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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology:_Ship_design_and_the_compass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Technology: Ship design and the compass</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology:_Ship_design_and_the_compass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_geographical_knowledge_and_maps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_geographical_knowledge_and_maps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Early geographical knowledge and maps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_geographical_knowledge_and_maps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_European_travel_(1241–1438)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_European_travel_(1241–1438)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Medieval European travel (1241–1438)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_European_travel_(1241–1438)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_missions_(1405–1433)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_missions_(1405–1433)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Chinese missions (1405–1433)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_missions_(1405–1433)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atlantic_Ocean_(1419–1507)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atlantic_Ocean_(1419–1507)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Atlantic Ocean (1419–1507)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Atlantic_Ocean_(1419–1507)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Atlantic Ocean (1419–1507) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Atlantic_Ocean_(1419–1507)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Portuguese_exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portuguese_exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Portuguese exploration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portuguese_exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Portuguese_exploration_after_Prince_Henry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portuguese_exploration_after_Prince_Henry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Portuguese exploration after Prince Henry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portuguese_exploration_after_Prince_Henry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_exploration:_Columbus's_landfall_in_the_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_exploration:_Columbus's_landfall_in_the_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Spanish exploration: Columbus's landfall in the Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_exploration:_Columbus's_landfall_in_the_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaty_of_Tordesillas_(1494)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaty_of_Tordesillas_(1494)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaty_of_Tordesillas_(1494)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Americas:_The_New_World" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Americas:_The_New_World"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>The Americas: The New World</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Americas:_The_New_World-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"True_Indies"_and_Brazil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"True_Indies"_and_Brazil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.2</span> <span>The "True Indies" and Brazil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"True_Indies"_and_Brazil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Ocean_(1497–1513)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Ocean_(1497–1513)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Indian Ocean (1497–1513)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Indian_Ocean_(1497–1513)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Indian Ocean (1497–1513) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Indian_Ocean_(1497–1513)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vasco_da_Gama's_route_to_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vasco_da_Gama's_route_to_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Vasco da Gama's route to India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vasco_da_Gama's_route_to_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_"Spice_Islands"_and_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_"Spice_Islands"_and_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>The "Spice Islands" and China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"Spice_Islands"_and_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_Ocean_(1513–1529)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_Ocean_(1513–1529)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Pacific Ocean (1513–1529)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pacific_Ocean_(1513–1529)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Pacific Ocean (1513–1529) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Pacific_Ocean_(1513–1529)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Balboa's_expedition_to_the_Pacific_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Balboa's_expedition_to_the_Pacific_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Balboa's expedition to the Pacific Ocean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Balboa's_expedition_to_the_Pacific_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsequent_developments_to_the_east" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsequent_developments_to_the_east"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Subsequent developments to the east</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsequent_developments_to_the_east-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_circumnavigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_circumnavigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>First circumnavigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_circumnavigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Westward_and_eastward_exploration_meet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Westward_and_eastward_exploration_meet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Westward and eastward exploration meet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Westward_and_eastward_exploration_meet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inland_Spanish_expeditions_(1519–1532)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inland_Spanish_expeditions_(1519–1532)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Inland Spanish expeditions (1519–1532)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Inland_Spanish_expeditions_(1519–1532)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Inland Spanish expeditions (1519–1532) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Inland_Spanish_expeditions_(1519–1532)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cortés'_Mexico_and_the_Aztec_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cortés'_Mexico_and_the_Aztec_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Cortés' Mexico and the Aztec Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cortés'_Mexico_and_the_Aztec_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pizarro's_Peru_and_the_Inca_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pizarro's_Peru_and_the_Inca_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Pizarro's Peru and the Inca Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pizarro's_Peru_and_the_Inca_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_new_trade_routes_(1542–1565)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_new_trade_routes_(1542–1565)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Major new trade routes (1542–1565)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_new_trade_routes_(1542–1565)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_European_involvement_(1595–17th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_European_involvement_(1595–17th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Northern European involvement (1595–17th century)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Northern_European_involvement_(1595–17th_century)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Northern European involvement (1595–17th century) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Northern_European_involvement_(1595–17th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Exploring_North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exploring_North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Exploring North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploring_North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Search_for_a_northern_route" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Search_for_a_northern_route"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Search for a northern route</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Search_for_a_northern_route-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Barentsz'_Arctic_exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barentsz'_Arctic_exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.1</span> <span>Barentsz' Arctic exploration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barentsz'_Arctic_exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dutch_Australia_and_New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dutch_Australia_and_New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Dutch Australia and New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dutch_Australia_and_New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_exploration_of_Siberia_(1581–1660)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_exploration_of_Siberia_(1581–1660)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Russian exploration of Siberia (1581–1660)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Russian_exploration_of_Siberia_(1581–1660)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Russian exploration of Siberia (1581–1660) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Russian_exploration_of_Siberia_(1581–1660)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Khanate_of_Sibir" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_the_Khanate_of_Sibir"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Conquest of the Khanate of Sibir</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Khanate_of_Sibir-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siberian_river_routes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siberian_river_routes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Siberian river routes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siberian_river_routes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russians_reach_the_Pacific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russians_reach_the_Pacific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Russians reach the Pacific</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russians_reach_the_Pacific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Global impact</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Global_impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Global impact subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Global_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_impact_in_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_impact_in_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Economic impact in Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_impact_in_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1.2</span> <span>Secondary works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1.3</span> <span>Web sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Age of Discovery</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 87 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-87" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">87 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%81" title="عصر الاستكشاف – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عصر الاستكشاف" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_de_los_descubrimientos" title="Era de los descubrimientos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Era de los descubrimientos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C4%9Frafi_k%C9%99%C5%9Ffl%C9%99r" title="Coğrafi kəşflər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Coğrafi kəşflər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B1" title="جوغرافی کشفلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جوغرافی کشفلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97" title="আবিষ্কারের যুগ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আবিষ্কারের যুগ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoat-ki%C3%A0n_S%C3%AE-t%C4%81i" title="Hoat-kiàn Sî-tāi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoat-kiàn Sî-tāi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%86%D1%96" title="Вялікія геаграфічныя адкрыцці – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вялікія геаграфічныя адкрыцці" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panahon_kan_Pagdiskobre" title="Panahon kan Pagdiskobre – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Panahon kan Pagdiskobre" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Велики географски открития – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Велики географски открития" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velika_geografska_otkri%C4%87a" title="Velika geografska otkrića – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Velika geografska otkrića" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_de_l%27exploraci%C3%B3" title="Era de l'exploració – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Era de l'exploració" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BB%D3%91_%D1%82%D3%97%D0%BF%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Географири аслӑ тӗпчевсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Географири аслӑ тӗпчевсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%9Bk_z%C3%A1mo%C5%99sk%C3%BDch_objev%C5%AF" title="Věk zámořských objevů – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Věk zámořských objevů" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oes_y_Darganfod" title="Oes y Darganfod – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Oes y Darganfod" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opdagelsestiden" title="Opdagelsestiden – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Opdagelsestiden" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitalter_der_Entdeckungen" title="Zeitalter der Entdeckungen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zeitalter der Entdeckungen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suured_maadeavastused" title="Suured maadeavastused – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Suured maadeavastused" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%AE_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BB%CF%8D%CF%88%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%BD" title="Εποχή των Ανακαλύψεων – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εποχή των Ανακαλύψεων" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_de_los_Descubrimientos" title="Era de los Descubrimientos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Era de los Descubrimientos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoko_de_Malkovroj" title="Epoko de Malkovroj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Epoko de Malkovroj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esplorazioen_Aroa" title="Esplorazioen Aroa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Esplorazioen Aroa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%81" title="عصر اکتشاف – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عصر اکتشاف" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandes_d%C3%A9couvertes" title="Grandes découvertes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grandes découvertes" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9_na_Fionnachtana" title="Ré na Fionnachtana – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ré na Fionnachtana" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_dos_descubrimentos" title="Era dos descubrimentos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Era dos descubrimentos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%ED%95%AD%ED%95%B4%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="대항해시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대항해시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Age of Discovery" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%AE_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%AE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Աշխարհագրական մեծ հայտնագործություններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աշխարհագրական մեծ հայտնագործություններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="खोज का युग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खोज का युग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velika_geografska_otkri%C4%87a" title="Velika geografska otkrića – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Velika geografska otkrića" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abad_Penjelajahan" title="Abad Penjelajahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Abad Penjelajahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landafundat%C3%ADmabili%C3%B0" title="Landafundatímabilið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Landafundatímabilið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_delle_scoperte" title="Età delle scoperte – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Età delle scoperte" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%93%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="עידן התגליות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עידן התגליות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98_%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%90%E1%83%A6%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A9%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="დიდი გეოგრაფიული აღმოჩენები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დიდი გეოგრაფიული აღმოჩენები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B0%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Ұлы географиялық ашылулар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ұлы географиялық ашылулар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwo_dekouv%C3%A8t" title="Gwo dekouvèt – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Gwo dekouvèt" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grann_d%C3%A9kouv%C3%A8rt" title="Grann dékouvèrt – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Grann dékouvèrt" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Географиялык ачылыштар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Географиялык ачылыштар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A9_dles_descurides" title="Eté dles descurides – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Eté dles descurides" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aevum_Explorationis" title="Aevum Explorationis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aevum Explorationis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lielie_%C4%A3eogr%C4%81fiskie_atkl%C4%81jumi" title="Lielie ģeogrāfiskie atklājumi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Lielie ģeogrāfiskie atklājumi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didieji_geografiniai_atradimai" title="Didieji geografiniai atradimai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Didieji geografiniai atradimai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_f%C3%B6ldrajzi_felfedez%C3%A9sek_kora" title="A földrajzi felfedezések kora – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="A földrajzi felfedezések kora" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Големите географски откритија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Големите географски откритија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%82" title="കണ്ടുപിടുത്തങ്ങളുടെ യുഗം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കണ്ടുപിടുത്തങ്ങളുടെ യുഗം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%97" title="शोध युग – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शोध युग" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_Penjelajahan" title="Zaman Penjelajahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zaman Penjelajahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Газар зүйн их нээлт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Газар зүйн их нээлт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%99%E1%80%B9%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B7%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%B1%E1%80%86%E1%80%94%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="ကမ္ဘာ့ခြေဆန့်ခေတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကမ္ဘာ့ခြေဆန့်ခေတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tijdperk_van_de_grote_ontdekkingen" title="Tijdperk van de grote ontdekkingen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tijdperk van de grote ontdekkingen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%88%AA%E6%B5%B7%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="大航海時代 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="大航海時代" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%8C-%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BA%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Сийлахь-Даккхий географин белламаш – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Сийлахь-Даккхий географин белламаш" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppdagelsestiden" title="Oppdagelsestiden – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oppdagelsestiden" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppdagingstida" title="Oppdagingstida – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Oppdagingstida" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandas_descob%C3%A8rtas" title="Grandas descobèrtas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Grandas descobèrtas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buyuk_geografik_kashfiyotlar" title="Buyuk geografik kashfiyotlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Buyuk geografik kashfiyotlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%A4_%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%97" title="ਲੱਭਤ ਯੁੱਗ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਲੱਭਤ ਯੁੱਗ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%BA_%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1" title="دریافتاں دا دور – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="دریافتاں دا دور" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%81_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87" title="د اکتشاف دوره – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د اکتشاف دوره" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iej_a_Diskovri" title="Iej a Diskovri – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Iej a Diskovri" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%C3%A9s_d%C3%A9couvertes" title="Grandés découvertes – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Grandés découvertes" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wielkie_odkrycia_geograficzne" title="Wielkie odkrycia geograficzne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wielkie odkrycia geograficzne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_dos_Descobrimentos" title="Era dos Descobrimentos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Era dos Descobrimentos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perioada_marilor_descoperiri" title="Perioada marilor descoperiri – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Perioada marilor descoperiri" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Великие географические открытия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Великие географические открытия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoka_e_zbulimeve" title="Epoka e zbulimeve – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Epoka e zbulimeve" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Age of Discovery" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1morsk%C3%A9_objavy" title="Zámorské objavy – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zámorské objavy" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velika_geografska_odkritja" title="Velika geografska odkritja – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Velika geografska odkritja" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%9B%D0%B0" title="Велика географска открића – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Велика географска открића" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doba_velikih_geografskih_otkri%C4%87a" title="Doba velikih geografskih otkrića – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Doba velikih geografskih otkrića" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6yt%C3%B6retket" title="Löytöretket – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Löytöretket" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppt%C3%A4cktsresornas_epok" title="Upptäcktsresornas epok – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Upptäcktsresornas epok" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panahon_ng_Pagtuklas" title="Panahon ng Pagtuklas – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Panahon ng Pagtuklas" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="கண்டுபிடிப்புக் காலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கண்டுபிடிப்புக் காலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%88" title="ยุคแห่งการสำรวจ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุคแห่งการสำรวจ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%88%D0%B8%D1%91%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8_%D2%B7%D1%83%D2%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%91%D3%A3" title="Кафшиёти бузурги ҷуғрофиёӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Кафшиёти бузурги ҷуғрофиёӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co%C4%9Frafi_ke%C5%9Fifler" title="Coğrafi keşifler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Coğrafi keşifler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Be%C3%BDik_geografik_a%C3%A7y%C5%9Flar" title="Beýik geografik açyşlar – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Beýik geografik açyşlar" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period of European global exploration from the 15th century to the 17th century</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Age of Exploration" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Age of Exploration (disambiguation)">Age of Exploration (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Age of Discovery (disambiguation)">Age of Discovery (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Very_long plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-very_long" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This <b>may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_size" title="Wikipedia:Article size">too long</a> to read and navigate comfortably</b>. When this tag was added, its <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:SIZERULE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:SIZERULE">readable prose size</a> was 17,000 words.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Consider <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">splitting</a> content into sub-articles, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">condensing</a> it, or adding <a href="/wiki/Help:Section#Subsections" title="Help:Section">subheadings</a>. Please discuss this issue on the article's <a href="/wiki/Talk:Age_of_Discovery" title="Talk:Age of Discovery">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:20.0em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.4em;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum,_by_Abraham_Ortelius,_World,_1572.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/175px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/263px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/350px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12136" data-file-height="8263" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History of geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography#Greco-Roman_world" title="History of geography">Graeco-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cartography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese cartography">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">History of cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">Quantitative revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical geography</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedology_(soil_study)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedology (soil study)">Pedology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Theoretical Approaches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_geography" title="Marxist geography">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographers" title="List of geographers">Geographers</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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href="/wiki/File:Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum,_by_Abraham_Ortelius,_World,_1572.