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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congress_of_Vienna:_1814–1815"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Congress of Vienna: 1814–1815 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congress_of_Vienna:_1814–1815-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 British policies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abolition_of_the_international_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolition_of_the_international_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Abolition of the international slave trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolition_of_the_international_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain_loses_its_colonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain_loses_its_colonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Spain loses its colonies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain_loses_its_colonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek_independence:_1821–1833" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_independence:_1821–1833"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Greek independence: 1821–1833 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_independence:_1821–1833-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Travel,_trade,_and_communications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Travel,_trade,_and_communications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Travel, trade, and communications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Travel,_trade,_and_communications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Travel, trade, and communications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Travel,_trade,_and_communications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Travel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Travel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Travel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Travel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Transportation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Communications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1830–1850s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1830–1850s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 1830–1850s </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1830–1850s-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 1830–1850s subsection </button> <ul id="toc-1830–1850s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_policies_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_policies_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 British policies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_policies_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgian_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgian_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Belgian Revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgian_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolutions_of_1848" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolutions_of_1848"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Revolutions of 1848 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolutions_of_1848-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Ottoman Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Serbian_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serbian_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Serbian independence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serbian_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crimean_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crimean_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Crimean War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crimean_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moldavia_and_Wallachia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moldavia_and_Wallachia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.3 Moldavia and Wallachia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moldavia_and_Wallachia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_defeats_Mexico,_1846–1848" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_defeats_Mexico,_1846–1848"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 United States defeats Mexico, 1846–1848 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_defeats_Mexico,_1846–1848-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brazil_and_Argentina" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brazil_and_Argentina"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Brazil and Argentina </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brazil_and_Argentina-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1860–1871:_Nationalism_and_unification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1860–1871:_Nationalism_and_unification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 1860–1871: Nationalism and unification </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1860–1871:_Nationalism_and_unification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 1860–1871: Nationalism and unification subsection </button> <ul id="toc-1860–1871:_Nationalism_and_unification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Great_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Great Britain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italian_unification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italian_unification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Italian unification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italian_unification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Schleswig_and_Holstein" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schleswig_and_Holstein"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.1 Schleswig and Holstein </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schleswig_and_Holstein-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.2 Unification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1871:_The_year_of_transition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1871:_The_year_of_transition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 1871: The year of transition </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-1871:_The_year_of_transition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 1871: The year of transition subsection </button> <ul id="toc-1871:_The_year_of_transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maintaining_the_peace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maintaining_the_peace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Maintaining the peace </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maintaining_the_peace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Major powers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conscription" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conscription"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Conscription </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conscription-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Imperialism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Imperialism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Imperialism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Imperialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-French_Empire_in_Asia_and_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Empire_in_Asia_and_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 French Empire in Asia and Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Empire_in_Asia_and_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-France_seizes,_then_loses_Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France_seizes,_then_loses_Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 France seizes, then loses Mexico </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France_seizes,_then_loses_Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_takeover_of_Egypt,_1882" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_takeover_of_Egypt,_1882"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 British takeover of Egypt, 1882 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_takeover_of_Egypt,_1882-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Game_in_Central_Asia:_Britain_vs_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Game_in_Central_Asia:_Britain_vs_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Great Game in Central Asia: Britain vs Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Game_in_Central_Asia:_Britain_vs_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scramble_for_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scramble_for_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Scramble for Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scramble_for_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kenya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kenya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.1 Kenya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kenya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Portugal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Italy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Rise of Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Okinawa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Okinawa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7.1 Okinawa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Okinawa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_with_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_with_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7.2 War with China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_with_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7.3 Taiwan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan_defeats_Russia,_1904–1905" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan_defeats_Russia,_1904–1905"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7.4 Japan defeats Russia, 1904–1905 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan_defeats_Russia,_1904–1905-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7.5 Korea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dividing_up_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dividing_up_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Dividing up China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dividing_up_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_policies_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_policies_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 British policies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_policies_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Free_trade_imperialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_trade_imperialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9.1 Free trade imperialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_trade_imperialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Splendid_isolation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Splendid_isolation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9.2 Splendid isolation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Splendid_isolation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policy_toward_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policy_toward_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9.3 Policy toward Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policy_toward_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberal_Party_splits_on_imperialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberal_Party_splits_on_imperialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9.4 Liberal Party splits on imperialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberal_Party_splits_on_imperialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Eastern_Question" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Eastern_Question"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 The Eastern Question </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Eastern_Question-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle The Eastern Question subsection </button> <ul id="toc-The_Eastern_Question-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Long-term_goals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_goals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Long-term goals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_goals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Empire_(Turkey)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Empire_(Turkey)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Ottoman Empire (Turkey) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Empire_(Turkey)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austro-Hungarian_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Austro-Hungarian Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austro-Hungarian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.3 Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serbia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serbia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.4 Serbia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serbia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.5 Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Eastern_Crisis_of_1875–1878_Turkey_at_war_with_Serbia_and_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Eastern_Crisis_of_1875–1878_Turkey_at_war_with_Serbia_and_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Great Eastern Crisis of 1875–1878 Turkey at war with Serbia and Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Eastern_Crisis_of_1875–1878_Turkey_at_war_with_Serbia_and_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congress_of_Berlin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congress_of_Berlin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Congress of Berlin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congress_of_Berlin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minority_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minority_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Minority rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minority_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_policies_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_policies_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 British policies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_policies_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_policy,_1870–1890" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_policy,_1870–1890"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 German policy, 1870–1890 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_policy,_1870–1890-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"War_in_Sight"_crisis_of_1875" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"War_in_Sight"_crisis_of_1875"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.1 "War in Sight" crisis of 1875 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"War_in_Sight"_crisis_of_1875-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_alliance_between_Russia_and_France,_1894–1914" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_alliance_between_Russia_and_France,_1894–1914"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 The alliance between Russia and France, 1894–1914 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_alliance_between_Russia_and_France,_1894–1914-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balkan_crises:_1908–1913" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balkan_crises:_1908–1913"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Balkan crises: 1908–1913 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Balkan_crises:_1908–1913-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Balkan crises: 1908–1913 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Balkan_crises:_1908–1913-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bosnian_Crisis_of_1908–1909" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bosnian_Crisis_of_1908–1909"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Bosnian Crisis of 1908–1909 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bosnian_Crisis_of_1908–1909-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Balkan_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balkan_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Balkan Wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balkan_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coming_of_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coming_of_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Coming of World War </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Coming_of_World_War-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Coming of World War subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Coming_of_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Germany_fears_encirclement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany_fears_encirclement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Germany fears encirclement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany_fears_encirclement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mobilizing_armies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mobilizing_armies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Mobilizing armies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mobilizing_armies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Franco-Russian_Alliance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Franco-Russian_Alliance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 Franco-Russian Alliance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Franco-Russian_Alliance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anglo-German_relations_deteriorate:_1880–1904" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anglo-German_relations_deteriorate:_1880–1904"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.2 Anglo-German relations deteriorate: 1880–1904 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anglo-German_relations_deteriorate:_1880–1904-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Two_crises_in_Morocco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two_crises_in_Morocco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.3 Two crises in Morocco </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two_crises_in_Morocco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British-German_naval_race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British-German_naval_race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 British-German naval race </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British-German_naval_race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Great_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Great_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 The Great War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Great_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1919:_Paris_Peace_Conference_and_Versailles_Treaty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1919:_Paris_Peace_Conference_and_Versailles_Treaty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 1919: Paris Peace Conference and Versailles Treaty </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1919:_Paris_Peace_Conference_and_Versailles_Treaty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Surveys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.2 Maps </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coming_of_World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coming_of_World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.3 Coming of World War I </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coming_of_World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources_on_coming_of_the_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources_on_coming_of_the_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.3.1 Primary sources on coming of the war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources_on_coming_of_the_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wartime_diplomacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wartime_diplomacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.4 Wartime diplomacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wartime_diplomacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperialism_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperialism_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.5 Imperialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperialism_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.6 Britain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources_for_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources_for_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.6.1 Primary sources for Britain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources_for_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.7 France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany_and_Austria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany_and_Austria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.8 Germany and Austria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany_and_Austria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia_and_Balkans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia_and_Balkans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.9 Russia and Balkans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia_and_Balkans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_of_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_of_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.10 United States of America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_of_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan_and_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan_and_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.11 Japan and China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan_and_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.12 Others </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">International relations (1814–1919)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" > 13 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internasionale_betrekkinge_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="Internasionale betrekkinge (1814–1919) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Internasionale betrekkinge (1814–1919)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D9%88%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%89_(1814-1919)" title="العلاقات الدولية بين القوى الكبرى (1814-1919) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العلاقات الدولية بين القوى الكبرى (1814-1919)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relaciones_internacionales_de_las_Grandes_Potencias_(1814-1919)" title="Relaciones internacionales de las Grandes Potencias (1814-1919) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Relaciones internacionales de las Grandes Potencias (1814-1919)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AD%EC%A0%9C_%EA%B4%80%EA%B3%84_(1814%EB%85%84-1919%EB%85%84)" title="국제 관계 (1814년-1919년) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="국제 관계 (1814년-1919년)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubungan_internasional_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="Hubungan internasional (1814–1919) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hubungan internasional (1814–1919)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relazioni_internazionali_tra_le_Grandi_potenze_(1814-1919)" title="Relazioni internazionali tra le Grandi potenze (1814-1919) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Relazioni internazionali tra le Grandi potenze (1814-1919)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B8%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%BA_%D8%AF%DB%92_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="عظیم طاقتاں دے بین الاقوامی تعلقات (1814–1919) – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="عظیم طاقتاں دے بین الاقوامی تعلقات (1814–1919)" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DA%93%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%90_%D8%A7%DA%93%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%90_(%DB%B1%DB%B8%DB%B1%DB%B4-%DB%B1%DB%B9%DB%B1%DB%B9_%D8%B2_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84)" title="نړیوالې اړیکې (۱۸۱۴-۱۹۱۹ ز کال) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="نړیوالې اړیکې (۱۸۱۴-۱۹۱۹ ز کال)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rela%C8%9Biile_interna%C8%9Bionale_dintre_Marile_Puteri_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="Relațiile internaționale dintre Marile Puteri (1814–1919) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Relațiile internaționale dintre Marile Puteri (1814–1919)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="Международные отношения (1814–1919) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Международные отношения (1814–1919)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uluslararas%C4%B1_ili%C5%9Fkiler_(1814-1919)" title="Uluslararası ilişkiler (1814-1919) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Uluslararası ilişkiler (1814-1919)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="Міжнародні відносини (1814–1919) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Міжнародні відносини (1814–1919)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B8%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%BA_%DA%A9%DB%92_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="عظیم طاقتوں کے بین الاقوامی تعلقات (1814–1919) – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عظیم طاقتوں کے بین الاقوامی تعلقات (1814–1919)" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li> </ul> <div 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Diplomacy and wars of six largest powers in the world</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bismarck_emperors_Austria,_Germany_%26_Russia_as_puppets.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Bismarck_emperors_Austria%2C_Germany_%26_Russia_as_puppets.jpg/220px-Bismarck_emperors_Austria%2C_Germany_%26_Russia_as_puppets.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Bismarck_emperors_Austria%2C_Germany_%26_Russia_as_puppets.jpg/330px-Bismarck_emperors_Austria%2C_Germany_%26_Russia_as_puppets.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Bismarck_emperors_Austria%2C_Germany_%26_Russia_as_puppets.jpg 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="544" /></a><figcaption>Bismarck manipulates the three emperors – <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III of Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="William I of Germany">William I of Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Joseph_of_Austria-Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary">Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary</a> – like a ventriloquist's puppets; <a href="/wiki/John_Tenniel" title="John Tenniel">John Tenniel</a> 1884 PUNCH</figcaption></figure> This article covers worldwide <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomacy</a> and, more generally, the <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a> from 1814 to 1919.<a href="#cite_note-1">[note 1]</a> This era covers the period from the end of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> (1814–1815), to the end of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a> (1919–1920). Important themes include the rapid industrialization and growing power of <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Great Britain</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a>/<a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, and, later in the period, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a>. This led to <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialist</a> competitions for influence and power throughout the world, most famously the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> in the 1880s and 1890s; the reverberations of which are still widespread and consequential in the 21st century. Britain established an informal economic network that, combined with its <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">colonies</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>, made it the hegemonic nation until its power was challenged by the united Germany. It was a largely peaceful century, with no wars between the great powers, apart from the 1853–1871 interval, and <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">some wars</a> between Russia and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. After 1900, there was a <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">series of wars</a> in the Balkan region, which exploded out of control into World War I (1914–1918) — a massively devastating event that was unexpected in its timing, duration, casualties, and long-term impact. In 1814, diplomats recognized five great powers: France, Britain, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a> (in 1867–1918, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>) and Prussia (in 1871–1918, the German Empire). Italy was added to this group after its <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">unification</a> in 1860 ("Risorgimento"); by 1905 two rapidly growing non-European states, Japan and the United States, had joined the great powers. <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia">Serbia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Montenegro" title="Kingdom of Montenegro">Montenegro</a> initially operated as autonomous vassals, for until about 1908–1912 they were legally still part of the <a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">declining Ottoman Empire</a>, before gaining their independence.<a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a> In 1914, on the eve of the First World War, there were two major blocs in Europe: the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a> formed by France, Britain, and Russia and the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> formed by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Italy stayed neutral and joined the Entente in 1915, while the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> joined the Central Powers. Neutrality was the policy of <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[note 2]</a> The First World War unexpectedly pushed the great powers' military, diplomatic, social and economic capabilities to their limits. Germany, Austria–Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria were defeated; Germany lost its great power status, Bulgaria lost more territory, and the others were broken up into collections of states. The winners Britain, France, Italy and Japan gained permanent seats at the governing council of the new <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>. The United States, meant to be the fifth permanent member, decided to operate independently and never joined the League. For the following periods, see <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">diplomatic history of World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="International relations (1919–1939)">international relations (1919–1939)</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1814–1830:_Restoration_and_reaction">1814–1830: Restoration and reaction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 1814–1830: Restoration and reaction">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the previous diplomatic era, see <a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1648%E2%80%931814)" title="International relations (1648–1814)">International relations (1648–1814)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_1815_map_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Europe_1815_map_en.png/400px-Europe_1815_map_en.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Europe_1815_map_en.png/600px-Europe_1815_map_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Europe_1815_map_en.png/800px-Europe_1815_map_en.png 2x" data-file-width="2284" data-file-height="1503" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The national boundaries within Europe as set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815.</div></figcaption></figure> As the four major European powers (<a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a>) opposing the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">French Empire</a> in the Napoleonic Wars saw Napoleon's power collapsing in 1814, they started planning for the postwar world. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Chaumont" title="Treaty of Chaumont">Treaty of Chaumont</a> of March 1814 reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and which would be ratified by the more important Congress of Vienna of 1814–15. They included the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a> including both Austria and Prussia (plus the <a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(1648%E2%80%931867)" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1648–1867)">Czech lands</a>), the division of French protectorates and annexations into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium, and the continuation of British subsidies to its allies. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Chaumont" title="Treaty of Chaumont">Treaty of Chaumont</a> united the powers to defeat Napoleon and became the cornerstone of the Concert of Europe, which formed the balance of power for the next two decades.<a href="#cite_note-4">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[3]</a> One goal of diplomacy throughout the period was to achieve a "<a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">balance of power</a>", so that no one or two powers would be dominant.<a href="#cite_note-6">[4]</a> If one power gained an advantage—for example by winning a war and acquiring new territory—its rivals might seek "compensation"—that is, territorial or other gains, even though they were not part of the war in the first place. The bystander might be angry if the winner of the war did not provide enough compensation. For example, in 1866, Prussia and supporting north German States defeated Austria and its southern German allies, but France was angry that it did not get any compensation to balance off the Prussian gains.<a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congress_of_Vienna:_1814–1815">Congress of Vienna: 1814–1815</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Congress of Vienna: 1814–1815">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historical_assessment_of_Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich">Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bilderrevolution0271.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Bilderrevolution0271.jpg/240px-Bilderrevolution0271.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Bilderrevolution0271.jpg/360px-Bilderrevolution0271.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Bilderrevolution0271.jpg/480px-Bilderrevolution0271.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2904" data-file-height="2157" /></a><figcaption>Negotiations at the Congress of Vienna</figcaption></figure> The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) dissolved the Napoleonic Wars and attempted to restore the monarchies Napoleon had overthrown, ushering in an era of reaction.<a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a> Under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a>, the prime minister of Austria (1809–1848), and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stewart,_Viscount_Castlereagh" title="Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh">Lord Castlereagh</a>, the foreign minister of Great Britain (1812–1822), the Congress set up a system to preserve the peace. Under the <a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a> (or "Congress system"), the major European powers—Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and (after 1818) France—pledged to meet regularly to resolve differences. This plan was the first of its kind in European history and seemed to promise a way to collectively manage European affairs and promote peace. It was the forerunner of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-10">[8]</a> Some historians see the more formal version of the Concert of Europe, constituting the immediate aftermath of the Vienna Congress, as collapsing by 1823,<a href="#cite_note-:1-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-10">[8]</a> while other historians see the Concert of Europe as persisting through most of the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-:4-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-12">[10]</a> Historian Richard Langhorne sees the Concert as governing international relations between the European powers until the formation of Germany in 1871, and Concert mechanisms having a more loose but detectable influence in international politics as late as the outbreak of WWI.<a href="#cite_note-:4-11">[9]</a> The Congress resolved the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Saxon_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish–Saxon crisis">Polish–Saxon crisis</a> at Vienna and the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Laibach#Eastern_Question" title="Congress of Laibach">question of Greek independence</a> at <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Laibach" title="Congress of Laibach">Laibach</a> (Ljubljana). <a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Three major European congresses</a> took place. The <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_(1818)" title="Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)">Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)</a> ended the military occupation of France and adjusted downward the 700 million francs the French were obligated to pay as reparations. Tsar <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I of Russia</a> proposed the formation of an entirely new alliance, to include all of the signatories from the Vienna treaties, to guarantee the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and preservation of the ruling governments of all members of this new coalition. The tsar further proposed an international army, with the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army" title="Imperial Russian Army">Imperial Russian Army</a> as its nucleus, to provide the wherewithal to intervene in any country that needed it. Lord Castlereagh saw this as a highly undesirable commitment to reactionary policies. He recoiled at the idea of Russian armies marching across Europe to put down popular uprisings. Furthermore, to admit all the smaller countries would create intrigue and confusion. Britain refused to participate, so the idea was abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-13">[11]</a> The other meetings proved meaningless as each nation realized the Congresses were not to their advantage, where disputes were resolved with a diminishing degree of effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-C.W._Crawley_1830._pp_669-71-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roy_Bridge_1979_pp_34-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a> To achieve lasting peace, the <a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a> tried to maintain the balance of power. Until the 1860s the territorial boundaries laid down at the Congress of Vienna were maintained, and even more importantly, there was an acceptance of the theme of balance with no major aggression.<a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a> Otherwise, the Congress system had "failed" by 1823.<a href="#cite_note-Roy_Bridge_1979_pp_34-15">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a> In 1818 the British decided not to become involved in continental issues that did not directly affect them. They rejected the plan of Tsar Alexander I to suppress future revolutions. The Concert system fell apart as the common goals of the Great Powers were replaced by growing political and economic rivalries.<a href="#cite_note-C.W._Crawley_1830._pp_669-71-14">[12]</a> Artz says the Congress of Verona in 1822 "marked the end".<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> There was no Congress called to restore the old system during the great <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">revolutionary upheavals of 1848</a> with their demands for revision of the Congress of Vienna's frontiers along national lines.