-9</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Wess" title="Julius Wess">Wess</a>, J. and Bagger, J., Supersymmetry and Supergravity, Princeton University Press, Princeton, (1992). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02530-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-02530-4">0-691-02530-4</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_experiments">On experiments</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: On experiments" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennettBousquetBrownBunce2004" class="citation journal cs1">Bennett GW, et al. (Muon (g−2) Collaboration) (2004). "Measurement of the negative muon anomalous magnetic moment to 0.7 ppm". Physical Review Letters. 92 (16): 161802. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ex/0401008">hep-ex/0401008</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PhRvL..92p1802B">2004PhRvL..92p1802B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.92.161802">10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.161802</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15169217">15169217</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3183567">3183567</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Measurement+of+the+negative+muon+anomalous+magnetic+moment+to+0.7+ppm&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=161802&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3183567%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004PhRvL..92p1802B&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-ex%2F0401008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15169217&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.92.161802&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=GW&rft.au=Bousquet%2C+B&rft.au=Brown%2C+HN&rft.au=Bunce%2C+G&rft.au=Carey%2C+RM&rft.au=Cushman%2C+P&rft.au=Danby%2C+GT&rft.au=Debevec%2C+PT&rft.au=Deile%2C+M&rft.au=Deng%2C+H&rft.au=Dhawan%2C+SK&rft.au=Druzhinin%2C+VP&rft.au=Duong%2C+L&rft.au=Farley+FJM&rft.au=Fedotovich%2C+GV&rft.au=Gray%2C+FE&rft.au=Grigoriev%2C+D&rft.au=Grosse-Perdekamp%2C+M&rft.au=Grossmann%2C+A&rft.au=Hare%2C+MF&rft.au=Hertzog%2C+DW&rft.au=Huang%2C+X&rft.au=Hughes%2C+VW&rft.au=Iwasaki%2C+M&rft.au=Jungmann%2C+K&rft.au=Kawall%2C+D&rft.au=Khazin%2C+BI&rft.au=Krienen%2C+F&rft.au=Kronkvist%2C+I&rft.au=Lam%2C+A&rft.au=Larsen%2C+R&rft.au=Lee%2C+YY&rft.au=Logashenko%2C+I&rft.au=McNabb%2C+R&rft.au=Meng%2C+W&rft.au=Miller%2C+JP&rft.au=Morse%2C+WM&rft.au=Nikas%2C+D&rft.au=Onderwater+CJG&rft.au=Orlov%2C+Y&rft.au=%C3%96zben%2C+CS&rft.au=Paley%2C+JM&rft.au=Peng%2C+Q&rft.au=Polly%2C+CC&rft.au=Pretz%2C+J&rft.au=Prigl%2C+R&rft.au=Qian%2C+T&rft.au=Redin%2C+SI&rft.au=Rind%2C+O&rft.au=Roberts%2C+BL&rft.au=Ryskulov%2C+N&rft.au=Semertzidis%2C+YK&rft.au=Shagin%2C+P&rft.au=Shatunov+YuM&rft.au=Sichtermann%2C+EP&rft.au=Solodov%2C+E&rft.au=Sossong%2C+M&rft.au=Sulak%2C+LR&rft.au=Trofimov%2C+A&rft.au=von+Walter%2C+P&rft.au=Yamamoto%2C+A&rft.au=zu+Putlitz%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupersymmetry" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Brookhaven National Laboratory (Jan 8, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/pr/2004/bnlpr010804.htm">New g−2 measurement deviates further from Standard Model</a>. Press Release.</li> <li>Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Sept 25, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fnal.gov/pub/presspass/press_releases/CDF_meson.html">Fermilab's CDF scientists have discovered the quick-change behavior of the B-sub-s meson.</a> Press Release.</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media 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href="/wiki/Quanta_Magazine" title="Quanta Magazine">Quanta Magazine</a>, November 20, 2012</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0CeLRrBAI60">What is Supersymmetry?</a> – <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a>, May 21, 2013</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=09VbAe9JZ8Y">Why Supersymmetry?</a> – Fermilab, May 31, 2013</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zofMPB52Y3M">The Standard Model and Supersymmetry</a> – <a href="/wiki/World_Science_Festival" title="World Science Festival">World Science Festival</a>, March 4, 2015</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-20300100">SUSY running out of hiding places</a> – BBC, December 11, 2012</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Supersymmetry&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 14 November 2024, at 03:13 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimmetrie" title="Supersimmetrie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Supersimmetrie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%B1_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%82" title="تناظر فائق – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تناظر فائق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimetr%C3%ADa" title="Supersimetría – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Supersimetría" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimmetriya" title="Supersimmetriya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Supersimmetriya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Суперсіметрыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Суперсіметрыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Суперсиметрия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Суперсиметрия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimetria" title="Supersimetria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Supersimetria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymetrie" title="Supersymetrie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Supersymetrie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetrie" title="Supersymmetrie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Supersymmetrie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supers%C3%BCmmeetria" title="Supersümmeetria – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Supersümmeetria" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Υπερσυμμετρία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υπερσυμμετρία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimetr%C3%ADa" title="Supersimetría – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Supersimetría" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimetrio" title="Supersimetrio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Supersimetrio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimetria" title="Supersimetria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Supersimetria" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86" title="ابرتقارن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ابرتقارن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersym%C3%A9trie" title="Supersymétrie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Supersymétrie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forshim%C3%A9adracht" title="Forshiméadracht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Forshiméadracht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimetr%C3%ADa" title="Supersimetría – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Supersimetría" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B4%88%EB%8C%80%EC%B9%AD" title="초대칭 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="초대칭" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BA%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Սուպերսիմետրիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սուպերսիմետրիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimetri" title="Supersimetri – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Supersimetri" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimmetria" title="Supersimmetria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Supersimmetria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%A8-%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94" title="סופר-סימטריה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סופר-סימטריה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Суперсимметрия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Суперсимметрия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetria" title="Supersymmetria – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Supersymmetria" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimetrija" title="Supersimetrija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Supersimetrija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szuperszimmetria" title="Szuperszimmetria – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szuperszimmetria" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetrie" title="Supersymmetrie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Supersymmetrie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%AF%BE%E7%A7%B0%E6%80%A7" title="超対称性 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="超対称性" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetri" title="Supersymmetri – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Supersymmetri" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetri" title="Supersymmetri – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Supersymmetri" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0-%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80" title="ਸੁਪਰ-ਸਮਿੱਟਰੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੁਪਰ-ਸਮਿੱਟਰੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymetria" title="Supersymetria – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Supersymetria" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimetria" title="Supersimetria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Supersimetria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimetrie" title="Supersimetrie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Supersimetrie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Суперсимметрия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Суперсимметрия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Supersymmetry" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymetria" title="Supersymetria – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Supersymetria" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimetrija" title="Supersimetrija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Supersimetrija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersimetrija" title="Supersimetrija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Supersimetrija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetria" title="Supersymmetria – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Supersymmetria" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetri" title="Supersymmetri – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Supersymmetri" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Суперсимметрия – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Суперсимметрия" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%94" title="สมมาตรยิ่งยวด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สมมาตรยิ่งยวด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCpersimetri" title="Süpersimetri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Süpersimetri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Суперсиметрія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Суперсиметрія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%AAu_%C4%91%E1%BB%91i_x%E1%BB%A9ng" title="Siêu đối xứng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Siêu đối xứng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%B0%8D%E7%A8%B1" title="超對稱 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="超對稱" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%AF%B9%E7%A7%B0" title="超对称 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="超对称" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 November 2024, at 03:13 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a 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