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/220px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/330px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/440px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12136" data-file-height="8263" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography#Greco-Roman_world" title="History of geography">Graeco-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_China" title="Cartography of China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">History of cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">Quantitative revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical geography</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_geography_sidebar" title="Template:History of geography sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_geography_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of geography sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_geography_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of geography sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kolumbus-Santa-Maria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Kolumbus-Santa-Maria.jpg/220px-Kolumbus-Santa-Maria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Kolumbus-Santa-Maria.jpg/330px-Kolumbus-Santa-Maria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Kolumbus-Santa-Maria.jpg/440px-Kolumbus-Santa-Maria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7003" data-file-height="5691" /></a><figcaption>A replica of the Spanish <a href="/wiki/Carrack" title="Carrack">carrack</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_(ship)" title="Santa María (ship)">Santa Maria</a></i> which was used by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus#First_voyage" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">first expedition</a> across the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> in 1492, arriving to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melaka_Malaysia_Flor-de-la-mar-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Melaka_Malaysia_Flor-de-la-mar-01.jpg/220px-Melaka_Malaysia_Flor-de-la-mar-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Melaka_Malaysia_Flor-de-la-mar-01.jpg/330px-Melaka_Malaysia_Flor-de-la-mar-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Melaka_Malaysia_Flor-de-la-mar-01.jpg/440px-Melaka_Malaysia_Flor-de-la-mar-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3405" data-file-height="2475" /></a><figcaption>A replica of the Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Carrack" title="Carrack">carrack</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Flor_de_la_Mar" title="Flor de la Mar">Flor de la Mar</a></i>. participated in decisive events for <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> until her sinking in November 1511</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plymouth_Mayflower_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Plymouth_Mayflower_II.jpg/220px-Plymouth_Mayflower_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Plymouth_Mayflower_II.jpg/330px-Plymouth_Mayflower_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Plymouth_Mayflower_II.jpg/440px-Plymouth_Mayflower_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="595" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mayflower_II" title="Mayflower II">Mayflower <i>II</i></a>, a replica of the 17th century English <a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">sailing ship</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Mayflower" title="Mayflower">Mayflower</a></i> which transported a group of <a href="/wiki/Pilgrims_(Plymouth_Colony)" title="Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)">Pilgrim families</a> from <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> to the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> in 1620</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Age of Discovery</b> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1418</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1620</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as the <b>Age of Exploration</b>, was part of the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> and largely overlapped with the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Sail" title="Age of Sail">Age of Sail</a>. It was a period from approximately the late 15th century to the 17th century, during which <a href="/wiki/Seamanship" title="Seamanship">seafarers</a> from a number of European countries explored, colonized, and conquered regions across the globe. The Age of Discovery was a transformative period in world history when previously isolated parts of the world became connected to form the <a href="/wiki/World-system" title="World-system">world-system</a> and laid the groundwork for <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>. The extensive overseas exploration, particularly the opening of maritime routes to the <a href="/wiki/Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Indies">Indies</a> and the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a>, later joined by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch empire">Dutch</a>, spurred in the <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">International global trade</a>. The interconnected global economy of the 21st century has its origins in the expansion of trade networks during this era. </p><p>The exploration also created <a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">colonial empires</a> and marked an increased adoption of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> as a government policy in several European states. As such, it is sometimes synonymous with the <a href="/wiki/First_wave_of_European_colonization" title="First wave of European colonization">first wave of European colonization</a>. The colonization reshaped power dynamics causing geopolitical shifts in Europe and creating new centers of power beyond Europe. Having set human history on the global common course, the legacy of the Age still shapes the world today. </p><p>European oceanic exploration started with the maritime expeditions of Portugal to the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> in 1336,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later with the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese discoveries">Portuguese discoveries</a> of the Atlantic archipelagos of <a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a>, the coast of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a> in 1434, and the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_discovery_of_the_sea_route_to_India" title="Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India">establishment of the sea route to India</a> in 1498 by <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>, which initiated the Portuguese maritime and trade presence in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tapan_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tapan-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Age of Discovery, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> sponsored and financed the <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">transatlantic voyages of the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus</a>, which from 1492 to 1504 marked the start of colonization in the Americas, and the <a href="/wiki/Magellan_expedition" title="Magellan expedition">expedition of the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan</a> to open a route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, which later achieved the first <a href="/wiki/Circumnavigation" title="Circumnavigation">circumnavigation</a> of the globe between 1519 and 1522. These Spanish expeditions significantly impacted the European perceptions of the world. These discoveries led to numerous naval expeditions across the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a>, Indian, and <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Oceans</a>, and land expeditions in the Americas, <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> that continued into the late 19th century, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Polar_exploration" title="Polar exploration">exploration of the polar regions</a> in the 20th century. </p><p>European exploration initiated the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> (Europe, Asia, and Africa) and the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> (the Americas and Australia). This exchange involved the transfer of plants, animals, human populations (including <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slaves</a>), <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">communicable diseases</a>, and culture across the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Hemisphere" title="Eastern Hemisphere">Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemispheres</a>. The Age of Discovery and <a href="/wiki/Major_explorations_after_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Major explorations after the Age of Discovery">European exploration</a> involved <a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">mapping of the world</a>, shaping a new worldview and facilitating contact with distant civilizations. The continents drawn by European mapmakers of the Age developed from abstract "blobs" into the outlines more recognizable to us today.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simultaneously, the spread of new diseases, especially <a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">affecting American Indians</a>, led to <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">rapid population declines</a>. The era saw widespread <a href="/wiki/Enslavement" class="mw-redirect" title="Enslavement">enslavement</a>, exploitation and military conquest of <a href="/wiki/Native_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="Native populations">native populations</a>, concurrent with the growing economic influence and spread of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">western and European culture</a>, science and technology leading to a <a href="/wiki/Estimates_of_historical_world_population" title="Estimates of historical world population">faster-than-exponential population growth</a> world-wide. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concept">Concept</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(observation)" title="Discovery (observation)">Discovery (observation)</a></div> <p>The concept of discovery has been scrutinized, critically highlighting the history of the core term of this <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">periodization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Washburn_1962_p=1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Washburn_1962_p=1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "age of discovery" is in historical literature and still commonly used. <a href="/wiki/J._H._Parry" title="J. H. Parry">J. H. Parry</a>, calling the period the <i>Age of Reconnaissance</i>, argues that not only was the era one of European explorations, but it also produced the expansion of geographical knowledge and <a href="/wiki/Empirical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical science">empirical science</a>. "It saw also the first major victories of empirical inquiry over authority, the beginnings of that close association of science, technology, and everyday work which is an essential characteristic of the modern western world."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Pagden" title="Anthony Pagden">Anthony Pagden</a> draws on the work of <a href="/wiki/Edmundo_O%27Gorman" title="Edmundo O'Gorman">Edmundo O'Gorman</a> for the statement that "For all Europeans, the events of October 1492 constituted a 'discovery'. Something of which they had no prior knowledge had suddenly presented itself to their gaze."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPagden19935_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPagden19935-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> O'Gorman argues that the physical encounter with new territories was less important than the Europeans' effort to integrate this new knowledge into their worldview, what he calls "the invention of America".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pagden examines the origins of the terms "discovery" and "invention". In English, "discovery" and its forms in romance languages derive from "<i>disco-operio</i>, meaning to uncover, to reveal, to expose to the gaze", what was revealed existed previously.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPagden19935–6_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPagden19935–6-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few Europeans during the period used the term "invention" for the European encounters, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Martin_Waldseem%C3%BCller" title="Martin Waldseemüller">Martin Waldseemüller</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Waldseem%C3%BCller_map" title="Waldseemüller map">map</a> first used the term "<a href="/wiki/Naming_of_the_Americas" title="Naming of the Americas">America</a>". <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPagden19936_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPagden19936-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A central legal concept of the <a href="/wiki/Discovery_doctrine" title="Discovery doctrine">discovery doctrine</a>, expounded by the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> in 1823, draws on assertions of European powers' right to claim land during their explorations. The concept of "discovery" has been used to enforce colonial claiming and discovery, but has been challenged by <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a><sup id="cite_ref-Assembly_of_First_Nations_2018_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Assembly_of_First_Nations_2018-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and researchers.<sup id="cite_ref-frichner_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frichner-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many indigenous peoples have fundamentally challenged the concept of colonial claiming of "discovery" over their lands and people, as forced and negating indigenous presence. </p><p>The period alternatively called the <i>Age of Exploration</i>, has been scrutinized through reflections on the <a href="/wiki/Exploration" title="Exploration">exploration</a>. Its understanding and use, has been discussed as being framed and used for colonial ventures, discrimination and <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Exploitation colonialism">exploitation</a>, by combining it with concepts such as the "<a href="/wiki/Frontier" title="Frontier">frontier</a>" (as in <a href="/wiki/Frontier_Thesis" title="Frontier Thesis">Frontier Thesis</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">manifest destiny</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Roy_Conversation_2018_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roy_Conversation_2018-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> up to the contemporary age of <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Renstrom_2021_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renstrom_2021-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, the term <i>contact</i>, as in <a href="/wiki/First_contact_(anthropology)" title="First contact (anthropology)">first contact</a>, has been used to shed more light on the age of discovery and colonialism, using the alternative names of <i>Age of Contact</i><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i>Contact Period</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Nassaney_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nassaney-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discussing it as an "unfinished, diverse project".<sup id="cite_ref-Silliman_2005_pp._55–74_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silliman_2005_pp._55–74-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_1999_p._23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson_1999_p.-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Portuguese began systematically exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa in 1418, under the sponsorship of <a href="/wiki/Prince_Henry_the_Navigator" title="Prince Henry the Navigator">Prince Henry the Navigator</a>. In 1488, <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias" title="Bartolomeu Dias">Bartolomeu Dias</a> reached the Indian Ocean by this route.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1492, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain" title="Catholic Monarchs of Spain">Catholic Monarchs of Spain</a> funded <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoese</a> mariner <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: <i lang="it">Cristoforo Colombo</i>) plan to sail west to reach the <a href="/wiki/Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Indies">Indies</a>, by crossing the Atlantic. Columbus encountered a continent uncharted by Europeans (though it had been explored and <a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">temporarily colonized by the Norse</a> 500 years earlier).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, it was called America after <a href="/wiki/Amerigo_Vespucci" title="Amerigo Vespucci">Amerigo Vespucci</a>, a trader working for <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Portugal quickly claimed those lands under the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas" title="Treaty of Alcáçovas">Treaty of Alcáçovas</a>, but Castile was able to persuade the Pope, who was Castilian, to issue <a href="/wiki/Bulls_of_Donation" title="Bulls of Donation">four papal bulls</a> to divide the world into two regions of exploration, where each kingdom had exclusive rights to claim newly discovered lands. These were modified by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a>, ratified by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Julius_II" title="Pope Julius II">Pope Julius II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.svg/220px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.svg/330px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.svg/440px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2589" data-file-height="1318" /></a><figcaption>Map with the main travels of the Age of Discovery</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed"> <caption>Major discoveries </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Major discovery/<br />Destination</th> <th>Main explorer</th> <th>Year</th> <th>Funding by </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Diogo_C%C3%A3o" title="Diogo Cão">Diogo Cão</a></td> <td>1482</td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal" title="John II of Portugal">John II of Portugal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias" title="Bartolomeu Dias">Dias</a></td> <td>1488</td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal" title="John II of Portugal">John II of Portugal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Columbus</a></td> <td>1492</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_and_Isabella" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand and Isabella">Ferdinand and Isabella</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a></td> <td>1498</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal" title="Manuel I of Portugal">Manuel I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pedro_%C3%81lvares_Cabral" title="Pedro Álvares Cabral">Cabral</a></td> <td>1500</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal" title="Manuel I of Portugal">Manuel I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Spice Islands</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Western_Pacific_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Pacific Ocean">Western Pacific Ocean</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Afonso_de_Albuquerque" title="Afonso de Albuquerque">Albuquerque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Abreu" title="António de Abreu">Abreu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Serr%C3%A3o" title="Francisco Serrão">Serrão</a></td> <td>1512</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal" title="Manuel I of Portugal">Manuel I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vasco_Balboa" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasco Balboa">Vasco Balboa</a></td> <td>1513</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand II of Aragon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan" title="Strait of Magellan">Strait of Magellan</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Magellan</a></td> <td>1520</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles I of Spain">Charles I of Spain</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Magellan</a></td> <td>1521</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles I of Spain">Charles I of Spain</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Circumnavigation" title="Circumnavigation">Circumnavigation</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Magellan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Elcano</a></td> <td>1522</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles I of Spain">Charles I of Spain</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Willem_Janszoon" title="Willem Janszoon">Willem Janszoon</a></td> <td>1606</td> <td><a href="/wiki/United_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="United East India Company">United East<br /> India Company</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Abel_Tasman" title="Abel Tasman">Abel Tasman</a></td> <td>1642</td> <td><a href="/wiki/United_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="United East India Company">United East<br /> India Company</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Islands Near <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a></td> <td>1773</td> <td><a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a></td> <td>1778</td> <td><a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">George III</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In 1498, a Portuguese expedition commanded by <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> reached India by sailing around Africa, opening up direct trade with Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While other exploratory fleets were sent from Portugal to northern North America, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India_Armadas" title="Portuguese India Armadas">Portuguese India Armadas</a> also extended this Eastern oceanic route, touching South America and opening a circuit from the New World to Asia (starting in 1500 by <a href="/wiki/Pedro_%C3%81lvares_Cabral" title="Pedro Álvares Cabral">Pedro Álvares Cabral</a>), and explored islands in the South Atlantic and Southern Indian Oceans. The Portuguese sailed further eastward, to the valuable <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Spice Islands</a> in 1512, landing in China one year later. <a href="/wiki/Nanban_trade" title="Nanban trade">Japan was reached</a> by the Portuguese in 1543. In 1513, Spanish <a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a> crossed the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">Isthmus of Panama</a> and reached the "other sea" from the New World. Thus, Europe first received news of the eastern and western Pacific within a one-year span around 1512. East and west exploration overlapped in 1522, when a Spanish expedition sailing westward, led by Portuguese navigator <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a> and, after his death by navigator <a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a>, completed the first circumnavigation of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spanish <i><a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">conquistadors</a></i> explored the interior of the Americas, and some of the South Pacific islands. Their main objective was to disrupt Portuguese trade in the East. </p><p>From 1495, the French, English, and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch</a> entered the race of exploration, after learning of Columbus' exploits, defying the <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberian</a> monopoly on maritime trade by searching for new routes. The first expedition was <a href="/wiki/John_Cabot" title="John Cabot">John Cabot</a> in 1497 to the north, in the service of England, followed by French expeditions to South America and later to North America. Later expeditions went to the Pacific Ocean around South America, and eventually by following the Portuguese around Africa, into the Indian Ocean; discovering Australia in 1606, New Zealand in 1642, and Hawaii in 1778. From the 1580s to the 1640s, Russians explored and conquered almost the whole of <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">Siberia</a> and Alaska in the 1730s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_world_maps" title="Early world maps">Early world maps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_European_exploration_of_Asia" title="Chronology of European exploration of Asia">Chronology of European exploration of Asia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_European_trade">Rise of European trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rise of European trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> largely severed the connection between Europe, and lands further east, Christian Europe was largely a backwater compared to the Arab world, which conquered and incorporated large territories in the Middle East and North Africa. The Christian <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> to retake the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a>, from the Muslims, were not a military success, but did bring Europe into contact with the Middle East and the valuable goods manufactured or traded there. From the 12th century, the European economy was transformed by the interconnecting of river and sea trade routes.<sup id="cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paine_2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 345">: 345 </span></sup> </p><p>Before the 12th century, an obstacle to trade east of the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar" title="Strait of Gibraltar">Strait of Gibraltar</a>, which divided the Mediterranean from the Atlantic Ocean, was Muslim control of territory, including the Iberian Peninsula and the trade monopolies of Christian city-states on the Italian Peninsula, especially <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a>. Economic growth of Iberia followed the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Christian reconquest</a> of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> in what is now southern Spain and the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lisbon" title="Siege of Lisbon">siege of Lisbon</a> (1147 AD), in Portugal. The decline of <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> naval strength, which started before the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a>, helped the maritime Italian states, mainly Venice, Genoa and Pisa, dominate trade in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a>, with merchants there becoming wealthy and politically influential. Further changing the mercantile situation in the east Mediterranean, was the waning of Christian <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> naval power following the death of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos" title="Manuel I Komnenos">Manuel I Komnenos</a> in 1180, whose dynasty had made notable treaties and concessions with Italian traders, permitting the use of Byzantine Christian ports. The <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> of England, in the late 11th century, allowed for peaceful trade on the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a>, a confederation of merchant guilds and their towns in north Germany, along the North Sea and Baltic Sea, was instrumental in the commercial development of the region. In the 12th century, the regions of <a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">Flanders</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Hainaut" title="County of Hainaut">Hainault</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Brabant</a> produced the finest quality textiles in northwest Europe, which encouraged merchants from Genoa and Venice to sail there from the Mediterranean, through the Strait of Gibraltar, and up the Atlantic coast.<sup id="cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paine_2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 316–38">: 316–38 </span></sup> Nicolòzzo Spinola made the first recorded direct voyage from Genoa to Flanders in 1277.<sup id="cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paine_2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 328">: 328 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology:_Ship_design_and_the_compass">Technology: Ship design and the compass</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Technology: Ship design and the compass"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Technological advancements that were important to the Age of Exploration were the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_compass" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic compass">magnetic compass</a> and advances in ship design. </p><p>The compass was an addition to the ancient method of navigation based on sightings of the sun and stars. It was invented during the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> and had been used for navigation in China by the 11th century. It was adopted by Arab traders in the Indian Ocean. The compass spread to Europe by the late 12th or early 13th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Merson_1990_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merson_1990-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Use of the compass for navigation in the Indian Ocean was first mentioned in 1232.<sup id="cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paine_2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 351–2">: 351–2 </span></sup> The first mention of use of the compass in Europe was in 1180.<sup id="cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paine_2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 382">: 382 </span></sup> The Europeans used a "dry" compass, with a needle on a pivot. The compass card was also a European invention.<sup id="cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paine_2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ships grew in size, required smaller crews and were able to sail longer distances without stopping. This led to significant lower long-distance shipping costs by the 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paine_2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 342">: 342 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cog_(ship)" title="Cog (ship)">Cogs</a> remained popular for trade because of their low cost. <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galleys</a> were also used in trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paine_2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_geographical_knowledge_and_maps">Early geographical knowledge and maps</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Early geographical knowledge and maps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adler_von_L%C3%BCbeck._Model_ship_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Adler_von_L%C3%BCbeck._Model_ship_05.jpg/150px-Adler_von_L%C3%BCbeck._Model_ship_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Adler_von_L%C3%BCbeck._Model_ship_05.jpg/225px-Adler_von_L%C3%BCbeck._Model_ship_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Adler_von_L%C3%BCbeck._Model_ship_05.jpg/300px-Adler_von_L%C3%BCbeck._Model_ship_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1947" data-file-height="2108" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pintle" title="Pintle">Pintle</a>-and-<a href="/wiki/Gudgeon" title="Gudgeon">gudgeon</a> stern-post rudder of the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_league" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanseatic league">Hanseatic league</a> flagship <i><a href="/wiki/Adler_von_L%C3%BCbeck" title="Adler von Lübeck">Adler von Lübeck</a></i> (1567–1581).</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i>, a document from 40-60 AD, describes a newly discovered route through the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> to India, with descriptions of the markets in towns around Red Sea, <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> and the Indian Ocean, including along the east coast of Africa, which states "for beyond these places the unexplored ocean curves around toward the west, and running along by the regions to the south of Aethiopia and Libya and Africa, it mingles with the western sea (possible reference to the Atlantic Ocean)". European medieval knowledge about Asia beyond the reach of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> was sourced in partial reports, often obscured by legends,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dating back from the conquests of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> and successors. Another source was the <a href="/wiki/Radhanite" title="Radhanite">Radhanite Jewish trade networks</a> of merchants established as go-betweens between Europe and the Muslim world during the time of the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemy_Cosmographia_1467_-_world_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Ptolemy_Cosmographia_1467_-_world_map.jpg/260px-Ptolemy_Cosmographia_1467_-_world_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Ptolemy_Cosmographia_1467_-_world_map.jpg/390px-Ptolemy_Cosmographia_1467_-_world_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Ptolemy_Cosmographia_1467_-_world_map.jpg/520px-Ptolemy_Cosmographia_1467_-_world_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1542" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_world_map" title="Ptolemy's world map">Ptolemy's world map</a> (2nd century) in a 15th-century reconstruction by <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Germanus" title="Nicolaus Germanus">Nicolaus Germanus</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1154, the <a href="/wiki/Geography_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography in medieval Islam">Arab geographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a> created a description of the world and a <a href="/wiki/World_map" title="World map">world map</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a>, at the court of King <a href="/wiki/Roger_II_of_Sicily" title="Roger II of Sicily">Roger II of Sicily</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-houben_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-houben-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-harley_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harley-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but still Africa was only partially known to either Christians, Genoese and Venetians, or the Arab seamen, and its southern extent was unknown. There were reports of great African <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>, but the knowledge was limited for the Europeans, to the Mediterranean coast and little else, since the Arab blockade of North Africa precluded exploration inland. Knowledge about the Atlantic African coast was fragmented and derived mainly from <a href="/wiki/Early_world_maps" title="Early world maps">old</a> Greek and Roman maps based on Carthaginian knowledge, including <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> exploration of <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>. The Red Sea was barely known and only trade links with the <a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a>, Venice especially, fostered the collection of accurate maritime knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indian Ocean trade routes were sailed by Arab traders. </p><p>By 1400, a Latin translation of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Geographia" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographia">Geographia</a></i> reached Italy from Constantinople. The rediscovery of Roman geographical knowledge was a revelation,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> both for map-making and worldview,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although reinforcing the idea that the Indian Ocean was landlocked. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_European_travel_(1241–1438)"><span id="Medieval_European_travel_.281241.E2.80.931438.29"></span>Medieval European travel (1241–1438)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Medieval European travel (1241–1438)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silk_route.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/290px-Silk_route.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/435px-Silk_route.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/580px-Silk_route.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2868" data-file-height="1866" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a> routes which the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> later expanded its use of in 1453 and onwards, spurring European exploration to find alternative sea routes</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Travels_of_Marco_Polo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Travels_of_Marco_Polo.png/310px-Travels_of_Marco_Polo.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Travels_of_Marco_Polo.png/465px-Travels_of_Marco_Polo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Travels_of_Marco_Polo.png/620px-Travels_of_Marco_Polo.png 2x" data-file-width="3654" data-file-height="3312" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>'s travels (1271–1295)</figcaption></figure> <p>A prelude to the Age of Discovery was a series of European expeditions crossing <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> by land in the late Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> had threatened Europe, but Mongol states also unified much of Eurasia and, from 1206 on, the <i><a href="/wiki/Pax_Mongolica" title="Pax Mongolica">Pax Mongolica</a></i> allowed safe trade routes and communication lines from the Middle East to China.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The close <a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian</a> links to the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> raised curiosity and commercial interest in countries which lay further east.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2017)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There are a few accounts of merchants from North Africa and the Mediterranean, who traded in the Indian Ocean in late medieval times.<sup id="cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paine_2013-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Christian embassies were sent as far as <a href="/wiki/Karakorum" title="Karakorum">Karakorum</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Mongol invasions of the Levant</a>, from which they gained a greater understanding of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of these travellers was <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_da_Pian_del_Carpine" title="Giovanni da Pian del Carpine">Giovanni da Pian del Carpine</a>, dispatched by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_IV" title="Pope Innocent IV">Pope Innocent IV</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Khan">Great Khan</a>, who journeyed to <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> and back from 1241 to 1247.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russian prince <a href="/wiki/Yaroslav_of_Vladimir" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaroslav of Vladimir">Yaroslav of Vladimir</a>, and his sons <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nevsky" title="Alexander Nevsky">Alexander Nevsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrey_II_of_Vladimir" title="Andrey II of Vladimir">Andrey II of Vladimir</a>, travelled to the Mongolian capital. Though having strong political implications, their journeys left no detailed accounts. Other travellers followed, like French <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_de_Longjumeau" title="André de Longjumeau">André de Longjumeau</a> and Flemish <a href="/wiki/William_of_Rubruck" title="William of Rubruck">William of Rubruck</a>, who reached China through Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>, a Venetian merchant, dictated an account of journeys throughout Asia from 1271 to 1295, describing being a guest at the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> court of <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo" title="The Travels of Marco Polo">Travels</a></i>. It was read throughout Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Muslim fleet guarding the Strait of Gibraltar was defeated by Genoa in 1291.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that year, the Genoese attempted their first Atlantic exploration when merchant brothers <a href="/wiki/Vadino_and_Ugolino_Vivaldi" class="mw-redirect" title="Vadino and Ugolino Vivaldi">Vadino and Ugolino Vivaldi</a> sailed from Genoa with two galleys, but disappeared off the Moroccan coast, feeding fears of oceanic travel.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1325 to 1354, a <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Moroccan</a> scholar from <a href="/wiki/Tangier" title="Tangier">Tangier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a>, journeyed through North Africa, the Sahara desert, West Africa, Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Horn of Africa, the Middle East and Asia, having reached China. After returning, he dictated an account to a scholar he met in Granada, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rihla" title="The Rihla">The Rihla</a></i> ("The Journey"),<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the unheralded source on his adventures.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1357 and 1371 a book of supposed travels compiled by <a href="/wiki/John_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="John Mandeville">John Mandeville</a> acquired popularity. Despite the unreliable and often fantastical nature of its accounts, it was used as a reference<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for the East, Egypt, and the Levant in general, asserting the old belief that Jerusalem was the <a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">centre of the world</a>. Following the period of <a href="/wiki/Timurid_relations_with_Europe" title="Timurid relations with Europe">Timurid relations with Europe</a>, in 1439, <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_de%27_Conti" title="Niccolò de' Conti">Niccolò de' Conti</a> published an account of his travels as a Muslim merchant to India and Southeast Asia. In 1466–1472, Russian merchant <a href="/wiki/Afanasy_Nikitin" title="Afanasy Nikitin">Afanasy Nikitin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tver" title="Tver">Tver</a> travelled to India, which he described in his book <i><a href="/wiki/A_Journey_Beyond_the_Three_Seas" title="A Journey Beyond the Three Seas">A Journey Beyond the Three Seas</a></i>. </p><p>These overland journeys had little immediate effect. The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> collapsed almost as quickly as it formed and soon the route to the east became more difficult and dangerous. The <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> of the 14th century also blocked travel and trade for a time.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Religion played a critical role in motivating European <a href="/wiki/Expansionism" title="Expansionism">expansionism</a>. In 1487, Portuguese envoys <a href="/wiki/Pero_da_Covilh%C3%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="Pero da Covilhã">Pero da Covilhã</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afonso_de_Paiva" title="Afonso de Paiva">Afonso de Paiva</a> were sent on a <a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">covert mission</a> to gather intelligence on a potential sea route to <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</a> and inquire about <a href="/wiki/Prester_John" title="Prester John">Prester John</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorian</a> patriarch and king, believed to rule over parts of the subcontinent. Covilhã was warmly received upon his arrival in Ethiopia, but forbidden from leaving.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_First_Thanksgiving,_1621.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/The_First_Thanksgiving%2C_1621.jpg/300px-The_First_Thanksgiving%2C_1621.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/The_First_Thanksgiving%2C_1621.jpg/450px-The_First_Thanksgiving%2C_1621.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/The_First_Thanksgiving%2C_1621.jpg/600px-The_First_Thanksgiving%2C_1621.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1199" data-file-height="765" /></a><figcaption>An idealized depiction of the Pilgrims and the American Indians who gather to share a <a href="/wiki/Thanksgiving_(United_States)" title="Thanksgiving (United States)">Thanksgiving</a> meal.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the Middle Ages, the spread of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> throughout Europe fueled the desire to sermonise in lands beyond. This evangelical effort became a significant part of the military conquests of European powers, like <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">France</a>, often leading to the conversion of indigenous peoples, voluntarily or forced.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Religious orders such as the <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominicans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a> partook in most missionary endeavours in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>. By the late 16th and 17th centuries, the latter's presence increased as they sought to reassert their power and revive the Catholic culture of Europe, which had been damaged by the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_missions_(1405–1433)"><span id="Chinese_missions_.281405.E2.80.931433.29"></span>Chinese missions (1405–1433)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Chinese missions (1405–1433)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ming_treasure_voyages" title="Ming treasure voyages">Ming treasure voyages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_exploration" title="Chinese exploration">Chinese exploration</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stellardiagram-Zhengho.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Stellardiagram-Zhengho.jpg/180px-Stellardiagram-Zhengho.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Stellardiagram-Zhengho.jpg/270px-Stellardiagram-Zhengho.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Stellardiagram-Zhengho.jpg/360px-Stellardiagram-Zhengho.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1385" data-file-height="1820" /></a><figcaption>"Mao Kun map", believed to be based on <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a>'s travels, showing sailing directions between ports of SE Asia and as far as Malindi, in <i><a href="/wiki/Wu_Bei_Zhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu Bei Zhi">Wu Bei Zhi</a></i> (1628)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Chinese had wide connections through trade in Asia and been sailing to <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (AD 618–907). Between 1405-21, the third Ming emperor <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle</a> sponsored long range <a href="/wiki/Tribute" title="Tribute">tributary missions</a> in the Indian Ocean under the command of admiral <a href="/wiki/Zheng_He" title="Zheng He">Zheng He</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A large fleet of new <a href="/wiki/Junk_(ship)" title="Junk (ship)">junk</a> ships was prepared for the international diplomatic expeditions. The largest of these junks—that the Chinese termed <a href="/wiki/Chinese_treasure_ship" title="Chinese treasure ship"><i>bao chuan</i> (treasure ships)</a>—may have measured 121 metres, and thousands of sailors were involved. The first expedition departed in 1405. At least seven well-documented expeditions were launched, each bigger and more expensive than the last. The fleets visited <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> (then called <a href="/wiki/Siam" class="mw-redirect" title="Siam">Siam</a>), exchanging goods along the way.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They presented gifts of gold, silver, <a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>; in return, received such novelties as <a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostriches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zebra" title="Zebra">zebras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giraffe" title="Giraffe">giraffes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the emperor's death, Zheng He led a final expedition departing from Nanking in 1431 and returning to Beijing in 1433. It is likely this last expedition reached as far as <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>. The travels were reported by <a href="/wiki/Ma_Huan" title="Ma Huan">Ma Huan</a>, a Muslim voyager and translator who accompanied Zheng He on three of the expeditions, his account published as the <i><a href="/wiki/Yingya_Shenglan" title="Yingya Shenglan">Yingya Shenglan</a></i> (Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores) (1433).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The voyages had a significant and lasting effect on the organization of a <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">maritime network</a>, using and creating nodes and conduits in its wake, thereby restructuring international and cross-cultural relationships and exchanges.<sup id="cite_ref-sen16-609-11-631-3_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sen16-609-11-631-3-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was especially impactful as no other polity had exerted naval dominance over all sectors of the Indian Ocean, prior to these voyages.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ming promoted alternative nodes as a strategy to establish control over the network.<sup id="cite_ref-se16-615_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-se16-615-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, due to Chinese involvement, ports such as <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a> (in Southeast Asia), <a href="/wiki/Cochin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochin">Cochin</a> (Malabar Coast), and <a href="/wiki/Malindi" title="Malindi">Malindi</a> (Swahili Coast) had grown as key alternatives to other established ports.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The appearance of the Ming treasure fleet generated and intensified competition among contending polities and rivals, each seeking an alliance with the Ming.<sup id="cite_ref-sen16-609-11-631-3_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sen16-609-11-631-3-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expeditions developed into a maritime trade enterprise, with imperial control over local markets and court-monitored transactions, generating revenue for China and its partners. They boosted regional trade and production, caused a supply shock in Eurasia and led to price spikes in Europe in the early 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tributary relations promoted during the voyages manifested a trend toward cross-regional interconnections and early <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> in Asia and Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diplomatic relations were built on mutually beneficial maritime trade and China's strong naval presence in foreign waters, with Chinese naval superiority being a key factor in these interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The voyages brought about the Western Ocean's <a href="/wiki/Regional_integration" title="Regional integration">regional integration</a> and increase in <a href="/wiki/Mobilities" title="Mobilities">international circulation</a> of people, ideas, and goods. It provided a platform for <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">cosmopolitan</a> discourses, which took place in locations such as the ships of the Ming treasure fleet, the Ming capitals of Nanjing as well as Beijing, and the banquet receptions organized by the Ming court for foreign representatives.<sup id="cite_ref-sen16-609-11-631-3_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sen16-609-11-631-3-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diverse groups of people from maritime countries congregated, interacted, and traveled together as the treasure fleet sailed from and to China.<sup id="cite_ref-sen16-609-11-631-3_64-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sen16-609-11-631-3-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first time, the maritime region from China to Africa was under the dominance of a single imperial power and allowed for the creation of a cosmopolitan space.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These long-distance journeys were not followed up, as the Ming dynasty retreated in the <i><a href="/wiki/Haijin" title="Haijin">haijin</a></i>, a policy of <a href="/wiki/Isolationism" title="Isolationism">isolationism</a>, having limited maritime trade. Travels were halted abruptly after the emperor's death, as the Chinese lost interest in what they termed barbarian lands, turning inward,<sup id="cite_ref-Mancall_2006_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mancall_2006-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and successor emperors felt the expeditions were harmful to the Chinese state; <a href="/wiki/Hongxi_Emperor" title="Hongxi Emperor">Hongxi Emperor</a> ended further expeditions and <a href="/wiki/Xuande_Emperor" title="Xuande Emperor">Xuande Emperor</a> suppressed much of the information about Zheng He's voyages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Atlantic_Ocean_(1419–1507)"><span id="Atlantic_Ocean_.281419.E2.80.931507.29"></span>Atlantic Ocean (1419–1507)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Atlantic Ocean (1419–1507)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe#The_European_Age_of_Discovery_(1400–1600)" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe § The European Age of Discovery (1400–1600)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Overly_detailed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-overly_detailed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Content_forking#Article_spinoffs:_.22Summary_style.22_meta-articles_and_summary_sections" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Content forking">spinning off</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Handling_trivia#Recommendations_for_handling_trivia" title="Wikipedia:Handling trivia">relocating</a> any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">Wikipedia's inclusion policy</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png/290px-Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png/435px-Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png/580px-Republik_Venedig_Handelswege01.png 2x" data-file-width="943" data-file-height="501" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> (red) and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a> (green) maritime trade routes in the Mediterranean and <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a></figcaption></figure> <p>From the 8th until the 15th century, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a> and neighboring <a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">maritime republics</a> held the monopoly of European trade with the Middle East. The <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">silk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a>, involving spices, <a href="/wiki/Incense" title="Incense">incense</a>, herbs, drugs and <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>, made these Mediterranean city-states phenomenally rich. Spices were among the most expensive and demanded products of the Middle Ages, as they were used in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">medieval medicine</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> religious rituals, cosmetics, perfumery, as well as food additives and preservatives.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were all imported from Asia and Africa. </p><p>Muslim traders dominated maritime routes throughout the Indian Ocean, tapping source regions in the Far East and shipping for trading emporiums in India, mainly <a href="/wiki/Kozhikode" title="Kozhikode">Kozhikode</a>, westward to <a href="/wiki/Ormus" title="Ormus">Ormus</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>. From there, overland routes led to the Mediterranean coasts. Venetian merchants distributed the goods through Europe until the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, which eventually led to the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453, barring Europeans from some important combined-land-sea routes in areas around the Aegean, Bosporus, and Black Sea.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Venetians and other maritime republics maintained more limited access to Asian goods, via south-eastern Mediterranean trade, in such ports as Antioch, Acre, and Alexandria. </p><p>Forced to reduce their activities in the Black Sea, and at war with Venice, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> had turned to North African trade of wheat, olive oil and a search for silver and gold. Europeans had a constant <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Revolution#Monetary_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Revolution">deficit in silver and gold</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as it only went out, spent on eastern trade now cut off. Several European mines were exhausted,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of <a href="/wiki/Bullion" title="Bullion">bullion</a> led to the development of a complex banking system to manage the risks in trade (the first state bank, <i><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Saint_George" title="Bank of Saint George">Banco di San Giorgio</a></i>, was founded in 1407 at Genoa). Sailing also into the ports of <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a> (Flanders) and England, Genoese communities were then established in Portugal,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who profited from their enterprise and financial expertise. </p><p>European sailing had been primarily close to land <a href="/wiki/Cabotage" title="Cabotage">cabotage</a>, guided by <a href="/wiki/Portolan_chart" title="Portolan chart">portolan charts</a>. These charts specified proven ocean routes guided by coastal landmarks: sailors departed from a known point, followed a compass heading, and tried to identify their location by its landmarks.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first oceanic exploration Western Europeans used the compass, as well as progressive new advances in <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a> and astronomy. Arab navigational tools like the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)" title="Quadrant (instrument)">quadrant</a> were used for <a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">celestial navigation</a>. </p><p>The Muslim lands in Asia were generally more economically developed and had better infrastructure than Europe at this time, despite Europe's economic changes brought about by the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> allowing for more freedoms for lower- and upper-class people.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_empires" title="Gunpowder empires">gunpowder empires</a> concealed knowledge to European Christian traders about where lucrative locations such as <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> were, spurring a further desire for Christian trade with other Muslim nations besides the gunpowder empires despite European Christians generally having antipathy towards Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portuguese_exploration">Portuguese exploration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Portuguese exploration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_maritime_exploration" title="Portuguese maritime exploration">Portuguese maritime exploration</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_exploration_of_Africa" title="European exploration of Africa">European exploration of Africa</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niger_saharan_medieval_trade_routes.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Niger_saharan_medieval_trade_routes.PNG/300px-Niger_saharan_medieval_trade_routes.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Niger_saharan_medieval_trade_routes.PNG/450px-Niger_saharan_medieval_trade_routes.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Niger_saharan_medieval_trade_routes.PNG/600px-Niger_saharan_medieval_trade_routes.PNG 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="326" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">Saharan trade routes</a> c. 1400, with modern <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a> highlighted</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quarta_et_Ultima_Affrice_Tabula_NLI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Quarta_et_Ultima_Affrice_Tabula_NLI.jpg/300px-Quarta_et_Ultima_Affrice_Tabula_NLI.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Quarta_et_Ultima_Affrice_Tabula_NLI.jpg/450px-Quarta_et_Ultima_Affrice_Tabula_NLI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Quarta_et_Ultima_Affrice_Tabula_NLI.jpg/600px-Quarta_et_Ultima_Affrice_Tabula_NLI.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9360" data-file-height="6861" /></a><figcaption>A map of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> as it was known to Europeans in 1482, created by German cartographer Lienhart Holl and based on <a href="/wiki/Ptolemey" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemey">Ptolemey</a>'s fourth map of Africa</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1297, King <a href="/wiki/Denis_of_Portugal" title="Denis of Portugal">Denis of Portugal</a> took a personal interest in exports. In 1317, he made an agreement with Genoese merchant sailor <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Pessanha" title="Manuel Pessanha">Manuel Pessanha</a>, appointing him first <a href="/wiki/Admiral" title="Admiral">admiral</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Navy" title="Portuguese Navy">Portuguese Navy</a>, to defend the country against Muslim pirate raids.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Outbreaks of <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> led to severe depopulation in the second half of the 14th century: only the sea offered alternatives, with most population settling in fishing and trading coastal areas.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1325 and 1357, <a href="/wiki/Afonso_IV_of_Portugal" title="Afonso IV of Portugal">Afonso IV of Portugal</a> encouraged maritime commerce and ordered the first explorations.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>, already known to the Genoese, were claimed as officially discovered under the patronage of the Portuguese, but in 1344 Castile disputed them, expanding their rivalry into the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To ensure their monopoly on trade, Europeans (beginning with the Portuguese) attempted to install a Mediterranean system of trade which used military might and intimidation, to divert trade through ports they controlled; there it could be taxed.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1415, <a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a> was <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Ceuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Ceuta">conquered</a> by the Portuguese aiming to control navigation of the African coast. The young prince <a href="/wiki/Henry_the_Navigator" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry the Navigator">Henry the Navigator</a> was there and became aware of profit possibilities in the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">trans-Saharan trade</a> routes. For centuries <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">slave and gold</a> trade routes linking West Africa with the Mediterranean passed over the Western Sahara Desert, controlled by the Moors of North Africa. </p><p>Henry wished to know how far Muslim territories in Africa extended, hoping to bypass them and trade directly with West Africa by sea, find allies in legendary Christian lands to the south<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> like the supposed long-lost Christian kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Prester_John" title="Prester John">Prester John</a><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and probe whether it was possible to reach the <a href="/wiki/Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Indies">Indies</a> by sea, the source of the lucrative <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a>. He invested in sponsoring voyages down the coast of <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>, gathering a group of merchants, shipowners and stakeholders interested in new sea lanes. Soon the Atlantic islands of <a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a> (1419) and the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a> (1427) were reached. The expedition leader who established settlements on Madeira, was Portuguese explorer <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Gon%C3%A7alves_Zarco" title="João Gonçalves Zarco">João Gonçalves Zarco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Non (<a href="/wiki/Cape_Chaunar" title="Cape Chaunar">Cape Chaunar</a>) on the African coast, and whether it was possible to return once it was crossed.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nautical myths warned of oceanic monsters or an edge of the world, but Henry's navigation challenged such beliefs: starting in 1421, systematic sailing overcame it, reaching the difficult <a href="/wiki/Cape_Bojador" title="Cape Bojador">Cape Bojador</a> that in 1434 one of Henry's captains, <a href="/wiki/Gil_Eanes" title="Gil Eanes">Gil Eanes</a>, finally passed. </p><p>From 1440 onwards, <a href="/wiki/Caravel" title="Caravel">caravels</a> were extensively used for the exploration of the coast of Africa. This was an existing Iberian ship type, used for fishing, commerce and military purposes. Unlike other vessels of the time, the caravel had a sternpost-mounted rudder (as opposed to a side-mounted steering oar). It had a shallow draft, which was helpful in exploring unknown coastlines. It had good sailing performance, with a <a href="/wiki/Windward_and_leeward" title="Windward and leeward">windward</a> ability that was notable by the standards of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lateen rig was less useful when sailing downwind – which explains <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: <i lang="it">Cristoforo Colombo</i>) re-rigging the <a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%B1a" title="Niña"><i>Niña</i></a> with <a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">square rig</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Elbl_1994_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elbl_1994-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">celestial navigation</a> the Portuguese used the <a href="/wiki/Ephemeris" title="Ephemeris">ephemerides</a>, which experienced a remarkable diffusion in the 15th century. These were astronomical charts plotting the location of the stars over a distinct period of time. Published in 1496 by the Jewish astronomer, astrologer, and mathematician <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Zacuto" title="Abraham Zacuto">Abraham Zacuto</a>, the Almanac Perpetuum included some of these tables for the movements of stars.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These tables revolutionized navigation, allowing the calculation of <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>. Exact <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a> remained elusive from mariners for centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using the caravel, systematic exploration continued ever more southerly, advancing on average one degree a year.