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> Conservative monarchies formed the nominal <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-12">[10]</a> This alliance fragmented in the 1850s due to crises in the Ottoman Empire, described as the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Question">Eastern Question</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-11">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_policies">British policies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: British policies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom#1814–1914:_Pax_Britannica" title="History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom">History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom § 1814–1914: Pax Britannica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a></div> British foreign policy was set by <a href="/wiki/George_Canning" title="George Canning">George Canning</a> (1822–1827), who avoided close cooperation with other powers. Britain, with its unchallenged Royal Navy and increasing financial wealth and industrial strength, built its foreign policy on the principle that no state should be allowed to dominate the Continent. It wanted to support the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> as a bulwark against Russian expansionism. It opposed interventions designed to suppress <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>, and was especially worried that France and Spain planned to suppress the independence movement underway in Latin America. Canning cooperated with the United States to promulgate the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a> to preserve newly independent Latin American states. His goal was to prevent French dominance and allow British merchants access to the opening markets.<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abolition_of_the_international_slave_trade">Abolition of the international slave trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Abolition of the international slave trade">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></div> An important liberal advance was the <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolition</a> of the international slave trade. It began with legislation in Britain and the United States in 1807, which was increasingly enforced over subsequent decades by the <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">British Royal Navy patrols around Africa</a>. Britain negotiated treaties, or coerced, other nations into agreeing.<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> The result was a reduction of over 95% in the volume of the slave trade from Africa to the New World. About 1000 slaves a year were illegally brought into the United States, as well as some to <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Spanish Cuba</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Empire of Brazil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a> Slavery was <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">abolished in the British Empire in 1833</a>, the <a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_France" title="End of slavery in France">French Republic in 1848</a>, the <a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="End of slavery in the United States of America">United States in 1865</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Brazil in 1888</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain_loses_its_colonies">Spain loses its colonies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Spain loses its colonies">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bolivar_Arturo_Michelena.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Bolivar_Arturo_Michelena.jpg/150px-Bolivar_Arturo_Michelena.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Bolivar_Arturo_Michelena.jpg/225px-Bolivar_Arturo_Michelena.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Bolivar_Arturo_Michelena.jpg/300px-Bolivar_Arturo_Michelena.jpg 2x" data-file-width="874" data-file-height="1748" /></a><figcaption>General Simón Bolívar, (1783–1830), a leader of independence in Latin America</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></div> Spain was at war with Britain from 1798 to 1808, and the British Royal Navy cut off Spain's contacts with its colonies. Trade was handled by neutral American and Dutch traders. The colonies set up temporary governments or juntas which were effectively independent from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>. The division exploded between Spaniards who were born in Spain (called <a href="/wiki/Peninsulares" title="Peninsulares">peninsulares</a>) versus those of Spanish descent born in <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (called <a href="/wiki/Criollo_people" title="Criollo people">criollos</a> in Spanish or "<a href="/wiki/Creole_peoples" title="Creole peoples">creoles</a>" in English). The two groups wrestled for power, with the criollos leading the call for independence and eventually winning that independence. Spain lost all of its American colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, in a <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">complex series of revolts</a> from 1808 to 1826.<a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a> Multiple revolutions in Latin America allowed the region to break free of the mother country. Repeated attempts to regain control failed, as Spain had no help from European powers. Indeed, Britain and the United States worked against Spain, enforcing the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a>. British merchants and bankers took a dominant role in Latin America. In 1824, the armies of generals <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a> of Argentina and <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a> of Venezuela defeated the last Spanish forces; the final defeat came at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Battle of Ayacucho</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/History_of_Peru" title="History of Peru">Peru</a>. After the loss of its colonies, Spain played a minor role in international affairs. Spain kept Cuba, which repeatedly revolted in three wars of independence, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_War_of_Independence" title="Cuban War of Independence">Cuban War of Independence</a>. The United States demanded reforms from Spain, which Spain refused. The U.S. <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">intervened by war in 1898</a>. Winning easily, the U.S. took Cuba and gave it partial independence. The U.S. also took the Spanish colonies of the Philippines and Guam.<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> Though it still had small <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire#Territories_in_Africa_(1885–1975)" title="Spanish Empire">colonial holdings in North Africa and Equatorial Guinea</a>, Spain's role in international affairs was essentially over. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek_independence:_1821–1833">Greek independence: 1821–1833</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Greek independence: 1821–1833">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Navarino" title="Battle of Navarino">Battle of Navarino</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Navarino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Navarino.jpg/300px-Navarino.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Navarino.jpg/450px-Navarino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Navarino.jpg/600px-Navarino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1990" data-file-height="1260" /></a><figcaption>Allied victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Navarino" title="Battle of Navarino">Navarino</a> (1827)</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Greece_expansion_1832-1947-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Map_Greece_expansion_1832-1947-en.svg/275px-Map_Greece_expansion_1832-1947-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="275" height="361" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Map_Greece_expansion_1832-1947-en.svg/413px-Map_Greece_expansion_1832-1947-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Map_Greece_expansion_1832-1947-en.svg/550px-Map_Greece_expansion_1832-1947-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="730" data-file-height="959" /></a><figcaption>The territorial evolution of Greece since its independence in 1832 until 1947</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a> was the major military conflict in the 1820s. The Great Powers supported the Greeks, but did not want the Ottoman Empire destroyed. Greece was initially to be an autonomous state under Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a>, but by 1832, in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Constantinople_(1832)" title="Treaty of Constantinople (1832)">Treaty of Constantinople</a>, it was recognized as a fully independent kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> After some initial success the Greek rebels were beset by internal disputes. The Ottomans, with major aid from <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_Muhammad_Ali_dynasty" title="History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty">Egypt</a>, cruelly crushed the rebellion and harshly punished the Greeks. Humanitarian concerns in Europe were outraged, as typified by English poet <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a>. The context of the three Great Powers' intervention was Russia's long-running expansion at the expense of the decaying Ottoman Empire. However Russia's ambitions in the region were seen as a major geostrategic threat by the other European powers. Austria feared the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire would destabilize its southern borders. Russia gave strong emotional support for the fellow <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Orthodox Christian</a> Greeks. The British were motivated by strong public support for the Greeks. Fearing unilateral Russian action in support of the Greeks, Britain and France bound Russia by treaty to a joint intervention which aimed to secure Greek autonomy whilst preserving Ottoman territorial integrity as a check on Russia.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> The Powers agreed, by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1827)" title="Treaty of London (1827)">Treaty of London (1827)</a>, to force the Ottoman government to grant the Greeks autonomy within the empire and despatched naval squadrons to Greece to enforce their policy.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> The decisive Allied naval victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Navarino" title="Battle of Navarino">Battle of Navarino</a> broke the military power of the Ottomans and their Egyptian allies. Victory saved the fledgling <a href="/wiki/First_Hellenic_Republic" title="First Hellenic Republic">Greek Republic</a> from collapse. But it required two more military interventions, by Russia in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1828%E2%80%931829)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)">Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29</a> and by a <a href="/wiki/Morea_expedition" title="Morea expedition">French expeditionary force</a> to the Peloponnese to force the withdrawal of Ottoman forces from central and southern Greece and to finally secure Greek independence.<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Travel,_trade,_and_communications">Travel, trade, and communications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Travel, trade, and communications">edit</a>]</div> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:878px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Lusitania_at_end_of_record_voyage_1907_LC-USZ62-64956.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="RMS Lusitania arriving in New York from Liverpool, England, in 1907. As the primary means of trans-oceanic voyages for over a century, ocean liners handled the travel needs of businessmen, immigrants and tourists."><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/The_Lusitania_at_end_of_record_voyage_1907_LC-USZ62-64956.jpg/870px-The_Lusitania_at_end_of_record_voyage_1907_LC-USZ62-64956.jpg" decoding="async" width="870" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/The_Lusitania_at_end_of_record_voyage_1907_LC-USZ62-64956.jpg/1305px-The_Lusitania_at_end_of_record_voyage_1907_LC-USZ62-64956.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/The_Lusitania_at_end_of_record_voyage_1907_LC-USZ62-64956.jpg/1740px-The_Lusitania_at_end_of_record_voyage_1907_LC-USZ62-64956.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2637" data-file-height="667" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Lusitania_at_end_of_record_voyage_1907_LC-USZ62-64956.jpg" title="File:The Lusitania at end of record voyage 1907 LC-USZ62-64956.jpg"> </a></div><a href="/wiki/RMS_Lusitania" title="RMS Lusitania">RMS Lusitania</a> arriving in New York from Liverpool, England, in 1907. As the primary means of trans-oceanic voyages for over a century, ocean liners handled the travel needs of businessmen, immigrants and tourists.</div></div></div> The world became much smaller as long-distance travel and communications improved dramatically. Every decade there were more ships, more scheduled destinations, faster trips, and lower fares for passengers and cheaper rates for merchandise. This facilitated international trade and international organization.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> After 1860, the enormous expansion of wheat production in the United States flooded the world market, lowering prices by 40%, and (along with the expansion of local potato farming) made a major contribution to the nutritional welfare of the poor.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Travel">Travel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Travel">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hornetclippership.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hornetclippership.jpg/220px-Hornetclippership.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="361" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hornetclippership.jpg/330px-Hornetclippership.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hornetclippership.jpg/440px-Hornetclippership.jpg 2x" data-file-width="546" data-file-height="896" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hornet_(clipper)" title="Hornet (clipper)">Hornet</a> – an American clipper ship of the 1850s</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable" title="Submarine communications cable">Underwater telegraph cables</a> linked the world's major trading nations by the 1860s.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> Cargo <a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">sailing ships</a> were slow; the average speed of all long-distance Mediterranean voyages to Palestine was only 2.8 knots.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> Passenger ships achieved greater speed by sacrificing cargo space. The sailing ship records were held by the <a href="/wiki/Clipper" title="Clipper">clipper</a>, a very fast sailing ship of the 1843–1869 era. Clippers were narrow for their length, could carry limited bulk freight, small by later 19th-century standards, and had a large total sail area. Their average speed was six knots and they carried passengers across the globe, primarily on the trade routes between Britain and its colonies in the east, in <a href="/wiki/Trans-Atlantic_trade" title="Trans-Atlantic trade">trans-Atlantic trade</a>, and the New York-to-San Francisco route round <a href="/wiki/Cape_Horn" title="Cape Horn">Cape Horn</a> during the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> The much faster steam-powered, iron-hulled <a href="/wiki/Ocean_liner" title="Ocean liner">ocean liner</a> became the dominant mode of passenger transportation from the 1850s to the 1950s. It used coal—and needed many coaling stations. After 1900 oil replaced coal and did not require frequent refueling. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transportation">Transportation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Transportation">edit</a>]</div> Freight rates on ocean traffic held steady in the 18th century down to about 1840, and then began a rapid downward plunge. The British dominated world exports, and rates for British freight fell 70% from 1840 to 1910.<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> cut the shipping time from London to India by a third when it opened in 1869. The same ship could make more voyages in a year, so it could charge less and carry more goods every year.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a> Technological innovation was steady. Iron hulls replaced wood by mid-century; after 1870, steel replaced iron. It took much longer for steam engines to replace sails. Note the sailing ship across from the Lusitania in the photograph above. Wind was free, and could move the ship at an average speed of 2–3 knots, unless it was becalmed.<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a> Coal was expensive and required coaling stations along the route. A common solution was for a merchant ship to rely mostly on its sails, and only use the steam engine as a backup.<a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a> The first steam engines were very inefficient, using a great deal of coal. For an ocean voyage in the 1860s, half of the cargo space was given over to coal. The problem was especially acute for warships, because their combat range using coal was strictly limited. Only the British Empire had a network of coaling stations that permitted a global scope for the Royal Navy.<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a> Steady improvement gave high-powered compound engines which were much more efficient. The boilers and pistons were built of steel, which could handle much higher pressures than iron. They were first used for high-priority cargo, such as mail and passengers.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> The arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine engine</a> around 1907 dramatically improved efficiency, and the increasing use of oil after 1910 meant far less cargo space had to be devoted to the fuel supply.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communications">Communications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Communications">edit</a>]</div> By the 1850s, railways and telegraph lines connected all the major cities inside Western Europe, as well as those inside the United States. Instead of greatly reducing the need for travel, the telegraph made travel easier to plan and replaced the slow long-distance mail service.<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable" title="Submarine communications cable">Submarine cables</a> were laid to link the continents by telegraph, which was a reality by the 1860s.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1830–1850s">1830–1850s</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 1830–1850s">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a></div> Britain continued as the most important power, followed by Russia, France, Prussia, and Austria. The United States was growing rapidly in size, population and economic strength, especially after its defeat of Mexico in 1848. While the U.S. was generally successful in its efforts to avoid international entanglements, the slavery issue became more and more internally divisive. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png/250px-Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png/375px-Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png/500px-Relief_of_the_Light_Brigade.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1056" /></a><figcaption>British cavalry charging against Russian forces at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Balaclava" title="Battle of Balaclava">Balaclava</a>, 1854</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> (1853–1856) was the only large scale conflict between major powers during this time frame. It became notorious for its very high casualties and very small impact in the long run.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> Britain strengthened its colonial system, especially in the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a> (India), while France rebuilt its colonies in Asia and North Africa. Russia continued its expansion south (toward Persia) and east (into Siberia). The Ottoman Empire steadily weakened, losing control in parts of the Balkans to the new states of Greece and Serbia.<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1839)" title="Treaty of London (1839)">Treaty of London</a>, signed in 1839, the Great Powers guaranteed the neutrality of Belgium. Its importance came to a head in 1914 when Germany invaded Belgium in an attempt to outflank and defeat the French. The Germans dismissed the agreement (which predated the formation of Imperial Germany) as a "scrap of paper" in defiance of a British ultimatum to withdraw from Belgium soil immediately leading the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany.<a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_policies_2">British policies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: British policies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Corn_Law_League" title="Anti–Corn Law League">Anti–Corn Law League</a></div> Britain's repeal in 1846 of the tariff on food imports, called the <a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a>, marked a major turning point that made free trade the national policy of Great Britain into the 20th century. Repeal demonstrated the power of "Manchester-school" industrial interests over protectionist agricultural interests.<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> From 1830 to 1865, with a few interruptions, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Palmerston" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Palmerston">Lord Palmerston</a> set British foreign policy. He had six main goals that he pursued: first, he defended British interests whenever they seemed threatened, and upheld Britain's prestige abroad. Second, he was a master at using the media to win public support from all ranks of society. Third, he promoted the spread of constitutional Liberal governments like in Britain, along the model of the <a href="/wiki/Reform_Act_1832" title="Reform Act 1832">1832 Reform Act</a>. He therefore welcomed liberal revolutions as in France (1830), and Greece (1843). Fourth, he promoted British nationalism, looking for advantages for his nation as in the Belgian revolt of 1830 and the Italian unification of 1859. He avoided wars, and operated with only a very small British Army. He felt the best way to promote peace was to maintain a balance of power to prevent any nation—especially France or Russia—from dominating Europe.<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> Palmerston cooperated with France when necessary for the balance of power, but did not make permanent alliances with anyone. He tried to keep autocratic nations like Russia and Austria in check; he supported liberal regimes because they led to greater stability in the international system. However he also supported the autocratic Ottoman Empire because it blocked Russian expansion.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> Second in importance to Palmerston was <a href="/wiki/George_Hamilton-Gordon,_4th_Earl_of_Aberdeen" title="George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen">Lord Aberdeen</a>, a diplomat, foreign minister and prime minister. Before the Crimean War debacle that ended his career he scored numerous diplomatic triumphs, starting in 1813–1814 when as ambassador to the Austrian Empire he negotiated the alliances and financing that led to the defeat of Napoleon. In Paris he normalized relations with the newly restored Bourbon government and convinced his government they could be trusted. He worked well with top European diplomats such as his friends <a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a> in Vienna and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">François Guizot</a> in Paris. He brought Britain into the center of Continental diplomacy on critical issues, such as the local wars in Greece, Portugal and Belgium. Simmering troubles with the United States were ended by compromising the border dispute in Maine that gave most of the land to the Americans but gave Canada a strategically important link to a warm water port.<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> Aberdeen played a central role in provoking and winning the <a href="/wiki/Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a> against China, gaining control of Hong Kong in the process.<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belgian_Revolution">Belgian Revolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Belgian Revolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG/300px-Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG/450px-Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG/600px-Wappers_-_Episodes_from_September_Days_1830_on_the_Place_de_l%E2%80%99H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville_in_Brussels.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3348" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830, by <a href="/wiki/Egide_Charles_Gustave_Wappers" class="mw-redirect" title="Egide Charles Gustave Wappers">Gustaf Wappers</a> (1834)</figcaption></figure> Catholic Belgium in 1830 broke away from the <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> of <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> and established an independent <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Belgium">Kingdom of Belgium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> Southern liberals and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Belgium" title="Catholic Church in Belgium">Catholics</a> (mostly <a href="/wiki/French_Community_of_Belgium" title="French Community of Belgium">French speaking</a>) united against King <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands" title="William I of the Netherlands">William I</a>'s autocratic rule and efforts to put Dutch education on equal standing with French (in the Southern parts of the kingdom). There were high levels of unemployment and industrial unrest among the working classes. There was small-scale fighting but it took years before the Netherlands finally recognized defeat. In 1839 the Dutch accepted Belgian independence by signing the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1839)" title="Treaty of London (1839)">Treaty of London</a>. The major powers guaranteed Belgian independence.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolutions_of_1848">Revolutions of 1848</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Revolutions of 1848">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Revolutions" title="Category:Revolutions">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Political revolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="French Revolution"><img alt="French Revolution" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/250px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/375px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/500px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_Le_28_Juillet._La_Libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5946" data-file-height="4771" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By class</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_revolution" title="Bourgeois revolution">Bourgeois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_revolution" title="Communist revolution">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">Counter-revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_revolution" title="Democratic revolution">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">Proletarian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By other characteristic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_from_above" title="Revolution from above">From above</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_revolution" title="Nonviolent revolution">Nonviolent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_revolution" title="Passive revolution">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_revolution" title="Permanent revolution">Permanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_revolution" title="Social revolution">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_wave" title="Revolutionary wave">Wave</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disorder" title="Civil disorder">Civil disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">Civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contentious_politics" title="Contentious politics">Contentious politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">Coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Demonstration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">Human chain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency" title="Insurgency">Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mobilization" title="Mass mobilization">Mass mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">Resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance" title="Nonviolent resistance">Nonviolent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Disobedience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">Tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_terror" title="Revolutionary terror">Terror</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Examples</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Revolution" title="English Revolution">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Revolutions" title="Atlantic Revolutions">Atlantic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabant_Revolution" title="Brabant Revolution">Brabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge_Revolution" title="Liège Revolution">Liège</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Revolution" title="Serbian Revolution">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1820" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1820">1820</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1830" title="Revolutions of 1830">1830</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">1848</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Italian states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">February</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions of 1848 in Germany">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1848">Hungarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eureka_Rebellion" title="Eureka Rebellion">Eureka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_unification" title="Bulgarian unification">Bulgarian unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Revolution" title="Philippine Revolution">Philippine</a></li> <li>Iranian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution" title="Young Turk Revolution">Young Turk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican</a></li> <li>Chinese <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Xinhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923" title="Revolutions of 1917–1923">1917–1923</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamese_Revolution_of_1932" class="mw-redirect" title="Siamese Revolution of 1932">Siamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Revolution_of_1936" title="Spanish Revolution of 1936">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">August</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Revolution" title="Guatemalan Revolution">Guatemalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian (1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">1989</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-bureaucratic_revolution" title="Anti-bureaucratic revolution">Yogurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Revolution" title="Bolivarian Revolution">Bolivarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević">Bulldozer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Revolution" title="Rose Revolution">Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Revolution" title="Orange Revolution">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_Revolution" title="Tulip Revolution">Tulip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Revolution_of_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrgyz Revolution of 2010">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_revolution" title="Tunisian revolution">Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_revolution_of_2011" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian revolution of 2011">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_revolution" title="Yemeni revolution">Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Arab_Spring" title="Second Arab Spring">Second Arab Spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_revolution" title="Sudanese revolution">Sudanese</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Revolution_sidebar" title="Template:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Revolution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Revolution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Revolution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a> were a series of uncoordinated political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. They attempted to overthrow reactionary monarchies. This was the most widespread <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_wave" title="Revolutionary wave">revolutionary wave</a> in European history. It reached most of Europe, but much less so in the Americas, Britain and Belgium, where <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> was recently established. However the reactionary forces prevailed, especially with Russian help, and many rebels went into exile. There were some social reforms.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> The revolutions were essentially <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democratic</a> in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation states</a>. The revolutions spread across Europe after an initial revolution began in <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">France in February</a>. Over 50 countries were affected. Liberal ideas had been in the air for a decade and activists from each country drew from the common pool, but they did not form direct links with revolutionaries in nearby countries.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> Key contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with old established political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freedom of the press</a>, other demands made by the <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a>, the upsurge of <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, and the regrouping of established government forces.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> Liberalism at this time meant the replacement of <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic governments</a> by <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">constitutional states</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>. It had become the creed of the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>, but they were not in power. It was the main factor in France. The main factor in the German, Italian and Austrian states was nationalism. Stimulated by the Romantic movement, nationalism had aroused numerous ethnic/language groups in their common past. Germans and Italians lived under multiple governments and demanded to be united in their own national state. Regarding the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a>, the many ethnicities suppressed by foreign rule—especially Hungarians—fought for a revolution.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> The uprisings were led by temporary coalitions of reformers, the middle classes and workers, which did not hold together for long. The start was in France, where large crowds forced King <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a> to abdicate. Across Europe came the sudden realization that it was indeed possible to destroy a monarchy. Tens of thousands of people were killed, and many more were forced into exile. Significant lasting reforms included the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> in Austria and Hungary, the end of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> in Denmark, and the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">representative democracy</a> in the Netherlands. The revolutions were most important in <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">France</a>, the Netherlands, the <a href="/wiki/German_revolutions_of_1848%E2%80%931849" title="German revolutions of 1848–1849">states of the German Confederation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Italian_states" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states">Italy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848_in_the_Austrian_Empire" title="Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> Reactionary forces ultimately prevailed, aided by Russian military intervention in Hungary, and the strong traditional <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracies</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">established churches</a>. The revolutionary surge was sudden and unexpected, catching the traditional forces unprepared. But the revolutionaries were also unprepared – they had no plans on how to hold power when it was suddenly in their hands, and bickered endlessly. Reaction came much more gradually, but the aristocrats had the advantages of vast wealth, large networks of contacts, many subservient subjects, and the specific goal in mind of returning to the old status quo.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire">Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> The Ottoman Empire was only briefly involved in the Napoleonic Wars through the <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French campaign in Egypt and Syria</a>, 1798–1801. It was not invited to the Vienna Conference. During this period the Empire steadily weakened militarily, and lost most of its holdings in Europe (starting with Greece) and in North Africa (starting with Egypt). Its greatest enemy was Russia, while its chief supporter was Britain.<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> As the 19th century progressed the Ottoman Empire grew weaker militarily and economically. It lost more and more control over local governments especially in Europe. It started borrowing large sums and went bankrupt in 1875. Britain increasingly became its chief ally and protector, even fighting the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> against Russia in the 1850s to help it survive. Three British leaders played major roles. <a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">Lord Palmerston</a>, who in the 1830–1865 era considered the Ottoman Empire an essential component in the balance of power, was the most favourable toward Constantinople. <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="Foreign policy of William Ewart Gladstone">William Gladstone</a> in the 1870s sought to build a Concert of Europe that would support the survival of the empire. In the 1880s and 1890s <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Lord Salisbury</a> contemplated an orderly dismemberment of it, in such a way as to reduce rivalry between the greater powers.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> The Berlin Conference on Africa of 1884 was, except for the abortive Hague Conference of 1899, the last great international political summit before 1914. Gladstone stood alone in advocating concerted instead of individual action regarding the internal administration of Egypt, the reform of the Ottoman Empire, and the opening-up of Africa. Bismarck and Lord Salisbury rejected Gladstone's position and were more representative of the consensus.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Serbian_independence">Serbian independence</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Serbian independence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Revolution" title="Serbian Revolution">Serbian Revolution</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Serbia1817.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Serbia1817.png/250px-Serbia1817.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Serbia1817.png/375px-Serbia1817.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Serbia1817.png/500px-Serbia1817.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="623" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">Principality of Serbia</a> in 1817</figcaption></figure> A successful uprising against the Ottomans marked the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia" title="Principality of Serbia">modern Serbia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> The Serbian Revolution took place between 1804 and 1835, as this territory evolved from an <a href="/wiki/Belgrade_Pashaluk" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgrade Pashaluk">Ottoman province</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Serbia" title="Constitution of Serbia">constitutional monarchy</a> and a modern <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>. The first part of the period, from 1804 to 1815, was marked by a violent struggle for independence with two armed uprisings. The later period (1815–1835) witnessed a peaceful consolidation of political power of the increasingly autonomous Serbia, culminating in the recognition of the right to hereditary rule by <a href="/wiki/List_of_Serbian_monarchs" title="List of Serbian monarchs">Serbian princes</a> in 1830 and 1833 and the territorial expansion of the young monarchy.