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cap-Vert" title="Cap-Vert">Cape Verde Peninsula</a> were reached in 1445 and in 1446, <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Fernandes" title="Álvaro Fernandes">Álvaro Fernandes</a> pushed on almost as far as present-day <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>. </p><p>In 1453, the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottomans</a> was a perceived blow to Christendom and established business links with the East. In 1455, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V" title="Pope Nicholas V">Pope Nicholas V</a> issued the <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">bull</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Romanus_Pontifex" title="Romanus Pontifex">Romanus Pontifex</a></i> reinforcing the previous <i><a href="/wiki/Dum_Diversas" title="Dum Diversas">Dum Diversas</a></i> (1452), granting all lands and seas discovered beyond Cape Bojador to King <a href="/wiki/Afonso_V_of_Portugal" title="Afonso V of Portugal">Afonso V of Portugal</a> and his successors, as well as mostly cutting off trade to and permitting conquest and increased war against Muslims and pagans, initiating a <i><a href="/wiki/Mare_clausum" title="Mare clausum">mare clausum</a></i> policy in the Atlantic.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The king, who had been inquiring of Genoese experts about a seaway to India, commissioned the <a href="/wiki/Fra_Mauro_map" title="Fra Mauro map">Fra Mauro world map</a>, which arrived in Lisbon in 1459.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1456, <a href="/wiki/Diogo_Gomes" title="Diogo Gomes">Diogo Gomes</a> reached the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> archipelago. In the next decade captains at the service of Prince Henry, discovered the remaining islands which were occupied during the 15th century. The Gulf of Guinea would be reached in the 1460s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Portuguese_exploration_after_Prince_Henry">Portuguese exploration after Prince Henry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Portuguese exploration after Prince Henry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1460, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Sintra" title="Pedro de Sintra">Pedro de Sintra</a> reached Sierra Leone. Prince Henry died in November of that year after which, given the meagre revenues, exploration was granted to Lisbon merchant <a href="/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Gomes" title="Fernão Gomes">Fernão Gomes</a> in 1469, who in exchange for the monopoly of trade in the Gulf of Guinea had to explore 100 miles (161 kilometres) each year for five years.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With his sponsorship, explorers <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Santar%C3%A9m" title="João de Santarém">João de Santarém</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Escobar" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedro Escobar">Pedro Escobar</a>, Lopo Gonçalves, <a href="/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_do_P%C3%B3" title="Fernão do Pó">Fernão do Pó</a>, and Pedro de Sintra made it beyond those goals. They reached the Southern Hemisphere and islands of the Gulf of Guinea, including <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elmina" title="Elmina">Elmina</a> on the Gold Coast in 1471. There, in what came to be called the "Gold Coast" in what is today <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, a thriving alluvial gold trade was found among the natives, Arab and <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berber</a> traders. </p><p>In 1478, during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Castilian_Succession" title="War of the Castilian Succession">War of the Castilian Succession</a>, near the coast at <a href="/wiki/Elmina" title="Elmina">Elmina</a> a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guinea" title="Battle of Guinea">large battle</a> was fought between a Castilian armada of 35 caravels, and a Portuguese fleet for the hegemony of the Guinea trade (gold, slaves, ivory, and malagueta pepper). The war ended with a Portuguese naval victory, followed by the official recognition by the Catholic Monarchs of Portuguese sovereignty over most of the disputed West African territories embodied in the Treaty of Alcáçovas, 1479. This was the first colonial war among European powers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1481, <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal" title="John II of Portugal">João II</a> decided to build <a href="/wiki/Elmina_Castle" title="Elmina Castle">São Jorge da Mina</a> <a href="/wiki/Factory_(trading_post)" title="Factory (trading post)">factory</a>. In 1482 the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> was explored by <a href="/wiki/Diogo_C%C3%A3o" title="Diogo Cão">Diogo Cão</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who in 1486 continued to <a href="/wiki/Cape_Cross" title="Cape Cross">Cape Cross</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caravel_Boa_Esperanca_Portugal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Caravel_Boa_Esperanca_Portugal.jpg/220px-Caravel_Boa_Esperanca_Portugal.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Caravel_Boa_Esperanca_Portugal.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="277" data-file-height="209" /></a><figcaption>Replica of a <a href="/wiki/Caravel" title="Caravel">caravel</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The next crucial breakthrough was in 1488, when <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias" title="Bartolomeu Dias">Bartolomeu Dias</a> rounded the southern tip of Africa, which he named Cabo das Tormentas, "Cape of Storms", anchoring at <a href="/wiki/Mossel_Bay" title="Mossel Bay">Mossel Bay</a> and then sailing east as far as the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fish_River" title="Great Fish River">Great Fish River</a>, proving the Indian Ocean was accessible from the Atlantic. Simultaneously <a href="/wiki/Pero_da_Covilh%C3%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="Pero da Covilhã">Pero da Covilhã</a>, sent out travelling secretly overland, had reached <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> having collected important information about the Red Sea and Quenia coast, suggesting a sea route to the Indies would soon be forthcoming.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon the cape was renamed by King <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal" title="John II of Portugal">John II of Portugal</a> the "<a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a>", because of the great optimism engendered by the possibility of a sea route to India, proving false the view that had existed since <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> that the Indian Ocean was <a href="/wiki/Landlocked_country" title="Landlocked country">land-locked</a>. </p><p>Based on many later stories of the <a href="/wiki/Phantom_island" title="Phantom island">phantom island</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Bacalao_(phantom_island)" title="Bacalao (phantom island)">Bacalao</a> and the carvings on <a href="/wiki/Dighton_Rock" title="Dighton Rock">Dighton Rock</a> some have speculated that Portuguese explorer <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Vaz_Corte-Real" title="João Vaz Corte-Real">João Vaz Corte-Real</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland" class="mw-redirect" title="Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a> in 1473, but the sources are considered unreliable.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish_exploration:_Columbus's_landfall_in_the_Americas"><span id="Spanish_exploration:_Columbus.27s_landfall_in_the_Americas"></span>Spanish exploration: Columbus's landfall in the Americas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Spanish exploration: Columbus's landfall in the Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">Voyages of Christopher Columbus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viajes_de_colon_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Viajes_de_colon_en.svg/300px-Viajes_de_colon_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Viajes_de_colon_en.svg/450px-Viajes_de_colon_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Viajes_de_colon_en.svg/600px-Viajes_de_colon_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="343" /></a><figcaption>The four voyages of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>, 1492–1503</figcaption></figure> <p>Portugal's Iberian rival, <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a>, had begun to establish its rule over the Canary Islands in 1402 but became distracted by internal Iberian politics and the repelling of Islamic invasion attempts and raids through most of the 15th century. Late in the century, following the unification of the crowns of Castile and Aragon, an emerging modern Spain became fully committed to the search for new trade routes overseas. The <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> had been an important maritime power in the Mediterranean, controlling territories in eastern Spain, southwestern France, major islands like <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>, with mainland possessions as far as Greece. In 1492 the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">joint rulers</a> conquered the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Moorish kingdom of Granada</a>, which had been providing Castile with African goods through tribute, and decided to fund <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s expedition in the hope of bypassing Portugal's monopoly on west African sea routes, to reach "the Indies" (east and south Asia) by travelling west.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twice before, in 1485 and 1488, Columbus had presented the project to the king <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal" title="John II of Portugal">John II of Portugal</a>, who rejected it. </p><p>On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed from <a href="/wiki/Palos_de_la_Frontera" title="Palos de la Frontera">Palos de la Frontera</a>. The land was sighted on 12 October 1492, and Columbus called the island (<a href="/wiki/Guanahani" title="Guanahani">one of the islands</a> now comprising <a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">The Bahamas</a>) <i>San Salvador</i>, in what he thought to be the "<a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a>". Columbus explored the northeast coast of <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and the northern coast of <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>, by 5 December. He was received by the native <a href="/wiki/Cacique" title="Cacique">cacique</a> <a href="/wiki/Guacanagar%C3%ADx" title="Guacanagaríx">Guacanagari</a>, who gave him permission to leave some of his men behind. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TresCarabelas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/TresCarabelas.jpg/220px-TresCarabelas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/TresCarabelas.jpg/330px-TresCarabelas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/TresCarabelas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="203" /></a><figcaption>Replicas of <i><a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%B1a_(ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niña (ship)">Niña</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pinta_(ship)" title="Pinta (ship)">Pinta</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_(ship)" title="Santa María (ship)">Santa María</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Palos_de_la_Frontera" title="Palos de la Frontera">Palos de la Frontera</a>, Spain</figcaption></figure><p> Columbus left 39 men and founded the settlement of <i><a href="/wiki/La_Navidad" title="La Navidad">La Navidad</a></i> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before returning to Spain, he kidnapped some ten to twenty-five natives and took them back with him. Only seven or eight of the native 'Indians' arrived in Spain alive, but they made an impression on <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 15 March 1493 he arrived in <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, where he reported to Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand. Word of his discovery of new lands <a href="/wiki/Columbus%27s_Letter_on_the_First_Voyage" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbus's Letter on the First Voyage">rapidly spread throughout Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Columbus and other Spanish explorers were initially disappointed with their discoveries—unlike Africa or Asia, the Caribbean islanders had little to trade with the Castilian ships. The islands thus became the focus of colonization efforts. It was not until the continent itself was explored that Spain found the wealth it had sought. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treaty_of_Tordesillas_(1494)"><span id="Treaty_of_Tordesillas_.281494.29"></span>Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spain_and_Portugal.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Spain_and_Portugal.png/300px-Spain_and_Portugal.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Spain_and_Portugal.png/450px-Spain_and_Portugal.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Spain_and_Portugal.png/600px-Spain_and_Portugal.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption>The 1494 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> meridian (purple) and the later <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Maluku Islands</a> <a href="/wiki/180th_meridian" title="180th meridian">antimeridian</a> (green), set at the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Zaragoza_(1529)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Zaragoza (1529)">Treaty of Zaragoza (1529)</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Shortly after Columbus's return from what would later be called the "West Indies", a division of influence became necessary to avoid conflict between the Spanish and Portuguese.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 4 May 1493, two months after Columbus's arrival, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a> received a <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">bull</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">Inter caetera</a></i>) from <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a> stating all lands west and south of a pole-to-pole line 100 leagues west and south of the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a> or the Cape Verde Islands should belong to Castile and, later, all mainlands and islands then belonging to India. It did not mention Portugal, which could not claim newly discovered lands east of the line. </p><p>King <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal" title="John II of Portugal">John II of Portugal</a> was displeased with the arrangement, feeling that it gave him far too little land—preventing him from reaching India, his main goal. He then negotiated directly with King <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand</a> and Queen <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella</a> of Spain to move the line west, allowing him to claim newly discovered lands east of it.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1494, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> divided the world between Portugal and Spain. Portugal gained control over Africa, Asia, and eastern South America (Brazil), encompassing everything outside Europe east of a line drawn 370 <a href="/wiki/League_(unit)" title="League (unit)">leagues</a> west of the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> islands (already Portuguese). The Spanish (Castile) received everything west of this line, including the islands discovered by Columbus on <a href="/wiki/First_Voyage_of_Columbus" class="mw-redirect" title="First Voyage of Columbus">his first voyage</a>, named in the treaty as <a href="/wiki/Names_of_Japan#Jipangu" title="Names of Japan">Cipangu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Antilia">Antilia</a> (Cuba and <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>). The dividing line, situated about halfway between Portuguese Cape Verde and Spanish discoveries in the Caribbean, split the known world of Atlantic islands evenly. </p><p>In 1500, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_%C3%81lvares_Cabral" title="Pedro Álvares Cabral">Pedro Álvares Cabral</a>, initially considering the Brazilian coast as a large island, claimed it for Portugal east of the dividing line. This claim was acknowledged by the Spanish. Cabral, heading towards India, followed a corridor in the Atlantic negotiated by the treaty for favorable winds. While some speculate earlier secret Portuguese discovery of Brazil, there is no credible evidence for this. Similarly, suspicions about <a href="/wiki/Duarte_Pacheco_Pereira" title="Duarte Pacheco Pereira">Duarte Pacheco Pereira</a> alleged 1498 discovery lack credibility among historians.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Later the Spanish territory would prove to include huge areas of the continental mainland of North and South America, though Portuguese-controlled Brazil would expand across the line, and settlements by other European powers ignored the treaty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Americas:_The_New_World">The Americas: The New World</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: The Americas: The New World"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waldseemuller_map_closeup_with_America.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Waldseemuller_map_closeup_with_America.jpg/220px-Waldseemuller_map_closeup_with_America.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Waldseemuller_map_closeup_with_America.jpg/330px-Waldseemuller_map_closeup_with_America.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Waldseemuller_map_closeup_with_America.jpg/440px-Waldseemuller_map_closeup_with_America.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1774" data-file-height="1945" /></a><figcaption>Detail of 1507 <a href="/wiki/Waldseem%C3%BCller_map" title="Waldseemüller map">Waldseemüller map</a> showing the name "America" for the first time.</figcaption></figure> <p>Little of the divided area had actually been seen by Europeans, as it was only divided by a geographical definition rather than control on the ground. The desire to compete with the Ottoman Empire and Columbus's first voyage in 1492 spurred further maritime exploration and, from 1497, several other explorers headed west. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_America">North America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>That year <a href="/wiki/John_Cabot" title="John Cabot">John Cabot</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: <i lang="it">Giovanni Caboto</i>), also a commissioned Italian, got <a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">letters patent</a> from King <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a>. Sailing from <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a>, probably backed by the local <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Merchant_Venturers" title="Society of Merchant Venturers">Society of Merchant Venturers</a>, Cabot crossed the Atlantic from a northerly latitude hoping the voyage to the "West Indies" would be shorter<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and made landfall somewhere in North America, possibly <a href="/wiki/History_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="History of Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland</a>. </p><p>In 1499 <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Fernandes_Lavrador" title="João Fernandes Lavrador">João Fernandes Lavrador</a> was licensed by the King of Portugal and together with <a href="/wiki/Pero_de_Barcelos" class="mw-redirect" title="Pero de Barcelos">Pero de Barcelos</a> they first sighted <a href="/wiki/Labrador" title="Labrador">Labrador</a>, which was granted and named after him. After returning he possibly went to Bristol to sail in the name of England.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1499 and 1502 the brothers <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Corte-Real" title="Gaspar Corte-Real">Gaspar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Corte-Real" title="Miguel Corte-Real">Miguel Corte Real</a> explored and named the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> and Newfoundland.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both explorations are noted in the 1502 <a href="/wiki/Cantino_planisphere" title="Cantino planisphere">Cantino planisphere</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_"True_Indies"_and_Brazil"><span id="The_.22True_Indies.22_and_Brazil"></span>The "True Indies" and Brazil</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The "True Indies" and Brazil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1497, newly crowned King <a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal" title="Manuel I of Portugal">Manuel I of Portugal</a> sent an exploratory fleet eastwards, fulfilling his predecessor's project of finding a route to the Indies. In July 1499, news spread that the Portuguese had reached the "true Indies", as a letter was dispatched by the Portuguese king to the Spanish Catholic Monarchs.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third expedition by Columbus in 1498 was the beginning of the first successful Castilian (Spanish) colonization in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>, on the island of <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a>. Despite growing doubts, Columbus refused to accept he had not reached the Indies. During the voyage he discovered the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Orinoco_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Orinoco River">Orinoco River</a> on the north coast of South America (now Venezuela) and thought that the huge quantity of fresh water coming from it could only be from a continental land mass, which he was certain was the Asian mainland. </p><p>As shipping between <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> and the West Indies grew, knowledge of the Caribbean islands, Central America and the northern coast of South America increased. One of these Spanish fleets, that of <a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda" title="Alonso de Ojeda">Alonso de Ojeda</a> and Amerigo Vespucci in 1499–1500 reached land at the coast of what is now <a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a>, where the two explorers seem to have separated in opposite directions. Vespucci sailed southward, discovering the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a> in July 1499,<sup id="cite_ref-Pohl1966_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pohl1966-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and reaching 6°S, in present-day north east Brazil, before turning around. </p><p>In the beginning of 1500, <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Y%C3%A1%C3%B1ez_Pinzon" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicente Yáñez Pinzon">Vicente Yáñez Pinzon</a> was blown off course by a storm and reached what is now the northeast coast of Brazil on 26 January 1500, exploring as far south as the present-day state of <a href="/wiki/Pernambuco" title="Pernambuco">Pernambuco</a>. His fleet was the first to fully enter the Amazon River estuary, which he named <i>Río Santa María de la Mar Dulce</i> (<i>Saint Mary's River of the Freshwater Sea</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Morison1974_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morison1974-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The land was too far east for the Castilians to claim under the Treaty of Tordesillas, but the discovery created Castilian interest, with a second voyage by Pinzon in 1508 (the <a href="/wiki/Pinz%C3%B3n%E2%80%93Sol%C3%ADs_voyage" title="Pinzón–Solís voyage">Pinzón–Solís voyage</a>, which navigated the northern coast to the Central American mainland in search of a passage to the East) and a voyage in 1515–16 by a navigator of the 1508 expedition, <a href="/wiki/Juan_D%C3%ADaz_de_Sol%C3%ADs" title="Juan Díaz de Solís">Juan Díaz de Solís</a>. The 1515–16 expedition was spurred on by reports of Portuguese exploration of the region (see below). It ended when de Solís and some of his crew disappeared when exploring the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Río de la Plata">River Plata</a> in a boat, but what they found reignited Spanish interest, and colonization began in 1531. </p><p>In April 1500, the <a href="/wiki/2nd_Portuguese_India_Armada_(Cabral,_1500)" title="2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500)">second Portuguese India Armada</a>, headed by <a href="/wiki/Pedro_%C3%81lvares_Cabral" title="Pedro Álvares Cabral">Pedro Álvares Cabral</a>, with a crew of expert captains, encountered the Brazilian coast as it swung westward in the Atlantic while performing a large "<a href="/wiki/Volta_do_mar" title="Volta do mar">volta do mar</a>" to avoid becalming in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Guinea" title="Gulf of Guinea">Gulf of Guinea</a>. On 21 April 1500, a mountain was seen and named <i><a href="/wiki/Monte_Pascoal" title="Monte Pascoal">Monte Pascoal</a></i>, and on 22 April Cabral landed on the coast. On 25 April, the entire fleet sailed into the harbour they named <i><a href="/wiki/Porto_Seguro" title="Porto Seguro">Porto Seguro</a></i> (Port Secure). Cabral perceived that the new land lay east of the line of Tordesillas, and sent an envoy to Portugal with the discovery in letters, including the <a href="/wiki/Carta_de_Pero_Vaz_de_Caminha" class="mw-redirect" title="Carta de Pero Vaz de Caminha">letter</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pero_Vaz_de_Caminha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pero Vaz de Caminha">Pero Vaz de Caminha</a>. Believing the land to be an island, he named it <a href="/wiki/Ilha_de_Vera_Cruz" title="Ilha de Vera Cruz">Ilha de Vera Cruz</a> (Island of the True Cross).<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some historians have suggested that the Portuguese may have encountered the South American bulge earlier while sailing the "volta do mar", hence the insistence of John II in moving the line west of Tordesillas in 1494—so his landing in Brazil may not have been an accident; although John's motivation may have just been to claiming new lands in the Atlantic easier.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the east coast, the fleet then turned eastward to resume the journey to the southern tip of Africa and India. Cabral was the first captain to touch four continents, leading the first expedition that connected and united Europe, Africa, the New World, and Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the invitation of King Manuel I of Portugal, Amerigo Vespucci<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> participated as an observer in these exploratory voyages to the east coast of South America. The expeditions became widely known in Europe after two accounts attributed to him, published between 1502 and 1504, suggested the newly discovered lands were not the Indies but a "New World",<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <i>Mundus novus</i>; this is also the Latin title of a contemporary document based on Vespucci letters to <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_di_Pierfrancesco_de%27_Medici" title="Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici">Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici</a>, which had become popular in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was soon understood that Columbus had not reached Asia but found a new continent, the Americas. The Americas were named in 1507 by <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartographers</a> <a href="/wiki/Waldseem%C3%BCller_map" title="Waldseemüller map">Martin Waldseemüller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Ringmann" title="Matthias Ringmann">Matthias Ringmann</a>, after Amerigo Vespucci. </p><p>From 1501 to 1502, one of these Portuguese expeditions, led by <a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alo_Coelho" title="Gonçalo Coelho">Gonçalo Coelho</a> (and/or <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gon%C3%A7alves_(explorer)" title="André Gonçalves (explorer)">André Gonçalves</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Lemos" title="Gaspar de Lemos">Gaspar de Lemos</a>), sailed south along the coast of South America to the bay of present-day <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>. Vespucci's account states that the expedition reached the latitude "South Pole elevation 52° S", in the "cold" latitudes of what is now southern <a href="/wiki/Patagonia" title="Patagonia">Patagonia</a>, before turning back. Vespucci wrote that they headed toward the southwest and south, following "a long, unbending coastline", apparently coincident with the southern South American coast. This seems controversial, since he changed part of his description in the subsequent letter, stating a shift, from about 32° S (Southern Brazil) to the south-southeast, to open sea, maintaining that they reached 50°/52° S.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1503, <a href="/wiki/Binot_Paulmier_de_Gonneville" title="Binot Paulmier de Gonneville">Binot Paulmier de Gonneville</a>, challenging the Portuguese policy of <i><a href="/wiki/Mare_clausum" title="Mare clausum">mare clausum</a></i>, led one of the earliest <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a> <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Breton</a> expeditions to Brazil. He intended to sail to the East Indies, but near the Cape of Good Hope, his ship was diverted to the west by a storm, and landed in the present-day state of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Catarina_(state)" title="Santa Catarina (state)">Santa Catarina</a> (southern Brazil), on 5 January 1504. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guti%C3%A9rrez,_the_Americas,_1562.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Guti%C3%A9rrez%2C_the_Americas%2C_1562.jpg/300px-Guti%C3%A9rrez%2C_the_Americas%2C_1562.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Guti%C3%A9rrez%2C_the_Americas%2C_1562.jpg/450px-Guti%C3%A9rrez%2C_the_Americas%2C_1562.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Guti%C3%A9rrez%2C_the_Americas%2C_1562.jpg/600px-Guti%C3%A9rrez%2C_the_Americas%2C_1562.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5246" data-file-height="5148" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Americae_Sive_Quartae_Orbis_Partis_Nova_Et_Exactissima_Descriptio" title="Americae Sive Quartae Orbis Partis Nova Et Exactissima Descriptio">Americae Sive Quartae Orbis Partis Nova Et Exactissima Descriptio</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Diego_Guti%C3%A9rrez_(cartographer)" title="Diego Gutiérrez (cartographer)">Diego Gutiérrez</a>, the largest map of the Americas until the 17th century, and the first map to use the name "California". <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a>, London.</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1511 to 1512, Portuguese captains <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Lisboa" title="João de Lisboa">João de Lisboa</a> and Estevão de Fróis reached the <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_La_Plata" class="mw-redirect" title="Rio de La Plata">River Plata</a> estuary in present-day <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, and went as far south as the present-day <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_San_Matias" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulf of San Matias">Gulf of San Matias</a> at 42°S.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expedition reached a cape extending north to south which they called Cape of "Santa Maria" (<a href="/wiki/Punta_del_Este" title="Punta del Este">Punta del Este</a>, keeping the name the Cape nearby); and after 40°S they found a "Cape" or "a point or place extending into the sea", and a "Gulf" (in June and July). After they had navigated for nearly 300 km (186 mi) to round the cape, they again sighted the continent on the other side and steered towards the northwest, but a storm prevented them from making any headway. Driven away by the <i>Tramontane</i> or north wind, they retraced their course. Also gives the first news of the <i>White King</i> and the "people of the mountains" to the interior (the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a>), and a gift, an ax of silver, obtained from the <a href="/wiki/Charr%C3%BAa" title="Charrúa">Charrúa</a> natives on their return ("to the coast or side of <i>Brazil</i>"), and "to West" (along the coast and the River Plata estuary), and offered to King Manuel I.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_de_Haro" title="Christopher de Haro">Christopher de Haro</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Flemish_people" title="Flemish people">Flemish</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sephardic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic">Sephardic</a> origin (one of the financiers of the expedition along with D. Nuno Manuel), who would serve the Spanish Crown after 1516, believed the navigators had discovered a southern <i>strait</i> to west and Asia. </p><p>In 1519, an expedition sent by the Spanish Crown to find a way to Asia was led by the experienced Portuguese navigator <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a>. The fleet explored the rivers and bays as it charted the South American coast until it found a way to the Pacific Ocean through the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan" title="Strait of Magellan">Strait of Magellan</a>. </p><p>From 1524 to 1525, <a href="/wiki/Aleixo_Garcia" title="Aleixo Garcia">Aleixo Garcia</a>, a Portuguese conquistador, led a private expedition of shipwrecked Castilian and Portuguese adventurers, who recruited about 2,000 <a href="/wiki/Guaran%C3%AD_people" title="Guaraní people">Guaraní Indians</a>. They explored the territories of present-day southern Brazil, <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, using the native trail network, the <i>Peabiru</i>. They were the first Europeans to cross the <a href="/wiki/Gran_Chaco" title="Gran Chaco">Chaco</a> and reach the outer territories of the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> on the hills of the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indian_Ocean_(1497–1513)"><span id="Indian_Ocean_.281497.E2.80.931513.29"></span>Indian Ocean (1497–1513)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Indian Ocean (1497–1513)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vasco_da_Gama's_route_to_India"><span id="Vasco_da_Gama.27s_route_to_India"></span>Vasco da Gama's route to India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Vasco da Gama's route to India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India_Armadas" title="Portuguese India Armadas">Portuguese India Armadas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caminho_maritimo_para_a_India.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Caminho_maritimo_para_a_India.png/300px-Caminho_maritimo_para_a_India.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Caminho_maritimo_para_a_India.png/450px-Caminho_maritimo_para_a_India.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Caminho_maritimo_para_a_India.png 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>'s 1497–1499 travel to India (black). Previous travels of <a href="/wiki/Pero_da_Covilh%C3%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="Pero da Covilhã">Pero da Covilhã</a> (orange) and <a href="/wiki/Afonso_de_Paiva" title="Afonso de Paiva">Afonso de Paiva</a> (blue), and their common route (green)</figcaption></figure> <p>Protected from direct Spanish competition by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a>, Portuguese eastward exploration and colonization continued apace. Twice, in 1485 and 1488, Portugal officially rejected <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoese</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s idea of reaching India by sailing westwards. King <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal" title="John II of Portugal">John II of Portugal</a>'s experts rejected it, for they held the opinion that Columbus's estimation of a travel distance of 2,400 miles (3,860 km) was low,<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in part because <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias" title="Bartolomeu Dias">Bartolomeu Dias</a> departed in 1487 trying the rounding of the southern tip of Africa. They believed that sailing east would require a far shorter journey. Dias's return from the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> in 1488, and <a href="/wiki/Pero_da_Covilh%C3%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="Pero da Covilhã">Pero da Covilhã</a>'s travel to <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> overland indicated that the richness of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> was accessible from the Atlantic. A long-overdue expedition was prepared. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Portuguese_Carreira_da_India.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Map_of_Portuguese_Carreira_da_India.gif/300px-Map_of_Portuguese_Carreira_da_India.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Map_of_Portuguese_Carreira_da_India.gif/450px-Map_of_Portuguese_Carreira_da_India.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Map_of_Portuguese_Carreira_da_India.gif/600px-Map_of_Portuguese_Carreira_da_India.gif 2x" data-file-width="1047" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>Outward and return voyages of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India_Armadas" title="Portuguese India Armadas">Portuguese India Armadas</a> in the Atlantic and the Indian oceans, with the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Gyre" title="North Atlantic Gyre">North Atlantic Gyre</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Volta_do_mar" title="Volta do mar">Volta do mar</a></i>) picked up by <a href="/wiki/Henry_the_Navigator" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry the Navigator">Henry</a>'s navigators, and the outward route of the South Atlantic westerlies that <a href="/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias" title="Bartolomeu Dias">Bartolomeu Dias</a> discovered in 1488, followed and explored by the expeditions of <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pedro_%C3%81lvares_Cabral" title="Pedro Álvares Cabral">Pedro Álvares Cabral</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In July 1497, a small exploratory fleet of four ships and about 170 men left <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> under the command of <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>. By December the fleet passed the <a href="/wiki/Great_Fish_River" title="Great Fish River">Great Fish River</a>—where Dias had turned back—and sailed into waters unknown to the Europeans. Sailing into the Indian Ocean, da Gama entered a maritime region that had three different and well-developed trade circuits. The one da Gama encountered connected <a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> on the east coast of Africa; <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a>, at the tip of the Arabian peninsula; the Persian port of <a href="/wiki/Hormuz,_Iran" title="Hormuz, Iran">Hormuz</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cambay" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambay">Cambay</a>, in northwestern India; and <a href="/wiki/Calicut" class="mw-redirect" title="Calicut">Calicut</a>, in southwestern India.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceD_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 20 May 1498, they arrived at <a href="/wiki/Kozhikode" title="Kozhikode">Calicut</a>. The efforts of Vasco da Gama to get favorable trading conditions were hampered by the low value of their goods, compared with the valuable goods traded there.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2017)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Two years and two days after departure, Gama and a survivor crew of 55 men returned in glory to Portugal as the first ships to sail directly from Europe to India. Da Gama's voyage is romanticized in the <a href="/wiki/Os_Lus%C3%ADadas" title="Os Lusíadas">Os Lusíadas</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poem</a> by fellow discovery-era traveler <a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_de_Cam%C3%B5es" title="Luís de Camões">Luís de Camões</a>. The poem is widely regarded as Portugal's greatest literary achievement.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1500, a second, larger fleet of thirteen ships and about 1500 men were sent to India. Under the command of <a href="/wiki/Pedro_%C3%81lvares_Cabral" title="Pedro Álvares Cabral">Pedro Álvares Cabral</a>, they made the first landfall on the Brazilian coast, giving Portugal its claim. Later, in the Indian Ocean, one of Cabral's ships reached <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> (1501), which was partly explored by <a href="/wiki/Trist%C3%A3o_da_Cunha" title="Tristão da Cunha">Tristão da Cunha</a> in 1507; <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> was discovered in 1507, <a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a> occupied in 1506. In the same year <a href="/wiki/Louren%C3%A7o_de_Almeida" title="Lourenço de Almeida">Lourenço de Almeida</a> landed in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, the eastern island named "<a href="/wiki/Names_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Names of Sri Lanka">Taprobane</a>" in remote accounts of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s and 4th-century BC Greek <a href="/wiki/Geographer" title="Geographer">geographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a>. On the Asiatic mainland, the first <a href="/wiki/Factory_(trading_post)" title="Factory (trading post)">factories (trading-posts)</a> were established at Kochi and Calicut (1501) and then <a href="/wiki/Old_Goa" title="Old Goa">Goa</a> (1510). </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_"Spice_Islands"_and_China"><span id="The_.22Spice_Islands.22_and_China"></span>The "Spice Islands" and China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The "Spice Islands" and China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malaccaship.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Malaccaship.JPG/170px-Malaccaship.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Malaccaship.JPG/255px-Malaccaship.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Malaccaship.JPG/340px-Malaccaship.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1496" data-file-height="2256" /></a><figcaption>Replica of the Portuguese <i><a href="/wiki/Flor_de_la_Mar" title="Flor de la Mar">Flor de la Mar</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Carrack" title="Carrack">carrack</a> in the Maritime Museum of <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a> in <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Portuguese continued sailing eastward from India, entering a second existing circuit of the Indian Ocean trade, from Calicut and <a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quillon</a> in India, to southeast Asia, including <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceD_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1511, <a href="/wiki/Afonso_de_Albuquerque" title="Afonso de Albuquerque">Afonso de Albuquerque</a> conquered Malacca for Portugal, then the center of Asian trade. East of Malacca, Albuquerque sent several diplomatic missions: <a href="/wiki/Duarte_Fernandes" title="Duarte Fernandes">Duarte Fernandes</a> as the first European envoy to the <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Kingdom of Siam</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>). </p><p>Learning the location of the so-called "spice islands", heretofore a secret from the Europeans, were the <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Maluku Islands</a>, mainly the <a href="/wiki/Banda_Islands" title="Banda Islands">Banda</a>, then the world's only source of <a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">nutmeg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clove" title="Clove">cloves</a>. Reaching these was the main purpose for the Portuguese voyages in the Indian Ocean. Albuquerque sent an expedition led by <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Abreu" title="António de Abreu">António de Abreu</a> to Banda (via <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Sunda_Islands" title="Lesser Sunda Islands">Lesser Sunda Islands</a>), where they were the first Europeans to arrive in early 1512, after taking a route through which they also reached first the islands of <a href="/wiki/Buru" title="Buru">Buru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ambon_Island" title="Ambon Island">Ambon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seram" class="mw-redirect" title="Seram">Seram</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From Banda Abreu returned to Malacca, while his vice-captain <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Serr%C3%A3o" title="Francisco Serrão">Francisco Serrão</a>, after a separation forced by a shipwreck and heading north, reached once again Ambon and sank off <a href="/wiki/Ternate" title="Ternate">Ternate</a>, where he obtained a license to build a Portuguese fortress-factory: the Fort of São João Baptista de Ternate, which founded the Portuguese presence in the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a>. </p><p>In May 1513 <a href="/wiki/Jorge_%C3%81lvares" title="Jorge Álvares">Jorge Álvares</a>, one of the Portuguese envoys, reached China. Although he was the first to land on <a href="/wiki/Nei_Lingding_Island" title="Nei Lingding Island">Lintin Island</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pearl_River_Delta" title="Pearl River Delta">Pearl River Delta</a>, it was <a href="/wiki/Rafael_Perestrello" title="Rafael Perestrello">Rafael Perestrello</a>—a cousin of the famed <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>—who became the first European explorer to land on the southern coast of mainland China and trade in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> in 1516, commanding a <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> vessel with crew from a Malaccan junk that had sailed from <a href="/wiki/Malacca" title="Malacca">Malacca</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Pires_de_Andrade" title="Fernão Pires de Andrade">Fernão Pires de Andrade</a> visited Canton in 1517 and opened up trade with China. The Portuguese were defeated by the Chinese in 1521 at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tunmen" title="Battle of Tunmen">Battle of Tunmen</a> and in 1522 at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xicaowan" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Xicaowan">Battle of Xicaowan</a>, during which the Chinese captured Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Breech-loading_swivel_gun" title="Breech-loading swivel gun">breech-loading swivel guns</a> and reverse engineered the technology, calling them "Folangji" 佛郎機 (<a href="/wiki/Farangi" class="mw-redirect" title="Farangi">Frankish</a>) guns, since the Portuguese were called "Folangji" by the Chinese. After a few decades, hostilities between the Portuguese and Chinese ceased and in 1557 the Chinese allowed the Portuguese to occupy <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>. </p><p>To enforce a trade monopoly, <a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hormuz_Island" title="Hormuz Island">Hormuz</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> were seized by <a href="/wiki/Afonso_de_Albuquerque" title="Afonso de Albuquerque">Afonso de Albuquerque</a> in 1507 and in 1515, respectively. He also entered into <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomatic relations</a> with <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Persia</a>. In 1513, while trying to conquer <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a>, an expedition led by Albuquerque cruised the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> inside the <a href="/wiki/Bab_al-Mandab" class="mw-redirect" title="Bab al-Mandab">Bab al-Mandab</a> and sheltered at <a href="/wiki/Kamaran" title="Kamaran">Kamaran</a> island. In 1521, a force under <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Correia_(admiral)" title="António Correia (admiral)">António Correia</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, ushering in a period of almost eighty years of Portuguese rule of the Gulf archipelago.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Red Sea, <a href="/wiki/Massawa" title="Massawa">Massawa</a> was the most northerly point frequented by the Portuguese until 1541, when a fleet under <a href="/wiki/Est%C3%AAv%C3%A3o_da_Gama_(16th_century)" title="Estêvão da Gama (16th century)">Estevão da Gama</a> penetrated as far as <a href="/wiki/Suez" title="Suez">Suez</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pacific_Ocean_(1513–1529)"><span id="Pacific_Ocean_.281513.E2.80.931529.29"></span>Pacific Ocean (1513–1529)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Pacific Ocean (1513–1529)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Balboa_Voyage_1513.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Balboa_Voyage_1513.PNG/300px-Balboa_Voyage_1513.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Balboa_Voyage_1513.PNG/450px-Balboa_Voyage_1513.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Balboa_Voyage_1513.PNG 2x" data-file-width="581" data-file-height="316" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a>'s travel to the "<a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">South Sea</a>", 1513</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Balboa's_expedition_to_the_Pacific_Ocean"><span id="Balboa.27s_expedition_to_the_Pacific_Ocean"></span>Balboa's expedition to the Pacific Ocean</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Balboa's expedition to the Pacific Ocean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1513, about 40 miles (64 kilometres) south of <a href="/wiki/Acand%C3%AD" title="Acandí">Acandí</a>, in present-day <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, Spanish <a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a> heard unexpected news of an "other sea" rich in gold, which he received with great interest.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With few resources and using information given by <i><a href="/wiki/Cacique" title="Cacique">caciques</a></i>, he journeyed across the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">Isthmus of Panama</a> with 190 Spaniards, a few native guides, and a pack of dogs. </p><p>Balboa, using a <a href="/wiki/Brigantine" title="Brigantine">brigantine</a> and ten native <a href="/wiki/Canoe" title="Canoe">canoe</a>, explored the coast, facing battles and dense jungles. On September 25, after crossing the Chucunaque River mountains, he became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean from the New World. The expedition briefly navigated the Pacific, naming the bay <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_San_Miguel" title="Bay of San Miguel"><i>San Miguel</i></a> and the sea <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean"><i> Mar del Sur</i> (South Sea)</a>. Seeking gold, Balboa traversed cacique lands to the islands, naming the largest Isla Rica (now Isla del Rey) and the group <i><a href="/wiki/Pearl_Islands" title="Pearl Islands">Archipiélago de las Perlas</a></i>, names still in use today.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsequent_developments_to_the_east">Subsequent developments to the east</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Subsequent developments to the east"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 1515 to 1516, the Spanish fleet led by <a href="/wiki/Juan_D%C3%ADaz_de_Sol%C3%ADs" title="Juan Díaz de Solís">Juan Díaz de Solís</a> sailed down the east coast of South America as far as <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a>, which Solís named shortly before he died while trying to find a passage to the "South Sea". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_circumnavigation">First circumnavigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: First circumnavigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Magellan%E2%80%93Elcano_circumnavigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Magellan–Elcano circumnavigation">Magellan–Elcano circumnavigation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg/300px-Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg/450px-Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg/600px-Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2488" data-file-height="1378" /></a><figcaption>Route of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Magellan</a>-<a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Elcano</a> world circumnavigation (1519–1522)</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1516, several Portuguese navigators conflicting with King <a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal" title="Manuel I of Portugal">Manuel I of Portugal</a> gathered in <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a> to serve the newly crowned <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles I of Spain</a>. Among them were explorers Diogo and <a href="/wiki/Duarte_Barbosa" title="Duarte Barbosa">Duarte Barbosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Est%C3%AAv%C3%A3o_Gomes" title="Estêvão Gomes">Estêvão Gomes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Serr%C3%A3o" title="João Serrão">João Serrão</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a>, cartographers <a href="/wiki/Jorge_Reinel" title="Jorge Reinel">Jorge Reinel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diogo_Ribeiro_(cartographer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogo Ribeiro (cartographer)">Diogo Ribeiro</a>, cosmographers Francisco and <a href="/wiki/Rui_Faleiro" title="Rui Faleiro">Ruy Faleiro</a> and the Flemish merchant <a href="/wiki/Christopher_de_Haro" title="Christopher de Haro">Christopher de Haro</a>. Ferdinand Magellan had sailed in India for Portugal up to 1513, when the <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Maluku Islands</a> were reached, and had kept contact with <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Serr%C3%A3o" title="Francisco Serrão">Francisco Serrão</a> who was living there.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Magellan developed the theory that the Maluku Islands were in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Tordesillas</a> Spanish area, based on studies by Faleiro brothers. </p><p>Aware of the efforts of the Spanish to find a route to India by sailing west, Magellan presented his plan to <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles I of Spain</a>. The king and Christopher de Haro financed Magellan's expedition. A fleet was put together, and Spanish navigators such as <a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a> joined the enterprise. On August 10, 1519, they departed from Seville with a fleet of five ships—the <a href="/wiki/Caravel" title="Caravel">caravel</a> <a href="/wiki/Flagship" title="Flagship">flagship</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_(ship)" title="Trinidad (ship)">Trinidad</a></i> under Magellan's command, and <a href="/wiki/Carrack" title="Carrack">carracks</a> <i>San Antonio</i>, <i>Concepcion</i>, <i>Santiago</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Victoria_(ship)" title="Victoria (ship)">Victoria</a></i>. They contained a crew of about 237 European men from several regions, with the goal of reaching the Maluku Islands by travelling west, trying to reclaim it under Spain's economic and political sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Detail_from_a_map_of_Ortelius_-_Magellan%27s_ship_Victoria.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Detail_from_a_map_of_Ortelius_-_Magellan%27s_ship_Victoria.png/220px-Detail_from_a_map_of_Ortelius_-_Magellan%27s_ship_Victoria.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Detail_from_a_map_of_Ortelius_-_Magellan%27s_ship_Victoria.png/330px-Detail_from_a_map_of_Ortelius_-_Magellan%27s_ship_Victoria.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Detail_from_a_map_of_Ortelius_-_Magellan%27s_ship_Victoria.png/440px-Detail_from_a_map_of_Ortelius_-_Magellan%27s_ship_Victoria.png 2x" data-file-width="2522" data-file-height="1538" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Victoria_(ship)" title="Victoria (ship)">Victoria</a></i>, the single ship to have completed the first world <a href="/wiki/Circumnavigation" title="Circumnavigation">circumnavigation</a>. (Detail from <i><a href="/wiki/Maris_Pacifici" title="Maris Pacifici">Maris Pacifici</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Ortelius" class="mw-redirect" title="Ortelius">Ortelius</a>, 1589.)</figcaption></figure> <p>The fleet sailed south, avoiding Portuguese Brazil, and became the first to reach <a href="/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Tierra del Fuego">Tierra del Fuego</a>. Starting on October 21, they navigated the 373-mile (600 km) <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan" title="Strait of Magellan">Strait of Magellan</a>, entering the Pacific on November 28, which Magellan named Mar Pacífico for its calm waters.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After crossing the Pacific, Magellan was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mactan" title="Battle of Mactan">battle of Mactan</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>. Juan Sebastián Elcano completed the voyage, reaching the <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Spice Islands</a> in 1521. On September 6, 1522, the <i>Victoria</i> returned to Spain, completing the first <a href="/wiki/Circumnavigation" title="Circumnavigation">circumnavigation</a> of the globe. Of the original crew, only 18 men completed the circumnavigation; 17 returned later, including twelve captured by the Portuguese and five survivors of the Trinidad. <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Pigafetta" title="Antonio Pigafetta">Antonio Pigafetta</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a> scholar, kept a detailed journal that is a key source of information about the voyage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>This round-the-world voyage gave Spain valuable knowledge of the world and its oceans which later helped in the exploration and settlement of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1565%E2%80%931898)" title="History of the Philippines (1565–1898)">Philippines</a>. Although this was not a realistic alternative to the Portuguese route around Africa<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan" title="Strait of Magellan">Strait of Magellan</a> was too far south, and the Pacific Ocean too vast to cover in a single trip from Spain) successive Spanish expeditions used this information to explore the Pacific Ocean and discovered routes that <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">opened up trade</a> between <a href="/wiki/Acapulco" title="Acapulco">Acapulco</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a> in the Philippines.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Westward_and_eastward_exploration_meet">Westward and eastward exploration meet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Westward and eastward exploration meet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pulau_Maitara_and_Pulau_Tidore_from_the_Floridas_Restaurant_in_Pulau_Ternate_(Ternate_Island),_The_Moluccas_(Maluku)_(15182126636).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pulau_Maitara_and_Pulau_Tidore_from_the_Floridas_Restaurant_in_Pulau_Ternate_%28Ternate_Island%29%2C_The_Moluccas_%28Maluku%29_%2815182126636%29.jpg/220px-Pulau_Maitara_and_Pulau_Tidore_from_the_Floridas_Restaurant_in_Pulau_Ternate_%28Ternate_Island%29%2C_The_Moluccas_%28Maluku%29_%2815182126636%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pulau_Maitara_and_Pulau_Tidore_from_the_Floridas_Restaurant_in_Pulau_Ternate_%28Ternate_Island%29%2C_The_Moluccas_%28Maluku%29_%2815182126636%29.jpg/330px-Pulau_Maitara_and_Pulau_Tidore_from_the_Floridas_Restaurant_in_Pulau_Ternate_%28Ternate_Island%29%2C_The_Moluccas_%28Maluku%29_%2815182126636%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pulau_Maitara_and_Pulau_Tidore_from_the_Floridas_Restaurant_in_Pulau_Ternate_%28Ternate_Island%29%2C_The_Moluccas_%28Maluku%29_%2815182126636%29.jpg/440px-Pulau_Maitara_and_Pulau_Tidore_from_the_Floridas_Restaurant_in_Pulau_Ternate_%28Ternate_Island%29%2C_The_Moluccas_%28Maluku%29_%2815182126636%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>View from <a href="/wiki/Ternate" title="Ternate">Ternate</a> to <a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a> islands in <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Maluku</a>, where Portuguese eastward and Spanish westward explorations ultimately met and clashed between 1522 and 1529<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saavedra-1527-1529.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Saavedra-1527-1529.svg/300px-Saavedra-1527-1529.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Saavedra-1527-1529.svg/450px-Saavedra-1527-1529.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Saavedra-1527-1529.svg/600px-Saavedra-1527-1529.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="728" data-file-height="389" /></a><figcaption>Saavedra's failed attempts to find a return route from the Maluku to New Spain (Mexico) in 1529</figcaption></figure> <p>Soon after Magellan's expedition, the Portuguese rushed to seize the surviving crew and built a fort in <a href="/wiki/Ternate" title="Ternate">Ternate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1525, <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles I of Spain</a> sent another expedition westward to colonize the <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Maluku Islands</a>, claiming that they were in his zone of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a>. The fleet of seven ships and 450 men was led by <a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_Jofre_de_Loa%C3%ADsa" class="mw-redirect" title="García Jofre de Loaísa">García Jofre de Loaísa</a> and included the most notable Spanish navigators: <a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a> and Loaísa, who died then, and the young <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a>. </p><p>Near the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Magellan" title="Strait of Magellan">Strait of Magellan</a> one of the ships was pushed south by a storm, reaching 56° S, where they thought seeing "<i>earth's end</i>": so <a href="/wiki/Cape_Horn" title="Cape Horn">Cape Horn</a> was crossed for the first time. The expedition reached the islands with great difficulty, docking at <a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_147-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conflict with the Portuguese established in nearby Ternate was inevitable, starting nearly a decade of skirmishes.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As there was not a set eastern limit to the Tordesillas line, both kingdoms organized meetings to resolve the issue. From 1524 to 1529, Portuguese and Spanish experts met at Badajoz-Elvas trying to find the exact location of the <a href="/wiki/Antimeridian" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimeridian">antimeridian</a> of Tordesillas, which would divide the world into two equal hemispheres. Each crown appointed three <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartographers</a>, three <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">pilots</a>, and three <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematicians</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lopo_Homem" title="Lopo Homem">Lopo Homem</a>, Portuguese cartographer and cosmographer was on the board, along with cartographer <a href="/wiki/Diogo_Ribeiro_(cartographer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogo Ribeiro (cartographer)">Diogo Ribeiro</a> of the Spanish delegation. The board met several times without reaching an agreement: the knowledge at that time was insufficient for an <a href="/wiki/History_of_longitude" title="History of longitude">accurate calculation of longitude</a>, and each group gave the islands to its sovereign. The issue was settled only in 1529, after a long negotiation, with the signing of <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Zaragoza" title="Treaty of Zaragoza">Treaty of Zaragoza</a>, which allocated the Maluku Islands to Portugal and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> to Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1525 to 1528, Portugal sent several expeditions around the Maluku Islands. <a href="/wiki/Gomes_de_Sequeira" title="Gomes de Sequeira">Gomes de Sequeira</a> and Diogo da Rocha were sent north by the governor of Ternate <a href="/wiki/Jorge_de_Menezes" title="Jorge de Menezes">Jorge de Menezes</a>, being the first Europeans to reach the <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline Islands</a>, which they named "Islands de Sequeira".