<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> The adoption of the first written <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Serbia" title="Constitution of Serbia">Constitution</a> in 1835 abolished <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>,<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> and made the country <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crimean_War">Crimean War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Crimean War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a></div> The Crimean War (1853–1856) was fought between Russia on the one hand and an alliance of Great Britain, France, Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. Russia was defeated.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> In 1851, France under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> compelled the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_Porte" title="Sublime Porte">Sublime Porte</a> (the Ottoman government) to recognize it as the protector of Christian sites in the Holy Land. Russia denounced this claim, since it claimed to be the protector of all Eastern Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. France sent its fleet to the Black Sea; Russia responded with its own show of force. In 1851, Russia sent troops into the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman provinces">Ottoman provinces</a> of <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a>. Britain, now fearing for the security of the Ottoman Empire, sent a fleet to join with the French expecting the Russians would back down. Diplomatic efforts failed. The Sultan declared war against Russia in October 1851. Following an Ottoman naval disaster in November, Britain and France declared war against Russia. Most of the battles took place in the <a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimean peninsula</a>, which the Allies finally seized.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edouard_Dubufe_Congr%C3%A8s_de_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Edouard_Dubufe_Congr%C3%A8s_de_Paris.jpg/350px-Edouard_Dubufe_Congr%C3%A8s_de_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Edouard_Dubufe_Congr%C3%A8s_de_Paris.jpg/525px-Edouard_Dubufe_Congr%C3%A8s_de_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Edouard_Dubufe_Congr%C3%A8s_de_Paris.jpg/700px-Edouard_Dubufe_Congr%C3%A8s_de_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1192" /></a><figcaption>Diplomats at the Congress of Paris, 1856, settled the Crimean War. <a href="/wiki/The_Congress_of_Paris" title="The Congress of Paris">The Congress of Paris</a> by <a href="/wiki/Edouard_Louis_Dubufe" class="mw-redirect" title="Edouard Louis Dubufe">Edouard Louis Dubufe</a></figcaption></figure> Russia was defeated and was forced to accept the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1856)" title="Treaty of Paris (1856)">Treaty of Paris</a>, signed on 30 March 1856, ending the war. The Powers promised to respect Ottoman independence and territorial integrity. Russia gave up a little land and relinquished its claim to a protectorate over the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">Christians in the Ottoman domains</a>. In a major blow to Russian power and prestige, the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> was <a href="/wiki/Demilitarized_zone" title="Demilitarized zone">demilitarized</a>, and an international commission was set up to guarantee <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_navigation" title="Freedom of navigation">freedom of commerce and navigation</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube River</a>. Moldavia and Wallachia remained under nominal Ottoman rule, but would be granted independent constitutions and national assemblies.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> New rules of wartime commerce were set out: (1) <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">privateering</a> was illegal; (2) a neutral flag covered enemy goods except <a href="/wiki/Contraband" title="Contraband">contraband</a>; (3) neutral goods, except contraband, were not liable to capture under an enemy flag; (4) a <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a>, to be legal, had to be effective.<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> The war helped modernize warfare by introducing major new technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">railways</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraph</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Modern_nursing" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern nursing">modern nursing</a> methods. In the long run the war marked a turning point in Russian domestic and foreign policy. The Imperial Russian Army demonstrated its weakness, its poor leadership, and its lack of modern weapons and technology. <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Russia" title="Economy of Russia">Russia's weak economy</a> was unable to fully support its military adventures, so in the future it redirected its attention to much weaker Muslim areas in Central Asia, and left Europe alone. Russian intellectuals used the humiliating defeat to demand fundamental reform of the government and social system. The war weakened both Russia and Austria, so they could no longer promote stability. This opened the way for Napoleon III, <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a> (in Italy) and <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> (in Germany) to launch a series of wars in the 1860s that reshaped Europe.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Moldavia_and_Wallachia">Moldavia and Wallachia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Moldavia and Wallachia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia">Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rom1793-1812.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rom1793-1812.png/250px-Rom1793-1812.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rom1793-1812.png/375px-Rom1793-1812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Rom1793-1812.png/500px-Rom1793-1812.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moldavia" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Moldavia">Moldavia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Transylvania_(1711%E2%80%931867)" title="Principality of Transylvania (1711–1867)">Transylvania</a> (then under Austrian rule) and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wallachia" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Wallachia">Wallachia</a> in 1812. In 1859, Moldavia and Wallachia <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia">united</a> into <a href="/wiki/United_Principalities_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia">the first modern Romanian state</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Transylvania_with_Romania" title="Union of Transylvania with Romania">united</a> with <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a> in 1918.</figcaption></figure> In a largely peaceful transition, the <a href="/wiki/Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman vassal states</a> of <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moldavia" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Moldavia">Moldavia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wallachia" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Wallachia">Wallachia</a> broke away slowly from the Ottoman Empire, <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia">uniting</a> into what would become modern <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a> in 1859, and finally achieving independence in 1878.<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> The two principalities had long been under Ottoman control, but both Russia and Austria also wanted them, making the region a site of conflict in the 19th century. The population was largely Orthodox in religion and spoke <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, although there were certain <a href="/wiki/Minorities_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Minorities of Romania">ethnic minorities</a>, such as Jews and Greeks. The provinces were occupied by Russia after the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Adrianople_(1829)" title="Treaty of Adrianople (1829)">Treaty of Adrianople</a> in 1829. Russian and Turkish troops combined to suppress the <a href="/wiki/Moldavian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Moldavian Revolution of 1848">Moldavian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wallachian_Revolution_of_1848" title="Wallachian Revolution of 1848">Wallachian</a> revolutions of 1848. During the Crimean War, Austria took control of the principalities. The population decided on unification on the basis of historical, cultural and ethnic connections. It took effect in 1859 after the double election of <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Ioan_Cuza" title="Alexandru Ioan Cuza">Alexandru Ioan Cuza</a> as Prince of the <a href="/wiki/United_Principalities_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia">United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia</a> (renamed the United Principalities of Romania in 1862).<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> With Russian intervention, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Kingdom of Romania</a> officially became independent in 1878.<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> It then focused its attention on <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a>, a region historically part of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a> but with about two million ethnic <a href="/wiki/Romanians" title="Romanians">Romanians</a>. Finally, when the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Austria-Hungary" title="Dissolution of Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed</a> at the end of the World War I, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romania</a> <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Transylvania_with_Romania" title="Union of Transylvania with Romania">united with Transylvania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_defeats_Mexico,_1846–1848">United States defeats Mexico, 1846–1848</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: United States defeats Mexico, 1846–1848">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png/250px-U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png/375px-U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png/500px-U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1038" /></a><figcaption>Historical <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">territorial expansion of the United States</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Second_Federal_Republic_of_Mexico" title="Second Federal Republic of Mexico">Mexico</a> refused to recognize the 1845 U.S. <a href="/wiki/Texas_annexation" title="Texas annexation">annexation of Texas</a>. It considered the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Texas" title="Republic of Texas">Republic of Texas</a> to be Mexican territory—it did not recognize the 1836 <a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Velasco" title="Treaties of Velasco">Velasco treaty</a> signed by then Mexican President and Commander-in-Chief <a href="/wiki/Antonio_L%C3%B3pez_de_Santa_Anna" title="Antonio López de Santa Anna">Antonio López de Santa Anna</a> under duress while he was a prisoner of the <a href="/wiki/Texian_Army" title="Texian Army">Texian Army</a>, after being defeated in the final battle of the <a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas Revolution</a>. Of particular issue for Mexico was Texas' claim of sovereignty stretching down to the <a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a>. While this was the border stipulated to at Velasco, the Texian government never managed to cement its authority south of the <a href="/wiki/Nueces_River" title="Nueces River">Neuces</a>. Regardless Texas operated as a de facto independent republic during the interim between the revolution and being annexed into the U.S. Following the admission of Texas as an American state-based on the border dilineated in the treaty of Velasco, Mexico severed diplomatic ties with U.S., and both countries moved to occupy the disputed territory. The situation quickly escalated; after the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Army" title="Mexican Army">Mexican Army</a> <a href="/wiki/Thornton_Affair" title="Thornton Affair">ambushed U.S. forces</a> patrolling the area, the United States declared war in May 1846. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> quickly took the initiative, capturing <a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_de_Nuevo_M%C3%A9xico" title="Santa Fe de Nuevo México">Santa Fe de Nuevo México</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alta_California" title="Alta California">Alta California</a>, and invading <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mexico" title="Northern Mexico">northern Mexico</a>. In March 1847, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">U.S. Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Veracruz" title="Siege of Veracruz">and Marines commenced the siege of Veracruz</a>, Mexico's largest port. After securing the harbor, the U.S. invasion army proceeded on to <a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Mexico_City" title="Battle for Mexico City">capture Mexico City</a> in September, by which time virtually all of Mexico had been overrun by U.S. forces. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Guadalupe_Hidalgo" title="Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo">Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo</a> was signed in February 1848, ending the war, the terms included Mexican recognition of Texas as an American state according to the borders agreed to at Velasco, in addition, Mexico ceded their <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Cession" title="Mexican Cession">northern frontier territories</a> to the U.S. in exchange for $15 million (US dollars), America further agreed to forgive $3.25 million in Mexican debt.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> In total, Mexico relinquished about 55% of its pre-war territorial claims to the United States.<a href="#cite_note-:0a-92">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brazil_and_Argentina">Brazil and Argentina</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Brazil and Argentina">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Brazil" title="History of Brazil">History of Brazil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Argentina%E2%80%93Brazil_relations" title="Argentina–Brazil relations">Argentina–Brazil relations</a></div> Brazil in 1822 <a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Brazil" title="Independence of Brazil">became independent</a> of Lisbon. Externally, it faced pressure from Great Britain to end its participation in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Atlantic slave trade</a>. Brazil fought wars in the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Río de la Plata">La Plata river</a> region: the <a href="/wiki/Cisplatine_War" title="Cisplatine War">Cisplatine War</a> against Argentina (in 1825); the <a href="/wiki/Platine_War" title="Platine War">Platine War</a> with Argentina (in the 1850s); the <a href="/wiki/Uruguayan_War" title="Uruguayan War">Uruguayan War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Paraguayan_War" title="Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a> (in the 1860s). This last war saw Argentina and Brazil <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Triple_Alliance" title="Treaty of the Triple Alliance">as allies</a> against <a href="/wiki/History_of_Paraguay" title="History of Paraguay">Paraguay</a>; in what was the bloodiest war in <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America" title="History of South America">South American history</a>. The conflict ended in victory for the alliance and the near destruction of Paraguay as a nation-state.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> After which, Brazil and Argentina entered into a quiet period, averse to external political and military interventions.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1860–1871:_Nationalism_and_unification">1860–1871: Nationalism and unification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 1860–1871: Nationalism and unification">edit</a>]</div> The force of nationalism grew dramatically in the early and middle 19th century, involving a realization of cultural identity among the people sharing the same language and religious heritage. It was strong in the established countries, and was a powerful force for demanding more unity with or independence from Germans, Irish, Italians, Greeks, and the Slavic peoples of <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeast Europe</a>. The strong sense of nationalism also grew in established independent nations, such as Britain and France. English historian <a href="/wiki/J._B._Bury" title="J. B. Bury">J. B. Bury</a> argues: <dl><dd>Between 1830 and 1870 nationalism had thus made great strides. It had inspired great literature, quickened scholarship and nurtured heroes. It had shown its power both to unify and to divide. It had led to great achievements of political construction and consolidation in Germany and Italy; but it was more clearly than ever a threat to the Ottoman and Habsburg empires, which were essentially multi-national. European culture had been enriched by the new vernacular contributions of little-known or forgotten peoples, but at the same time such unity as it had was imperilled by fragmentation. Moreover, the antagonisms fostered by nationalism had made not only for wars, insurrections, and local hatreds — they had accentuated or created new spiritual divisions in a nominally Christian Europe.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Britain">Great Britain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Great Britain">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston#Prime_Minister:_1859–1865" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston § Prime Minister: 1859–1865</a></div> In 1859, following another short-lived Conservative government, Prime Minister Lord Palmerston and <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">Earl Russell</a> made up their differences, and Russell consented to serve as <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Foreign_Affairs_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (UK)">Foreign Secretary</a> in a new Palmerston cabinet. It was the first true <a href="/wiki/Liberal_government,_1859%E2%80%931866" title="Liberal government, 1859–1866">Liberal Cabinet</a>. This period was a particularly eventful one in the world, seeing the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Diplomacy of the American Civil War">American Civil War</a>,<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Schleswig_War" title="Second Schleswig War">1864 war</a> over <a href="/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein" title="Schleswig-Holstein">Schleswig-Holstein</a> between Denmark and the German states.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> Russell and Palmerston were tempted to intervene on the side of the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a> in the American Civil War, but they kept Britain neutral in every case.<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: France">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity" title="French–German enmity">French–German enmity</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yvon_Bataille_de_Solferino_Compiegne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Yvon_Bataille_de_Solferino_Compiegne.jpg/250px-Yvon_Bataille_de_Solferino_Compiegne.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Yvon_Bataille_de_Solferino_Compiegne.jpg/375px-Yvon_Bataille_de_Solferino_Compiegne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Yvon_Bataille_de_Solferino_Compiegne.jpg/500px-Yvon_Bataille_de_Solferino_Compiegne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1271" /></a><figcaption>Napoleon III with the French forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Solferino" title="Battle of Solferino">Battle of Solferino</a>, which secured the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Austrian withdrawal from Italy</a>.</figcaption></figure> In 1763 and again in 1815 France lost much of its global empire. After 1830 it again became a major global political, economic, military and colonial power. It regained influence in nearby areas in western Europe and Italy. Its new holdings in the Mediterranean, the Middle East and Africa rivaled those of Britain. Direct French rule in North Africa began in 1830 with the conquest of Algeria, where it encouraged French and Italian immigrants to settle. In the rest of Africa it created trade stations, and military posts. It gained full control of Indochina and was threatening southern China. It tried and failed to take control of Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> Despite his 1851 promises of a peaceful reign, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> could not resist the temptations of glory in foreign affairs.<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> He was visionary, mysterious and secretive; he had a poor staff, and kept running afoul of his domestic supporters. In the end he was incompetent as a diplomat.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> After a brief threat of an invasion of Britain in 1851, France and Britain cooperated in the 1850s, with an alliance in the Crimean War, and a major trade treaty in 1860. However, Britain viewed the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second French Empire</a> with increasing distrust, especially as the emperor built up his navy, expanded his empire and took up a more active foreign policy.<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> Napoleon III did score some successes: he strengthened <a href="/wiki/French_conquest_of_Algeria" title="French conquest of Algeria">French control over Algeria</a>, established bases in Africa, began the takeover of <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">Indochina</a>, and opened trade with China. He facilitated a <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Suez Canal Company">French company</a> building the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>, which Britain could not stop. In Europe, however, Napoleon failed again and again. The Crimean war of 1854–1856 produced no gains. <a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">War with Austria</a> in 1859 facilitated the unification of Italy, and Napoleon was rewarded with the annexation of <a href="/wiki/Savoy" title="Savoy">Savoy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nice" title="Nice">Nice</a>. The British grew annoyed at his intervention in Syria in 1860–1861. He angered Catholics alarmed at his poor treatment of the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Pope</a>, then reversed himself and angered the <a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_France" title="Secularism in France">anticlerical</a> <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in France">liberals</a> at home and his erstwhile Italian allies. He lowered the tariffs, which helped in the long run but in the short run angered owners of large estates and the textile and iron industrialists, while leading worried workers to organize. Matters grew worse in the 1860s as Napoleon nearly blundered into war with the United States in 1862, while his <a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">Mexican intervention</a> in 1861–1867 was a total disaster. Finally in the end he went to war with Prussia in 1870 when it was too late to stop the unification of all Germans, aside from Austria, under the leadership of Prussia. Napoleon had alienated everyone; after failing to obtain an alliance with Austria and Italy, France had no allies and was bitterly divided at home. It was disastrously defeated on the battlefield in the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>, losing <a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace–Lorraine</a>. <a href="/wiki/A._J._P._Taylor" title="A. J. P. Taylor">A. J. P. Taylor</a> is blunt: "he ruined France as a great power".<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italian_unification">Italian unification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Italian unification">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italian-unification.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Italian-unification.gif/250px-Italian-unification.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Italian-unification.gif/375px-Italian-unification.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Italian-unification.gif/500px-Italian-unification.gif 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>The stages of Italian unification between 1829 and 1871</figcaption></figure> The Risorgimento was the era from 1848 to 1871 that saw the achievement of independence of the Italians from <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austrian Habsburgs</a> in the north and the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Bourbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Bourbons">Spanish Bourbons</a> in the south, securing national unification. Piedmont (known as the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia" title="Kingdom of Sardinia">Kingdom of Sardinia</a>) took the lead and imposed its constitutional system on the new nation of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a> The papacy secured French backing to resist unification, fearing that giving up control of the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> would weaken the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> and allow the liberals to dominate conservative Catholics.<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> The Kingdom of Italy <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">finally took over the Papal States</a> in 1870, when the <a href="/wiki/French_Army" title="French Army">French Army</a> was withdrawn. The angry <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a> declared himself a <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_in_the_Vatican" title="Prisoner in the Vatican">prisoner</a>; his successor <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XI" title="Pope Pius XI">Pope Pius XI</a> finally made peace with Italy in 1929.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> After 1870 Italy was recognized as the sixth great power, albeit much weaker than the others.<a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Diplomacy of the American Civil War">Diplomacy of the American Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">History of United States foreign policy</a></div> During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> (1861–1865), the <a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">Southern slave states</a> attempted to <a href="/wiki/Secession_in_the_United_States" title="Secession in the United States">secede from the Union</a> and set up an independent country, the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a>. The North would not accept the breakup of the Union, and fought to restore it.<a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a> British and French aristocratic leaders personally disliked <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">American republicanism</a> and favored the more aristocratic Confederacy. The South was also by far the chief source of cotton for European textile mills. The goal of the Confederacy was to obtain British and French intervention, that is, war against the Union. Confederates believed that "<a href="/wiki/King_Cotton" title="King Cotton">cotton is king</a>" – that is, cotton was so essential to British and French industry that they would fight to get it. The Confederates did raise money in Europe, which they used to buy warships and munitions. However Britain had a large surplus of cotton in 1861; stringency did not come until 1862. Most important was the dependence on grain from the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">U.S. North</a> for a large portion of the British food supply, France would not intervene alone, and in any case was less interested in cotton than in securing its control of Mexico. The Confederacy would allow that if it secured its independence, but the Union would never approve.<a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> Washington made it clear that any official recognition of the Confederacy meant war with the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>'s husband <a href="/wiki/Albert,_Prince_Consort" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert, Prince Consort">Prince Albert</a> helped defuse a <a href="/wiki/Trent_Affair" title="Trent Affair">war scare in late 1861</a>. The British people generally favored the United States. What little cotton was available came from <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, as the blockade by the <a href="/wiki/Union_Navy" title="Union Navy">Union Navy</a> shut down 95% of Southern exports to Britain. In September 1862, during the Confederate invasion of Maryland, Britain (along with France) contemplated stepping in and negotiating a peace settlement, which could only mean war with the United States. But in the same month, President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> announced the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a>. Since support of the Confederacy now meant support for slavery, there was no longer any possibility of European intervention.<a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a> However, several British firms built <a href="/wiki/Blockade_runners_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Blockade runners of the American Civil War">small fast blockade runners</a> to smuggle hundreds of thousands of weapons to Confederate ports and surreptitiously allowed warships to be built for the Confederacy.<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> Both blockade runners and warships caused a major diplomatic row and in the <a href="/wiki/Alabama_Claims" title="Alabama Claims">Alabama Claims</a> in 1872, the <a href="/wiki/International_arbitration" title="International arbitration">international arbitration</a> in Geneva ruled in the Americans' favor, with $15.5 million paid by Britain to the U.S. only for damages caused by British-built Confederate warships.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Germany">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/German_Empire#Foreign_policy" title="German Empire">German Empire § Foreign policy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_German_foreign_policy" title="History of German foreign policy">History of German foreign policy</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prussian_Troops_Parade_Down_the_Champs_%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_in_Paris_(1_March_1871).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Prussian_Troops_Parade_Down_the_Champs_%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_in_Paris_%281_March_1871%29.jpg/250px-Prussian_Troops_Parade_Down_the_Champs_%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_in_Paris_%281_March_1871%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Prussian_Troops_Parade_Down_the_Champs_%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_in_Paris_%281_March_1871%29.jpg/375px-Prussian_Troops_Parade_Down_the_Champs_%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_in_Paris_%281_March_1871%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Prussian_Troops_Parade_Down_the_Champs_%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_in_Paris_%281_March_1871%29.jpg/500px-Prussian_Troops_Parade_Down_the_Champs_%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_in_Paris_%281_March_1871%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="610" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption>German troops parade down the <a href="/wiki/Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es" title="Champs-Élysées">Champs-Élysées</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> after their victory in the Franco-Prussian War</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>, took the lead in uniting all of Germany (except for Austria), and created a new German Empire, headed by the king of Prussia. To do it, he engaged in a series of short, decisive wars with Denmark, Austria and France. The many smaller German states followed the lead of Prussia, until finally they united together after defeating France in 1871. Bismarck's Germany then became the most powerful and dynamic state in Europe, and Bismarck himself promoted decades of peace in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Schleswig_and_Holstein">Schleswig and Holstein</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Schleswig and Holstein">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Schleswig-Holstein Question">Schleswig-Holstein Question</a></div> A major diplomatic row, and several wars, emerged from the very complex situation in Schleswig and Holstein, where Danish and German claims collided, and Austria and France became entangled. The Danish and German duchies of Schleswig-Holstein were, by international agreement, ruled by the king of Denmark but were not legally part of Denmark. An international treaty provided that the two territories were not to be separated from each other, though Holstein was part of the German Confederation. In the late 1840s, with both German and Danish nationalism on the rise, Denmark attempted to incorporate Schleswig into its kingdom. <a href="/wiki/First_Schleswig_War" title="First Schleswig War">The first war</a> was a Danish victory. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Schleswig_War" title="Second Schleswig War">Second Schleswig War</a> of 1864 was a Danish defeat at the hands of Prussia and Austria.<a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unification">Unification</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Unification">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a></div> Berlin and Vienna split control of the two territories. That led to conflict between them, resolved by the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War" title="Austro-Prussian War">Austro-Prussian War</a> of 1866, which Prussia quickly won, thus becoming the leader of the German-speaking peoples. Austria now dropped to the second rank among the Great Powers.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> Emperor Napoleon III of France could not tolerate the rapid rise of Prussia, and started the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> of 1870–71 over <a href="/wiki/Ems_Dispatch" class="mw-redirect" title="Ems Dispatch">perceived insults</a> and other trivialities. The spirit of <a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">German nationalism</a> caused the smaller German states (such as <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Bavaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Saxony</a>) to join the war alongside Prussia. The German coalition won an easy victory, dropping France to second class status among the Great Powers. Prussia, under <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a>, then brought together almost all the German states (excluding Austria, Luxembourg and Liechtenstein) into a new <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>. Bismarck's new empire became the most powerful state in continental Europe until 1914.<a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> Napoleon III was overconfident in his military strength and failed to stop the rush to war when he was unable to find allies who would support a war to stop German unification.<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1871:_The_year_of_transition">1871: The year of transition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: 1871: The year of transition">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maintaining_the_peace">Maintaining the peace</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Maintaining the peace">edit</a>]</div> <table style="float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em;border:1px #ccc solid"><tbody><tr><td align="center" colspan="3"><div style="position:relative;left:0px;top:0px;width:400px;height:238px"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Bismarcks_alliances-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Map_of_Bismarcks_alliances-en.svg/400px-Map_of_Bismarcks_alliances-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Map_of_Bismarcks_alliances-en.svg/600px-Map_of_Bismarcks_alliances-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Map_of_Bismarcks_alliances-en.svg/800px-Map_of_Bismarcks_alliances-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="998" data-file-height="593" /></a><div style="position:absolute;left:125px;top:80px;line-height:95%;z-index:1"><div style="display:inline-block;width:auto;height:auto;text-align:center;padding:0px 4px;vertical-align:middle;border-radius:3px;background-color:green">1</div></div><div style="position:absolute;left:205px;top:95px;line-height:95%;z-index:1"><div style="display:inline-block;width:auto;height:auto;text-align:center;padding:0px 4px;vertical-align:middle;border-radius:3px;background-color:red">2</div></div><div style="position:absolute;left:150px;top:135px;line-height:95%;z-index:1"><div style="display:inline-block;width:auto;height:auto;text-align:center;padding:0px 4px;vertical-align:middle;border-radius:3px;background-color:saddlebrown">3</div></div><div style="position:absolute;left:225px;top:45px;line-height:95%;z-index:1"><div style="display:inline-block;width:auto;height:auto;text-align:center;padding:0px 4px;vertical-align:middle;border-radius:3px;background-color:blue">4</div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td>Bismarck's alliances<table style="width:100%;border:1px #ccc solid"><tbody><tr><td style="width:0.3%;vertical-align:top"><table style="width:100%;font-size:85%;line-height:95%"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:12px;text-align:right;padding-bottom:2px"><div style="display:inline-block;width:auto;height:auto;text-align:center;padding:0px 4px;vertical-align:middle;border-radius:3px;background-color:green">1</div></td><td style="padding-bottom:2px"><a href="/wiki/Dual_Alliance_(1879)" title="Dual Alliance (1879)">Dual Alliance (1879)</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:12px;text-align:right;padding-bottom:2px"><div style="display:inline-block;width:auto;height:auto;text-align:center;padding:0px 4px;vertical-align:middle;border-radius:3px;background-color:red">2</div></td><td style="padding-bottom:2px"><a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors (1881)</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td style="width:0.3%;vertical-align:top"><table style="width:100%;font-size:85%;line-height:95%"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:12px;text-align:right;padding-bottom:2px"><div style="display:inline-block;width:auto;height:auto;text-align:center;padding:0px 4px;vertical-align:middle;border-radius:3px;background-color:saddlebrown">3</div></td><td style="padding-bottom:2px"><a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance (1882)</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:12px;text-align:right;padding-bottom:2px"><div style="display:inline-block;width:auto;height:auto;text-align:center;padding:0px 4px;vertical-align:middle;border-radius:3px;background-color:blue">4</div></td><td style="padding-bottom:2px"><a href="/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty" title="Reinsurance Treaty">Reinsurance Treaty (1887)</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td style="width:0.3%;vertical-align:top"><table style="width:100%;font-size:85%;line-height:95%"></table></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> After fifteen years of warfare in the Crimea, Germany and France, Europe began a period of peace in 1871.<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> With the founding of the German Empire and the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a> (10 May 1871), <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> emerged as a decisive figure in European history from 1871 to 1890. He retained control over Prussia and as well as the foreign and domestic policies of the new German Empire. Bismarck had built his reputation as a war-maker but changed overnight into a peacemaker. He skillfully used <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">balance of power</a> diplomacy to maintain Germany's position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace. For historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Eric Hobsbawm</a>, it was Bismarck who "remained undisputed world champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess for almost twenty years after 1871, [and] devoted himself exclusively, and successfully, to maintaining peace between the powers".