<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1526, Jorge de Meneses docked on <a href="/wiki/Biak" title="Biak">Biak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waigeo" title="Waigeo">Waigeo</a> islands, Papua New Guinea. Based on these explorations stands the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Portuguese_discovery_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia">theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia</a>, one among several competing theories about the early discovery of Australia, supported by Australian historian <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_McIntyre" title="Kenneth McIntyre">Kenneth McIntyre</a>, stating it was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Crist%C3%B3v%C3%A3o_de_Mendon%C3%A7a" title="Cristóvão de Mendonça">Cristóvão de Mendonça</a> and Gomes de Sequeira. </p><p>In 1527, <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a> fitted out a fleet to find new lands in the "South Sea" (Pacific Ocean), asking his cousin <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Saavedra_Cer%C3%B3n" title="Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón">Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón</a> to take charge. On 31 October 1527, Saavedra sailed from <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>, crossing the Pacific and touring the north of <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>, then named <i>Isla de Oro</i>. In October 1528, one of the vessels reached the Maluku Islands. In his attempt to return to New Spain he was diverted by the northeast <a href="/wiki/Trade_wind" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade wind">trade winds</a>, which threw him back, so he tried sailing back down, to the south. He returned to New Guinea and sailed northeast, where he sighted the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_Islands" title="Admiralty Islands">Admiralty Islands</a>, but again was surprised by the winds, which brought him a third time to the Moluccas. This westbound return route was hard to find but was eventually discovered by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a> in 1565.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inland_Spanish_expeditions_(1519–1532)"><span id="Inland_Spanish_expeditions_.281519.E2.80.931532.29"></span>Inland Spanish expeditions (1519–1532)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Inland Spanish expeditions (1519–1532)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rumors of undiscovered islands northwest of <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a> reached Spain by 1511, ushering King <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand</a>'s interest in forestalling further exploration. While the Portuguese were making huge gains in the Indian Ocean, the Spanish invested in exploring inland in search of gold and other valuable resources. The members of these expeditions, the "<a href="/wiki/Conquistadors" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquistadors">conquistadors</a>", were not soldiers in an army, but more like <a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">soldiers of fortune</a>; they came from a variety of backgrounds including artisans, merchants, clergy, lawyers, lesser nobility and a few freed slaves. They usually supplied their own equipment or were extended credit to purchase it in exchange for a share in profits. They usually had no professional military training, but a number of them had previous experience on other expeditions.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Americas, the Spanish encountered large indigenous empires and formed alliances with <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">indigenous people</a> through small expeditions. After establishing Spanish <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> and discovering wealth, the crown focused on implementing Spanish state and church institutions. A key element was the 'spiritual conquest' through Christian evangelization. The initial economy relied on a tribute and forced labor under the <i><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">encomienda</a></i> system. The discovery of vast silver deposits transformed both the colonial economies of Mexico and Peru and Spain’s economy. With global trade networks and valuable American crops, Spain's economy strengthened, enhancing its status as a world power.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During this time, <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemics</a> of European diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> decimated the indigenous populations.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1512, to reward <a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a> for exploring <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> in 1508, King Ferdinand urged him to seek these new lands. He would become governor of discovered lands but was to finance himself all exploration.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With three ships and about 200 men, Léon set out from Puerto Rico in March 1513. In April they sighted land and named it <i><a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">La Florida</a></i>—because it was <a href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</a> (Florida) season—believing it was an island, becoming credited as the first European to land in the continent. The arrival location has been disputed between <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine,_Florida" title="St. Augustine, Florida">St. Augustine</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n_Inlet" class="mw-redirect" title="Ponce de León Inlet">Ponce de León Inlet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melbourne_Beach,_Florida" title="Melbourne Beach, Florida">Melbourne Beach</a>. They headed south for further exploration and on April 8 encountered a current so strong that it pushed them backward: this was the first encounter with the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a> that would soon become the primary route for eastbound ships leaving the Spanish Indies bound for Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They explored down the coast reaching <a href="/wiki/Biscayne_Bay" title="Biscayne Bay">Biscayne Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dry_Tortugas" class="mw-redirect" title="Dry Tortugas">Dry Tortugas</a> and then sailing southwest in an attempt to circle <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> to return, reaching <a href="/wiki/Grand_Bahama" title="Grand Bahama">Grand Bahama</a> on July. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cortés'_Mexico_and_the_Aztec_Empire"><span id="Cort.C3.A9s.27_Mexico_and_the_Aztec_Empire"></span>Cortés' Mexico and the Aztec Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Cortés' Mexico and the Aztec Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Spanish conquest of Yucatán</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Spanish conquest of Guatemala</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruta_de_Cort%C3%A9s.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Ruta_de_Cort%C3%A9s.svg/300px-Ruta_de_Cort%C3%A9s.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Ruta_de_Cort%C3%A9s.svg/450px-Ruta_de_Cort%C3%A9s.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Ruta_de_Cort%C3%A9s.svg/600px-Ruta_de_Cort%C3%A9s.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Route of Cortés' inland progress 1519–1521</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1517, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>'s governor <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar</a> commissioned a fleet under the command of <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Hern%C3%A1ndez_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_(Yucat%C3%A1n_conquistador)" title="Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (Yucatán conquistador)">Hernández de Córdoba</a> to explore the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Yucatán peninsula">Yucatán peninsula</a>. They reached the coast where <a href="/wiki/Mayans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayans">Mayans</a> invited them to land. They were attacked at night and only a remnant of the crew returned. Velázquez then commissioned another expedition led by his nephew <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Grijalva" title="Juan de Grijalva">Juan de Grijalva</a>, who sailed south along the coast to <a href="/wiki/Tabasco" title="Tabasco">Tabasco</a>, part of the Aztec empire. </p><p>In 1518, Velázquez gave the mayor of the capital of Cuba, <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>, the command of an expedition to secure the interior of Mexico but, due to an old gripe between them, revoked the charter. In February 1519, Cortés went ahead anyway, in an act of open mutiny. With about 11 ships, 500 men, 13 horses and a small number of cannons he landed in Yucatán, in <a href="/wiki/Mayan_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayan civilization">Mayan</a> territory,<sup id="cite_ref-Grunberg_2007_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grunberg_2007-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> claiming the land for the Spanish crown. From <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a> he proceeded to <a href="/wiki/Tabasco" title="Tabasco">Tabasco</a> and won a battle against the natives. Among the vanquished was Marina (<a href="/wiki/La_Malinche" title="La Malinche">La Malinche</a>), his future mistress, who knew both (Aztec) <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahuatl language">Nahuatl language</a> and Maya, becoming a valuable interpreter and counsellor. Cortés learned about the wealthy <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a> through <a href="/wiki/La_Malinche" title="La Malinche">La Malinche</a>, </p><p>In July, his men took over <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a> and he placed himself under direct orders of new king <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles I of Spain">Charles I of Spain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Grunberg_2007_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grunberg_2007-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There Cortés asked for a meeting with Aztec Emperor <a href="/wiki/Montezuma_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Montezuma II">Montezuma II</a>, who repeatedly refused. They headed to <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a> and on the way made alliances with several tribes. In October, accompanied by about 3,000 <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcaltec" title="Tlaxcaltec">Tlaxcaltec</a> they marched to <a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a>, the second largest city in central Mexico. Either to instill fear upon the Aztecs waiting for him or (as he later claimed) wishing to make an example when he feared native treachery, they massacred thousands of unarmed members of the nobility gathered at the central plaza and partially burned the city. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tenochtitlan_y_Golfo_de_Mexico_1524.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tenochtitlan_y_Golfo_de_Mexico_1524.jpg/300px-Tenochtitlan_y_Golfo_de_Mexico_1524.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tenochtitlan_y_Golfo_de_Mexico_1524.jpg/450px-Tenochtitlan_y_Golfo_de_Mexico_1524.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tenochtitlan_y_Golfo_de_Mexico_1524.jpg/600px-Tenochtitlan_y_Golfo_de_Mexico_1524.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1010" /></a><figcaption>Map of the island city <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitl%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenochtitlán">Tenochtitlán</a> and Mexico gulf made by one of Cortés' men, 1524, <a href="/wiki/Newberry_Library" title="Newberry Library">Newberry Library</a>, Chicago</figcaption></figure> <p>On November 8, Cortés and his large army were welcomed by Moctezuma II in Tenochtitlan, who hoped to learn about them to eventually defeat them.<sup id="cite_ref-Grunberg_2007_159-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grunberg_2007-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moctezuma gave lavish gifts, which led Cortés to plunder the city. Cortés claimed the Aztecs saw him as an emissary or incarnation of the god <a href="/wiki/Quetzalcoatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Quetzalcoatl">Quetzalcoatl</a>, though this is contested by few historians.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon learning that his men had been attacked on the coast, Cortés took Moctezuma hostage in his palace, demanding tribute for King Charles. </p><p>Meanwhile, Velasquez sent another expedition, led by <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a>, to oppose Cortès, arriving in Mexico in April 1520 with 1,100 men.<sup id="cite_ref-Grunberg_2007_159-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grunberg_2007-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cortés left 200 men in Tenochtitlan and took the rest to confront Narvaez, whom he overcame, convincing his men to join him. In Tenochtitlán one of Cortés's lieutenants committed a <a href="/wiki/Massacre_in_the_Great_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Massacre in the Great Temple">massacre in the Great Temple</a>, triggering local rebellion. Cortés speedily returned, attempting the support of Moctezuma but the Aztec emperor was killed, possibly stoned by his subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish fled for the Tlaxcaltec during the <i><a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">Noche Triste</a></i>, where they managed a narrow escape while their back guard was massacred. Much of the treasure looted was lost during this panicked escape.<sup id="cite_ref-Grunberg_2007_159-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grunberg_2007-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Otumba" title="Battle of Otumba">a battle in Otumba</a> they reached Tlaxcala, having lost 870 men.<sup id="cite_ref-Grunberg_2007_159-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grunberg_2007-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having prevailed with the assistance of allies and reinforcements from <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, Cortés <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">besieged Tenochtitlán</a> and captured its ruler <a href="/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc" title="Cuauhtémoc">Cuauhtémoc</a> in August 1521. As the Aztec Empire ended he claimed the city for Spain, renaming it Mexico City. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pizarro's_Peru_and_the_Inca_Empire"><span id="Pizarro.27s_Peru_and_the_Inca_Empire"></span>Pizarro's Peru and the Inca Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Pizarro's Peru and the Inca Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conquest_peru_1531_edited.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Conquest_peru_1531_edited.png/200px-Conquest_peru_1531_edited.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Conquest_peru_1531_edited.png/300px-Conquest_peru_1531_edited.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Conquest_peru_1531_edited.png/400px-Conquest_peru_1531_edited.png 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="1905" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a>'s route of exploration during the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> (1531–1533)</figcaption></figure> <p>A first attempt to explore western South America was undertaken in 1522 by <a href="/wiki/Pascual_de_Andagoya" title="Pascual de Andagoya">Pascual de Andagoya</a>. Native South Americans told him about a gold-rich territory on a river called Pirú. Having reached <a href="/wiki/San_Juan_River_(Colombia)" title="San Juan River (Colombia)">San Juan River (Colombia)</a>, Andagoya fell ill and returned to <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, where he spread the news about "Pirú" as the legendary <a href="/wiki/El_Dorado" title="El Dorado">El Dorado</a>. These, along with the accounts of the success of <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>, caught the attention of Pizarro. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a> had accompanied <a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Balboa</a> in the crossing of the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">Isthmus of Panama</a>. In 1524 he formed a partnership with priest <a href="/wiki/Hernando_de_Luque" title="Hernando de Luque">Hernando de Luque</a> and soldier <a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Almagro" title="Diego de Almagro">Diego de Almagro</a> to explore the south, agreeing to divide the profits. They dubbed the enterprise the "<i>Empresa del Levante</i>": Pizarro would command, Almagro would provide military and food supplies, and Luque would be in charge of finances and additional provisions. </p><p>On 13 September 1524, the first of three expeditions set out to conquer <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> with 80 men and 40 horses. The venture failed, halting in Colombia due to bad weather, hunger, and conflicts with locals; Almagro lost an eye. Their route was marked by <i><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Deseado" title="Puerto Deseado">Puerto Deseado</a></i> (desired port), <i><a href="/wiki/Puerto_del_Hambre" title="Puerto del Hambre">Puerto del Hambre</a></i> (port of hunger), and <i>Puerto quemado</i> (burned port). Two years later, a second expedition began with reluctant permission from the Governor of Panama. In August 1526, they departed with two ships, 160 men, and horses. Upon reaching the San Juan River, Pizarro explored swampy coasts, while Almagro sought reinforcements. Pizarro's pilot, sailing south and crossing the equator, captured a raft from <a href="/wiki/Tumbes_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumbes Region">Tumbes</a>. To his surprise, the raft carried coveted textiles, ceramics, gold, silver, and emeralds, becoming the expedition's main focus. Almagro later joined with reinforcements, and despite challenging conditions, they reached <a href="/wiki/Atacames" title="Atacames">Atacames</a>, where a sizable native population under <a href="/wiki/Inca" class="mw-redirect" title="Inca">Inca</a> rule was observed, though they did not land. </p><p>Pizarro, safe near the coast, sent Almagro and Luque for reinforcements with proof if the <a href="/wiki/El_Dorado" title="El Dorado">rumoured gold</a>. The new governor rejected a third expedition, ordering everyone back to Panama. Almagro and Luque seized the chance to rejoin Pizarro. At <i>Isla de Gallo</i>, Pizarro drew a line, presenting the choice between Peru's riches and Panama's poverty. Thirteen men, The Famous Thirteen, stayed and headed to <i>La Isla Gorgona</i>, staying seven months until provisions arrived. </p><p>They sailed south and by April 1528, reached northwestern Peru's <a href="/wiki/Tumbes_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumbes Region">Tumbes Region</a>, warmly received by the <i>Tumpis</i>. Pizarro's men reported incredible riches, <a href="/wiki/Llama" title="Llama">llama</a> sightings, and the natives named them "Children of the Sun" for their fair complexion and brilliant armour. They decided to return to Panama to prepare a final expedition, sailing south through named territories like Cabo Blanco, port of Payta, Sechura, Punta de Aguja, Santa Cruz, and <a href="/wiki/Trujillo,_Peru" title="Trujillo, Peru">Trujillo</a>, reaching the ninth degree south. </p><p>In the spring of 1528, Pizarro sailed for Spain, where he had an interview with king <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles I</a>. The king heard of his expeditions in lands rich in gold and silver and promised to support him. The <i>Capitulación de Toledo</i><sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> authorized Pizarro to proceed with the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of Peru">conquest of Peru</a>. Pizarro was then able to convince many friends and relatives to join: his brothers <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1ndo_Pizarro" class="mw-redirect" title="Hernándo Pizarro">Hernándo Pizarro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juan_Pizarro_(conquistador)" title="Juan Pizarro (conquistador)">Juan Pizarro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Pizarro" title="Gonzalo Pizarro">Gonzalo Pizarro</a> and also <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Orellana" title="Francisco de Orellana">Francisco de Orellana</a>, who would later explore the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a>, as well as his cousin <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Pizarro" title="Pedro Pizarro">Pedro Pizarro</a>. </p><p>Pizarro's third and final expedition left Panama for Peru on 27 December 1530. With three ships and one hundred and eighty men, they landed near Ecuador and sailed to Tumbes, finding the place destroyed. They entered the interior and established the first Spanish settlement in <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Miguel_de_Piura" class="mw-redirect" title="San Miguel de Piura">San Miguel de Piura</a>. One of the men returned with an Incan envoy and an invitation for a meeting. Since the last meeting, the Inca had begun a <a href="/wiki/Inca_Civil_War" title="Inca Civil War">civil war</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atahualpa" title="Atahualpa">Atahualpa</a> had been resting in northern Peru following the defeat of his brother <a href="/wiki/Hu%C3%A1scar" title="Huáscar">Huáscar</a>. After marching for two months, they approached Atahualpa. He refused the Spanish, saying he would be "no man's tributary". There were fewer than 200 Spanish to his 80,000 soldiers, but Pizarro attacked and won the Incan army in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cajamarca" title="Battle of Cajamarca">Battle of Cajamarca</a>, taking Atahualpa captive at the so-called <a href="/wiki/The_Ransom_Room" class="mw-redirect" title="The Ransom Room">ransom room</a>. Despite fulfilling his promise of filling one room with gold and two with silver, he was convicted for killing his brother and plotting against Pizarro, and was executed. </p><p>In 1533, Pizarro invaded <a href="/wiki/Cusco" title="Cusco">Cuzco</a> with indigenous troops and wrote to King Charles I: "<i>This city is the greatest and the finest ever seen in this country or anywhere in the Indies ... it is so beautiful and has such fine buildings that it would be remarkable even in Spain.</i>" After the Spanish had sealed the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of Peru">conquest of Peru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jauja" title="Jauja">Jauja</a> in fertile <a href="/wiki/Mantaro_Valley" title="Mantaro Valley">Mantaro Valley</a> was established as Peru's provisional capital, but it was too far up in the mountains, and Pizarro founded the city of <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a> on 18 January 1535, which Pizarro considered one of the most important acts in his life. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_new_trade_routes_(1542–1565)"><span id="Major_new_trade_routes_.281542.E2.80.931565.29"></span>Major new trade routes (1542–1565)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Major new trade routes (1542–1565)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png/330px-16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png/495px-16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png/660px-16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png 2x" data-file-width="2835" data-file-height="1188" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> trade routes (blue) and the rival <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila-Acapulco galleons</a> trade routes (white) established in 1568</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1543, three Portuguese traders accidentally became the first Westerners to reach and <a href="/wiki/Nanban_trade" title="Nanban trade">trade with Japan</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Mendes_Pinto" title="Fernão Mendes Pinto">Fernão Mendes Pinto</a>, who claimed to be in this journey, they arrived at <a href="/wiki/Tanegashima" title="Tanegashima">Tanegashima</a>, where the locals were impressed by <a href="/wiki/Firearms_of_Japan" title="Firearms of Japan">firearms</a> that would be immediately made by the Japanese on a large scale.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Spanish conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> was ordered by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a> was the designated commander. Urdaneta agreed to accompany the expedition but refused to command and <a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a> was appointed instead. The expedition set sail on November 1564.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After spending some time on the islands, Legazpi sent Urdaneta back to find a better return route. Urdaneta set sail from San Miguel on the island of <a href="/wiki/Cebu" title="Cebu">Cebu</a> on 1 June 1565, but was obliged to sail as far as <a href="/wiki/38th_parallel_north" title="38th parallel north">38 degrees North latitude</a> to obtain favorable winds. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Namban-11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Namban-11.jpg/220px-Namban-11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Namban-11.jpg/330px-Namban-11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Namban-11.jpg/440px-Namban-11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2618" data-file-height="2370" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Carrack" title="Carrack">carrack</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanban_trade" title="Nanban trade">Nanban art</a> attributed to <a href="/wiki/Kan%C5%8D_Naizen" title="Kanō Naizen">Kanō Naizen</a>, 1570–1616 Japan</figcaption></figure> <p>He reasoned that the <a href="/wiki/Trade_wind" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade wind">trade winds</a> of the Pacific might move in a <a href="/wiki/Gyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyre">gyre</a> as the Atlantic winds did. If in the Atlantic, ships made the <i><a href="/wiki/Volta_do_mar" title="Volta do mar">Volta do mar</a></i> to pick up winds that would bring them back from Madeira, then, he reasoned, by sailing far to the north before heading east, he would pick up trade winds to bring him back to North America. His hunch paid off, and he hit the coast near <a href="/wiki/Cape_Mendocino" title="Cape Mendocino">Cape Mendocino</a>, California, then followed the coast south. The ship reached the port of Acapulco, on 8 October 1565, having traveled 12,000 miles (19,000 kilometres) in 130 days. Fourteen of his crew died; only Urdaneta and Felipe de Salcedo, nephew of López de Legazpi, had strength enough to cast the anchors. </p><p>Thus, a cross-Pacific Spanish route was established, between Mexico and the Philippines. For a long time, these routes were used by the <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleons</a>, thereby creating a trade link joining China, the Americas, and Europe via the combined trans-Pacific and <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_crossing" title="Transatlantic crossing">trans-Atlantic</a> routes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Northern_European_involvement_(1595–17th_century)"><span id="Northern_European_involvement_.281595.E2.80.9317th_century.29"></span>Northern European involvement (1595–17th century)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Northern European involvement (1595–17th century)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OrteliusWorldMap1570.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/OrteliusWorldMap1570.jpg/300px-OrteliusWorldMap1570.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/OrteliusWorldMap1570.jpg/450px-OrteliusWorldMap1570.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/OrteliusWorldMap1570.jpg/600px-OrteliusWorldMap1570.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5816" data-file-height="3961" /></a><figcaption>In 1570 (May 20) Gilles Coppens de Diest at <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> published 53 maps created by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Ortelius" title="Abraham Ortelius">Abraham Ortelius</a> under the title <i><a href="/wiki/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum" title="Theatrum Orbis Terrarum">Theatrum Orbis Terrarum</a></i>, considered the "first modern atlas". Three Latin editions of this (besides a Dutch, a French and a German edition) appeared before the end of 1572; the atlas continued to be in demand till about 1612. This is the world map from this atlas.</figcaption></figure> <p>European nations outside Iberia did not recognize the Treaty of Tordesillas between Portugal and Castile, nor did they recognize Pope Alexander VI's donation of the Spanish finds in the New World. <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">the Netherlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> each had a long <a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">maritime tradition</a> and had been engaging in <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">privateering</a>. Despite Iberian protections, the new technologies and maps soon made their way north. </p><p>After the marriage of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII of England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Aragon" title="Catherine of Aragon">Catherine of Aragon</a> failed to produce a male heir and Henry failed to obtain a papal dispensation to annul his marriage, he broke with the Roman Catholic Church and established himself as head of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>. This added religious conflict to political conflict. When much of The Netherlands became Protestant, it sought political and religious independence from Catholic Spain. In 1568, the Dutch rebelled against the rule of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II of Spain</a> leading to the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a>. The war between England and Spain also broke out. In 1580, Philip II became King of Portugal, as heir to its Crown. Although he ruled Portugal and its empire as separate from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>, the union of the crowns produced a Catholic superpower, which England and the Netherlands challenged. </p><p>In the eighty-year Dutch War of Independence, Philip's troops conquered the important trading cities of <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, then the most important port in the world, fell in 1585.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Protestant population was given two years to settle affairs before leaving the city.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many settled in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>. Those were mainly skilled craftsmen, rich merchants of the port cities and refugees that fled religious persecution, particularly <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a> from Portugal and Spain and, later, the <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenots</a> from France. The <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim_Fathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim Fathers">Pilgrim Fathers</a> also spent time there before going to the New World. This mass immigration was an important driving force: a small port in 1585, Amsterdam quickly transformed into one of the most important commercial centres in the world. After the failure of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> in 1588, there was a huge expansion of maritime trade even though the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/English_Armada" title="English Armada">English Armada</a> would confirm the naval supremacy of the Spanish navy over the emergent competitors. </p><p>Dutch maritime power rose quickly as Dutch sailors, skilled in navigation and mapmaking, engaged with Portuguese voyages. In 1592, <a href="/wiki/Cornelis_de_Houtman" title="Cornelis de Houtman">Cornelis de Houtman</a> gathered information on the Spice Islands in Lisbon. The same year, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Huyghen_van_Linschoten" title="Jan Huyghen van Linschoten">Jan Huyghen van Linschoten</a> published a detailed travel report in Amsterdam, providing navigation instructions for reaching the East Indies and Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this, Houtman led the Dutch’s first exploratory voyage, discovering a new route from Madagascar to the <a href="/wiki/Sunda_Strait" title="Sunda Strait">Sunda Strait</a> and securing a treaty with the <a href="/wiki/Banten" title="Banten">Banten</a> Sultan. The Dutch also demonstrated their maritime strength by seizing <a href="/wiki/Malacca#Colonial_era" title="Malacca">Malacca</a> from Portugal in 1641, following a series of battles that began in 1602. </p><p>Dutch and British interest, fed on new information, led to a movement of commercial expansion, and the foundation of English (1600), and Dutch (1602) <a href="/wiki/Chartered_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Chartered companies">chartered companies</a>. Dutch, French, and English sent ships which flouted the Portuguese monopoly, concentrated mostly on the coastal areas, which proved unable to defend against such a vast and dispersed venture.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exploring_North_America">Exploring North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Exploring North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry_Hudson_Map_26.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Henry_Hudson_Map_26.png/300px-Henry_Hudson_Map_26.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Henry_Hudson_Map_26.png/450px-Henry_Hudson_Map_26.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Henry_Hudson_Map_26.png/600px-Henry_Hudson_Map_26.png 2x" data-file-width="824" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hudson" title="Henry Hudson">Henry Hudson</a>'s 1609–1611 voyages to North America for the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> (VOC)</figcaption></figure> <p>The 1497 English expedition authorized by <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a> was led by Italian Venetian <a href="/wiki/John_Cabot" title="John Cabot">John Cabot</a> (Giovanni Caboto); it was the first of a series of French and English missions exploring North America. Mariners from the Italian peninsula played an important role in early explorations, most especially Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus. With its major conquests of central Mexico and Peru and discoveries of silver, Spain put limited efforts into exploring the northern part of the Americas; its resources were concentrated in Central and South America where more wealth had been found.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These other European expeditions were initially motivated by the same idea as Columbus, namely a westerly shortcut to the Asian mainland. After the existence of "another ocean" (the Pacific) was confirmed by Balboa in 1513, there still remained the motivation of potentially finding an oceanic <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Passage" title="Northwest Passage">Northwest Passage</a> for Asian trade.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_168-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was not discovered until the early twentieth century, but other possibilities were found, although nothing on the scale of the spectacular ones of the Spanish. In the early 17th century colonists from a number of Northern European states began to settle on the east coast of North America. Between 1520 and 1521, the Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_%C3%81lvares_Fagundes" title="João Álvares Fagundes">João Álvares Fagundes</a>, accompanied by couples of mainland Portugal and the Azores, explored <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland" class="mw-redirect" title="Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> (possibly reaching the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Fundy" title="Bay of Fundy">Bay of Fundy</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Minas_Basin" title="Minas Basin">Minas Basin</a><sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), and established a fishing colony on the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Island" title="Cape Breton Island">Cape Breton Island</a> that would last until at least the 1570s or near the end of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1524, Italian <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_da_Verrazzano" title="Giovanni da Verrazzano">Giovanni da Verrazzano</a> sailed under the authority of <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I of France</a>, who was motivated by indignation over the division of the world between Portuguese and Spanish. Verrazzano explored the Atlantic Coast of North America, from <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> to <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a>, and was the first recorded European to visit what would later become the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Colony" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia Colony">Virginia Colony</a> and the United States. In the same year <a href="/wiki/Esteban_G%C3%B3mez" class="mw-redirect" title="Esteban Gómez">Estevão Gomes</a>, a Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartographer</a> who had sailed in Ferdinand Magellan's fleet, explored <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>, sailing South through <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a>, where he entered what is now <a href="/wiki/New_York_Harbor" title="New York Harbor">New York Harbor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hudson_River" title="Hudson River">Hudson River</a> and eventually reached <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> in August 1525. As a result of his expedition, the 1529 <a href="/wiki/Diogo_Ribeiro_(cartographer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogo Ribeiro (cartographer)">Diogo Ribeiro</a> world map outlines the East coast of North America almost perfectly. From 1534 to 1536, French explorer <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cartier" title="Jacques Cartier">Jacques Cartier</a>, believed to have accompanied Verrazzano to Nova Scotia and Brazil, was the first European to travel inland in North America, describing the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Saint_Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulf of Saint Lawrence">Gulf of Saint Lawrence</a>, which he named "<a href="/wiki/Name_of_Canada" title="Name of Canada">The Country of Canadas</a>", after <a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquois names</a>, claiming what is now Canada for Francis I of France.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Half_Moon_in_Hudson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Half_Moon_in_Hudson.jpg/220px-Half_Moon_in_Hudson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Half_Moon_in_Hudson.jpg/330px-Half_Moon_in_Hudson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Half_Moon_in_Hudson.jpg/440px-Half_Moon_in_Hudson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1006" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Henry Hudson's ship <i><a href="/wiki/Halve_Maen" title="Halve Maen">Halve Maen</a></i> in the <a href="/wiki/Hudson_River" title="Hudson River">Hudson River</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Europeans explored the Pacific Coast beginning in the mid-16th century. Spaniards <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Ulloa" title="Francisco de Ulloa">Francisco de Ulloa</a> explored the Pacific coast of present-day Mexico including the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_California" title="Gulf of California">Gulf of California</a>, proving that <a href="/wiki/Baja_California" title="Baja California">Baja California</a> was a peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite his report based on first-hand information, the myth persisted in Europe that California was an <a href="/wiki/Island_of_California" title="Island of California">island</a>. His account provided the first recorded use of the name "California". <a href="/wiki/Juan_Rodr%C3%ADguez_Cabrillo" title="Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo">João Rodrigues Cabrilho</a>, a Portuguese navigator sailing for the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Crown</a>, was the first European to set foot in California, landing on September 28, 1542, on the shores of <a href="/wiki/San_Diego_Bay" title="San Diego Bay">San Diego Bay</a> and claiming California for Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also landed on <a href="/wiki/San_Miguel_Island" title="San Miguel Island">San Miguel</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands_of_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Channel Islands of California">Channel Islands</a>, and continued as far north as <a href="/wiki/Point_Reyes" title="Point Reyes">Point Reyes</a> on the mainland. After his death, the crew continued exploring as far north as <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>. </p><p>The English <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">privateer</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Drake" title="Francis Drake">Francis Drake</a> sailed along the coast in 1579 north of Cabrillo's landing site while circumnavigating the world. Drake had a long and largely successful career attacking Spanish settlements in the Caribbean islands and the mainland so for the English, he was a great hero and fervent Protestant, but for the Spanish, he was "a frightening monster." Drake played a major role in the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a> in 1588 but led an armada himself to the Spanish Caribbean that was unsuccessful in dislodging the Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 5 June 1579, the ship briefly made first landfall at South Cove, Cape Arago, just south of <a href="/wiki/Coos_Bay" title="Coos Bay">Coos Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>, and then sailed south while searching for a suitable harbor to repair his damaged ship.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gough1980_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gough1980-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 17 June, Drake and his crew found a protected cove when they landed on the Pacific coast of what is now Northern California near <a href="/wiki/Point_Reyes" title="Point Reyes">Point Reyes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gough1980_179-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gough1980-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While ashore, he claimed the area for Queen <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I of England</a> as Nova Albion or <a href="/wiki/New_Albion" title="New Albion">New Albion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To document and assert his claim, Drake posted an engraved plate of brass to claim sovereignty for Queen Elizabeth and her successors on the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drake's landfalls on the west coast of North America are one small part of his 1577-1580 circumnavigation of the globe, the first captain of his own ship to do so. Drake died in 1596 off the coast of Panama, following injuries from a raid.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1609 to 1611, after several voyages on behalf of English merchants to explore a prospective <a href="/wiki/Northern_Sea_Route" title="Northern Sea Route">Northeast Passage</a> to India, English mariner <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hudson" title="Henry Hudson">Henry Hudson</a>, under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> (VOC), explored the region around present-day New York City, while looking for a western route to Asia. He explored the <a href="/wiki/Hudson_River" title="Hudson River">Hudson River</a> and laid the foundation for <a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">Dutch colonization</a> of the region. Hudson's final expedition ranged farther north in search of the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Passage" title="Northwest Passage">Northwest Passage</a>, leading to his discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Hudson_Strait" title="Hudson Strait">Hudson Strait</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hudson_Bay" title="Hudson Bay">Hudson Bay</a>. After wintering in <a href="/wiki/James_Bay" title="James Bay">James Bay</a>, Hudson tried to press on with his voyage in the spring of 1611, but his crew mutinied and they <a href="/wiki/Marooning" title="Marooning">cast him adrift</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Search_for_a_northern_route">Search for a northern route</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Search for a northern route"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_-_Merckliche_Beschreibung_sampt_eygenlicher_Abbildung_eynes_frembden_unbekanten_Volcks_-_000003625.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_-_Merckliche_Beschreibung_sampt_eygenlicher_Abbildung_eynes_frembden_unbekanten_Volcks_-_000003625.jpg/220px-Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_-_Merckliche_Beschreibung_sampt_eygenlicher_Abbildung_eynes_frembden_unbekanten_Volcks_-_000003625.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_-_Merckliche_Beschreibung_sampt_eygenlicher_Abbildung_eynes_frembden_unbekanten_Volcks_-_000003625.jpg/330px-Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_-_Merckliche_Beschreibung_sampt_eygenlicher_Abbildung_eynes_frembden_unbekanten_Volcks_-_000003625.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_-_Merckliche_Beschreibung_sampt_eygenlicher_Abbildung_eynes_frembden_unbekanten_Volcks_-_000003625.jpg/440px-Zentralbibliothek_Z%C3%BCrich_-_Merckliche_Beschreibung_sampt_eygenlicher_Abbildung_eynes_frembden_unbekanten_Volcks_-_000003625.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7654" data-file-height="9680" /></a><figcaption>Report in German of one of <a href="/wiki/Martin_Frobisher" title="Martin Frobisher">Martin Frobisher</a>'s Arctic expeditions</figcaption></figure> <p>France, the Netherlands, and England sought a sea route to Asia after finding none through Africa or South America. With no route through the Americas, they focused on northern passages, driving European exploration of the Arctic coasts. The idea of a link between the Atlantic and Pacific was first proposed by Russian diplomat <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Gerasimov" title="Dmitry Gerasimov">Gerasimov</a> in 1525, though Russian Pomors had explored parts of the route as early as the 11th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1553, English explorer <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Willoughby" title="Hugh Willoughby">Hugh Willoughby</a> with chief pilot <a href="/wiki/Richard_Chancellor" title="Richard Chancellor">Richard Chancellor</a> were sent out with three vessels in search of a passage by London's <a href="/wiki/Company_of_Merchant_Adventurers_to_New_Lands" title="Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands">Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands</a>. During the voyage across the <a href="/wiki/Barents_Sea" title="Barents Sea">Barents Sea</a>, Willoughby thought he saw islands to the north, and islands called <a href="/wiki/Willoughby%27s_Land" title="Willoughby's Land">Willoughby's Land</a> were shown on maps published by <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Plancius" title="Petrus Plancius">Plancius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Mercator</a> into the 1640s.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vessels were separated by "terrible whirlwinds" in the <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Sea" title="Norwegian Sea">Norwegian Sea</a> and Willoughby sailed into a bay near the present border between Finland and Russia. His ships with the frozen crews, including Captain Willoughby and his journal, were found by Russian fishermen a year later. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Chancellor" title="Richard Chancellor">Richard Chancellor</a> was able to drop anchor in the <a href="/wiki/White_Sea" title="White Sea">White Sea</a> and make his way overland to Moscow and <a href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan the Terrible</a>'s Court, opening trade with Russia and the Company of Merchant Adventurers became the <a href="/wiki/Muscovy_Company" title="Muscovy Company">Muscovy Company</a>. </p><p>In June 1576, English mariner <a href="/wiki/Martin_Frobisher" title="Martin Frobisher">Martin Frobisher</a> led an expedition consisting of three ships and 35 men to search for a north-west passage around North America. The voyage was supported by the Muscovy Company, the same merchants that hired Hugh Willoughby to find a northeast passage above Russia. Violent storms sank one ship and forced another to turn back but Frobisher and the remaining ship reached the coast of Labrador in July. A few days later they came upon the mouth of what is now <a href="/wiki/Frobisher_Bay" title="Frobisher Bay">Frobisher Bay</a>. Frobisher believed it to be the entrance to a north-west passage and named it Frobisher's Strait and claimed <a href="/wiki/Baffin_Island" title="Baffin Island">Baffin Island</a> for Queen Elizabeth. After some preliminary exploration, Frobisher returned to England. He commanded two subsequent voyages in 1577 and 1578 but failed to find the hoped-for passage.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frobisher brought to England his ships laden with ore, but it was found to be worthless and damaged his reputation as an explorer. He remains an important early historical figure in Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Barentsz'_Arctic_exploration"><span id="Barentsz.27_Arctic_exploration"></span>Barentsz' Arctic exploration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Barentsz' Arctic exploration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1598_map_of_the_Polar_Regions_by_Willem_Barentsz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/1598_map_of_the_Polar_Regions_by_Willem_Barentsz.jpg/300px-1598_map_of_the_Polar_Regions_by_Willem_Barentsz.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/1598_map_of_the_Polar_Regions_by_Willem_Barentsz.jpg/450px-1598_map_of_the_Polar_Regions_by_Willem_Barentsz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/1598_map_of_the_Polar_Regions_by_Willem_Barentsz.jpg/600px-1598_map_of_the_Polar_Regions_by_Willem_Barentsz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="13719" data-file-height="10160" /></a><figcaption>1598 map of Arctic exploration by <a href="/wiki/Willem_Barentsz" title="Willem Barentsz">Willem Barentsz</a> in his third voyage</figcaption></figure> <p>On 5 June 1594, Dutch <a href="/wiki/Cartographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartographer">cartographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Willem_Barentsz" title="Willem Barentsz">Willem Barentsz</a> departed from <a href="/wiki/Texel" title="Texel">Texel</a> in a fleet of three ships to enter the <a href="/wiki/Kara_Sea" title="Kara Sea">Kara Sea</a>, with the hopes of finding the <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Passage" title="Northeast Passage">Northeast Passage</a> above <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Williams Island the crew encountered a <a href="/wiki/Polar_bear" title="Polar bear">polar bear</a> for the first time. They managed to bring it on board, but the bear rampaged and was killed. Barentsz reached the west coast of <a href="/wiki/Novaya_Zemlya" title="Novaya Zemlya">Novaya Zemlya</a> and followed it northward, before being forced to turn back in the face of large icebergs. </p><p>The following year, Prince <a href="/wiki/Maurice,_Prince_of_Orange" title="Maurice, Prince of Orange">Maurice of Orange</a> named him chief pilot of a new expedition of six ships, loaded with merchant wares that the Dutch hoped to trade with China.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The party came across <a href="/wiki/Samoyedic_peoples" title="Samoyedic peoples">Samoyed</a> "wild men" but eventually turned back upon discovering the <a href="/wiki/Kara_Sea" title="Kara Sea">Kara Sea</a> frozen. In 1596, the States-General offered a high reward for anybody who <i>successfully</i> navigated the <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Passage" title="Northeast Passage">Northeast Passage</a>. The Town Council of Amsterdam purchased and outfitted two small ships, captained by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Rijp" title="Jan Rijp">Jan Rijp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacob_van_Heemskerk" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacob van Heemskerk">Jacob van Heemskerk</a>, to search for the elusive channel, under the command of Barents. They set off in May, and in June discovered <a href="/wiki/Bear_Island_(Norway)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bear Island (Norway)">Bear Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spitsbergen" title="Spitsbergen">Spitsbergen</a>, sighting its northwest coast. They saw a large bay, later called <a href="/wiki/Raudfjorden" title="Raudfjorden">Raudfjorden</a> and entered <a href="/wiki/Magdalenefjorden" title="Magdalenefjorden">Magdalenefjorden</a>, which they named <i>Tusk Bay</i>, sailing into the northern entrance of <a href="/wiki/Forlandsundet" title="Forlandsundet">Forlandsundet</a>, which they called <i>Keerwyck</i>, but were forced to turn back because of a shoal. On 28 June they rounded the northern point of <a href="/wiki/Prins_Karls_Forland" title="Prins Karls Forland">Prins Karls Forland</a>, which they named <i>Vogelhoek</i>, on account of a large number of birds, and sailed south, passing <a href="/wiki/Isfjorden_(Svalbard)" title="Isfjorden (Svalbard)">Isfjorden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bellsund" title="Bellsund">Bellsund</a>, which were labelled on Barentsz's chart as <i>Grooten Inwyck</i> and <i>Inwyck</i>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polar_bear,_Gerrit_de_Veer_(1596).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Polar_bear%2C_Gerrit_de_Veer_%281596%29.jpg/220px-Polar_bear%2C_Gerrit_de_Veer_%281596%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Polar_bear%2C_Gerrit_de_Veer_%281596%29.jpg/330px-Polar_bear%2C_Gerrit_de_Veer_%281596%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Polar_bear%2C_Gerrit_de_Veer_%281596%29.jpg/440px-Polar_bear%2C_Gerrit_de_Veer_%281596%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="547" data-file-height="439" /></a><figcaption>Crew of Willem Barentsz fighting a <a href="/wiki/Polar_bear" title="Polar bear">polar bear</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The ships once again reached Bear Island on 1 July, which led to a disagreement. They parted ways, with Barentsz continuing northeast, while Rijp headed north. Barentsz reached <a href="/wiki/Novaya_Zemlya" title="Novaya Zemlya">Novaya Zemlya</a> and, to avoid becoming entrapped in ice, headed for the <a href="/wiki/Vaigatch_Strait" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaigatch Strait">Vaigatch Strait</a> but became stuck within the icebergs and floes. Stranded, the 16-man crew was forced to spend the winter on the ice. The crew used lumber from their ship to build a lodge they called <i>Het Behouden Huys</i> (The Kept House). Dealing with extreme cold, they used merchant fabrics to make additional blankets and clothing and caught Arctic foxes in primitive traps, as well as polar bears. When June arrived, and the ice had still not loosened its grip on the ship, <a href="/wiki/Scurvy" title="Scurvy">scurvy</a>-ridden survivors took two small boats out into the sea. Barentsz died at sea on 20 June 1597, while studying charts. It took seven more weeks for the boats to reach <a href="/wiki/Kola_(town)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kola (town)">Kola</a> where they were rescued by a Russian merchant vessel. Only 12 crewmen remained, reaching Amsterdam in November. Two of Barentsz' crewmembers later published their journals, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Huyghen_van_Linschoten" title="Jan Huyghen van Linschoten">Jan Huyghen van Linschoten</a>, who had accompanied him on the first two voyages, and <a href="/wiki/Gerrit_de_Veer" title="Gerrit de Veer">Gerrit de Veer</a> who had acted as the ship's carpenter on the last. </p><p>In 1608, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hudson" title="Henry Hudson">Henry Hudson</a> made a second attempt, trying to go across the top of Russia. He made it to <a href="/wiki/Novaya_Zemlya" title="Novaya Zemlya">Novaya Zemlya</a> but was forced to turn back. Between 1609 and 1611, Hudson, after several voyages on behalf of English merchants to explore a prospective Northern Sea Route to India, explored the region around modern New York City while looking for a western route to Asia under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> (VOC). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dutch_Australia_and_New_Zealand">Dutch Australia and New Zealand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Dutch Australia and New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tasmanroutes.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tasmanroutes.PNG/300px-Tasmanroutes.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Tasmanroutes.PNG/450px-Tasmanroutes.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Tasmanroutes.PNG 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="455" /></a><figcaption>The route of <a href="/wiki/Abel_Tasman" title="Abel Tasman">Abel Tasman</a>'s 1642 and 1644 voyages in <a href="/wiki/New_Holland_(Australia)" title="New Holland (Australia)">New Holland (Australia)</a> in the service of the VOC (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis" title="Terra Australis">Terra Australis Ignota</a></i> (Latin, "the unknown land of the south") was a hypothetical continent appearing on European maps from the 15th to the 18th centuries, with roots in a notion introduced by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. It was depicted on the mid-16th-century <a href="/wiki/Dieppe_maps" title="Dieppe maps">Dieppe maps</a>, where its coastline appeared just south of the islands of the East Indies; it was often elaborately charted, with a wealth of fictitious detail. The discoveries reduced the area where the continent could be found. Many cartographers held to Aristotle's opinion, like <a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Gerardus Mercator</a> (1569) and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dalrymple" title="Alexander Dalrymple">Alexander Dalrymple</a> even so late as 1767<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argued for its existence, with such arguments as that there should be a large landmass in the Southern Hemisphere as a counterweight to the known landmasses in the Northern Hemisphere. As new lands were discovered, they were often assumed to be parts of this hypothetical continent. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_(explorer)" title="Juan Fernández (explorer)">Juan Fernández</a>, sailing from Chile in 1576, claimed he had discovered the Southern Continent.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Vaz_de_Torres" title="Luís Vaz de Torres">Luis Váez de Torres</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galician</a> navigator working for the Spanish Crown, proved the existence of a passage south of New Guinea, now known as <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait" title="Torres Strait">Torres Strait</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Fernandes_de_Queir%C3%B3s" title="Pedro Fernandes de Queirós">Pedro Fernandes de Queirós</a>, a Portuguese navigator sailing for the Spanish Crown, saw a large island south of New Guinea in 1606, which he named La Australia del <a href="/wiki/Espiritu_Santo" title="Espiritu Santo">Espiritu Santo</a>. He represented this to the King of Spain as the Terra Australis incognita. It was not Australia but an island in present-day <a href="/wiki/Vanuatu" title="Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Duyfken_replica,_Swan_River.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Duyfken_replica%2C_Swan_River.jpg/220px-Duyfken_replica%2C_Swan_River.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Duyfken_replica%2C_Swan_River.jpg/330px-Duyfken_replica%2C_Swan_River.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Duyfken_replica%2C_Swan_River.jpg/440px-Duyfken_replica%2C_Swan_River.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="880" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Duyfken" title="Duyfken">Duyfken</a></i> replica, Swan River, Australia</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch</a> navigator and colonial governor, <a href="/wiki/Willem_Janszoon" title="Willem Janszoon">Willem Janszoon</a> sailed from the Netherlands for the East Indies for the third time on December 18, 1603, as captain of the <i><a href="/wiki/Duyfken" title="Duyfken">Duyfken</a></i> (or <i>Duijfken</i>, meaning "Little Dove"), one of twelve ships of the great fleet of <a href="/wiki/Steven_van_der_Hagen" title="Steven van der Hagen">Steven van der Hagen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once in the Indies, Janszoon was sent to search for other outlets of trade, particularly in "the great land of Nova Guinea and other East and Southlands." On November 18, 1605, the <i>Duyfken</i> sailed from <a href="/wiki/Bantam_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantam (city)">Bantam</a> to the coast of western <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>. Janszoon then crossed the eastern end of the <a href="/wiki/Arafura_Sea" title="Arafura Sea">Arafura Sea</a>, without seeing the <a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait" title="Torres Strait">Torres Strait</a>, into the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Carpentaria" title="Gulf of Carpentaria">Gulf of Carpentaria</a>. On February 26, 1606, he made landfall at the <a href="/wiki/Pennefather_River" title="Pennefather River">Pennefather River</a> on the western shore of <a href="/wiki/Cape_York_Peninsula" title="Cape York Peninsula">Cape York</a> in Queensland, near the modern town of <a href="/wiki/Weipa,_Queensland" class="mw-redirect" title="Weipa, Queensland">Weipa</a>. This is the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent. Janszoon proceeded to chart some 320 kilometres (199 miles) of the coastline, which he thought was a southerly extension of New Guinea. In 1615, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Le_Maire" title="Jacob Le Maire">Jacob Le Maire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Willem_Schouten" title="Willem Schouten">Willem Schouten</a>'s rounding of Cape Horn proved that <a href="/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Tierra del Fuego">Tierra del Fuego</a> was a relatively small island. </p><p>From 1642 to 1644, <a href="/wiki/Abel_Tasman" title="Abel Tasman">Abel Tasman</a>, also a Dutch explorer and merchant in the service of the VOC, circumnavigated <a href="/wiki/New_Holland_(Australia)" title="New Holland (Australia)">New Holland</a> proving that Australia was not part of the mythical southern continent. He was the first known European expedition to reach the islands of <a href="/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land" title="Van Diemen's Land">Van Diemen's Land</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>) and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> and to sight the <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> islands, which he did in 1643. Tasman, his navigator Visscher, and his merchant Gilsemans also mapped substantial portions of Australia, New Zealand, and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Islands">Pacific Islands</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russian_exploration_of_Siberia_(1581–1660)"><span id="Russian_exploration_of_Siberia_.281581.E2.80.931660.29"></span>Russian exploration of Siberia (1581–1660)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Russian exploration of Siberia (1581–1660)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">Russian conquest of Siberia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Khanate_of_Sibir" title="Conquest of the Khanate of Sibir">Conquest of the Khanate of Sibir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siberian_River_Routes" title="Siberian River Routes">Siberian River Routes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_explorers" title="List of Russian explorers">List of Russian explorers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siberiariverroutemap.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Siberiariverroutemap.png/300px-Siberiariverroutemap.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Siberiariverroutemap.png/450px-Siberiariverroutemap.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Siberiariverroutemap.png/600px-Siberiariverroutemap.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Siberian_river_routes" class="mw-redirect" title="Siberian river routes">Siberian river routes</a> were of primary significance in the process of exploration.