<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> Historian Paul Knaplund concludes: <dl><dd>A net result of the strength and military prestige of Germany combined with situations created or manipulated by her chancellor was that in the eighties Bismarck became the umpire in all serious diplomatic disputes, whether they concerned Europe, Africa, or Asia. Questions such as the boundaries of Balkan states, the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenians in the Ottoman Empire">Armenians in the Turkish empire</a> and of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Jews in Rumania</a>, the financial affairs of Egypt, Russian expansion in the Middle East, the war between France and China, and the partition of Africa had to be referred to Berlin; Bismarck held the key to all these problems.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a></dd></dl> Bismarck's main mistake was giving in to the Army and to intense public demand in Germany for acquisition of the border provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, thereby turning France into a permanent, deeply-committed enemy (see <a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity" title="French–German enmity">French–German enmity</a>). Theodore Zeldin says, "Revenge and the recovery of Alsace-Lorraine became a principal object of French policy for the next forty years. That Germany was France's enemy became the basic fact of international relations."<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> Bismarck's solution was to make France a pariah nation, encouraging royalty to ridicule its new republican status, and building complex alliances with the other major powers – Austria, Russia, and Britain – to keep France isolated diplomatically.<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> A key element was the <a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a>, in which Bismarck brought together rulers in Berlin, Vienna and St. Petersburg to guarantee each other's security, while blocking out France; it lasted from 1881 to 1887.<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_powers">Major powers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Major powers">edit</a>]</div> Britain had entered an era of "<a href="/wiki/Splendid_isolation" title="Splendid isolation">splendid isolation</a>", avoiding entanglements that had led it into the unhappy Crimean War in 1854–1856. It concentrated on internal industrial development and political reform, and building up its great international holdings, the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, while maintaining by far the world's strongest <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Navy</a> to protect its island home and its many overseas possessions. It had come dangerously close to intervening in the American Civil War in 1861–1862, and in May 1871 it signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Washington_(1871)" title="Treaty of Washington (1871)">Treaty of Washington</a> with the United States that put into arbitration the American claims that the lack of British neutrality had prolonged the war; arbitrators eventually awarded the United States $15 million.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> Russia took advantage of the Franco-Prussian war to renounce the 1856 treaty in which it had been forced to demilitarize the Black Sea. Repudiation of treaties was unacceptable to the powers, so the solution was a conference in January 1871 at London that formally abrogated key elements of the 1856 treaty and endorsed the new Russian action. Russia had always wanted control of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish Straits">Turkish Straits</a> that connected the Black Sea to the Mediterranean and would nearly achieve that in the First World War.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> France had long stationed an army in Rome to protect the pope; it recalled the soldiers in 1870, and the Kingdom of Italy moved in, <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">seized the remaining papal territories</a>, and made Rome its capital city in 1871 ending the <a href="/wiki/Risorgimento" class="mw-redirect" title="Risorgimento">risorgimento</a>. Italy was finally unified, but at the cost of alienating the pope and the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Italy" title="Catholic Church in Italy">Catholic community</a> for a half century; the unstable situation was resolved in 1929 with the <a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateran Treaties">Lateran Treaties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conscription">Conscription</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Conscription">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></div> A major trend was the move away from a professional army to a Prussian system that combined a core of professional careerists, a rotating base of conscripts, who after a year or two of active duty moved into a decade or more of reserve duty with a required summer training program every year. Training took place in peacetime, and in wartime a much larger, well-trained, fully staffed army could be mobilized very quickly. Prussia had started in 1814, and the Prussian triumphs of the 1860s made its model irresistible. The key element was <a href="/wiki/Universal_military_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal military service">universal conscription</a>, with relatively few exemptions. The upper strata was drafted into the <a href="/wiki/Officer_(armed_forces)" title="Officer (armed forces)">officer corps</a> for one year's training, but was nevertheless required to do its full <a href="/wiki/Military_reserve_force" title="Military reserve force">reserve duty</a> along with everyone else. Austria adopted the system in 1868 (shortly after its defeat by Prussia) and France In 1872 (shortly after its defeat by Prussia and other German states). Japan followed in 1873, Russia in 1874, and Italy in 1875. All major countries adopted conscription by 1900, except for Great Britain and the United States. By then peacetime Germany had an army of 545,000, which could be expanded in a matter of days to 3.4 million by calling up the reserves. The comparable numbers in France were 1.8 million and 3.5 million; Austria, 1.1 million and 2.6 million; Russia, 1.7 million to 4 million. The new system was expensive, with a per capita cost of the forces doubling or even tripling between 1870 and 1914. By then total defense spending averaged about 5% of the national income. Nevertheless, taxpayers seemed satisfied; parents were especially impressed with the dramatic improvements shown in the immature boys they sent away at age 18, compared to the worldly-wise men who returned two years later.<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Imperialism">Imperialism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Imperialism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Afrikakonferenz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Afrikakonferenz.jpg/290px-Afrikakonferenz.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Afrikakonferenz.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="381" data-file-height="293" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a> chaired by German Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> regulated European imperialism in Africa.</figcaption></figure> Most of the major powers (and some minor ones such as Belgium, the Netherlands and Denmark) engaged in imperialism, building up their overseas empires especially in Africa and Asia. Although there were numerous insurrections, historians count only a few wars, and they were small-scale: the <a href="/wiki/First_Boer_War" title="First Boer War">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer Wars</a> (1880–1881 and 1899–1902), <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> (1894–1895), <a href="/wiki/First_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="First Italo-Ethiopian War">First Italo-Ethiopian War</a> (1895–1896), <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> (1898), <a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a> (1899-1902), and <a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Ottoman war</a> (1911). The largest was the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> of 1905, the only in which two major powers fought each other.<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> Among the main empires from 1875 to 1914, historians assess a mixed record in terms of profitability. The assumption was that colonies would provide an excellent captive market for manufactured items. Apart from India, this was seldom true. By the 1890s, imperialists gained economic benefit primarily in the production of inexpensive raw materials to feed the domestic manufacturing sector. Overall, Great Britain profited well from <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">India</a>, but not from most of the rest of its <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">empire</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Netherlands</a> did very well in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">East Indies</a>. Germany and Italy got very little trade or raw materials from their empires. France did slightly better. The <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> was notoriously profitable when it was a capitalistic rubber plantation owned and operated by King <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">Leopold II of Belgium</a> as a private enterprise. However, scandal after scandal regarding badly mistreated labour led the international community to force the government of Belgium to take it over in 1908, and the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a> became much less profitable. The <a href="/wiki/Insular_Government_of_the_Philippine_Islands" title="Insular Government of the Philippine Islands">Philippines</a> cost the United States much more than expected.<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> The world's colonial population at the time of the First World War totaled about 560 million people, of whom 70.0% were in <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British domains</a>, 10.0% in <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a>, 8.6% in <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a>, 3.9% in <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a>, 2.2% in <a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a>, 2.1% in <a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a>, 1.6% in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a>, 1.2% in <a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a>, and 0.5% in <a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian possessions</a>. The home domains of the colonial powers had a total population of about 370 million people.<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Empire_in_Asia_and_Africa">French Empire in Asia and Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: French Empire in Asia and Africa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_French_foreign_relations" title="History of French foreign relations">History of French foreign relations</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="France_seizes,_then_loses_Mexico">France seizes, then loses Mexico</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: France seizes, then loses Mexico">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">Second French intervention in Mexico</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Entr%C3%A9e_du_corps_exp%C3%A9ditionnaire_fran%C3%A7ais_%C3%A0_Mexico,_juin_1863.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Entr%C3%A9e_du_corps_exp%C3%A9ditionnaire_fran%C3%A7ais_%C3%A0_Mexico%2C_juin_1863.jpg/250px-Entr%C3%A9e_du_corps_exp%C3%A9ditionnaire_fran%C3%A7ais_%C3%A0_Mexico%2C_juin_1863.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Entr%C3%A9e_du_corps_exp%C3%A9ditionnaire_fran%C3%A7ais_%C3%A0_Mexico%2C_juin_1863.jpg/375px-Entr%C3%A9e_du_corps_exp%C3%A9ditionnaire_fran%C3%A7ais_%C3%A0_Mexico%2C_juin_1863.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Entr%C3%A9e_du_corps_exp%C3%A9ditionnaire_fran%C3%A7ais_%C3%A0_Mexico%2C_juin_1863.jpg/500px-Entr%C3%A9e_du_corps_exp%C3%A9ditionnaire_fran%C3%A7ais_%C3%A0_Mexico%2C_juin_1863.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1890" data-file-height="1093" /></a><figcaption>Entrance of the French Expeditionary Corps into <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>, 10 June 1863</figcaption></figure> Napoleon III took advantage of the American Civil War to attempt to take control of Mexico and impose its own puppet Emperor <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I_of_Mexico" title="Maximilian I of Mexico">Maximilian I of Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> France, Spain, and Britain, angry over unpaid Mexican debts, sent a joint expeditionary force that seized the Veracruz customs house in Mexico in December 1861. Spain and Britain soon withdrew after realizing that Napoleon III intended to overthrow the <a href="/wiki/Second_Federal_Republic_of_Mexico" title="Second Federal Republic of Mexico">Second Federal Republic of Mexico</a> under elected president <a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Benito Juárez</a> and establish a <a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second Mexican Empire</a>. Napoleon had the support of the remnants of the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(Mexico)" title="Conservative Party (Mexico)">Conservative</a> elements that Juarez and his <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Mexico)" title="Liberal Party (Mexico)">Liberals</a> had defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Reform_War" title="Reform War">Reform War</a>, a civil war from 1857 to 1861. In the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">French intervention in Mexico</a> in 1862 Napoleon installed Austrian archduke <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_of_Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximilian of Habsburg">Maximilian of Habsburg</a> as <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Mexico" title="Emperor of Mexico">Emperor of Mexico</a>. Juárez rallied opposition to the French; Washington supported Juárez and refused to recognize the new government because it violated the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a>. After its victory over the Confederacy in 1865, the U.S. sent 50,000 experienced combat troops to the <a href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border" title="Mexico–United States border">Mexican border</a> to make clear its position. Napoleon was stretched very thin; he had committed 40,000 troops to Mexico, 20,000 to Rome to guard the Pope against the Italians, and another 80,000 in restive <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a>. Furthermore, Prussia, having just defeated Austria, was an imminent threat. Napoleon realized his predicament and withdrew all his forces from Mexico in 1866. Juarez regained control and executed the hapless emperor.<a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>, initially built by the French, became a joint British-French project in 1875, as both considered it vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. France's leading expansionist <a href="/wiki/Jules_Ferry" title="Jules Ferry">Jules Ferry</a> was out of office, and the government allowed Britain to take effective control of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_takeover_of_Egypt,_1882">British takeover of Egypt, 1882</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: British takeover of Egypt, 1882">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_War" title="Anglo-Egyptian War">Anglo-Egyptian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal,_21may1892.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal%2C_21may1892.jpg/220px-Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal%2C_21may1892.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal%2C_21may1892.jpg/330px-Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal%2C_21may1892.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal%2C_21may1892.jpg/440px-Desembarco_en_Cotonou_de_tropas_senegalesas._Le_Petit_Journal%2C_21may1892.jpg 2x" data-file-width="923" data-file-height="945" /></a><figcaption>In 1892, the <a href="/wiki/Senegalese_Tirailleurs" title="Senegalese Tirailleurs">Senegalese Tirailleurs</a>, led by Colonel <a href="/wiki/Alfred-Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e_Dodds" title="Alfred-Amédée Dodds">Alfred-Amédée Dodds</a>, invaded <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a> (present-day Benin).</figcaption></figure> The most decisive event emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_War" title="Anglo-Egyptian War">Anglo-Egyptian War</a>, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">British occupation of Egypt</a> for seven decades, even though the Ottoman Empire retained nominal ownership until 1914.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> France was seriously unhappy, having lost control of the canal that it built and financed and had dreamed of for decades. Germany, Austria, Russia, and Italy – and of course the Ottoman Empire itself—were all angered by London's unilateral intervention.<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/A.J.P._Taylor" class="mw-redirect" title="A.J.P. Taylor">A.J.P. Taylor</a> says that this "was a great event; indeed, the only real event in international relations between the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan" title="Battle of Sedan">Battle of Sedan</a> and the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese war."<a href="#cite_note-152">[150]</a> Taylor emphasizes the long-term impact: <dl><dd>The British occupation of Egypt altered the balance of power. It not only gave the British security for their route to India; it made them masters of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East; it made it unnecessary for them to stand in the front line against Russia at the Straits....And thus prepared the way for the Franco-Russian Alliance ten years later.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a></dd></dl> Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a> had a reputation for strong opposition to imperialism, so historians have long debated the explanation for this sudden reversal of policy.<a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a> The most influential was study by John Robinson and Ronald Gallagher, <a href="/wiki/Africa_and_the_Victorians" title="Africa and the Victorians">Africa and the Victorians</a> (1961), which focused on <a href="/wiki/The_Imperialism_of_Free_Trade" title="The Imperialism of Free Trade">The Imperialism of Free Trade</a> and was promoted by the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_School_of_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge School of historiography">Cambridge School of historiography</a>. They argue there was no long-term Liberal plan in support of imperialism, but the urgent necessity to act to protect the Suez Canal was decisive in the face of what appeared to be a radical collapse of law and order, and a nationalist revolt focused on expelling the Europeans, regardless of the damage it would do to international trade and the British Empire. A complete takeover of Egypt, turning it into a British colony like India was much too dangerous for it would be the signal for the powers to rush in for the spoils of the tottering Ottoman Empire, with a major war a likely result.<a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a> Gladstone's decision came against strained relations with France, and maneuvering by "men on the spot" in Egypt. Critics such as Cain and Hopkins have stressed the need to protect large sums invested by British financiers and Egyptian bonds, while downplaying the risk to the viability of the Suez Canal. Unlike the Marxists, they stress "gentlemanly" financial and commercial interests, not the industrial, capitalism that Marxists believe was always central.<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a> More recently, specialists on Egypt have been interested primarily in the internal dynamics among Egyptians that produce the failed <a href="/wiki/Urabi_revolt" title="Urabi revolt">Urabi revolt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Game_in_Central_Asia:_Britain_vs_Russia">Great Game in Central Asia: Britain vs Russia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Great Game in Central Asia: Britain vs Russia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turkestan_1900-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Turkestan_1900-en.svg/300px-Turkestan_1900-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Turkestan_1900-en.svg/450px-Turkestan_1900-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Turkestan_1900-en.svg/600px-Turkestan_1900-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="643" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a> at the beginning of 20th century</figcaption></figure> The "<a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a>" was a political and diplomatic confrontation that existed for most of the nineteenth century between Britain and Russia over Afghanistan and neighbouring territories in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">Southern Asia</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Persia (Iran)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkestan" title="Turkestan">Turkestan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> Britain made it a high priority to protect all the approaches to India. Russia had no logistical ability to invade India directly, but made invasion plans considered credible by Britain because of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Central_Asia" title="Russian conquest of Central Asia">Russian conquest of Central Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0b-161">[159]</a> Meanwhile, both powers attempted colonial frontier expansion in <a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a>. As <a href="/wiki/Robert_Irwin_(writer)" title="Robert Irwin (writer)">Robert Irwin</a> puts it, "Anglo-Russian rivalry took the form of missions of exploration and espionage. Though Englishmen and Russians in unconvincing native disguises sometimes ventured into the contentious territories, more usually both sides made use of proxies."<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> This resulted in an atmosphere of distrust and a semi-constant threat of war between the two empires. There were numerous local conflicts, but a war in Central Asia between the two powers never happened.<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> Bismarck realized that both Russia and Britain considered control of Central Asia a high priority, dubbed the "Great Game". Germany had no direct stakes, however its dominance of Europe was enhanced when Russian troops were based as far away from Germany as possible. Over two decades, 1871–1890, he maneuvered to help the British, hoping to force the Russians to commit more soldiers to Asia.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> However, Bismarck through the <a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">Three Emperors' League</a> also aided Russia, by pressuring the Ottoman Empire to block the <a href="/wiki/Bosporus" title="Bosporus">Bosporus</a> from British naval access, compelling an Anglo-Russian negotiation regarding Afghanistan.<a href="#cite_note-:0b-161">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scramble_for_Africa">Scramble for Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Scramble for Africa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Africa" title="French Africa">French Africa</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg/220px-Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg/330px-Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg/440px-Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3384" data-file-height="2740" /></a><figcaption>Central and East Africa, 1898, during the Fashoda Incident</figcaption></figure> The "Scramble for Africa" was launched by Britain's unexpected takeover of Egypt in 1882. In response, it became a free-for-all for the control of the rest of Africa, as Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Portugal all greatly expanded their colonial empires in Africa. The King of Belgium personally controlled the Congo. Bases along the coast become the nucleus of colonies that stretched inland.<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a> In the 20th century, the Scramble for Africa was widely denounced by anti-imperialist spokesmen. At the time, however, it was praised as a solution to the terrible violence and exploitation caused by unrestrained adventurers, slave traders, and exploiters.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> Bismarck took the lead in trying to stabilize the situation by the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a> of 1884–1885. All the European powers agreed on ground rules to avoid conflicts in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> In British colonies, workers and businessmen from India were brought in to build railways, plantations and other enterprises. Britain immediately applied the administrative lessons that had been learned in India, to Egypt and other new African colonies.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a> Tensions between Britain and France reached a tinder stage in Africa. At several points, war was possible, but never happened.<a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> The most serious episode was the <a href="/wiki/Fashoda_Incident" title="Fashoda Incident">Fashoda Incident</a> of 1898. French troops tried to claim an area in Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to be acting in the interest of the <a href="/wiki/Khedive_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Khedive of Egypt">Khedive of Egypt</a> arrived to confront them. Under heavy pressure, the French withdrew securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, but France experienced a serious disappointment.<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> The Ottoman Empire lost its nominal control over Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. It retained only nominal control of Egypt. In 1875, Britain purchased the Suez Canal shares from the almost bankrupt Khedive of Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Isma%27il_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Isma'il Pasha">Isma'il Pasha</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kenya">Kenya</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Kenya">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Kenya" title="History of Kenya">History of Kenya</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonial_Africa_1913_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Colonial_Africa_1913_map.svg/280px-Colonial_Africa_1913_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Colonial_Africa_1913_map.svg/420px-Colonial_Africa_1913_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Colonial_Africa_1913_map.svg/560px-Colonial_Africa_1913_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1390" data-file-height="1295" /></a><figcaption>Areas of Africa controlled by colonial powers in 1913, shown along with current national boundaries. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Italian_colonial_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian colonial empire">Italian</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Independent (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>)</div></figcaption></figure> The experience of Kenya is representative of the colonization process in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>. By 1850 <a href="/wiki/European_exploration_of_Africa" title="European exploration of Africa">European explorers</a> had begun mapping the interior. Three developments encouraged European interest in East Africa. First was the emergence of the island of <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a>, located off the east coast. It became a base from which trade and exploration of the African mainland could be mounted.<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> By 1840, to protect the interests of the various nationals doing business in Zanzibar, consul offices had been opened by the British, French, Germans and Americans. In 1859, the tonnage of foreign shipping calling at Zanzibar had reached 19,000 tons. By 1879, the tonnage of this shipping had reached 89,000 tons. The second development spurring European interest in Africa was the growing European demand for products of Africa including ivory and cloves. Thirdly, British interest in East Africa was first stimulated by their desire to abolish the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> Later in the century, British interest in East Africa was stimulated by German competition, and in 1887 the Imperial British East Africa Company, a private concern, leased from Seyyid Said his mainland holdings, a 10-mile (16-km)-wide strip of land along the coast. Germany set up a protectorate over the <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_Zanzibar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan of Zanzibar">Sultan of Zanzibar</a>'s coastal possessions in 1885. It traded its coastal holdings to Britain in 1890, in exchange for German control over the coast of <a href="/wiki/Tanzania_Mainland" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanzania Mainland">Tanganyika</a>. In 1895 the British government claimed the interior as far west as <a href="/wiki/Lake_Naivasha" title="Lake Naivasha">Lake Naivasha</a>; it set up the <a href="/wiki/East_Africa_Protectorate" title="East Africa Protectorate">East Africa Protectorate</a>. The border was extended to <a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_Uganda" title="Protectorate of Uganda">Uganda</a> in 1902, and in 1920 most of the enlarged <a href="/wiki/British_protectorate" title="British protectorate">protectorate</a> became a <a href="/wiki/Crown_colony" title="Crown colony">crown colony</a>. With the beginning of colonial rule in 1895, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Rift_Valley,_Kenya" title="Great Rift Valley, Kenya">Rift Valley</a> and the surrounding Highlands became the enclave of <a href="/wiki/White_people_in_Kenya" title="White people in Kenya">white immigrants</a> engaged in large-scale coffee farming dependent on mostly Kikuyu labour. There were no significant mineral resources—none of the gold or diamonds that attracted so many to South Africa. In the initial stage of colonial rule, the administration relied on traditional communicators, usually chiefs. When colonial rule was established and efficiency was sought, partly because of settler pressure, newly educated younger men were associated with old chiefs in local Native Councils.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> Following severe financial difficulties of the <a href="/wiki/British_East_Africa_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East Africa Company">British East Africa Company</a>, the British government on 1 July 1895 established direct rule through the <a href="/wiki/British_East_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="British East Africa">East African Protectorate</a>, subsequently opening (1902) the fertile highlands to white settlers. A key to the development of Kenya's interior was the construction, started in 1895, of a railway from Mombasa to <a href="/wiki/Kisumu" title="Kisumu">Kisumu</a>, on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Victoria" title="Lake Victoria">Lake Victoria</a>, completed in 1901. Some 32,000 workers were imported from British India to do the manual labour. Many stayed, as did most of the Indian traders and small businessmen who saw opportunity in the opening up of the interior of Kenya.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portugal">Portugal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Portugal">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal_(1777%E2%80%931834)" title="History of Portugal (1777–1834)">History of Portugal (1777–1834)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal_(1834%E2%80%931910)" title="History of Portugal (1834–1910)">History of Portugal (1834–1910)</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a>, a small poor agrarian nation with a strong seafaring tradition, built up a large empire, and kept it longer than anyone else by avoiding wars and remaining largely under the protection of Britain. In 1899 it renewed its <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Windsor_(1386)" title="Treaty of Windsor (1386)">Treaty of Windsor</a> with Britain originally written in 1386.<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> Energetic explorations in the sixteenth century led to a <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">settler colony in Brazil</a>. Portugal also established trading stations open to all nations off the coasts of Africa, South Asia, and East Asia. Portugal had imported slaves as domestic servants and farm workers in Portugal itself, and used its experience to make slave trading a major economic activity. Portuguese businessmen set up slave plantations on the nearby islands of <a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Cape_Verde" title="Portuguese Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a>, focusing on sugar production. In 1770, the enlightened despot <a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Pombal</a> declared trade to be a noble and necessary profession, allowing businessmen to enter the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_nobility" title="Portuguese nobility">Portuguese nobility</a>. Many settlers moved to Brazil, which became independent in 1822.<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a> After 1815, Lisbon held the trading ports along the African coast, moving inland to take control of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Angola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Mozambique" title="Portuguese Mozambique">Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique)</a>. The slave trade was abolished in 1836, in part because many foreign <a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">slave ships</a> were flying the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Portugal" title="Flag of Portugal">Portuguese flag</a>. In India, trade flourished in the colony of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Goa" title="History of Goa">Goa</a>, with its subsidiary colonies of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Macau</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Coastline_of_China" title="Coastline of China">China coast</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Timor" title="Portuguese Timor">Timor</a>, north of <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. The Portuguese successfully introduced <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Portugal" title="Catholic Church in Portugal">Catholicism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese language</a> into their colonies, while most settlers continued to head to Brazil.<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Italy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DC-1912-21-d-ResaDeiTurchiARodi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/DC-1912-21-d-ResaDeiTurchiARodi.jpg/220px-DC-1912-21-d-ResaDeiTurchiARodi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/DC-1912-21-d-ResaDeiTurchiARodi.jpg/330px-DC-1912-21-d-ResaDeiTurchiARodi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/DC-1912-21-d-ResaDeiTurchiARodi.jpg/440px-DC-1912-21-d-ResaDeiTurchiARodi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="585" data-file-height="755" /></a><figcaption>Surrender of the Turkish garrison in <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> to the Italian general, 1912</figcaption></figure> Italy was often called the <a href="/wiki/Least_of_the_great_powers" title="Least of the great powers">least of the great powers</a> for its weak industry and weak military. In the Scramble for Africa of the 1880s, leaders of the new nation of Italy were enthusiastic about acquiring colonies in Africa, expecting it would legitimize their status as a power and help unify the people. In North Africa, Italy first turned to Tunis, under nominal Ottoman control, where many Italian farmers had settled. Weak and diplomatically isolated, Italy was helpless and angered when France assumed a <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia" title="French protectorate of Tunisia">protectorate over Tunis</a> in 1881. Turning to East Africa, Italy tried to conquer the independent <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian Empire</a>, but was massively defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adwa" title="Battle of Adwa">Battle of Adwa</a> in 1896. Public opinion was angered at the national humiliation by an inept government. In 1911 the Italian people supported the seizure of what is now Libya.<a href="#cite_note-181">[179]</a> Italian diplomacy over a twenty-year period succeeded in getting permission to seize Libya, with approval coming from Germany, France, Austria, Britain, and Russia. A centerpiece of the <a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish War</a> of 1911–12 came when the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Italian_Army" title="Royal Italian Army">Royal Italian Army</a> took control of a few coastal cities against stiff resistance by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Army_(1861%E2%80%931922)" title="Ottoman Army (1861–1922)">Ottoman Army</a> as well as the local tribesmen. After the peace treaty gave Italy control it sent in <a href="/wiki/Italian_settlers_in_Libya" title="Italian settlers in Libya">Italian settlers</a>, but suffered extensive casualties in its <a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacification of Libya">brutal campaign against the tribes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_Japan">Rise of Japan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Rise of Japan">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Meiji_Japan" title="Foreign relations of Meiji Japan">Foreign relations of Meiji Japan</a></div> Starting in the 1860s Japan rapidly modernized along Western lines, adding industry, bureaucracy, institutions and military capabilities that provided the base for imperial expansion into Korea, China, Taiwan and islands to the south.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> It saw itself vulnerable to aggressive Western imperialism unless it took control of neighboring areas. It took control of Okinawa and Formosa. Japan's desire to control Taiwan, Korea and <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, led to the first <a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_War_(1894%E2%80%931895)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)">Sino-Japanese War</a> with China in 1894–1895 and the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> with Russia in 1904–1905. The war with China made Japan the world's first Eastern, modern imperial power, and the war with Russia proved that a Western power could be defeated by an Eastern state. The aftermath of these two wars left Japan the dominant power in the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a> with a sphere of influence extending over southern Manchuria and Korea, which was formally annexed as part of the Japanese Empire in 1910.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Okinawa">Okinawa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Okinawa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ryukyu_Islands" title="History of the Ryukyu Islands">History of the Ryukyu Islands</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Island" title="Okinawa Island">Okinawa</a> island is the largest of the Ryukyu Islands, and paid tribute to China from the late 14th century. Japan took control of the entire Ryukyu island chain in 1609 and formally incorporated it into Japan in 1879.<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="War_with_China">War with China</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: War with China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">Triple Intervention</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Het_grootse_Japanse_leger_onderwerpt_China_bezetting_van_Uiju_Dainippon_gihei_shinkoku_seit%C3%B4_gish%C3%BB_senry%C3%B4_(titel_op_object),_RP-P-2010-310-47.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Het_grootse_Japanse_leger_onderwerpt_China_bezetting_van_Uiju_Dainippon_gihei_shinkoku_seit%C3%B4_gish%C3%BB_senry%C3%B4_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-2010-310-47.jpg/260px-Het_grootse_Japanse_leger_onderwerpt_China_bezetting_van_Uiju_Dainippon_gihei_shinkoku_seit%C3%B4_gish%C3%BB_senry%C3%B4_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-2010-310-47.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Het_grootse_Japanse_leger_onderwerpt_China_bezetting_van_Uiju_Dainippon_gihei_shinkoku_seit%C3%B4_gish%C3%BB_senry%C3%B4_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-2010-310-47.jpg/390px-Het_grootse_Japanse_leger_onderwerpt_China_bezetting_van_Uiju_Dainippon_gihei_shinkoku_seit%C3%B4_gish%C3%BB_senry%C3%B4_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-2010-310-47.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Het_grootse_Japanse_leger_onderwerpt_China_bezetting_van_Uiju_Dainippon_gihei_shinkoku_seit%C3%B4_gish%C3%BB_senry%C3%B4_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-2010-310-47.jpg/520px-Het_grootse_Japanse_leger_onderwerpt_China_bezetting_van_Uiju_Dainippon_gihei_shinkoku_seit%C3%B4_gish%C3%BB_senry%C3%B4_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-2010-310-47.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6592" data-file-height="3852" /></a><figcaption>First Sino-Japanese War of 1894</figcaption></figure> Friction between China and Japan arose from the 1870s from Japan's control over the <a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands" title="Ryukyu Islands">Ryukyu Islands</a>, rivalry for political influence in Korea and trade issues.<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> Japan, having built up a stable political and economic system with a smaller but modern and well-trained army and navy, easily defeated China in the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> of 1894. Japanese soldiers massacred the Chinese after capturing <a href="/wiki/Port_Arthur,_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Port Arthur, China">Port Arthur</a> on the Liaodong Peninsula. In the harsh <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a> of April 1895, China recognize the independence of Korea, and ceded to Japan <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Prefecture" title="Taiwan Prefecture">Taiwan</a> (Taiwan), the <a href="/wiki/Penghu_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Penghu Islands">Penghu Islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsula</a>. China was further obligated to pay Japan a war indemnity of 200 million silver taels, open five new ports to international trade, and foreigner entities (Japan and other Western powers generally) to establish and operate factories in these cities. However, Russia, France, and Germany saw themselves disadvantaged by the treaty and in the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">Triple Intervention</a> forced Japan to return the Liaodong Peninsula in return for a larger indemnity. The only positive result for China came when those factories led the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese industrialization">industrialization of urban China</a>, spinning off a local class of entrepreneurs and skilled mechanics.<a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Taiwan">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">History of Taiwan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Taiwan under Japanese rule</a></div> The island of Taiwan (Formosa) had an <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_indigenous_peoples" title="Taiwanese indigenous peoples">indigenous population</a> when Dutch traders in need of an Asian base to trade with Japan and China arrived in 1623. The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> (VOC) built <a href="/wiki/Fort_Zeelandia_(Taiwan)" title="Fort Zeelandia (Taiwan)">Fort Zeelandia</a>. They soon began to rule the natives. China took control in the 1660s, and sent in settlers. By the 1890s there were about 2.3 million Han Chinese and 200,000 members of indigenous tribes. After its victory in the <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese War</a> in 1894–1895, the peace treaty ceded the island to Japan. It was Japan's first colony.<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a> Japan expected far more benefits from the occupation of Taiwan than the limited benefits it actually received. Japan realized that its <a href="/wiki/Japanese_archipelago" title="Japanese archipelago">home islands</a> could only support a limited resource base, and it hoped that Taiwan, with its fertile farmlands, would make up the shortage. By 1905, Taiwan was producing rice and sugar and paying for itself with a small surplus. Perhaps more important, Japan gained Asia-wide prestige by being the first non-European country to operate a modern colony. It learned how to adjust its German-based bureaucratic standards to actual conditions, and how to deal with frequent insurrections. The ultimate goal was to promote <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Japan" title="Culture of Japan">culture</a>, but the administrators realized they first had to adjust to the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a> of the people. Japan had a civilizing mission, and it opened schools so that the peasants could become productive and patriotic manual workers. Medical facilities were modernized and mortality rates plunged. To maintain order, Japan imposed a police state that closely monitored the civilian population. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere" title="Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere">their other colonies</a>, Formosa was intended to eventually be annexed into Metropolitan Japan and Taiwan even had seats in <a href="/wiki/House_of_Peers_(Japan)" title="House of Peers (Japan)">House of Peers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> When Japan surrender to the allies in 1945 it was stripped of her empire and Taiwan was returned to China after over 50 years of Japanese administration.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan_defeats_Russia,_1904–1905">Japan defeats Russia, 1904–1905</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Japan defeats Russia, 1904–1905">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a></div> Japan felt humiliated when the spoils from its decisive victory over China were partly reversed by the Western Powers (including Russia), which revised the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> of 1899–1901 saw Japan and Russia as allies who fought together against the Chinese, with Russians playing the leading role on the battlefield.<a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a> In the 1890s Japan was angered at Russian encroachment on its plans to create a <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a> in Korea and Manchuria. Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> in exchange for recognition of Korea as being within the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia refused and demanded Korea north of the <a href="/wiki/39th_parallel_north" title="39th parallel north">39th parallel</a> to be a neutral buffer zone between Russia and Japan. The Japanese government decided on war to stop the perceived Russian threat to its plans for expansion into Asia.<a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a> opened hostilities by launching surprise attacks on the Russian Eastern Fleet at <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCshunkou_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Lüshunkou District">Port Arthur</a>, China. Russia suffered multiple defeats but <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Tsar Nicholas II</a> fought on with the expectation that Russia would win decisive naval battles. When that proved illusory he fought to preserve the dignity of Russia by averting a "humiliating peace". The complete victory of the Japanese military surprised world observers. The consequences transformed the balance of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japan's recent entry onto the world stage. It was the first major military victory in the modern era of an Asian power over a European one.<a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Korea">Korea</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Korea">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_annexation_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese annexation of Korea">Japanese annexation of Korea</a></div> In 1905, the Empire of Japan and the Korean Empire signed the <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1905" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905">Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905</a>, which brought Korea into the Japanese sphere of influence as a protectorate. The Treaty was a result of the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War and Japan wanting to increase its hold over the <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korean Peninsula</a>. It led to the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1907" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907">1907 Treaty</a> two years later. The 1907 Treaty ensured that Korea would act under the guidance of a Japanese resident general and Korean internal affairs would be under Japanese control. Korean Emperor <a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">Gojong</a> was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, <a href="/wiki/Sunjong_of_Korea" title="Sunjong of Korea">Sunjong</a>, as he protested Japanese actions in the Hague Conference. Finally in 1910, the <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">Annexation Treaty</a> formally annexed Korea to Japan.<a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dividing_up_China">Dividing up China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Dividing up China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_foreign_relations_of_China" title="History of foreign relations of China">History of foreign relations of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">Open Door Policy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/European_imperialism_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="European imperialism in China">European imperialism in China</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Putting_his_foot_down.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Putting_his_foot_down.jpg/250px-Putting_his_foot_down.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Putting_his_foot_down.jpg/375px-Putting_his_foot_down.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Putting_his_foot_down.jpg/500px-Putting_his_foot_down.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7081" data-file-height="4877" /></a><figcaption>"Putting his foot down": <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a> (the United States) in 1899 demands an "open door" while major powers plan to cut up <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">China</a> for themselves; <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> & <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a> are represented by <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II" title="Wilhelm II">Wilhelm II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umberto_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Umberto I">Umberto I</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Bull" title="John Bull">John Bull</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Franz Joseph I">Franz Joseph I</a> (in rear) <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II" title="Nicholas II">Nicholas II</a>, and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Loubet" title="Émile Loubet">Émile Loubet</a>. Punch Aug 23, 1899 by <a href="/wiki/J._S._Pughe" title="J. S. Pughe">J. S. Pughe</a></figcaption></figure> After wartime defeats by Britain, France and Japan, China remained nominally a unified country. In practice, European powers and Japan took effective control of certain port cities and their surrounding areas from the middle nineteenth century until the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-195">[193]</a> Technically speaking, they exercised "<a href="/wiki/Extraterritoriality" title="Extraterritoriality">extraterritoriality</a>" that was imposed in a series of <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Unequal treaty">unequal treaties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> In 1899–1900 the United States won international acceptance for the <a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">Open Door Policy</a> whereby all nations would have access to Chinese ports, rather than having them reserved to just one nation.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_policies_3">British policies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: British policies">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Free_trade_imperialism">Free trade imperialism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Free trade imperialism">edit</a>]</div> Britain, in addition to taking control of new territories, developed an enormous power in economic and financial affairs in numerous independent countries, especially in Latin America and Asia. It lent money, built railways, and engaged in trade. <a href="/wiki/Great_Exhibition" title="Great Exhibition">The Great London Exhibition of 1851</a> clearly demonstrated Britain's dominance in engineering, communications and industry; that lasted until the rise of the United States and Germany in the 1890s.<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Splendid_isolation">Splendid isolation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Splendid isolation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Splendid_isolation" title="Splendid isolation">Splendid isolation</a></div> Historians agree that <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Lord Salisbury</a> as foreign minister and prime minister 1885–1902 was a strong and effective leader in foreign affairs. He had a superb grasp of the issues, and proved: <dl><dd><dl><dd>a patient, pragmatic practitioner, with a keen understanding of Britain's historic interests....He oversaw the partition of Africa, the emergence of Germany and the United States as imperial powers, and the transfer of British attention from the Dardanelles to Suez without provoking a serious confrontation of the great powers.<a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> In 1886–1902 under Salisbury, Britain continued its policy of <a href="/wiki/Splendid_isolation" title="Splendid isolation">Splendid isolation</a> with no formal allies.<a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> Lord Salisbury grew restless with the term in the 1890s, as his "third and final government found the policy of 'splendid isolation' increasingly less splendid," especially as France broke from its own isolation and formed an alliance with Russia.<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Policy_toward_Germany">Policy toward Germany</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Policy toward Germany">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Germany–United Kingdom relations">Germany–United Kingdom relations</a></div> Britain and Germany each tried to improve relations, but British distrust of <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm II, German Emperor">Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany</a> for his recklessness ran deep. The Kaiser did indeed meddle in Africa in support of the Boers, which soured relations.<a href="#cite_note-205">[203]</a> The main accomplishment was a friendly 1890 treaty. Germany gave up its small Zanzibar colony in Africa and acquired the <a href="/wiki/Heligoland%E2%80%93Zanzibar_Treaty" title="Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty">Heligoland</a> islands, off <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>, which were essential to the security of Germany's ports.<a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a> Overtures toward friendship otherwise went nowhere, and a great <a href="/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race" title="Anglo-German naval arms race">Anglo-German naval arms race</a> worsened tensions, 1880s-1910s.<a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Liberal_Party_splits_on_imperialism">Liberal Party splits on imperialism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Liberal Party splits on imperialism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="Foreign policy of William Ewart Gladstone">Foreign policy of William Ewart Gladstone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Imperialists" title="Liberal Imperialists">Liberal Imperialists</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a> policy after 1880 was shaped by <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Gladstone</a> as he repeatedly attacked Disraeli's imperialism. The <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservatives</a> took pride in their imperialism and it proved quite popular with the voters. A generation later, a minority faction of Liberals became active "<a href="/wiki/Liberal_Imperialists" title="Liberal Imperialists">Liberal Imperialists</a>". The <a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a> (1899 – 1902) was fought by Britain against and the two independent <a href="/wiki/Boer_republics" title="Boer republics">Boer republics</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a> and the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Republic" title="South African Republic">South African Republic</a> (called the Transvaal by the British). After a protracted hard-fought war, with severe hardships for Boer civilians, the Boers lost and were absorbed into the British Empire. The war bitterly divided with Liberals, with the majority faction denouncing it.<a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Chamberlain" title="Joseph Chamberlain">Joseph Chamberlain</a> and his followers broke with the Liberal Party and formed an alliance with the Conservatives to promote imperialism.<a href="#cite_note-209">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Eastern_Question">The Eastern Question</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: The Eastern Question">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Question">Eastern Question</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Balkans_Animation_1800-2008.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Balkans_Animation_1800-2008.gif/350px-Balkans_Animation_1800-2008.gif" decoding="async" width="350" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Balkans_Animation_1800-2008.gif/525px-Balkans_Animation_1800-2008.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Balkans_Animation_1800-2008.gif/700px-Balkans_Animation_1800-2008.gif 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption>Political history of the Balkans</figcaption></figure> The Eastern Question from 1870 to 1914 was the imminent risk of a disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Attention focused on rising nationalism among Christian ethnics in the Balkans, especially as supported by Serbia. There was a high risk this would lead to major confrontations between Austria-Hungary and Russia, and between Russia and Great Britain. Russia especially wanted control of Constantinople in the straits connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean. British policy had long been to support the Ottoman Empire against Russian expansion. However, in 1876, William Gladstone added a new dimension escalated the conflict by emphasizing Ottoman atrocities against Christians in Bulgaria. The atrocities - plus <a href="/wiki/Hamidian_massacres" title="Hamidian massacres">Ottoman attacks on Armenians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Pogroms in the Russian Empire">Russian attacks on Jews</a>, attracted public attention across Europe and lessened the chances of quiet compromises.<a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term_goals">Long-term goals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Long-term goals">edit</a>]</div> Each of the countries paid close attention to its own long-term interests, usually in cooperation with its allies and friends.<a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ottoman_Empire_(Turkey)">Ottoman Empire (Turkey)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire (Turkey)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire">Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire</a></div> The Ottoman Empire was hard-pressed by nationalistic movements among the Christian populations, As well as its laggard condition in terms of modern technology. After 1900, the large Arab population would also grow nationalistic. The threat of disintegration was real. Egypt for example although still nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, had been independent for a century. <a href="/wiki/Turkish_nationalism" title="Turkish nationalism">Turkish nationalists</a> were emerging, and the <a href="/wiki/Young_Turk" class="mw-redirect" title="Young Turk">Young Turk</a> movement indeed took over the Empire. While the previous rulers had been pluralistic, the Young Turks were hostile to all other nationalities and to non-Muslims. Wars were usually defeats, in which another slice of territory was sliced off and became semi-independent, including Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Romania, Bosnia, and Albania.<a href="#cite_note-213">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Austro-Hungarian_Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Austro-Hungarian Empire">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a>, headquartered at <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, was a largely rural, poor, multicultural state. It was operated by and for the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">Habsburg family</a>, who demanded loyalty to the throne, but not to the nation [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. Nationalistic movements were growing rapidly. The most powerful were the Hungarians, who preserved their separate status within the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a> and with the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Compromise_of_1867" title="Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867">Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867</a>. Other minorities, were highly frustrated, although some – especially the Jews – felt protected by the Empire. <a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">German nationalists</a>, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a> (part of <a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown">Bohemia</a>) however, looked to Berlin in the new German Empire.<a href="#cite_note-214">[212]</a> There was a small <a href="/wiki/Austrians" title="Austrians">German-speaking Austrian</a> element located around Vienna, but it did not display much sense of <a href="/wiki/Austrian_nationalism" title="Austrian nationalism">Austrian nationalism</a>. That is it did not demand an independent state, rather it flourished by holding most of the high military and diplomatic offices in the Empire. Russia was the main enemy, as well as Slavic and nationalist groups inside the Empire (especially in Bosnia-Herzegovina) and in nearby Serbia. Although Austria, Germany, and Italy had a defensive military alliance – the Triple Alliance – Italy was dissatisfied and wanted a slice of territory controlled by Vienna. <a href="/wiki/Gyula_Andr%C3%A1ssy" title="Gyula Andrássy">Gyula Andrássy</a> after serving as Hungarian prime minister became Foreign Minister of Austria-Hungary (1871–1879). Andrássy was a conservative; his foreign policies looked to expanding the Empire into Southeast Europe, preferably with British and German support, and without alienating Turkey. He saw Russia as the main adversary, because of its own expansionist policies toward Slavic and Orthodox areas. He distrusted Slavic nationalist movements as a threat to his multi-ethnic empire.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[214]</a> As tensions escalated in the early 20th century Austria Foreign-policy was set in 1906–1912 by its powerful foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Alois_Lexa_von_Aehrenthal" title="Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal">Count Aehrenthal</a>. He was thoroughly convinced that the Slavic minorities could never come together, and the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_League" title="Balkan League">Balkan League</a> would never accomplish any damage to Austria. 1912 he rejected an Ottoman proposal for an alliance that would include Austria, Turkey and Romania. His policies alienated the Bulgarians, who turned instead to Russia and Serbia. Although Austria had no intention to embark on additional expansion to the south, Aehrenthal encouraged speculation to that effect, expecting it would paralyze the Balkan states. Instead, it incited them to feverish activity to create a defensive block to stop Austria. A series of grave miscalculations at the highest level thus significantly strengthened Austria's enemies.<a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russia">Russia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Russia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Foreign policy of the Russian Empire">Foreign policy of the Russian Empire</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Satirical_map_of_Europe,_1877.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Satirical_map_of_Europe%2C_1877.jpg/400px-Satirical_map_of_Europe%2C_1877.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Satirical_map_of_Europe%2C_1877.jpg/600px-Satirical_map_of_Europe%2C_1877.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Satirical_map_of_Europe%2C_1877.jpg/800px-Satirical_map_of_Europe%2C_1877.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6720" data-file-height="5040" /></a><figcaption>"The Russian menace: a Serio-Comic War Map for the Year 1877", an English cartoon from 1877 showing Russia as a monstrous octopus devouring neighbouring lands, especially the Ottoman Empire</figcaption></figure> Russia was growing in strength, and wanted access to the warm waters of the Mediterranean. To get that it needed control of the Straits, connecting the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, and if possible, control of Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Slavic nationalism was strongly on the rise in the Balkans. It gave Russia the opportunity to protect Slavic and Orthodox Christians. This put it in sharp opposition to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-218">[216]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Serbia">Serbia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Serbia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Serbia" title="Foreign relations of Serbia">Foreign relations of Serbia</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia">Kingdom of Serbia</a> had multiple national goals.<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> Serbian intellectuals dreamed of a <a href="/wiki/South_Slavs" title="South Slavs">South Slavic</a> state—which in the 1920s became <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>. The large number of <a href="/wiki/Serbs_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Serbs living in Bosnia</a> looked to Serbia as the focus of their nationalism, but they were ruled by the Germans of the Austrian Empire. Austria's annexation of Bosnia in 1908 deeply alienated the Serbian peoples. Plotters swore revenge, which they achieved in 1914 by assassination of the Austrian heir.<a href="#cite_note-220">[218]</a> Serbia was landlocked, and strongly felt the need for access to the Mediterranean, preferably through the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a>. Austria worked hard to block Serbian access to the sea, for example by helping with the creation of Albania in 1912. Montenegro, Serbia's main ally, did have a small port, but Austrian territory intervened, blocking access until Serbia acquired <a href="/wiki/Novi_Pazar" title="Novi Pazar">Novi Pazar</a> and part of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonia</a> from the Ottoman Empire in 1913. To the south, Bulgaria blocked Serbian access to the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-221">[219]</a> Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria formed the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_League" title="Balkan League">Balkan League</a> and went to war with the Ottomans in 1912–1913. They won decisively and expelled that Empire from almost all of the Balkans.<a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a> The main remaining foe was Austria, which strongly rejected <a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serbian_nationalism" title="Serbian nationalism">Serbian nationalism</a> and was ready to make war to end those threats.<a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a> Ethnic nationalism would doom the multicultural Austro-Hungarian Empire. Expansion of Serbia would block Austrian and German aspirations for direct rail connections to Constantinople and the Middle East. Serbia relied primarily on Russia for Great Power support but Russia was very hesitant at first to support Pan-Slavism, and counselled caution. However, in 1914 it reversed positions and promised military support to Serbia.<a href="#cite_note-224">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Germany_2">Germany</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Germany">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_German_foreign_policy" title="History of German foreign policy">History of German foreign policy</a></div> Germany had no direct involvement in the Balkans, but indirectly Bismarck realized that it was a major source of tension between his two key allies, Russia and Austria. Therefore, Germany's policy was to minimize conflict in the Balkans.<a href="#cite_note-225">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Eastern_Crisis_of_1875–1878_Turkey_at_war_with_Serbia_and_Russia">Great Eastern Crisis of 1875–1878 Turkey at war with Serbia and Russia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Great Eastern Crisis of 1875–1878 Turkey at war with Serbia and Russia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Great Eastern Crisis">Great Eastern Crisis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian%E2%80%93Ottoman_Wars_(1876%E2%80%931878)" title="Serbian–Ottoman Wars (1876–1878)">Serbian–Ottoman Wars (1876–1878)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak,_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG/250px-The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG/375px-The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG/500px-The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak%2C_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1134" data-file-height="827" /></a><figcaption>The Russian and Bulgarian <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shipka_Pass" title="Battle of Shipka Pass">defence of Shipka Pass</a> against Turkish troops was crucial for the <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Bulgaria" title="Liberation of Bulgaria">liberation of Bulgaria</a>.</figcaption></figure> In 1876 Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey, and were badly defeated, notably at the battle of Alexinatz (1 September 1876).<a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a> Gladstone published an angry pamphlet on "The Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East," which aroused enormous agitation in Britain against Turkish misrule, and complicated the Disraeli government's policy of supporting Turkey against Russia. Russia, which supported Serbia, threatened war against Turkey. In August 1877, Russia declared war on Turkey, and steadily defeated its armies. In early January 1878 Turkey asked for an armistice; the British fleet arrived at Constantinople too late. Russia and Turkey on 3 March signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano" title="Treaty of San Stefano">Treaty of San Stefano</a>, which was highly advantageous to Russia, Serbia, and Montenegro, as well as Romania and Bulgaria.<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congress_of_Berlin">Congress of Berlin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Congress of Berlin">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a></div> Britain, France, and Austria opposed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano" title="Treaty of San Stefano">Treaty of San Stefano</a> because it gave Russia and Bulgaria too much influence in the Balkans, where insurrections were frequent. War threatened. After numerous attempts a grand diplomatic settlement was reached at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a> (June–July 1878). The new Treaty of Berlin revised the earlier treaty. Germany's Chancellor Otto von Bismarck presided over the congress and brokered the compromises.<a href="#cite_note-228">[226]</a> The Congress ended the strong ties between Germany and Russia and they became military rivals. The obvious weakness of the Ottoman Empire incited Balkan nationalism and encouraged Vienna to become a major player in Balkan alignments. In 1879 Bismarck moved to solidify the new alignment of power by engineering an alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-229">[227]</a> Keeping ethnic groups together was not a priority when boundaries were drawn, thus creating new grievances between nationalistic ethnic groups.<a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a> One result was that Austria took control of the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, intending to eventually merge them into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Bosnia was eventually annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908, to the anger of Serbs. Bosnian Serbs assassinated Austria's heir to the crown, Franz Ferdinand, in 1914 and the result was the First World War.<a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minority_rights">Minority rights</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Minority rights">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Minority_Treaties" title="Minority Treaties">Minority Treaties</a></div> The 1878 Treaty of Berlin had a new type of provision that protected minorities in the Balkans and newly independent states Great Power recognition was nominally conditional on the promise of guarantees of religious and civic freedoms for local religious minorities. Historian Carol Fink argues: <dl><dd>"the imposed clauses on minority rights became requirements not only for recognition but were also, as in the cases of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, conditions for receiving specific grants of territory."<a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a></dd></dl> Fink reports that these provisions were generally not enforced—no suitable mechanism existed and the Great Powers had little interest in doing so. Protections were part of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 and became increasingly important after World War II.<a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_policies_4">British policies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: British policies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom">History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom</a></div> Britain stayed aloof from alliances in the late 19th century, with an independence made possible by its island location, its dominant navy, its dominant position in finance and trade, and its strong industrial base. It rejected tariffs and practiced free trade. After losing power in Britain in 1874, Liberal leader Gladstone returned to center stage in 1876 by calling for a moralistic foreign policy, as opposed to the realism of his great adversary <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a>. The issue drew the party line between Gladstone's Liberals (who denounced the immoral Ottomans) and Disraeli's Conservatives (who downplayed the atrocities and supported the Ottoman Empire as an offset to Russian power). Disraeli had threatened war with Russia on the issue and Gladstone argued he was wrong. Liberal opinion was convulsed by atrocities in the Balkans, in particular the massacre of more than 10,000 Christian Bulgars by Turkish irregulars. Gladstone denounced the Turks for committing "abominable and bestial lusts ... at which Hell itself might almost blush" and demanded they withdraw from European soil "bag and baggage". His pamphlet sold an astonishing 200,000 copies.<a href="#cite_note-234">[232]</a> The climax was his "<a href="/wiki/Midlothian_campaign" title="Midlothian campaign">Midlothian campaign</a>" of 1880 when he charged Disraeli's government with financial incompetence, neglecting domestic legislation, and mismanagement of foreign affairs. Gladstone felt a call from God to aid the Serbians and Bulgarians (who were Eastern Orthodox Christians); he spoke out like an <a href="/wiki/Prophets_in_Judaism" title="Prophets in Judaism">ancient Hebrew prophet</a> denouncing tyranny and oppression. The real audience was not the local electorate but Britain as a whole, especially the evangelical elements. By appealing to vast audiences denouncing Disraeli's pro-Turkish foreign policy, Gladstone made himself a moral force in Europe, unified his party, and was carried back to power.<a href="#cite_note-235">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_policy,_1870–1890">German policy, 1870–1890</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: German policy, 1870–1890">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_German_foreign_policy" title="History of German foreign policy">History of German foreign policy</a></div> Chancellor Bismarck took full charge of German foreign policy from 1870 to his dismissal in 1890.<a href="#cite_note-236">[234]</a> His goal was a peaceful Europe, based on the balance of power, with Germany playing a central role; his policy was a success.<a href="#cite_note-237">[235]</a> Germany had the strongest economy on <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">Continental Europe</a> and the strongest military. Bismarck made clear to all that Germany had no wish to add any territory in Europe, and he tried to oppose German colonial expansion. Bismarck feared that a hostile combination of Austria, France and Russia could overwhelm Germany. If two of them were allied, then the third would ally with Germany only if Germany conceded excessive demands. The solution was to ally with two of the three. In 1873 he formed the <a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a>, an alliance of the kaiser of Germany, the tsar of Russia, and the emperor of Austria-Hungary. It protected Germany against a war with France. The three emperors together could control <a href="/wiki/Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a>, making sure that restive ethnic groups such as the Poles were kept in control. The Balkans posed a more serious issue, and Bismarck's solution was to give Austria predominance in the western areas, and Russia in the eastern areas. The system collapsed in 1887. Kaiser Wilhelm ousted Bismarck in 1890 and developed his own aggressive foreign policy. The Kaiser rejected the Russian alliance, and Russia in turn turned to an alliance with France.<a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""War_in_Sight"_crisis_of_1875">"War in Sight" crisis of 1875</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: "War in Sight" crisis of 1875">edit</a>]</div> Between 1873 and 1877, Germany repeatedly intervened in the internal affairs of France's neighbors.<a href="#cite_note-239">[237]</a> In Belgium, Spain, and Italy, Bismarck exerted strong and sustained political pressure to support the election or appointment of liberal, anticlerical governments. This was part of an integrated strategy to promote <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a> in France by strategically and ideologically isolating the clerical-monarchist regime of President <a href="/wiki/Patrice_de_MacMahon" title="Patrice de MacMahon">Patrice de MacMahon</a>. It was hoped that by ringing France with a number of liberal states, French republicans could defeat MacMahon and his reactionary supporters. The modern concept of <a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">containment</a> provides a useful model for understanding the dynamics of this policy.<a href="#cite_note-240">[238]</a> Containment almost got out of hand in 1875 in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Krieg-in-Sicht_crisis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Krieg-in-Sicht crisis (page does not exist)">Krieg-in-Sicht crisis</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krieg-in-Sicht-Krise" class="extiw" title="de:Krieg-in-Sicht-Krise">de</a>; <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_Krieg-in-Sicht" class="extiw" title="fr:Crise Krieg-in-Sicht">fr</a>; <a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0_1875_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Военная тревога 1875 года">ru</a>].<a href="#cite_note-241">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[240]</a> This crisis was sparked by an editorial in an influential Berlin daily newspaper, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Die_Post&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Die Post (page does not exist)">Die Post</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_Post" class="extiw" title="de:Die Post">de</a>], titled "Ist Krieg in Sicht?" ("Is War in Sight?"). According to this editorial, some highly influential Germans — alarmed by France's rapid rearmament after its 1871 defeat — talked of launching a preemptive war against France. This caused a war scare in Germany and France. Britain and Russia made it clear they would not tolerate a preemptive war. Bismarck did not want any war either, but the unexpected crisis forced him to take into account the fear and alarm that his bullying and Germany's fast-growing power was causing among its neighbors. The crisis reinforced Bismarck's determination that Germany had to work in proactive fashion to preserve the peace in Europe, rather than passively react to events.<a href="#cite_note-243">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-245">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_alliance_between_Russia_and_France,_1894–1914">The alliance between Russia and France, 1894–1914</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: The alliance between Russia and France, 1894–1914">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance</a></div> The central development in Russian foreign policy was to move away from Germany and toward France. This became possible in 1890, when Bismarck was dismissed from office, and Germany refused to renew the secret 1887 <a href="/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty" title="Reinsurance Treaty">Reinsurance Treaty</a> with Russia. That encouraged Russian expansion into Bulgaria and the Straits. It meant that both France and Russia were without major allies; France took the initiative and funding Russian economic development, and in exploring a military alliance.<a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a> Russia had never been friendly with France, and remembered the wars in the Crimea and the Napoleonic invasion; it saw republican France as a dangerous font of subversion to Russia's <a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">Tsarist autocracy</a>. France, which had been shut out of the entire alliance system by Bismarck, decided to improve relations with Russia. It lent money to the Russians, expanded trade, and began selling warships after 1890. Meanwhile, after Bismarck lost office in 1890, there was no renewal of the Reinsurance treaty between Russia and Germany. The German bankers stopped lending to Russia, which increasingly depended on Paris banks.<a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a> In 1894 a secret treaty stipulated that Russia would come to the aid of France if France was attacked by Germany. Another stipulation was that in a war against Germany, France would immediately mobilize 1.3 million men, while Russia would mobilize 700,000 to 800,000. It provided that if any of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria, Italy) mobilized its reserves in preparation for war, then both Russia and France would mobilize theirs. "The mobilization is the declaration of war," the French chief of staff told Tsar <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a> in 1892. "To mobilize is to oblige one's neighbor to do the same." This set up the tripwire for July 1914.<a href="#cite_note-249">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_F._Kennan" title="George F. Kennan">George F. Kennan</a> argues that Russia was primarily responsible for the collapse of Bismarck's alliance policy in Europe, and starting the downward slope to the First World War. Kennan blames poor Russian diplomacy centered on its ambitions in the Balkans. Kennan says Bismarck's foreign policy was designed to prevent any major war even in the face of improved Franco-Russian relations. Russia left Bismarck's Three Emperors' League (with Germany and Austria) and instead took up the French proposal for closer relationships and a military alliance.<a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Balkan_crises:_1908–1913">Balkan crises: 1908–1913</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Balkan crises: 1908–1913">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_Petit_Journal_Balkan_Crisis_(1908).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Le_Petit_Journal_Balkan_Crisis_%281908%29.jpg/220px-Le_Petit_Journal_Balkan_Crisis_%281908%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Le_Petit_Journal_Balkan_Crisis_%281908%29.jpg/330px-Le_Petit_Journal_Balkan_Crisis_%281908%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Le_Petit_Journal_Balkan_Crisis_%281908%29.jpg/440px-Le_Petit_Journal_Balkan_Crisis_%281908%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3420" data-file-height="4965" /></a><figcaption>Cover of the French periodical <a href="/wiki/Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)" title="Le Petit Journal (newspaper)">Le Petit Journal</a> on the Bosnian Crisis: Prince <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand of Bulgaria">Ferdinand of Bulgaria</a> declares independence and is proclaimed Tsar, and the Austrian Emperor <a href="/wiki/Franz_Joseph" class="mw-redirect" title="Franz Joseph">Franz Joseph</a> annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina, while the Ottoman Sultan <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II" title="Abdul Hamid II">Abdul Hamid II</a> looks on.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bosnian_Crisis_of_1908–1909">Bosnian Crisis of 1908–1909</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Bosnian Crisis of 1908–1909">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a> of 1908–1909 began on 8 October 1908, when Vienna announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. These territories were nominally owned by the Ottoman Empire but had been awarded in custody to Austria-Hungary in the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a> in 1878. This unilateral action—timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence (5 October) from the Ottoman Empire—sparked protestations from all the Great Powers and especially Serbia and Montenegro. In April 1909 the Treaty of Berlin was amended to reflect the fait accompli and bring the crisis to an end. The crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary on one hand and Serbia, Italy and Russia on the other. At the time it appeared to be a total diplomatic victory for Vienna, but Russia became determined not to back down again and hastened its military build-up. Austrian–Serbian relations became permanently stressed. It aroused intense anger among Serbian nationalists that led to the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in 1914.<a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balkan_Wars">Balkan Wars</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Balkan Wars">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a></div> The continuing collapse of the Ottoman Empire led to two wars in the Balkans, in 1912 and 1913, which were a prelude to World War I.<a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a> By 1900 nation states had formed in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Montenegro" title="Kingdom of Montenegro">Montenegro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia" title="Kingdom of Serbia">Serbia</a>. Nevertheless, many of their ethnic compatriots lived under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. In 1912, these countries formed the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_League" title="Balkan League">Balkan League</a>. There were three main causes of the <a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First Balkan War</a>. The Ottoman Empire was unable to reform itself, govern satisfactorily, or deal with the rising <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethnic nationalism</a> of its diverse peoples. Secondly, the Great Powers quarreled among themselves and failed to ensure that the Ottomans would carry out the needed reforms. This led the Balkan states to impose their own solution. Most important, the members of the Balkan League were confident that it could defeat the Turks. Their prediction was accurate, as Constantinople called for terms after six weeks of fighting.<a href="#cite_note-254">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[253]</a> The First Balkan War broke out when the League attacked the Ottoman Empire on 8 October 1912 and ended seven months later with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London,_1913" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of London, 1913">Treaty of London</a>. After five centuries, the Ottoman Empire lost virtually all of its possessions in the Balkans. The Treaty had been imposed by the Great Powers, and the victorious Balkan states were dissatisfied with it. Bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonia</a>, made in secret by its former allies, Serbia and Greece. Bulgaria attacked to force them out of Macedonia, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second Balkan War</a>. The Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked into Bulgaria, while Romania and the Ottoman Empire also attacked Bulgaria and gained (or regained) territory. In the resulting <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bucharest_(1913)" title="Treaty of Bucharest (1913)">Treaty of Bucharest</a>, Bulgaria lost most of the territories it had gained in the First Balkan War. The long-term result was heightened tension in the Balkans. Relations between Austria and Serbia became increasingly bitter. Russia felt humiliated after Austria and Germany prevented it from helping Serbia. Bulgaria and Turkey were also dissatisfied, and eventually joined Austria and Germany in the First World War.<a href="#cite_note-Matthew_S._Anderson_1966-256">[254]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coming_of_World_War">Coming of World War</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Coming of World War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I" title="Causes of World War I">Causes of World War I</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WWIchartX.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/WWIchartX.svg/350px-WWIchartX.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/WWIchartX.svg/525px-WWIchartX.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/WWIchartX.svg/700px-WWIchartX.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1397" data-file-height="912" /></a><figcaption>European diplomatic alignments in 1914; Italy was neutral in 1914 and switched to the Entente in 1915.</figcaption></figure> The main causes of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, which broke out unexpectedly in central Europe in summer 1914, included many factors, such as the conflicts and hostility of the four decades leading up to the war. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and ethnic nationalism played major roles. However the immediate origins of the war lay in the decisions taken by statesmen and generals during the <a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">Crisis of 1914</a>, which was sparked by the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand" title="Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand">assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand</a> (the Archduke of Austria Hungary) by a Serbian secret organization, the Black Hand.<a href="#cite_note-Henig2002-257">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany_fears_encirclement">Germany fears encirclement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Germany fears encirclement">edit</a>]</div> Berlin focused on a supposed conspiracy of its enemies: that year-by-year in the early 20th century it was systematically encircled by enemies. There was a growing fear in Berlin that the supposed enemy coalition of Russia, France and Britain was getting stronger militarily every year, especially Russia. The longer Berlin waited the less likely it would prevail in a war. According to American historian <a href="/wiki/Gordon_A._Craig" title="Gordon A. Craig">Gordon A. Craig</a>, "it was after this set-back in Morocco in 1905 that the fear of encirclement began to be a potent factor in German politics."<a href="#cite_note-259">[257]</a> Few outside observers agreed with the notion of Germany as a victim of deliberate encirclement.<a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a> English historian <a href="/wiki/G._M._Trevelyan" title="G. M. Trevelyan">G. M. Trevelyan</a> expressed the British viewpoint:<blockquote>The encirclement, such as it was, was of Germany's own making. She had encircled herself by alienating France over Alsace-Lorraine, Russia by her support of Austria-Hungary's <a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">anti-Slav</a> policy in the Balkans, England by building her rival fleet. She had created with Austria-Hungary a military bloc in the heart of Europe so powerful and yet so restless that her neighbors on each side had no choice but either to become her vassals or to stand together for protection....They used their central position to create fear in all sides, in order to gain their diplomatic ends. And then they complained that on all sides they had been encircled.<a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mobilizing_armies">Mobilizing armies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Mobilizing armies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">Mobilization</a></div> By the 1870s or 1880s, all the major powers were preparing for a large-scale war, although none expected one. Britain focused on building up its Royal Navy, already stronger than the next two navies combined. Germany, France, Austria, Italy and Russia, and some smaller countries, set up conscription systems whereby young men would serve from 1 to 3 years in the army, then spend the next 20 years or so in the reserves with annual summer training. Men from higher social statuses became officers.<a href="#cite_note-H._Hinsley_1962_pp_204-42-263">[261]</a> Each country devised a mobilisation system whereby the reserves could be called up quickly and sent to key points by rail. Every year the plans were updated and expanded in terms of complexity. Each country stockpiled arms and supplies for an army that ran into the millions.<a href="#cite_note-H._Hinsley_1962_pp_204-42-263">[261]</a> Germany in 1874 had a regular professional army of 420,000 with an additional 1.3 million reserves. By 1897 the regular army was 545,000 strong and the reserves 3.4 million. The French in 1897 had 3.4 million reservists, Austria 2.6 million, and Russia 4.0 million. The various national war plans had been perfected by 1914, albeit with Russia and Austria trailing in effectiveness. All plans called for a decisive opening and a short war.<a href="#cite_note-H._Hinsley_1962_pp_204-42-263">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France_2">France</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: France">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg/250px-The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg/375px-The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg/500px-The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="11506" data-file-height="8400" /></a><figcaption>French students are taught about the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a>, taken by Germany in 1871</figcaption></figure> For a few years after its defeat in 1871 France displayed a bitter <a href="/wiki/Revanchism" title="Revanchism">Revanchism</a>: a deep sense of bitterness, hatred and demand for revenge against Germany, especially because of the loss of Alsace and Lorraine.<a href="#cite_note-264">[262]</a> Paintings that emphasized the humiliation of the defeat came in high demand, such as those by <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Neuville" title="Alphonse de Neuville">Alphonse de Neuville</a>.<a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a> French policy makers were not fixated on revenge. However strong public opinion regarding Alsace-Lorraine meant that friendship with Germany was impossible unless the provinces were returned, and public opinion in Germany would not allow a return to happen. So Germany worked to isolate France and France sought allies against Germany, especially Russia and Britain.<a href="#cite_note-266">[264]</a> Apart perhaps from the German threat, most French citizens ignored foreign affairs and colonial issues. In 1914 the chief pressure group was the Parti colonial, a coalition of 50 organizations with a combined total of 5000 members.<a href="#cite_note-267">[265]</a> France had colonies in Asia and looked for alliances and found in Japan a possible ally. At Japan's request Paris sent military missions in <a href="/wiki/French_Military_Mission_to_Japan_(1872-1880)" class="mw-redirect" title="French Military Mission to Japan (1872-1880)">1872–1880</a>, in <a href="/wiki/French_Military_Mission_to_Japan_(1884-1889)" class="mw-redirect" title="French Military Mission to Japan (1884-1889)">1884–1889</a> and in <a href="/wiki/French_Military_Mission_to_Japan_(1918-1919)" class="mw-redirect" title="French Military Mission to Japan (1918-1919)">1918–1919</a> to help modernize the Japanese army. Conflicts with China over Indochina climaxed during the <a href="/wiki/Sino-French_War" title="Sino-French War">Sino-French War</a> (1884–1885). <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e_Courbet" title="Amédée Courbet">Admiral Courbet</a> destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fuzhou" title="Battle of Fuzhou">Fuzhou</a>. The treaty ending the war, put France in a protectorate over northern and central Vietnam, which it divided into <a href="/wiki/Tonkin" title="Tonkin">Tonkin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_colony)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annam (French colony)">Annam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wak-268">[266]</a> Bismarck's foreign policies had successfully isolated France from the other great powers. After Bismarck was fired, Kaiser Wilhelm took erratic positions that baffled diplomats. No one could quite figure out his goals. Germany ended its secret treaties with Russia, and rejected close ties with Britain. France saw its opportunity, as Russia was looking for a new partner and French financiers invested heavily in Russian economic development. In 1893 Paris and St. Petersburg signed an alliance. France was no longer isolated – but Germany was increasingly isolated and distrusted, with only Austria as a serious ally. The Triple Alliance included Germany, Austria, and Italy, but Italy had serious disputes with Austria, and switched sides when the world war erupted. Britain was also moving toward alliances, having abandoned its policy of splendid isolation. By 1903, France settled its disputes with Britain. After Russia and Britain settled their disputes over Persia in the 1907 <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a>, the way was open for the Triple Entente of France, Britain, and Russia. It formed the basis of the Allies of the First World War. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Franco-Russian_Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Franco-Russian Alliance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance</a></div> France was deeply split between the monarchists on one side, and the Republicans on the other. The Republicans at first seemed highly unlikely to welcome any military alliance with Russia. That large nation was poor and not industrialized; it was intensely religious and authoritarian, with no sense of democracy or freedom for its peoples. It oppressed Poland, and exiled, and even executed political liberals and radicals. At a time when French Republicans were rallying in the <a href="/wiki/Dreyfus_affair" title="Dreyfus affair">Dreyfus affair</a> against <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_France" title="Antisemitism in France">anti-Semitism</a>, Russia was the most notorious center in the world of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Antisemitism in the Russian Empire">anti-Semitic</a> outrages, including multiple murderous large-scale pogroms against the Jews. On the other hand, France was increasingly frustrated by Bismarck's success in isolating it diplomatically. France had issues with Italy, which was allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance. Paris made a few overtures to Berlin, but they were rebuffed, and after 1900 there was a threat of war between France and Germany over Germany's attempt to deny French expansion into Morocco. Great Britain was still in its "splendid isolation" mode and after a major agreement in 1890 with Germany, it seemed especially favorable toward Berlin. Colonial conflicts in Africa brought Britain and France to a major crisis: the Fashoda crisis of 1898 brought Britain and France to the brink of war and ended with a humiliation of France that left it hostile to Britain. By 1892 Russia was the only opportunity for France to break out of its diplomatic isolation. Russia had been allied with Germany: the new Kaiser, Wilhelm, removed Bismarck in 1890 and in 1892 ended the "Reinsurance treaty" with Russia. Russia was now alone diplomatically and like France, it needed a military alliance to contain the threat of Germany's strong army and military aggressiveness. The pope, angered by German anti-Catholicism, worked diplomatically to bring Paris and St. Petersburg together. Russia desperately needed money for railway infrastructure and port facilities. The German government refused to allow its banks to lend money to Russia, but <a href="/wiki/Banking_in_France" title="Banking in France">French banks</a> eagerly did so. For example, it funded the essential <a href="/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway" title="Trans-Siberian Railway">Trans-Siberian Railway</a>. Negotiations were increasingly successful, and by 1895. France and Russia had signed the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance</a>, a strong military alliance to join in war if Germany attacked either of them. France had finally escaped its diplomatic isolation.<a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a> In its continuing effort to isolate Germany, France went to great pains to woo Great Britain, notably in the 1904 <a href="/wiki/Entente_Cordiale" title="Entente Cordiale">Entente Cordiale</a> with Great Britain, and finally the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Entente" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Russian Entente">Anglo-Russian Entente</a> in 1907, which became the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a>. Paris and London had a high-level military discussion about coordination in a joint war against Germany. By 1914, Russia and France worked together, and Britain was hostile enough toward Germany to join them as soon as <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1914)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1914)">Germany invaded Belgium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anglo-German_relations_deteriorate:_1880–1904">Anglo-German relations deteriorate: 1880–1904</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Anglo-German relations deteriorate: 1880–1904">edit</a>]</div> In the 1880s relations between Britain and Germany improved as the key policy-makers, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Prime Minister Lord Salisbury</a> and Chancellor Bismarck were both realistic conservatives and largely in agreement on policies.<a href="#cite_note-272">[270]</a> There were several proposals for a formal treaty relationship between Germany and Britain, but they went nowhere; Britain preferred to stand in what it called "splendid isolation".<a href="#cite_note-273">[271]</a> Nevertheless, a series of developments steadily improved their relations down to 1890, when Bismarck was fired by the aggressive new Kaiser Wilhelm II. In January 1896 he escalated tensions with his <a href="/wiki/Kruger_telegram" title="Kruger telegram">Kruger telegram</a> congratulating Boer President <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kruger" title="Paul Kruger">Paul Kruger</a> of the <a href="/wiki/South_African_Republic" title="South African Republic">Transvaal</a> for beating off the <a href="/wiki/Jameson_raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Jameson raid">Jameson raid</a>. German officials in Berlin had managed to stop the Kaiser from proposing a German protectorate over the Transvaal. In the <a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a>, Germany sympathised with the Boers. In 1897 Admiral <a href="/wiki/Alfred_von_Tirpitz" title="Alfred von Tirpitz">Alfred von Tirpitz</a> became German Naval Secretary of State and began the transformation of German Navy from small, coastal defence force to a fleet meant to challenge British naval power. Tirpitz calls for Riskflotte (Risk Fleet) that would make it too risky for Britain to take on Germany as part of wider bid to alter the international balance of power decisively in Germany's favour.<a href="#cite_note-274">[272]</a> At the same time German foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_von_B%C3%BClow" title="Bernhard von Bülow">Bernhard von Bülow</a> called for <a href="/wiki/Weltpolitik" title="Weltpolitik">Weltpolitik</a> (World politics). It was the new policy of Germany to assert its claim to be a global power. Bismarck's conservatism was abandoned as Germany was intent on challenging and upsetting international order.<a href="#cite_note-275">[273]</a> Thereafter relations deteriorated steadily. London began to see Berlin as a hostile force and moved to friendlier relationships with France.<a href="#cite_note-276">[274]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Two_crises_in_Morocco">Two crises in Morocco</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Two crises in Morocco">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">First Moroccan Crisis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a></div> Morocco on the northwest coast of Africa, was the last major territory in Africa not controlled by colonial power. Morocco nominally was ruled by its Sultan. But in 1894 the child <a href="/wiki/Abdelaziz_of_Morocco" title="Abdelaziz of Morocco">Abdelaziz of Morocco</a> took the office, and soon died leaving chaos. By 1900, Morocco was the scene of multiple local wars started by pretenders to the sultanate, by bankruptcy of the treasury, and by multiple tribal revolts. No one was in charge. The French Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Delcass%C3%A9" title="Théophile Delcassé">Théophile Delcassé</a> saw the opportunity to stabilize the situation and expand the French overseas empire. General <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Lyautey" title="Hubert Lyautey">Hubert Lyautey</a> wanted a more aggressive military policy using his French army based in Algeria. France decided to use both diplomacy and military force. With British approval, it would control the Sultan, ruling in his name and extending French control. British approval was received in the <a href="/wiki/Entente_Cordiale" title="Entente Cordiale">Entente Cordiale</a> of 1904.<a href="#cite_note-277">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[276]</a> Germany did not want Morocco itself, but felt embarrassed that France was making gains while Germany was not. On 31 March 1905, Germany's Kaiser <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm II, German Emperor">Wilhelm II</a> visited Morocco's capital, Tangier, and delivered a sabre-rattling speech demanding an international conference to ensure Morocco's independence, with war the alternative. Germany's goal in the <a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">First Moroccan Crisis</a> was to enhance its prestige and diminish the <a href="/wiki/Entente_Cordiale" title="Entente Cordiale">Entente Cordiale</a> linking Britain and France. Historian Heather Jones argues that Germany's use of warlike rhetoric was a deliberate diplomatic ploy: <dl><dd>Another German strategy was to stage dramatic gestures, and dangerously play up the threat of war, in the belief that this would impress upon other European powers the importance of consultation with Germany on imperial issues: the fact that France had not considered it necessary to make a bilateral agreement with Germany over Morocco rankled, especially given Germany was deeply insecure about its newly acquired Great Power status. Hence Germany opted for an increase in belligerent rhetoric and, theatrically, Kaiser Wilhelm II dramatically interrupted a Mediterranean cruise to visit Tangier, where he declared Germany's support for the Sultan's independence and integrity of his kingdom, turning Morocco overnight into an international 'crisis.'<a href="#cite_note-279">[277]</a> Germany's plan backfired when Britain made it clear that in the event of a German attack on France, Britain would intervene on France's side. In 1906 the <a href="/wiki/Algeciras_Conference" title="Algeciras Conference">Algeciras Conference</a> ended the crisis with a stinging diplomatic defeat for Germany as France gained the dominant role in Morocco. The experience brought London and Paris much closer and set up the presumption they would be allies if Germany attacked either one.<a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a> The German adventure resulted in failure as Germany was left more isolated and alienated. A momentous consequence was the heightened sense of frustration and readiness for war in Germany. It spread beyond the political elite to much of the press and most of the political parties except for the Liberals and Social Democrats on the left. The Pan-German element grew in strength and denounced their government's retreat as treason, stepping up chauvinistic support for war.<a href="#cite_note-281">[279]</a></dd></dl> In the <a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a> of 1911, France used force to seize more control over Morocco. The German Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Alfred_von_Kiderlen-Waechter" title="Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechter">Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechter</a> was not opposed to these moves, but he felt Germany was entitled to some compensation elsewhere in Africa. He sent a small warship, made saber-rattling threats, and whipped up anger among German nationalists. France and Germany soon agreed on a compromise. However, the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_government,_1905%E2%80%931915" title="Liberal government, 1905–1915">British cabinet</a> was alarmed at Germany's aggressiveness toward France. <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a> made a dramatic <a href="/wiki/Mansion_House_speech,_1911_by_David_Lloyd_George" class="mw-redirect" title="Mansion House speech, 1911 by David Lloyd George">"Mansion House" speech</a> that denounced the German move as an intolerable humiliation. There was talk of war, and Germany backed down. Relations between Berlin and London remained sour.<a href="#cite_note-282">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[281]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British-German_naval_race">British-German naval race</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: British-German naval race">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race" title="Anglo-German naval arms race">Anglo-German naval arms race</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HMS_Dreadnought_1906_H61017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/HMS_Dreadnought_1906_H61017.jpg/300px-HMS_Dreadnought_1906_H61017.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/HMS_Dreadnought_1906_H61017.jpg/450px-HMS_Dreadnought_1906_H61017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/HMS_Dreadnought_1906_H61017.jpg/600px-HMS_Dreadnought_1906_H61017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3001" data-file-height="2258" /></a><figcaption>The British Dreadnaught (1906) made all battleships obsolete because it had ten long-range 12-inch big guns, mechanical computer-like range finders, high speed turbine engines that could make 21 knots, and armour plates 11 inches thick.</figcaption></figure> After 1805 the dominance of Britain's Royal Navy was unchallenged; in the 1890s, Germany decided to match it. Grand Admiral <a href="/wiki/Alfred_von_Tirpitz" title="Alfred von Tirpitz">Alfred von Tirpitz</a> (1849 – 1930) dominated German naval policy from 1897 until 1916.<a href="#cite_note-284">[282]</a> Before the German Empire formed in 1871, Prussia never had a real navy, nor did the other German states. Tirpitz turned the modest little fleet into a world-class force that could threaten the British Royal Navy. The British responded with new technology typified by the <a href="/wiki/HMS_Dreadnought_(1906)" title="HMS Dreadnought (1906)">Dreadnaught revolution</a>, and remained in the lead.<a href="#cite_note-285">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[284]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_German_Navy" title="Imperial German Navy">Imperial German Navy</a> was not strong enough to confront the British in World War I; the one great naval <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jutland" title="Battle of Jutland">Battle of Jutland</a> failed to end Britain's control of the seas or break the stifling blockade. Germany turned to <a href="/wiki/Submarine_warfare" title="Submarine warfare">submarine warfare</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">laws of war</a> required an effort be made to allow passengers and crew to board lifeboats before sinking a ship. The Germans disregarded the law and in the most dramatic episode <a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_RMS_Lusitania" title="Sinking of the RMS Lusitania">sank the Lusitania</a> in 1915 in a few minutes. The U.S. demanded it stop, and Germany did so. Admiral <a href="/wiki/Henning_von_Holtzendorff" title="Henning von Holtzendorff">Henning von Holtzendorff</a> (1853–1919), chief of the admiralty staff, argued successfully in early 1917 to resume the attacks and thus starve the British. The German high command realized the resumption of <a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_submarine_warfare" title="Unrestricted submarine warfare">unrestricted submarine warfare</a> meant war with the United States but calculated that American mobilization would be too slow to stop a German victory on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>.<a href="#cite_note-287">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[286]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Great_War">The Great War</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: The Great War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomatic history of World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Economic history of World War I">Economic history of World War I</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WWI-re.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/WWI-re.png/400px-WWI-re.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/WWI-re.png/600px-WWI-re.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/WWI-re.png/800px-WWI-re.png 2x" data-file-width="1480" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>The participants in World War I. Those fighting alongside the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a> are in green, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> in orange, and neutral countries in grey.</figcaption></figure> The First World War was a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918. It saw the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary, later joined by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria), fighting the "Entente" or "Allied" powers, led by Britain, Russia and France from 1914, who were later joined by Italy in 1915, and other countries such as Romania in 1916.<a href="#cite_note-John_Horne_2012-289">[287]</a> The United States, initially neutral, tried to broker a settlement but in April, 1917, it declared war on Germany. The U.S. cooperated with the Allies but did not formally join them, and it negotiated peace separately. Despite overcoming Romania in 1916 (although Romania continued to fight until May 1918, later rejoining the war in November 1918) and Russia in March 1918, the Central Powers collapsed in November, 1918; and Germany accepted an "armistice" that in practice was a total surrender.<a href="#cite_note-John_Horne_2012-289">[287]</a> Much of the diplomatic efforts of the major powers was oriented toward pushing neutral countries into the alliance with promises of rich territorial rewards. Britain, the United States and Germany spent large sums funding their allies. Propaganda campaigns to maintain morale at home and undermine morale in the enemy camp, especially among minorities, were a priority for the major powers. They also engaged in subversion, by subsidizing political groups that try to overthrow the enemy regime, as the Bolsheviks did in Russia in 1917.<a href="#cite_note-290">[288]</a> Both sides made secret agreements with neutrals to entice them into joining the war in return for a slice of enemy territory after victory was achieved. Some land was promised to several nations, so some promises therefore had to be broken. That left permanent bitter legacies, especially in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-291">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-292">[290]</a> Blaming the war in part on secret treaties, President Wilson called in his <a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</a> for "open covenants, openly arrived at". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1919:_Paris_Peace_Conference_and_Versailles_Treaty">1919: Paris Peace Conference and Versailles Treaty</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: 1919: Paris Peace Conference and Versailles Treaty">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors,_Versailles_1919,_Ausschnitt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors%2C_Versailles_1919%2C_Ausschnitt.jpg/400px-William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors%2C_Versailles_1919%2C_Ausschnitt.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors%2C_Versailles_1919%2C_Ausschnitt.jpg/600px-William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors%2C_Versailles_1919%2C_Ausschnitt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors%2C_Versailles_1919%2C_Ausschnitt.jpg/800px-William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors%2C_Versailles_1919%2C_Ausschnitt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2238" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Detail from <a href="/wiki/William_Orpen" title="William Orpen">William Orpen</a>'s painting The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28th June 1919, showing the signing of the peace treaty by a minor German official opposite to the representatives of the winning powers</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Big-Four-Paris_1919.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Big-Four-Paris_1919.jpg/200px-Big-Four-Paris_1919.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Big-Four-Paris_1919.jpg/300px-Big-Four-Paris_1919.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Big-Four-Paris_1919.jpg/400px-Big-Four-Paris_1919.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2148" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Big_Four_(World_War_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Big Four (World War I)">The "Big Four"</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference of 1919</a>: <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele_Orlando" title="Vittorio Emanuele Orlando">Vittorio Emanuele Orlando</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></figcaption></figure> The world war was settled by the victors at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. 27 nations sent delegations, and there were many nongovernmental groups, but the defeated powers were not invited.<a href="#cite_note-293">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[292]</a> The "<a href="/wiki/Big_Four_(World_War_I)" title="Big Four (World War I)">Big Four</a>" were President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> of the United States, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a> of Great Britain, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a> of France, and Italian Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Orlando" class="mw-redirect" title="Vittorio Orlando">Vittorio Orlando</a>. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by the others.<a href="#cite_note-295">[293]</a> The major decisions were the creation of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>; the five peace treaties with defeated enemies (most notably the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> with Germany); heavy reparations imposed on Germany; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as "<a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">mandates</a>", chiefly to Britain and France; and the drawing of new national boundaries (sometimes with plebiscites) to better reflect the forces of nationalism. In the "<a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">guilt clause</a>" (section 231), the war was blamed on "aggression by Germany and her allies." Germany only paid a small fraction of the reparations before they were suspended in 1931.<a href="#cite_note-296">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/28px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/42px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/56px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1648%E2%80%931814)" title="International relations (1648–1814)">International relations (1648–1814)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomatic history of World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I" title="Causes of World War I">Causes of World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Historiography of the causes of World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_book" title="Color book">Color books</a>, official documents on causes of World War I released by each nation</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="International relations (1919–1939)">International relations (1919–1939)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">List of modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_foreign_relations_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom">History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_British_diplomatic_history" title="Timeline of British diplomatic history">Timeline of British diplomatic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire#Britain's_imperial_century_(1815–1914)" title="British Empire">British Empire#Britain's imperial century (1815–1914)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">Historiography of the British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_assessment_of_Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich">Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich</a>, Austrian diplomacy 1803-1848</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_foreign_relations" title="History of French foreign relations">History of French foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_German_foreign_policy" title="History of German foreign policy">History of German foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Russian_Empire" title="Foreign policy of the Russian Empire">Foreign policy of the Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">History of United States foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Great Eastern Crisis">Great Eastern Crisis</a>, 1875 – in the Ottoman Empire's territories on the Balkan peninsula</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">History of colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of imperialism">Timeline of imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_balance_of_power" title="European balance of power">European balance of power</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> The international relations of minor countries are covered in their own history articles. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Denmark, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland remained neutral throughout the war. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Carlton J. H. Hayes, A Generation of Materialism: 1871–1900 (1941) pp. 16–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Frederick B. Artz, Reaction and Revolution: 1814–1832 (1934) p. 110 </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics: 1763–1848 (1996) is an advanced history of diplomacy </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Paul W. Schroeder, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20097176">The nineteenth century system: balance of power or political equilibrium?</a>" Review of International Studies 15.2 (1989): 135–53. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJames_L._Richardson1994" class="citation book cs1">James L. Richardson (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6tfXErBuHEQC&pg=PA161">Crisis Diplomacy: The Great Powers Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century</a>. Cambridge UP. pp. 107, 161, 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521459877" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521459877"><bdi>978-0521459877</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crisis+Diplomacy%3A+The+Great+Powers+Since+the+Mid-Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=107%2C+161%2C+164&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0521459877&rft.au=James+L.+Richardson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6tfXErBuHEQC%26pg%3DPA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+relations+%281814%E2%80%931919%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> René Albrecht-Carrié, A Diplomatic history of Europe since the Congress of Vienna (1958) pp. 9–16. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeinz_Waldner1983" class="citation book cs1">Heinz Waldner, ed. 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Jensen, Jon Thares Davidann, and Yoneyuki Sugita, eds. Trans-Pacific relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the twentieth century (Greenwood, 2003) pp 3–20 </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Bernard Semmel, The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism (Cambridge University Press, 1970) ch 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> David McLean, "Finance and 'Informal Empire' before the First World War," Economic History Review (1976) 29#2 pp 291–305 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2594316">in JSTOR</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Nancy W. Ellenberger, "Salisbury" in David Loades, ed. Reader's Guide to British History (2003) 2:1154 </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> Margaret Macmillan, The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013) ch 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> John Charmley, Splendid Isolation?: Britain, the Balance of Power and the Origins of the First World War (1999). </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel_R._Williamson1990" class="citation book cs1">Samuel R. Williamson (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wD3zAAAAMAAJ">The Politics of Grand Strategy: Britain and France Prepare for War, 1904–1914</a>. Ashfield Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780948660139" title="Special:BookSources/9780948660139"><bdi>9780948660139</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Grand+Strategy%3A+Britain+and+France+Prepare+for+War%2C+1904%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Ashfield+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780948660139&rft.au=Samuel+R.+Williamson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwD3zAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+relations+%281814%E2%80%931919%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> Lothar Reinermann, "Fleet Street and the Kaiser: British Public Opinion and Wilhelm II." 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Bloomsbury Academic. p. 279. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313262579" title="Special:BookSources/9780313262579"><bdi>9780313262579</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+European+Imperialism&rft.pages=279&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9780313262579&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuyqepNdgUWkC%26pg%3DPA279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+relations+%281814%E2%80%931919%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Paul M. Kennedy, Paul M. The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860–1914 (1987); Kennedy, The rise and fall of British naval mastery (1976) pp 205-238. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> John W. Auld, "The Liberal Pro-Boers." Journal of British Studies 14.2 (1975): 78-101. </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Andrew Porter, "The South African War (1899–1902): context and motive reconsidered." Journal of African History 31.1 (1990): 43-57. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://learn.gold.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/260288/course/section/44529/Porter.pdf">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> Matthew Smith Anderson, The Eastern question, 1774-1923: A study in international relations (1966). </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> Nevill Forbes, et al. The Balkans: a history of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Rumania, Turkey (1915) summary histories by scholars <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/balkanshistoryof00forbuoft">online free</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> W.N. Medlicott, "Austria-Hungary, Turkey and the Balkans." in F.H. Hinsley, ed., The Cambridge Modern History: vol. 11: 1870–1898. (1962) pp 323-51. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> Justin McCarthy, The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923 (1997) pp 306-7. </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Solomon Wank and Barbara Jelavich, "The Impact of the Dual Alliance on the Germans in Austria and Vice-Versa," East Central Europe (1980) 7#2 pp 288-309 </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> Macmillan, The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013) pp 212-44. </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> Solomon Wank, "Foreign Policy and the Nationality Problem in Austria-Hungary, 1867–1914." Austrian History Yearbook 3.3 (1967): 37-56. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> F.R. 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Cambridge UP. p. vii.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Annexation+of+Bosnia%2C+1908%E2%80%931909&rft.pages=vii&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1937&rft.au=Bernadotte+E.+Schmitt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj-Y8AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+relations+%281814%E2%80%931919%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> Gunnar Hering, "Serbian-Bulgarian relations on the eve of and during the Balkan Wars." Balkan Studies (1962) 4#2 pp 297-326. </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> Richard C. Hall, "Balkan Wars," History Today (2012) 62#11 pp 36-42, </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> Béla K. Király, and Gunther Erich Rothenberg, War and Society in East Central Europe: Planning for war against Russia and Serbia: Austro-Hungarian and German military strategies, 1871–1914 (1993). </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> Gale Stokes, "The Serbian Documents from 1914: A Preview" Journal of Modern History 48#3 (1976), pp. 69-84 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1878810">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlan_FarmerAndrina_Stiles2015" class="citation book cs1">Alan Farmer; Andrina Stiles (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hHTGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT199">The Unification of Germany and the challenge of Nationalism 1789–1919 Fourth Edition</a>. Hodder Education. p. 199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781471839047" title="Special:BookSources/9781471839047"><bdi>9781471839047</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unification+of+Germany+and+the+challenge+of+Nationalism+1789%E2%80%931919+Fourth+Edition&rft.pages=199&rft.pub=Hodder+Education&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781471839047&rft.au=Alan+Farmer&rft.au=Andrina+Stiles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhHTGCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+relations+%281814%E2%80%931919%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> Langer, European Alliances, pp 89–120 </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871–1890 pp 121-66 </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Taylor, Struggle for Mastery pp 228–54 </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Edward J. Erickson, "Eastern Question." in Europe 1789-1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire, edited by John Merriman and Jay Winter, (2006) 2:703-705. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3446900266/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=780c8bcd">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> M. S. Anderson, The Eastern Question, 1774–1923 (1966) p 396. </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> Langer, European Alliances, pp 121–66 </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Carole Fink, Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection (2004). p 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Jennifer Jackson Preece, "Minority rights in Europe: from Westphalia to Helsinki." Review of international studies 23#1 (1997): 75-92. </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Gladstone, Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East (1876) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bulgarianhorror03gladgoog">online edition</a> Disraeli wisecracked that, of all the Bulgarian horrors perhaps the pamphlet was greatest. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <a href="/wiki/M._A._Fitzsimons" title="M. A. Fitzsimons">M. A. Fitzsimons</a>, "Midlothian: the Triumph and Frustration of the British Liberal Party," Review of Politics (1960) 22#2 pp 187–201. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1405317">in JSTOR</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> Erich Brandenburg, From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870–1914 (1927) pp 1-19. </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> Albrecht-Carrie, Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958) pp. 145–206 </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> Raymond James Sontag, European Diplomatic History: 1871–1932 (1933) pp 3–58 </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> Lothar Gall, Bismarck: The White Revolutionary, Volume 2: 1871–1898 (1986) pp 46–48 </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> James Stone, "Bismarck and the Containment of France, 1873–1877," Canadian Journal of History (1994) 29#2 pp 281–304 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://utpjournalsreview.com/index.php/CJOH/article/download/10365/9240">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141214134224/http://utpjournalsreview.com/index.php/CJOH/article/download/10365/9240">Archived</a> 14 December 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> James Stone, The War Scare of 1875: Bismarck and Europe in the mid-1870s (2010) </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> Joseph V. Fuller, "The War-Scare of 1875" American Historical Review (1919) 24#2 pp. 196-226 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1835164">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> Taylor, Struggle for Mastery, pp 225–27 </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871–1890 (2nd ed. 1950) pp 44–55 </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> T. G. Otte, "From 'War-in-Sight' to Nearly War: Anglo–French Relations in the Age of High Imperialism, 1875–1898," Diplomacy and Statecraft (2006) 17#4 pp 693–714. </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> William L. Langer, European Alliances and Alignments, 1871–1890 (2nd ed. 1950) pp. 44–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> Norman Rich, Great power diplomacy, 1814–1914 (1992) pp 260-62. </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> Barbara Jelavich, St. Petersburg and Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1814–1974 (1974) pp 213–220 </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJack_Beatty2012" class="citation book cs1">Jack Beatty (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zsn33stuAdEC&pg=PA59">The Lost History of 1914: Reconsidering the Year the Great War Began</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802779106" title="Special:BookSources/9780802779106"><bdi>9780802779106</bdi></a>. Retrieved 24 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lost+History+of+1914%3A+Reconsidering+the+Year+the+Great+War+Began&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780802779106&rft.au=Jack+Beatty&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzsn33stuAdEC%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+relations+%281814%E2%80%931919%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> For more elaborate detail, see Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918(1954) pp 334–345, and William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890–1902 (2nd ed, 1950) pp 3–60 </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> George F. Kennan, The Decline of Bismarck's European Order: Franco-Russian Relations, 1875–1890 (1979) </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_C._Hall2014" class="citation book cs1">Richard C. Hall (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wy3TBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA41">War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia</a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 40–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610690317" title="Special:BookSources/9781610690317"><bdi>9781610690317</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+the+Balkans%3A+An+Encyclopedic+History+from+the+Fall+of+the+Ottoman+Empire+to+the+Breakup+of+Yugoslavia&rft.pages=40-43&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781610690317&rft.au=Richard+C.+Hall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwy3TBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+relations+%281814%E2%80%931919%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> Margaret Macmillan, The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013) ch 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> Ernst C. Helmreich, The diplomacy of the Balkan wars, 1912–1913 (1938) </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> Richard C. Hall, The Balkan Wars, 1912–1913: Prelude to the First World War (2000) </li> <li id="cite_note-Matthew_S._Anderson_1966-256"><a href="#cite_ref-Matthew_S._Anderson_1966_256-0">^</a> Matthew S. Anderson, The Eastern Question, 1774–1923 (1966) </li> <li id="cite_note-Henig2002-257"><a href="#cite_ref-Henig2002_257-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenig2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_B._Henig" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruth B. Henig">Henig</a> (2002). The origins of the First World War. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26205-7"><bdi>978-0-415-26205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+origins+of+the+First+World+War&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-26205-7&rft.au=Henig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+relations+%281814%E2%80%931919%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B008B1BL4E?keywords=sleepwalkers">excerpt and text search</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> Gordon A. Craig, Germany 1866-1945 (1978) p. 321 </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> Imanuel Geise, German foreign policy 1871-1914 (1976) pp 121-138. </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> Hermann Kantorowicz, The spirit of British policy and the myth of the encirclement of Germany (London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1931). </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> George Macaulay Trevelyan, British history in the 19th century and after 1782-1919 (1937) p 463. </li> <li id="cite_note-H._Hinsley_1962_pp_204-42-263">^ <a href="#cite_ref-H._Hinsley_1962_pp_204-42_263-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-H._Hinsley_1962_pp_204-42_263-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-H._Hinsley_1962_pp_204-42_263-2">c</a> F. H. Hinsley, ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 11: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98 (1962) pp 204-42, esp 214-17 </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> Karine Varley, "The Taboos of Defeat: Unmentionable Memories of the Franco-Prussian War in France, 1870–1914." in Jenny Macleod, ed., Defeat and Memory: Cultural Histories of Military Defeat in the Modern Era (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) pp. 62-80; also Karine Varley, Under the Shadow of Defeat: The War of 1870–71 in French Memory (2008) </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> Robert Jay, "Alphonse de Neuville's 'The Spy' and the Legacy of the Franco-Prussian War," Metropolitan Museum Journal (1984) 19: pp. 151-162 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1512817">in JSTOR</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> Macmillan, The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013) pp </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> Anthony Adamthwaite, Grandeur and Misery: France's Bid for Power in Europe, 1914–1940 (1995) p 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-wak-268"><a href="#cite_ref-wak_268-0">^</a> Frederic Wakeman, Jr., The Fall of Imperial China (1975) pp. 189–191. </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> John B. Wolf, France 1814–1919: The rise of a Liberal-Democratic Society (1963) </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> William L. Langer, The diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890–1902 (1960), pp 3-66. </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 (1954) pp 345, 403-26 </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> J. A. S. Grenville, Lord Salisbury and Foreign Policy: The Close of the Nineteenth Century (1964). </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> John Charmley, "Splendid Isolation to Finest Hour: Britain as a Global Power, 1900–1950." Contemporary British History 18.3 (2004): 130-146. </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> William L. Langer, The diplomacy of imperialism: 1890–1902 (1951) pp 433-42. </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> Grenville, Lord Salisbury, pp 368-69. </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> Bernadotte Everly Schmitt, England and Germany, 1740–1914 (1916) pp 133-43. </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> Dennis Brogan, The Development of modern France, 1870–1939 (1940) 392-95. </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> Kim Munholland, "Rival Approaches to Morocco: Delcasse, Lyautey, and the Algerian-Moroccan Border, 1903–1905." French Historical Studies 5.3 (1968): 328-343. </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> Heather Jones, "Algeciras Revisited: European Crisis and Conference Diplomacy, 16 January-7 April 1906." (EUI WorkingPaper MWP 2009/1, 2009), p 5 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/10527/MWP_2009_01.pdf?...1">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> Margaret MacMillan, The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914(2012) pp 378--398. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> Immanuel Geiss, German Foreign Policy 1871 – 1914 (1976) 133-36. </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2012) pp 204-13. </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> Frank Maloy Anderson, and Amos Shartle Hershey, eds. Handbook for the Diplomatic History of Europe, Asia, and Africa 1870–1914 (1918) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071028152339/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos137.htm">online</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Epkenhans" title="Michael Epkenhans">Michael Epkenhans</a>, Tirpitz: Architect of the German High Seas Fleet (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1574887327/">excerpt and text search</a>, pp 23-62 </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> Margaret Macmillan, The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013) ch 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> Brandenburg, From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870–1914 (1927) pp 266=99, 394-417. </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> Dirk Steffen, "The Holtzendorff Memorandum of 22 December 1916 and Germany's Declaration of Unrestricted U-boat Warfare." Journal of Military History 68.1 (2004): 215-224. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/50680/summary">excerpt</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwpda.org/naval/holtzendorffmemo.htm">The Holtzendorff Memo (English translation) with notes</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Horne_2012-289">^ <a href="#cite_ref-John_Horne_2012_289-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-John_Horne_2012_289-1">b</a> John Horne, ed. A Companion to World War I (2012) </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> David Stevenson, The First World War and International Politics (1988). </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> J.A.S. Grenville, ed., The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts, Vol. 1 (Taylor & Francis, 2001) p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> Norman Rich, Great Power Diplomacy: Since 1914 (2002) pp 12-20. </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> Margaret Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/Peacemakers:_The_Paris_Peace_Conference_of_1919_and_Its_Attempt_to_End_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peacemakers: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War">Peacemakers: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War</a> (2002) </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> Robert O. Paxton, and Julie Hessler. Europe in the Twentieth Century (2011) pp 141-78 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0495913197/">excerpt and text search</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> by Rene Albrecht-Carrie, Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958) p 363 </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> Sally Marks, The Illusion of Peace: International Relations in Europe 1918–1933 (2nd ed. 2003) </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> Zara Steiner, The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933 (2007) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naval-race-1909.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Naval-race-1909.jpg/250px-Naval-race-1909.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Naval-race-1909.jpg/375px-Naval-race-1909.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Naval-race-1909.jpg/500px-Naval-race-1909.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1621" data-file-height="2262" /></a><figcaption>1909 cartoon in Puck shows (clockwise) US, Germany, Britain, France and Japan engaged in naval race in a "no limit" game.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys">Surveys</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Surveys">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/harperencycloped00morr">online</a></li> <li>New Cambridge Modern History (13 vol 1957–1979), old but thorough coverage, mostly of Europe; strong on diplomacy <ul><li>Bury, J. P. T. ed. The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 10: the Zenith of European Power, 1830–70 (1964) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/10#page/n3/mode/1up">online</a> <ul><li>Craig, Gordon. "The System of Alliances and the Balance of Power." in J.P.T. Bury, ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 10: The Zenith of European Power, 1830–70 (1960) pp. 246–73.</li></ul></li> <li>Crawley, C. W., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History Volume IX War and Peace In An Age of Upheaval 1793–1830 (1965) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/09#page/n4/mode/1up">online</a></li> <li>H. C. Darby and H. Fullard The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas (1972)</li> <li>Hinsley, F.H., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 11, Material Progress and World-Wide Problems 1870–1898 (1979) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH/11#page/n3/mode/1up">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mowat,_C._L." class="mw-redirect" title="Mowat, C. L.">Mowat, C. L.</a>, ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 12: The Shifting Balance of World Forces, 1898–1945 (1968) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/iB_CMH2/12#page/n3/mode/1up">online</a></li></ul></li> <li>Abbenhuis, Maartje. An Age of Neutrals: Great Power Politics, 1815–1914 (Cambridge UP, 2014). 297 pp. On the role of neutrality <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=42388">online review</a></li> <li>Albrecht-Carrié, René. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736 pp; basic survey; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diplomatichistor0000albr">online</a></li> <li>Anderson, Frank Maloy, and Amos Shartle Hershey, eds. Handbook for the Diplomatic History of Europe, Asia, and Africa, 1870–1914 (1918), highly detailed summary prepared for use by the American delegation to the Paris peace conference of 1919. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RdSwAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1">full text</a></li> <li>Bartlett, C. J. Peace, War and the European Powers, 1814–1914 (1996) brief overview 216pp</li> <li>Black, Jeremy. A History of Diplomacy (2010); Focus on how diplomats are organized</li> <li>Bridge, F. R. & Roger Bullen. The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914, 2nd Ed. (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatpowers00brid">online</a></li> <li>Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the Present (1983 and other editions), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/harperencycloped0000dupu">online</a></li> <li>Evans, Richard J. The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914 (2016), 934pp.</li> <li>Figes, Orlando. The Crimean War: A History (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1250002524/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Gildea, Robert. Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914 (Short Oxford History of the Modern World) (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/0199253005#reader_0199253005">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brison_D._Gooch" title="Brison D. Gooch">Gooch, Brison D.</a> Europe in the nineteenth century: a history (1971).</li> <li>Gooch, G.P. History of Modern Europe: 1878–1919 (1923) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.86299">online</a></li> <li>Haas, Mark L. The Ideological Origins of Great Power Politics, 1789–1989 (Cornell UP, 2005).</li> <li>Huber, Valeska. "Pandemics and the politics of difference: rewriting the history of internationalism through nineteenth-century cholera." Journal of Global History 15.3 (2020): 394-407 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/87EEE783558044A061A6EC6A485EED8E/S1740022820000236a.pdf/div-class-title-pandemics-and-the-politics-of-difference-rewriting-the-history-of-internationalism-through-nineteenth-century-cholera-a-href-afn1-ref-type-fn-span-class-sup-span-a-div.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kennedy" title="Paul Kennedy">Kennedy, Paul</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Rise_and_Fall_of_the_Great_Powers" title="The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers">The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500–2000</a> (1987), stress on economic and military factors</li> <li>Kissinger, Henry. Diplomacy (1995), 940 pp; not a memoir but an interpretive history of international diplomacy since the late 18th century <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diplomacy00kiss">online</a></li> <li>Langer, William L. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo00lang">online</a></li> <li>Langer, William L. European Alliances and Alignments 1870–1890 (1950); advanced history <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.237096">online</a></li> <li>Langer, William L. The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890–1902 (1950); advanced history <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177815">online</a></li> <li>Langer, William L. Political and social upheaval, 1832–1852 (1969) ch 10–14 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalsocialu00lang">online</a></li> <li>Mowat, R.B. A history of European diplomacy, 1815–1914 (1922) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropea00mowauoft">online</a></li> <li>Nelson, Scott Reynolds. Oceans of Grain: How American Wheat Remade the World (2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Oceans-Grain-American-Wheat-Remade/dp/1541646460/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Petrie, Charles. Diplomatic History, 1713–1933 (1946) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.503129">online</a>; detailed summary</li> <li>Ramm, Agatha. Grant and Temperley's Europe in the Nineteenth Century 1789-1905 (7th ed. 2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Temperleys-Europe-Nineteenth-Century-1789-1905/dp/1138837067/">excerpt</a> <ul><li>Ramm, Agatha. Europe in the Twentieth Century 1905-1970 (1984) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Temperleys-Twentieth-Century-1905-1970-Nineteenth/dp/0582490294/">excerpt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rich, Norman. Great Power Diplomacy: 1814–1914 (1992), comprehensive survey</li> <li>Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848 (1994) 920 pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy</li> <li>Schroeder, Paul W. "International Politics, Peace, and War, 1815–1914," in T. C. W. Blanning, ed. The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914 (Oxford UP Press, 2000)</li> <li>Schulz, Matthias. "A Balancing Act: Domestic Pressures and International Systemic Constraints in the Foreign Policies of the Great Powers, 1848–1851." German History 21.3 (2003): 319–346.</li> <li>Seaman, L.C.B. From Vienna to Versailles (1955) 216 pp; brief overview of diplomatic history</li> <li>Sontag, Raymond. European Diplomatic History: 1871–1932 (1933), basic summary; 425 pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.503351/2015.503351.european-diplomatic_text.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Taylor, A.J.P. <a href="/wiki/The_Struggle_for_Mastery_in_Europe_1848%E2%80%931918" title="The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918">The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918</a> (1954) 638pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00ajpt">online</a></li> <li>Taylor, A.J.P. "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98 (1962): 542–66.</li> <li>Upton, Emory. The Armies of Asia and Europe: Embracing Official Reports on the Armies of Japan, China, India, Persia, Italy, Russia, Austria, Germany, France, and England (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/armiesofasiaeuro00uptouoft">Online</a></li> <li>Watson, Adam. The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis (2nd ed. 2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415452090/">excerpt</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maps">Maps</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: Maps">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Banks, Arthur. A World Atlas Of Military History 1861–1945 (1988) pp. 29–94</li> <li>Cambridge Modern History Atlas (1912) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.78914">online</a>. 141 maps</li> <li>Catchpole, Brian. Map History of the Modern World (1982) pp. 2–32.</li> <li>Haywood, John. Atlas of world history (1997) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=atlas%20world%20history%20haywood">online</a></li> <li>O'Brian, Patrick K. Atlas of World History (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atlas-of-world-history/page/n2">Online</a></li> <li>Rand McNally Atlas of World History (1983), maps #76–81. Published in Britain as the Hamlyn Historical Atlas <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/randmcnallyatlas00">online</a></li> <li>Robertson, Charles Grant. An historical atlas of modern Europe from 1789 to 1922 with an historical and explanatory text (1922) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/HistoricalAtlas">online</a></li> <li>Taylor, George. A Sketch-map History of Europe, 1789–1914 (1936) pp. 32–65.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maurice_Neumont,_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia,_1917,_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Maurice_Neumont%2C_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia%2C_1917%2C_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg/350px-Maurice_Neumont%2C_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia%2C_1917%2C_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Maurice_Neumont%2C_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia%2C_1917%2C_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg/525px-Maurice_Neumont%2C_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia%2C_1917%2C_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Maurice_Neumont%2C_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia%2C_1917%2C_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg/700px-Maurice_Neumont%2C_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia%2C_1917%2C_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3785" data-file-height="2985" /></a><figcaption> A French propaganda poster from 1917 portrays Prussia as an octopus stretching out its tentacles vying for control. It is captioned with an 18th-century quote: "Even in 1788, Mirabeau was saying that War is the National Industry of Prussia."</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coming_of_World_War_I">Coming of World War I</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: Coming of World War I">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_World_War_I" title="Bibliography of World War I">Bibliography of World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_I" title="Causes of World War I">Causes of World War I</a>.</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Clark_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chris Clark (historian)">Clark, Christopher</a>. The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/006114665X/">excerpt and text search</a>; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780061146657">online</a></li> <li>Fay, Sidney B. The Origins of the World War (2 vols. 2nd ed. 1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.499097">online</a></li> <li>Gooch, G.P. History of modern Europe, 1878–1919 (2nd ed. 1956) pp. 386–413. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.125610">online</a>, diplomatic history</li> <li>Gooch, G.P. Before the war: studies in diplomacy (vol 1 1936) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.2275">online</a> long chapters on Britain's Landsdowne; France's <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Delcass%C3%A9" title="Théophile Delcassé">Théophile Delcassé</a>; Germany's <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_von_B%C3%BClow" title="Bernhard von Bülow">Bernhard von Bülow</a> pp. 187–284; Russia's <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Izvolsky" title="Alexander Izvolsky">Alexander Izvolsky</a> 285–365; and Austria' <a href="/wiki/Count_Alois_Lexa_von_Aehrenthal" class="mw-redirect" title="Count Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal">Aehrenthal</a> pp. 366–438.</li> <li>Horne, John, ed. A Companion to World War I (2012) 38 topics essays by scholars</li> <li>Joll, James & Gordon Martel. The Origins of the First World War, 3rd ed. (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsoffirstwo00jame_1">online 2000 edition</a></li> <li>Kennedy, Paul M., ed. The War Plans of the Great Powers, 1880–1914 (1979)</li> <li>Kramer, Alan. "Recent Historiography of the First World War – Part I", Journal of Modern European History (Feb. 2014) 12#1 pp. 5–27; "Recent Historiography of the First World War (Part II)", (May 2014) 12#2 pp. 155–74</li> <li>McDonough, Frank. The Origins of the First and Second World Wars (1997) textbook, 125 pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://assets.cambridge.org/97805215/68616/excerpt/9780521568616_excerpt.pdf">excerpt</a></li> <li>MacMillan, Margaret. The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/CSPAN2_20140209_123000_Book_Discussion_on_The_War_That_Ended_Peace">CSPANJ discussion</a></li> <li>Mulligan, William. "The Trial Continues: New Directions in the Study of the Origins of the First World War." English Historical Review (2014) 129#538 pp: 639–66.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_S._Neiberg" title="Michael S. Neiberg">Neiberg, Michael S.</a> Dance of the Furies: Europe and the Outbreak of World War I (2011), on public opinion</li> <li>Spender, J.A. Fifty years of Europe: a study in pre-war documents (1933) covers 1871 to 1914, 438 pp</li> <li>Stowell, Ellery Cory. The Diplomacy of the War of 1914 (1915) 728 pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diplomacyofwarof00stow">online</a></li> <li>Tucker, Spencer, ed. European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1999)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_sources_on_coming_of_the_war">Primary sources on coming of the war</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: Primary sources on coming of the war">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Collins, Ross F. World War I: Primary Documents on Events from 1914 to 1919 (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0313320829/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Gooch, G.P. and Harold Temperley, eds. British documents on the origins of the war, 1898–1914 (11 vol. ) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%28gooch%20%20temperley%29">online</a> <ul><li>vol. 1 The end of British isolation – v.2. From the occupation of Kiao-Chau to the making of the Anglo-French entente Dec. 1897–Apr. 1904 –V.3. The testing of the Entente, 1904–6 – v.4. The Anglo-Russian rapprochement, 1903–7 – v.5. The Near East, 1903–9 – v.6. Anglo-German tension. Armaments and negotiation, 1907–12 – v. 7. The Agadir crisis – v. 8. Arbitration, neutrality and security – v. 9. The Balkan wars, pt. 1-2 – v.10, pt.1. The Near and Middle East on the eve of war. pt. 2. The last years of peace—v.11. The outbreak of war V.3. The testing of the Entente, 1904–6 -- v.4. The Anglo-Russian rapprochement, 1903–7 -- v.5. The Near East, 1903–9 -- v.6. Anglo-German tension. Armaments and negotiation, 1907–12—v.7. The Agadir crisis—v.8. Arbitration, neutrality and security—v.9. The Balkan wars, pt.1-2 -- v.10, pt.1. The Near and Middle East on the eve of war. pt.2. The last years of peace—v.11. The outbreak of war.</li> <li>Gooch, G. P. and Harold Temperley, eds. British Documents on the Origins of the War 1898–1914 Volume XI, the Outbreak of War Foreign Office Documents (1926) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/britishdocuments11grea">online</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lowe, C.J. and M.L. Dockrill, eds. The Mirage of Power: The Documents of British Foreign Policy 1914–22 (vol 3, 1972), pp 423–759</li> <li>Mombauer, Annika. The Origins of the First World War: Diplomatic and Military Documents (2013), 592pp;</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wartime_diplomacy">Wartime diplomacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: Wartime diplomacy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I#Further_reading" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">Diplomatic history of World War I § Further reading</a></div> <ul><li>Stevenson, David. The First World War and International Politics (Oxford UP, 1988), thorough scholarly coverage</li> <li>Strachan, Hew. The First World War: Volume I: To Arms (Oxford UP, 2003).</li> <li>Tucker, Spencer, ed. The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1999).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zbyn%C4%9Bk_Zeman" title="Zbyněk Zeman">Zeman, Z.A.B.</a> A Diplomatic History of the First World War (1971); also published as The gentleman negotiators: the diplomatic history of World War I (1971)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperialism_2">Imperialism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: Imperialism">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Aldrich, Robert. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion (1996)</li> <li>Baumgart, W. Imperialism: The Idea and Reality of British and French Colonial Expansion 1880–1914 (1982)</li> <li>Betts, Raymond F. Europe Overseas: Phases of Imperialism (1968) 206pp; basic survey</li> <li>Cady, John Frank. The Roots Of French Imperialism In Eastern Asia (1967)</li> <li>Chamberlain. M.E. The Scramble for Africa (4th ed 2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scrambleforafric0000cham/page/n3/mode/2up">online</a></li> <li>Conklin, Alice L. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930 (1997)</li> <li>Hodge, Carl Cavanagh. Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1914 (2 vol., 2007)</li> <li>Manning, Patrick. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa, 1880–1995 (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/francophonesubsa00mann">online</a></li> <li>Olson, James Stuart, ed. Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism (1991) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n1AI4Je4zS0C">excerpt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parker_Thomas_Moon" title="Parker Thomas Moon">Moon, Parker T.</a> Imperialism and world politics (1926); 583pp; Wide-ranging historical survey; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.462503">online</a></li> <li>Page, Melvin E. et al. eds. Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia (2 vol 2003)</li> <li>Pakenham, Thomas. The Scramble for Africa: White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876–1912 (1992)</li> <li>Poddar, Prem, and Lars Jensen, eds., A historical companion to postcolonial literatures: Continental Europe and Its Empires (Edinburgh UP, 2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Companion-Postcolonial-Literatures-Continental/dp/0748623949/">excerpt</a> also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g0b6vw">entire text online</a></li> <li>Stuchtey, Benedikt, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20101025319">Colonialism and Imperialism, 1450–1950</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_History_Online" title="European History Online">European History Online</a>, Mainz: <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_European_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of European History">Institute of European History</a>, 2011</li> <li>U.S. Tariff Commission. Colonial tariff policies (1922) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/colonialtariffpo00unit">online</a>; 922pp; worldwide coverage;</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain">Britain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=91" title="Edit section: Britain">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Bartlett, C.J. Defence and Diplomacy: Britain and the Great Powers 1815–1914 (1993) brief survey, 160pp</li> <li>Bourne, Kenneth. Foreign Policy of Victorian England, 1830–1902 (1970)</li> <li>Cain, P.J. and Hopkins, A.G. "The Political Economy of British Expansion Overseas 1750–1914", Economic History Review, (1980) 33#4 pp 463–90. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2594798">in JSTOR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamberlain,_Muriel_E." class="mw-redirect" title="Chamberlain, Muriel E.">Chamberlain, Muriel E.</a> Pax Britannica?: British Foreign Policy 1789–1914 (1989)</li> <li>Charmley, John. Splendid Isolation?: Britain, the Balance of Power and the Origins of the First World War (1999), 528pp</li> <li>Gallagher, John and Robinson, Ronald. "The Imperialism of Free Trade", Economic History Review (1953) 6#1 pp 1–15.</li> <li>Goodlad, Graham D. British Foreign and Imperial Policy 1865–1919 (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415203384/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Hyam, Ronald. Britain's Imperial Century 1815–1914: A Study of Empire and Expansion (3rd ed. 2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/033399311X/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Lowe, C.J. The reluctant imperialists: British foreign policy, 1878–1902 (1969) 257pp plus 150 pp of documents</li> <li>Lowe, C.J. and M. L. Dockrill. Mirage of Power: British Foreign Policy 1902–14 (v 1, 1972); Mirage of Power: British Foreign Policy 1914–22 (v. 2, 1972); analytic history</li> <li>Lowe, John. Britain and Foreign Affairs 1815–1885: Europe and Overseas (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415136172/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Mulligan, William, and Brendan Simms, eds. The Primacy of Foreign Policy in British History, 1660–2000(Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 345 pages</li> <li>Olson, James S. and Robert S. Shadle, eds. Historical Dictionary of the British Empire (1996)</li> <li>Pribram, A.F. England and the International Policy of the European Great Powers, 1871–1914 (1931) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englandinternati0000prib">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRose,_John_Holland1929" class="citation book cs1">Rose, John Holland, ed. (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jx89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR10">The Cambridge History of the British Empire</a>. Cambridge UP. p. 10ff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pages=10ff&rft.pub=Cambridge+UP&rft.date=1929&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJx89AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPR10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternational+relations+%281814%E2%80%931919%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Seligmann, Matthew S. "Failing to Prepare for the Great War? The Absence of Grand Strategy in British War Planning before 1914" War in History (2017) 24#4 414–37.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_William_Seton-Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert William Seton-Watson">Seton-Watson, R.W.</a> Britain in Europe (1789–1914): A Survey of Foreign Policy (1937) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.226175/2015.226175.Britain-In.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Steiner, Zara. Britain and the Origins of the First World War (1977).</li> <li>Temperley, Harold W. V. England and the Near East: The Crimea (1936) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.174587">online</a></li> <li>Ward, A.W. and G.P. Gooch, eds. The Cambridge History of British Foreign Policy, 1783–1919 (3 vol, 1921–23), old detailed classic; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00ward">vol 1, 1783–1815 </a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory02warduoft">vol 2, 1815–1866</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory03warduoft">vol 3. 1866–1919</a></li> <li>Webster, Charles. The Foreign Policy of Palmerston (1951)</li> <li>Weigall, David. Britain and the World, 1815–1986: A Dictionary of International relations (1989)</li> <li>Winks, Robin W., ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire - Vol. 5: Historiography (1999)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_sources_for_Britain">Primary sources for Britain</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=92" title="Edit section: Primary sources for Britain">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Lowe, C.J. and M. L. Dockrill, eds. Mirage of Power: volume 3: The Documents: British Foreign Policy 1902–22 (1972); 350pp</li> <li>Wiener, Joel H. ed. Great Britain: Foreign Policy and the Span of Empire, 1689–1971: A Documentary History (4 vol 1972)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France_3">France</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=93" title="Edit section: France">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Adamthwaite, Anthony. Grandeur and Misery: France's bid for power in Europe, 1914–1940 (A&C Black, 2014).</li> <li>Fryer, W. R. "The Republic and the Iron Chancellor: the Pattern of Franco-German Relations, 1871–1890." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 29 (1979): 169–185.</li> <li>Gooch, G.P. Franco-German Relations 1871–1914 (1923) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/francogermanrela0000gooc">online</a></li> <li>Greisman, Harvey Clark. "The enemy concept in Franco-German relations, 1870–1914." History of European Ideas 19.1-3 (1994): 41–46. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1016/0191-6599(94)90195-3">online</a></li> <li>Hewitson, Mark. "Germany and France before the First World War: a reassessment of Wilhelmine foreign policy." English Historical Review 115.462 (2000): 570–606.</li> <li>Hutton, Patrick H. et al. eds. Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870–1940 (2 vol 1986)</li> <li>Jardin, Andre, and Andre-Jean Tudesq. Restoration and Reaction 1815–1848 (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1988)</li> <li>Keiger, J.F.V. France and the World since 1870 (2001); 261pp; topical approach emphasizing national security, intelligence & relations with major powers</li> <li>Keiger, John. France and the Origins of the First World War (1985)</li> <li>Langer, William L. The Franco-Russian alliance, 1880–1894 (1929)</li> <li>Mayeur, Jean-Marie, and Madeleine Rebirioux. The Third Republic from its Origins to the Great War, 1871–1914 (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1988) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521358574/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Nere, J. The Foreign Policy of France from 1914 to 1945 (2001)</li> <li>Stuart, Graham Henry. French Foreign Policy from Fashoda to Serajevo (1898–1914) (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frenchforeignpol00stuaiala">online</a></li> <li>Wetzel, David. A Duel of Giants: Bismarck, Napoleon III, and the Origins of the Franco-Prussian War (2003)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany_and_Austria">Germany and Austria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=94" title="Edit section: Germany and Austria">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_German_foreign_policy" title="History of German foreign policy">History of German foreign policy</a></div> <ul><li>Brandenburg, Erich. From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870–1914 (1933) ; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.12322">online</a></li> <li>Bridge, F.R. From Sadowa to Sarajevo: The Foreign Policy of Austria-Hungary 1866–1914 (1972; reprint 2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/from-sadowa-to-sarajevo-the-foreign-policy-of-austriahungary-18661914-by-bridge-f-r-london-and-boston-routledge-kegan-paul-1972-xvi-480-pp-2000/FD96EE46EECBD7EDA7DEE2935694E9E5">online review</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vdqCCwAAQBAJ">excerpt</a></li> <li>Brose, Eric Dorn. German History, 1789–1871: From the Holy Roman Empire to the Bismarckian Reich. (1997)</li> <li>Carroll, E. Malcolm. Germany and the great powers, 1866–1914: A study in public opinion and foreign policy (1938) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015002369133;view=1up;seq=6">online</a></li> <li>Clark, Christopher. Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947 (2006)</li> <li>Craig, Gordon A. Germany 1866–1945 (1965), a major scholarly survey</li> <li>Detwiler, Donald S. Germany: A Short History (3rd ed. 1999) 341pp;</li> <li>Dugdale, E.T.S. ed. German Diplomatic Documents 1871–1914 (4 vol 1928–1931), in English translation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%28Dugdale%29%20german">online</a></li> <li>Eyck, Erich. Bismarck and the German Empire (1964) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0393002357/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Geiss, Imanuel. German Foreign Policy, 1871–1914 (1979) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415606357/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Hewitson, Mark. "Germany and France before the First World War: a reassessment of Wilhelmine foreign policy." English Historical Review 115.462 (2000): 570–606; argues Germany had a growing sense of military superiority</li> <li>Holborn, Hajo. A History of Modern Germany (1959–64); vol 1: The Reformation; vol 2: 1648–1840; vol 3: 1840–1945; standard scholarly survey</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katja_Hoyer" title="Katja Hoyer">Hoyer, Katja</a>. Blood and Iron: The Rise and Fall of the German Empire 1871-1918 (2021)</li> <li>Kennedy, Paul. The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism 1860–1914 (1980) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofanglogerma0000kenn">online</a></li> <li>Lowe, John. The Great Powers, imperialism and the German problem 1865-1925 (Routledge, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Powers-Imperialism-German-Problem-1865-1925/dp/1138160687/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Maehl, William Harvey. Germany in Western Civilization (1979), 833pp; focus on politics and diplomacy.</li> <li>Medlicott, William Norton, and Dorothy Kathleen Coveney, eds. Bismarck and Europe (Hodder Arnold, 1971), 110 short excerpts from, primary sources covering his diplomatic career. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bismarckeurope0000medl">online</a></li> <li>Mitchell, A. Wess The Grand Strategy of the Habsburg Empire (Princeton UP, 2018).</li> <li>Mitchell, Pearl Boring. The Bismarckian Policy of Conciliation with France, 1875-1885 (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).</li> <li>Morrow, Ian F. D. "The Foreign Policy of Prince Von Bulow, 1898-1909." Cambridge Historical Journal 4#1 (1932): 63–93. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3020573">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Padfield" title="Peter Padfield">Padfield, Peter</a>. The Great Naval Race: Anglo-German Naval Rivalry 1900–1914 (2005)</li> <li>Palmer, Alan. Metternich: Councillor of Europe (1972)</li> <li>Palmer, Alan. Twilight of the Habsburgs: The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Joseph (1995)</li> <li>Palmer, Alan. Bismarck (2015)</li> <li>Scheck, Raffael. "Lecture Notes, Germany and Europe, 1871–1945" (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colby.edu/personal/r/rmscheck/Contents.html">full text online</a>, a brief textbook by a leading scholar</li> <li>Schmitt, Bernadotte Everly. England and Germany, 1740–1914 (1916) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/englandandgerma02schmgoog">online</a></li> <li>Sheehan, James J. German History, 1770–1866 (1993), a major scholarly survey</li> <li>Steinberg, Jonathan. Bismarck: A Life (2011), most recent scholarly biography</li> <li>Stürmer, Michael. "Bismarck in Perspective," Central European History (1971) 4#4 pp. 291–331 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4545614">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Taylor, A.J.P. Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman (1967)</li> <li>Taylor, A.J.P. The Course of German History: A Survey of the Development of German History since 1815. (2001). 280pp.</li> <li>Taylor, A.J.P. The Habsburg Monarchy 1809–1918 (1948) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151580">online</a></li> <li>Wawro, Geoffrey. A Mad Catastrophe: The Outbreak of World War I and the Collapse of the Hapsburg Empire (2014)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia_and_Balkans">Russia and Balkans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=95" title="Edit section: Russia and Balkans">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Forbes, Nevill, et al. The Balkans: a history of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Rumania, Turkey (1915) summary histories by scholars <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/balkanshistoryof00forbuoft">online</a></li> <li>Fuller, William C. Strategy and Power in Russia 1600–1914 (1998)</li> <li>Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)</li> <li>Jelavich, Barbara. St. Petersburg and Moscow: tsarist and Soviet foreign policy, 1814–1974 (1974); 1st edition was A Century of Russian Foreign Policy 1814–1914 (1964)</li> <li>Jelavich, Charles, and Barbara Jelavich. The establishment of the Balkan national states, 1804–1920 (1977) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/establishmentof00char">online</a></li> <li>LeDonne, John P. The Russian Empire and the World, 1700–1917: The Geopolitics of Expansion and Containment (Oxford UP, 1997)</li> <li>McMeekin, Sean. The Russian Origins of the First World War (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0674062108/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Marriott, J. A. R. The Eastern question; an historical study in European diplomacy (1917) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924027798622">online</a></li> <li>Neumann, Iver B. "Russia as a great power, 1815–2007." Journal of International Relations and Development 11.2 (2008): 128–151. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/jird.2008.7">online</a></li> <li>Nish, Ian Hill. The origins of the Russo-Japanese war (1985)</li> <li>Ragsdale, Hugh, and Valeri Nikolaevich Ponomarev eds. Imperial Russian Foreign Policy (Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/052144229X/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Reynolds, Michael. Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires, 1908–1918 (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A337619941/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=63f6e975">online review</a></li> <li>Schevill, Ferdinand. The history of the Balkan Peninsula; from the earliest times to the present day (1922) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofbalkanp00scheuoft">online</a></li> <li>Seton-Watson, Hugh. The Russian Empire 1801–1917 (1967) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198221525/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Stavrianos, L.S. The Balkans Since 1453 (1958), major scholarly history; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/balkanssince145300lsst">online</a></li> <li>Sumner, B. H. Russia and the Balkans 1870-1880 (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Zayonchkovski" title="Andrei Zayonchkovski">Andrei Zayonchkovski</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elib.shpl.ru/ru/nodes/5069-zayonchkovskiy-a-m-podgotovka-rossii-k-mirovoy-voyne-v-mezhdunarodnom-otnoshenii-l-1926#mode/inspect/page/1/zoom/4">Подготовка России к мировой войне в международном отношении</a>; Штаб РККА, Упр. по исслед. и использованию опыта войн; Предисл. и под ред. М. П. Павловича. — [Л.]: Ленинград: Воен. тип. Упр. делами Наркомвоенмор и РВС СССР, 1926. — 398 с.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_of_America">United States of America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=96" title="Edit section: United States of America">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Beisner, Robert L. ed, American Foreign Relations since 1600: A Guide to the Literature (2003), 2 vol. 16,300 annotated entries evaluate every major book and scholarly article.</li> <li>Bemis, Samuel Flagg. A short history of American foreign policy and diplomacy (1959) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofam00bemi">online free</a></li> <li>Brune, Lester H. Chronological History of U.S. Foreign Relations (2003), 1400 pages</li> <li>DeConde, Alexander, et al. eds. Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy 3 vol (2001), 2200 pp. 120 long articles by specialists. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22Encyclopedia%20of%20American%20foreign%20policy%22">Online</a></li> <li>DeConde, Alexander. A History of American Foreign Policy (1963) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofamerica02alex">online</a></li> <li>Doyle, Don H. The cause of all nations: an international history of the American Civil War (Basic Books, 2014).</li> <li>Findling, John, ed. Dictionary of American Diplomatic History 2nd ed. 1989. 700pp; 1200 short articles.</li> <li>Herring, George. From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 (Oxford History of the United States) (2008), 1056pp, general survey</li> <li>Hogan, Michael J. ed. Paths to Power: The Historiography of American Foreign Relations to 1941 (2000) essays on main topics</li> <li>Jones, Howard. Crucible of power: A History of American Foreign Relations from 1897 (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crucibleofpower00jone">online</a></li> <li>Jones, Howard. Blue & Gray Diplomacy: A History of Union and Confederate Foreign Relations (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bluegraydiplomac0000jone">online</a></li> <li>Lafeber, Walter. The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad, 1750 to Present (2nd ed 1994) university textbook; 884pp</li> <li>Paterson, Thomas, et al. American Foreign Relations: A History (7th ed. 2 vol. 2009), university textbook</li> <li>Sexton, Jay. "Toward a synthesis of foreign relations in the Civil War era, 1848–77." American Nineteenth Century History 5.3 (2004): 50–73.</li> <li>Sexton, Jay. Debtor Diplomacy: Finance and American Foreign Relations in the Civil War Era, 1837-1873 (Clarendon Press, 2005). The USA borrowed money in Paris.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan_and_China">Japan and China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=97" title="Edit section: Japan and China">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Akagi, Roy Hidemichi. Japan's Foreign Relations 1542–1936: A Short History (1936) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.226231">online</a> 560pp</li> <li>Beasley, William G. Japanese Imperialism, 1894–1945 (Oxford UP, 1987)</li> <li>Hsü, Immanuel C.Y. China's Entrance into the Family of Nations: The Diplomatic Phase, 1858–1880 (1960)</li> <li>Jansen, Marius B. ed. The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 5: The Nineteenth Century (1989)</li> <li>Kibata, Y. and I. Nish, eds. The History of Anglo-Japanese Relations, 1600–2000: Volume I: The Political-Diplomatic Dimension, 1600–1930 (2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/History-Anglo-Japanese-Relations-1600-2000-Political-Diplomatic/dp/0333753879/">excerpt</a>, first of five topical volumes also covering social, economic and military relations between Japan and Great Britain.</li> <li>Morse, Hosea Ballou. The international relations of the Chinese empire Vol. 1 (1910), coverage to 1859; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/internationalrel01mors">online</a>; The international relations of the Chinese empire vol 2 1861–1893 (1918) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/internationalrel1917mors2">online</a>; The international relations of the Chinese empire vol 3 1894–1916. (1918) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/internationalrel1917mors3">online</a></li> <li>Nish, Ian. (1990) "An Overview of Relations between China and Japan, 1895–1945." China Quarterly (1990) 124 (1990): 601–623. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/654639">online</a></li> <li>Nish, Ian. Japanese Foreign Policy, 1869–1942: Kasumigaseki to Miyakezaka (2001)</li> <li>Nish, Ian Hill. The origins of the Russo-Japanese war (1985)</li> <li>Takeuchi, Tatsuji. War And Diplomacy In The Japanese Empire (1935) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.6461">online</a>; scholarly coverage</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=98" title="Edit section: Others">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Bosworth, Richard. Italy: The Least of the Great Powers: Italian Foreign Policy Before the First World War (1979)</li> <li>Hale, William. Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774–2000. (2000). 375 pp.</li> <li>Lowe, C. J. and F. Marzari. Italian Foreign Policy, 1870–1940 (2001)</li> <li>Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801-1922 (2nd ed 1927) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ottomanempireitsmill">online</a>, strong on foreign policy</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=99" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Bourne, Kenneth. The foreign policy of Victorian England, 1830–1902 (Oxford UP, 1970.) pp. 195–504 are 147 selected documents</li> <li>Cooke, W. Henry, and Edith P. Stickney, eds. Readings in European International Relations Since 1879 (1931) 1060 pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/readingsineurope00cook">online</a></li> <li>Gooch, G. P. Recent Revelations of European Diplomacy (1940); 475 pp detailed summaries of memoirs from all the major belligerents; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.19643">online</a></li> <li>Joll, James, ed. Britain and Europe 1793–1940 (1967); 390 pp of documents</li> <li>Jones, Edgar Rees, ed. Selected speeches on British foreign policy, 1738–1914 (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Selected-Speeches-British-Foreign-1738-1914-ebook/dp/B008400H7O/">online free</a></li> <li>Kertesz, G.A. ed Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815–1939 (1968), pp. 1–385; 200 short documents</li> <li>Lowe, C.J. The reluctant imperialists: vol 2: The Documents (1967), 140 documents 1878–1902. (American edition 1969 vol 1 and 2 bound together).</li> <li>Lowe, C.J. and M.L. Dockrill, eds. The Mirage of Power: Volume 3: The Documents British Foreign Policy, 1902–22. (1972), 191 documents.</li> <li>Temperley, Harold and L.M. Penson, eds. Foundations of British Foreign Policy: From Pitt (1792) to Salisbury (1902) (1938) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.2629">online</a>, 608 pp of primary sources</li> <li>Walker, Mack. ed. Metternich's Europe, 1813–48 (1968) 352 pp of primary sources in English translation <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ExmvCwAAQBAJ&dq=%27%27Metternich%27s+Europe%2C+1813-48%27%27&pg=PA352">excerpt</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)&action=edit&section=100" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohio.edu/chastain/index.htm">Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions</a> – comprehensive collection of new articles by modern scholars</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_relations_(1814–1919)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Template:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Template talk:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Great_Power_diplomacy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Great Power diplomacy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_relations_(1814–1919)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">International relations (1814–1919)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Great powers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)" title="Triple Alliance (1882)">Triple Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_Alliance_(1879)" title="Dual Alliance (1879)">Dual Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Russian_Alliance" title="Franco-Russian Alliance">Franco-Russian Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entente_Cordiale" title="Entente Cordiale">Entente Cordiale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Russian_Convention" title="Anglo-Russian Convention">Anglo-Russian Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Japanese Alliance">Anglo-Japanese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-Nation_Alliance" title="Eight-Nation Alliance">Eight-Nation Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_League" title="Balkan League">Balkan League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trends</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_balance_of_power" title="European balance of power">European balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman decline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_question" title="Eastern question">Eastern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire">Spread of nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_public_debt" title="Ottoman public debt">Sovereign debt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity" title="French–German enmity">French–German enmity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revanchism" title="Revanchism">Revanchism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Lever" title="Egyptian Lever">Egyptian Lever</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">In Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_China" title="Scramble for China">Scramble for China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Door_Policy" title="Open Door Policy">Open Door Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji era</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Pan-Slavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Rapprochement" title="Great Rapprochement">Great Rapprochement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">Industrial warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties and agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1871)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1871)">Treaty of Versailles (1871)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1878)" title="Treaty of Berlin (1878)">Treaty of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty" title="Reinsurance Treaty">Reinsurance Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1898)" title="Treaty of Paris (1898)">Treaty of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Bj%C3%B6rk%C3%B6" title="Treaty of Björkö">Treaty of Björkö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Katsura_agreement" title="Taft–Katsura agreement">Taft–Katsura agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martens_Clause" title="Martens Clause">Martens Clause</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1905" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905">Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racconigi_Bargain" title="Racconigi Bargain">Racconigi agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_Franco-Russian_agreement" title="1917 Franco-Russian agreement">1917 Franco-Russian agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia">Formation of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Unification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Eastern_Crisis" title="Great Eastern Crisis">Great Eastern Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronstadt%E2%80%93Toulon_naval_visits" title="Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits">Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weltpolitik" title="Weltpolitik">Weltpolitik</a></li> <li>Naval arms races <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race" title="Anglo-German naval arms race">Anglo-German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dreadnought" title="Dreadnought">Dreadnought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Naval_Laws" title="German Naval Laws">German Naval Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Italian_ironclad_arms_race" title="Austro-Italian ironclad arms race">Austro-Italian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashoda_Incident" title="Fashoda Incident">Fashoda Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Hawaii" title="Territory of Hawaii">Annexation of Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_crisis_of_1902%E2%80%931903" title="Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903">Venezuela Naval Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_boundary_dispute" title="Alaska boundary dispute">Alaska boundary dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Moroccan_Crisis" title="First Moroccan Crisis">First Moroccan Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeciras_Conference" title="Algeciras Conference">Algeciras Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agadir_Crisis" title="Agadir Crisis">Agadir Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fes" title="Treaty of Fes">Treaty of Fes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis" title="Bosnian Crisis">Bosnian Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_Crisis" title="July Crisis">July Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)">Russo-Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_War" title="Anglo-Egyptian War">Anglo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">First Sino-Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Boer_War" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">Italo-Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Balkan_War" title="Second Balkan War">Second</a></li> <li>Albanian Revolts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_revolt_of_1910" title="Albanian revolt of 1910">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malissori_uprising" title="Malissori uprising">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_revolt_of_1912" title="Albanian revolt of 1912">Third</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_relations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:International_relations" title="Template:International relations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:International_relations" title="Template talk:International relations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:International_relations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:International relations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_relations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_international_relations_terms" title="Glossary of international relations terms">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BRICS" title="BRICS">BRICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court (ICC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations (UN)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1648%E2%80%931814)" title="International relations (1648–1814)">1648–1814</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1814–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="International relations (1919–1939)">1919–1939</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomatic history of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_since_1989" title="International relations since 1989">International relations since 1989</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance" title="Alliance">Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entente_(alliance)" title="Entente (alliance)">Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalition" title="Coalition">Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_alliance" title="Military alliance">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-belligerence" title="Co-belligerence">Co-belligerence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">Collective security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis" title="Crisis">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansionism" title="Expansionism">Expansionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-zone_(international_relations)" title="Grey-zone (international relations)">Grey-zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_in_international_relations" title="Idealism in international relations">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_community" title="International community">International community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internationality" title="Internationality">Internationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_institutionalism" title="Liberal institutionalism">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interventionism_(politics)" title="Interventionism (politics)">Interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolationism" title="Isolationism">Isolationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_interest" title="National interest">National interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">Neutral country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-belligerent" title="Non-belligerent">Non-belligerent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-state_actor" title="Non-state actor">Non-state actor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(international_relations)" title="Power (international relations)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">Suzerainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_treaty" title="Bilateral treaty">Bilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_friendship" title="Treaty of friendship">Friendship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateral_treaty" title="Multilateral treaty">Multilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_pact" title="Non-aggression pact">Non-aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">Peace</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-of-society" title="Whole-of-society">Whole-of-society</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_relations_theory" title="International relations theory">Theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(international_relations)" title="Constructivism (international relations)">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_school_of_international_relations_theory" title="English school of international relations theory">English school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_(international_relations)" title="Liberalism (international relations)">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_international_relations_theory" title="Marxist international relations theory">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_international_relations" title="Postcolonial international relations">Postcolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(international_relations)" title="Realism (international relations)">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields and subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">Comparative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_analysis" title="Foreign policy analysis">Foreign policy analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_political_economy" title="International political economy">International political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_political_sociology" title="International political sociology">International political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_conflict_studies" title="Peace and conflict studies">Peace and conflict studies</a></li> <li><a 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