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the mid-16th century, the <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a> conquered the Tatar khanates of <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Kazan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrakhan_Khanate" title="Astrakhan Khanate">Astrakhan</a>, thus annexing the entire <a href="/wiki/Volga_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga Region">Volga Region</a> and opening the way to the <a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a>. The colonization of the new easternmost lands of Russia and further onslaught eastward was led by the rich merchants <a href="/wiki/Stroganov" class="mw-redirect" title="Stroganov">Stroganovs</a>. Tsar <a href="/wiki/Ivan_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan IV">Ivan IV</a> granted vast estates near the Urals as well as tax privileges to <a href="/wiki/Anikey_Stroganov" title="Anikey Stroganov">Anikey Stroganov</a>, who organized large-scale migration to these lands. Stroganovs developed farming, hunting, saltworks, fishing, and ore mining on the Urals and established trade with <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Siberia" title="Indigenous peoples of Siberia">Siberian tribes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_the_Khanate_of_Sibir">Conquest of the Khanate of Sibir</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Conquest of the Khanate of Sibir"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Around 1577, <a href="/wiki/Semyon_Stroganov" title="Semyon Stroganov">Semyon Stroganov</a> and other sons of Anikey Stroganov hired a <a href="/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">Cossack</a> leader called <a href="/wiki/Yermak_Timofeyevich" title="Yermak Timofeyevich">Yermak</a> to protect their lands from the attacks of Khan <a href="/wiki/Kuchum" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuchum">Kuchum</a>. By 1580, Stroganovs and Yermak came up with the idea of a military expedition to <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, to fight Kuchum in his own land. In 1581, Yermak began his voyage into the depths of Siberia. After a few victories over the Khan's army, Yermak's people defeated the main forces of Kuchum on <a href="/wiki/Irtysh_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Irtysh River">Irtysh River</a> in a 3-day <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chuvash_Cape" title="Battle of Chuvash Cape">Battle of Chuvash Cape</a> in 1582. The remains of the Khan's army retreated to the <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppes</a>, and thus Yermak captured the <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Sibir" title="Khanate of Sibir">Khanate of Sibir</a>, including its capital <a href="/wiki/Qashliq" title="Qashliq">Qashliq</a> near modern <a href="/wiki/Tobolsk" title="Tobolsk">Tobolsk</a>. Kuchum still was strong and suddenly attacked Yermak in 1585 in the dead of night, killing most of his people. Yermak was wounded and tried to swim across the Wagay River (<a href="/wiki/Irtysh" title="Irtysh">Irtysh</a>'s tributary), but drowned under the weight of his own <a href="/wiki/Chain_mail" title="Chain mail">chain mail</a>. The Cossacks had to withdraw from Siberia completely, but thanks to Yermak's having explored all the main river routes in West Siberia, Russians successfully reclaimed all his conquests just several years later. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yermak_Timofeyevich_and_his_band_of_adventurers_crossing_the_Ural_Mountains_at_Tagil,_entering_Asia_from_Europe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Yermak_Timofeyevich_and_his_band_of_adventurers_crossing_the_Ural_Mountains_at_Tagil%2C_entering_Asia_from_Europe.jpg/220px-Yermak_Timofeyevich_and_his_band_of_adventurers_crossing_the_Ural_Mountains_at_Tagil%2C_entering_Asia_from_Europe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Yermak_Timofeyevich_and_his_band_of_adventurers_crossing_the_Ural_Mountains_at_Tagil%2C_entering_Asia_from_Europe.jpg/330px-Yermak_Timofeyevich_and_his_band_of_adventurers_crossing_the_Ural_Mountains_at_Tagil%2C_entering_Asia_from_Europe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Yermak_Timofeyevich_and_his_band_of_adventurers_crossing_the_Ural_Mountains_at_Tagil%2C_entering_Asia_from_Europe.jpg/440px-Yermak_Timofeyevich_and_his_band_of_adventurers_crossing_the_Ural_Mountains_at_Tagil%2C_entering_Asia_from_Europe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="852" data-file-height="767" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yermak_Timofeyevich" title="Yermak Timofeyevich">Yermak Timofeyevich</a> and his band of adventurers crossing the <a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a> at Tagil, entering Asia from Europe</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siberian_river_routes">Siberian river routes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Siberian river routes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 17th century, the eastward movement of Russians was slowed by the internal problems in the country during the <a href="/wiki/Time_of_Troubles" title="Time of Troubles">Time of Troubles</a>. Very soon, exploration and colonization of the huge territories of Siberia resumed, led mostly by <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a> hunting for valuable <a href="/wiki/Fur" title="Fur">furs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>. While Cossacks came from the Southern Urals, another wave of Russians came by the Arctic Ocean. These were <a href="/wiki/Pomors" title="Pomors">Pomors</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Russia" title="Northwest Russia">Russian North</a>, who already had been making fur trade with <a href="/wiki/Mangazeya" title="Mangazeya">Mangazeya</a> in the north of Western Siberia for quite a long time. In 1607, the settlement of <a href="/wiki/Turukhansk" title="Turukhansk">Turukhansk</a> was founded on the northern <a href="/wiki/Yenisey" title="Yenisey">Yenisey River</a>, near the mouth of <a href="/wiki/Nizhnyaya_Tunguska" title="Nizhnyaya Tunguska">Lower Tunguska</a>. In 1619, <a href="/wiki/Yeniseysk" title="Yeniseysk">Yeniseysk</a> <a href="/wiki/Ostrog_(fortress)" title="Ostrog (fortress)">ostrog</a> was founded on the mid-Yenisey at the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Angara" title="Angara">Upper Tunguska</a>. </p><p>Between 1620 and 1624, a group of fur hunters led by <a href="/wiki/Demid_Pyanda" title="Demid Pyanda">Demid Pyanda</a> left Turukhansk and explored some 1,430 miles (2,300 kilometres) of the Lower Tunguska, wintering in the proximity of the <a href="/wiki/Vilyuy" title="Vilyuy">Vilyuy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lena_(river)" title="Lena (river)">Lena Rivers</a>. According to later legendary accounts (folktales collected a century after the fact), Pyanda discovered the Lena. He allegedly explored some 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometres) of its length, reaching as far as central <a href="/wiki/Sakha_Republic" title="Sakha Republic">Yakutia</a>. He returned up the Lena until it became too rocky and shallow, and portaged to the Angara River. In this way, Pyanda may have become the first Russian to meet <a href="/wiki/Yakuts" title="Yakuts">Yakuts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buryats" title="Buryats">Buryats</a>. He built new boats and explored some 870 miles (1,400 kilometres) of the Angara, finally reaching Yeniseysk and discovering that the Angara (a <a href="/wiki/Buryat_language" title="Buryat language">Buryat</a> name) and Upper Tunguska (Verkhnyaya Tunguska, as initially known by Russians) are one and the same river. </p><p>In 1627, <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Beketov" title="Pyotr Beketov">Pyotr Beketov</a> was appointed Yenisei <a href="/wiki/Voivode" title="Voivode">voevoda</a> in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. He successfully carried out the voyage to collect taxes from the <a href="/wiki/Transbaikal" title="Transbaikal">Zabaykalye</a> Buryats, becoming the first Russian to step in <a href="/wiki/Buryatia" title="Buryatia">Buryatia</a>. He founded the first Russian settlement there, Rybinsky ostrog. Beketov was sent to the Lena River in 1631, where in 1632 he founded <a href="/wiki/Yakutsk" title="Yakutsk">Yakutsk</a> and sent his Cossacks to explore the <a href="/wiki/Aldan_(river)" title="Aldan (river)">Aldan River</a> and farther down the Lena, to found new fortresses, and to collect taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yakutsk soon turned into a major starting point for further Russian expeditions eastward, southward and northward. <a href="/wiki/Maksim_Perfilyev" title="Maksim Perfilyev">Maksim Perfilyev</a>, who earlier had been one of the founders of Yeniseysk, founded <a href="/wiki/Bratsk" title="Bratsk">Bratsk</a> ostrog on the Angara in 1631. In 1638, Perfilyev became the first Russian to step into Transbaikalia, travelling there from Yakutsk.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baikal_sea.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Baikal_sea.png/300px-Baikal_sea.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Baikal_sea.png/450px-Baikal_sea.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Baikal_sea.png/600px-Baikal_sea.png 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="583" /></a><figcaption>A map of <a href="/wiki/Irkutsk" title="Irkutsk">Irkutsk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lake_Baikal" title="Lake Baikal">Lake Baikal</a> in its neighbourhood, as depicted in the late-17th-century <a href="/wiki/Remezov_Chronicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Remezov Chronicle">Remezov Chronicle</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1643, <a href="/wiki/Kurbat_Ivanov" title="Kurbat Ivanov">Kurbat Ivanov</a> led a group of Cossacks from Yakutsk to the south of the <a href="/wiki/Baikal_Mountains" title="Baikal Mountains">Baikal Mountains</a> and discovered <a href="/wiki/Lake_Baikal" title="Lake Baikal">Lake Baikal</a>, visiting its <a href="/wiki/Olkhon_Island" title="Olkhon Island">Olkhon Island</a>. Ivanov later made the first chart and description of Baikal.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russians_reach_the_Pacific">Russians reach the Pacific</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Russians reach the Pacific"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1639, a group of explorers led by <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Moskvitin" title="Ivan Moskvitin">Ivan Moskvitin</a> became the first Russians to reach the Pacific Ocean and to discover the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Okhotsk" title="Sea of Okhotsk">Sea of Okhotsk</a>, having built a winter camp on its shore at the <a href="/wiki/Ulya_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulya River">Ulya River</a> mouth. The Cossacks learned from the locals about the large <a href="/wiki/Amur_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Amur River">Amur River</a> far to the south. In 1640, they apparently sailed south, and explored the south-eastern shores of the Okhotsk Sea, perhaps reaching the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Amur_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Amur River">Amur River</a> and possibly discovering the <a href="/wiki/Shantar_Islands" title="Shantar Islands">Shantar Islands</a> on their way back. Based on Moskvitin's account, <a href="/wiki/Kurbat_Ivanov" title="Kurbat Ivanov">Kurbat Ivanov</a> drew the first Russian map of the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a> in 1642. </p><p>In 1643, <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Poyarkov" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasily Poyarkov">Vasily Poyarkov</a> crossed the <a href="/wiki/Stanovoy_Range" title="Stanovoy Range">Stanovoy Range</a> and reached the upper <a href="/wiki/Zeya_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeya River">Zeya River</a> in the country of the <a href="/wiki/Daur_people" title="Daur people">Daurs</a>, who were paying tribute to the <a href="/wiki/Manchu" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu">Manchu</a> Chinese. After wintering, in 1644, Poyarkov pushed down the Zeya and became the first Russian to reach the <a href="/wiki/Amur_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Amur River">Amur River</a>. He sailed down the Amur and finally discovered the mouth of that great river from land. Since his Cossacks provoked the enmity of the locals behind, Poyarkov chose a different way back. They built boats and in 1645, sailed along the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Okhotsk" title="Sea of Okhotsk">Sea of Okhotsk</a> coast to the <a href="/wiki/Ulya_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulya River">Ulya River</a> and spent the next winter in the huts that had been built by <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Moskvitin" title="Ivan Moskvitin">Ivan Moskvitin</a> six years earlier. In 1646, they returned to Yakutsk. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Krsk_koch.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Krsk_koch.JPG/170px-Krsk_koch.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Krsk_koch.JPG/255px-Krsk_koch.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Krsk_koch.JPG/340px-Krsk_koch.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>A 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Koch_(boat)" title="Koch (boat)">koch</a> in a museum in <a href="/wiki/Krasnoyarsk" title="Krasnoyarsk">Krasnoyarsk</a>. Kochi were the earliest <a href="/wiki/Icebreaker" title="Icebreaker">icebreakers</a> and were widely used by Russians in the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> and on <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberian</a> rivers.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1644, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Stadukhin" title="Mikhail Stadukhin">Mikhail Stadukhin</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Kolyma_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolyma River">Kolyma River</a> and founded <a href="/wiki/Srednekolymsk" title="Srednekolymsk">Srednekolymsk</a>. A merchant named <a href="/wiki/Fedot_Alekseyev_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Fedot Alekseyev Popov">Fedot Alekseyev Popov</a> organized a further expedition eastward, and <a href="/wiki/Semyon_Dezhnyov" class="mw-redirect" title="Semyon Dezhnyov">Semyon Dezhnyov</a> became a captain of one of the <a href="/wiki/Koch_(boat)" title="Koch (boat)">kochi</a>. In 1648, they sailed from <a href="/wiki/Srednekolymsk" title="Srednekolymsk">Srednekolymsk</a> down to the Arctic and after some time they rounded <a href="/wiki/Cape_Dezhnyov" title="Cape Dezhnyov">Cape Dezhnyov</a>, thus becoming the first explorers to pass through the <a href="/wiki/Bering_Strait" title="Bering Strait">Bering Strait</a> and discover <a href="/wiki/Chukchi_Peninsula" title="Chukchi Peninsula">Chukotka</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bering_Sea" title="Bering Sea">Bering Sea</a>. All their Kochi and most of their men (including Popov himself) were lost in storms and clashes with the natives. A small group led by Dezhnyov reached the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Anadyr_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Anadyr River">Anadyr River</a> and sailed up it in 1649, having built new boats from the wreckage. They founded <a href="/wiki/Anadyrsk" title="Anadyrsk">Anadyrsk</a> and were stranded there until Stadukhin found them, coming from Kolyma by land.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, Stadukhin set off south in 1651 and discovered <a href="/wiki/Penzhin_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Penzhin Bay">Penzhin Bay</a> on the northern coast of the <a href="/wiki/Okhotsk_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Okhotsk Sea">Okhotsk Sea</a>. He also may have explored the western shores of <a href="/wiki/Kamchatka" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamchatka">Kamchatka</a>. </p><p>From 1649 to 1650, <a href="/wiki/Yerofey_Khabarov" title="Yerofey Khabarov">Yerofey Khabarov</a> became the second Russian to explore the <a href="/wiki/Amur_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Amur River">Amur River</a>. Through <a href="/wiki/Olyokma" title="Olyokma">Olyokma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tungir" title="Tungir">Tungir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shilka_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Shilka River">Shilka Rivers</a> he reached Amur (<a href="/wiki/Dauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Dauria">Dauria</a>), returned to <a href="/wiki/Yakutsk" title="Yakutsk">Yakutsk</a> and then back to Amur with a larger force in 1650–1653. This time he <a href="/wiki/Russian-Manchu_border_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian-Manchu border conflicts">was met with armed resistance</a>. He built winter quarters at <a href="/wiki/Albazin" class="mw-redirect" title="Albazin">Albazin</a>, then sailed down Amur and found Achansk, which preceded the present-day <a href="/wiki/Khabarovsk" title="Khabarovsk">Khabarovsk</a>, defeating or evading large armies of <a href="/wiki/Transbaikal" title="Transbaikal">Daurian</a> <a href="/wiki/Manchu" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu">Manchu</a> Chinese and <a href="/wiki/Koreans" title="Koreans">Koreans</a> on his way. He charted the Amur in his <i>Draft of the Amur river</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, Russians held on to the Amur region until 1689, when by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nerchinsk" title="Treaty of Nerchinsk">Treaty of Nerchinsk</a> this land was assigned to the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Chinese Empire</a>. It was returned by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aigun" title="Treaty of Aigun">Treaty of Aigun</a> in 1858. </p><p>From 1659 to 1665, <a href="/wiki/Kurbat_Ivanov" title="Kurbat Ivanov">Kurbat Ivanov</a> was the next head of <a href="/wiki/Anadyrsk" title="Anadyrsk">Anadyrsky</a> ostrog after <a href="/wiki/Semyon_Dezhnev" title="Semyon Dezhnev">Semyon Dezhnev</a>. In 1660, he sailed from <a href="/wiki/Anadyr_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Anadyr Bay">Anadyr Bay</a> to <a href="/wiki/Cape_Dezhnyov" title="Cape Dezhnyov">Cape Dezhnyov</a>. Atop his earlier pioneering charts, Ivanov is credited with the creation of the early map of <a href="/wiki/Chukchi_Peninsula" title="Chukchi Peninsula">Chukotka</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bering_Strait" title="Bering Strait">Bering Strait</a>, which was the first to show on paper (very schematically) the yet undiscovered <a href="/wiki/Wrangel_Island" title="Wrangel Island">Wrangel Island</a>, both <a href="/wiki/Diomede_Islands" title="Diomede Islands">Diomede Islands</a> and Alaska, based on the data collected from the natives of Chukotka. </p><p>By the mid-17th century, Russians established the borders of their country close to modern ones, and explored almost the whole of Siberia, except the eastern <a href="/wiki/Kamchatka" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamchatka">Kamchatka</a> and some regions north of the Arctic Circle. The conquest of Kamchatka later would be achieved in the early 1700s by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Atlasov" title="Vladimir Atlasov">Vladimir Atlasov</a>, while the discovery of the Arctic coastline and Alaska would be completed by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_Expedition" title="Great Northern Expedition">Great Northern Expedition</a> in 1733–1743. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Major_explorations_after_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Major explorations after the Age of Discovery">Major explorations after the Age of Discovery</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_impact">Global impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Global impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">History of colonialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_World_Domesticated_plants.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/New_World_Domesticated_plants.JPG/300px-New_World_Domesticated_plants.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/New_World_Domesticated_plants.JPG/450px-New_World_Domesticated_plants.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/New_World_Domesticated_plants.JPG/600px-New_World_Domesticated_plants.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1004" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>New World crops. Clockwise from top left: 1. <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Maize</a> (<i>Zea mays</i>) 2. <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">Tomato</a> (<i>Solanum lycopersicum</i>) 3. <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">Potato</a> (<i>Solanum tuberosum</i>) 4. <a href="/wiki/Vanilla" title="Vanilla">Vanilla</a> (genus <i>Vanilla</i>, esp. <i><a href="/wiki/Vanilla_planifolia" title="Vanilla planifolia">Vanilla planifolia</a></i>) 5. Pará <a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">rubber</a> tree (<i>Hevea brasiliensis</i>) 6. <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">Cocoa</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Theobroma_cacao" title="Theobroma cacao">Theobroma cacao</a></i>) 7. <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">Tobacco</a> (<i>Nicotiana rustica</i>)</figcaption></figure> <p>European overseas expansion led to contact between the Old and New Worlds producing the Columbian exchange.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeill_2019_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeill_2019-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It started the <a href="/wiki/Global_silver_trade_from_the_16th_to_19th_centuries" title="Global silver trade from the 16th to 19th centuries">global silver trade</a> and led to direct European involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_export_porcelain" title="Chinese export porcelain">Chinese porcelain trade</a>. It involved the transfer of goods unique from one hemisphere to another. Europeans brought cattle, horses, and sheep to the New World, and from the New World Europeans received tobacco, potatoes, tomatoes, and <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>. Other items and commodities becoming important in global trade were the tobacco, sugarcane, and cotton crops of the Americas, along with the gold and silver brought from the American continent not only to Europe, but elsewhere in the Old World.<sup id="cite_ref-oxfordbibliographies1_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxfordbibliographies1-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Escudero_2014_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Escudero_2014-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Knight_2010_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight_2010-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nater_2006_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nater_2006-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The formation of new transoceanic links and expansion of European influence led to the <a href="/wiki/Imperialism#Age_of_Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Age of Imperialism</a>, which began during the Age of Discovery, during which colonial powers from Europe colonized most territory on the planet. European demand for trade, commodities, colonies and slaves had a drastic impact on the rest of the world; during <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a>, European colonial powers conquered and colonized numerous <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">indigenous nations and cultures</a>, and conducted numerous conversions and attempts at cultural assimilation both voluntary or forced. Combined with the introduction of infectious diseases from Europe, these events led to a <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas">drastic decrease</a> of the indigenous American population. Indigenous accounts of European colonization were summarized by scholar Peter Mancall: "The arrival of Europeans brought death, displacement, sorrow, and despair to Native Americans".<sup id="cite_ref-Mancall1998_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mancall1998-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some areas, like North America, Central America, Australia, New Zealand, and Argentina, indigenous peoples were badly treated, driven off their lands, and reduced to dependent minorities in the territory. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Namban-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Namban-08.jpg/220px-Namban-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Namban-08.jpg/330px-Namban-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Namban-08.jpg/440px-Namban-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2629" data-file-height="2390" /></a><figcaption>Portuguese <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E8%9B%AE%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="wikt:南蛮人">Nanbanjin</a></i> arriving at Japan much to the surprise of locals, detail from a <a href="/wiki/Nanban_trade" title="Nanban trade">Nanban</a> panel of the <a href="/wiki/Kan%C5%8D_school" title="Kanō school">Kanō school</a>, 1593–1600</figcaption></figure> <p>Similarly, in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, local states supplied the appetite of <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">European slave traders</a>, changing the complexion of coastal African states and fundamentally altering the nature of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">slavery in Africa</a>, causing impacts on societies and economies deep inland.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight_2010_202-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight_2010-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In North America, there were many conflicts between Europeans and indigenous peoples. The Europeans had many advantages over the indigenous people. Introduced Eurasian diseases wiped out 50–90% of the indigenous population because they had not been exposed before and lacked acquired immunity.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Maize and <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">manioc</a> were introduced into Africa in the 16th century by the Portuguese.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are now important staple foods, replacing native African crops.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_W._Crosby" title="Alfred W. Crosby">Alfred W. Crosby</a> speculated that increased production of maize, manioc, and other New World crops led to heavier concentrations of population in the areas from which slavers captured their victims.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the global silver trade, the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> was stimulated by trade with the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch</a>. Although global, much of that silver ended up with the Chinese, and China dominated silver imports.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1600 and 1800 China received 100 tons of silver on average per year. A large populace near the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River Delta">Lower Yangtze</a> averaged hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Tael" title="Tael">taels</a> of silver per household in the late 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 150,000 tons of silver were shipped from Potosí by the end of the 18th century. From 1500 to 1800, Mexico and Peru produced about 80%<sup id="cite_ref-:0_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the world's silver, with more than 30% of it eventually ending up in China (largely because European merchants used it to purchase exotic Chinese commodities). In the late 16th and early 17th century, Japan was exporting heavily into China and foreign trade at large.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_212-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trade with <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">European powers</a> and the Japanese brought in significant amounts of silver, which then replaced copper and paper <a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">banknotes</a> as the common medium of exchange in China. During the last decades of the Ming Dynasty, the flow of silver into China was greatly diminished, thereby undermining state revenues and the entire Ming economy. This damage to the economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>, natural calamities, crop failure, and sudden epidemics. The ensuing breakdown of authority and people's livelihoods allowed rebel leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng">Li Zicheng</a> to challenge Ming authority. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jesuites_en_chine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Jesuites_en_chine.jpg/220px-Jesuites_en_chine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Jesuites_en_chine.jpg/330px-Jesuites_en_chine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Jesuites_en_chine.jpg/440px-Jesuites_en_chine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">Jesuit</a> scholars collaborated extensively with Chinese astronomers, introducing <a href="/wiki/Copernican_principle" title="Copernican principle">Copernican principles</a>. Top: <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Schall_von_Bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Adam Schall von Bell">Adam Schaal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Verbiest" title="Ferdinand Verbiest">Ferdinand Verbiest</a> (1623–1688); Bottom: <a href="/wiki/Xu_Guangqi" title="Xu Guangqi">Paul Siu (Xu Guangqi)</a>, <i>Colao</i> or Prime Minister of State, and his granddaughter Candide Hiu</figcaption></figure> <p>New crops that had come to Asia from the Americas, via the Spanish colonizers in the 16th century, contributed to Asia's population growth.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the bulk of imports to China were silver, the Chinese also purchased New World crops from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>. This included sweet potatoes, maize, and peanuts, foods that could be cultivated in lands where traditional Chinese staple crops—wheat, millet, and rice—could not grow, hence facilitating a rise in the population of China.<sup id="cite_ref-Ebrey_2006,_p._211_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebrey_2006,_p._211-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Song dynasty (960–1279), rice had become the major staple crop of the poor;<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after sweet potatoes were introduced to China around 1560, it gradually became the traditional food of the lower classes.<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The arrival of the Portuguese to Japan in 1543 initiated the <a href="/wiki/Nanban_trade" title="Nanban trade">Nanban trade period</a>, with the Japanese adopting technologies and cultural practices, like the <a href="/wiki/Arquebus" title="Arquebus">arquebus</a>, European-style cuirasses, European ships, Christianity, decorative art, and language. After the Chinese had banned direct trade by Chinese merchants with Japan, the Portuguese filled this commercial vacuum as intermediaries. The Portuguese bought Chinese silk and sold it to the Japanese in return for Japanese-mined silver; since silver was more highly valued in China, the Portuguese could then use Japanese silver to buy even larger stocks of Chinese silk.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1573, after the Spanish established a trading base in Manila, the Portuguese intermediary trade was trumped by the prime source of incoming silver to China from the Spanish Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although China acted as the cog running the wheel of global trade during the 16th to 18th centuries, Japan's huge contribution of silver exports to China was critical to the world economy and China's liquidity and success with the commodity.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_impact_in_Europe">Economic impact in Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Economic impact in Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Revolution">Commercial Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries" title="Renaissance in the Low Countries">Renaissance in the Low Countries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/250px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/375px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/500px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3820" data-file-height="2964" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i> (1509–1511) by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:lavender;"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_dance" title="Renaissance dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Fine arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_literature" title="Renaissance literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:lavender;"> Regions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Poland" title="Renaissance in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Renaissance" title="Portuguese Renaissance">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Renaissance" title="Spanish Renaissance">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Scotland" title="Renaissance in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries" title="Renaissance in the Low Countries">Low Countries</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:lavender;"> History and study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Renaissance" title="Template:Renaissance"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Renaissance" title="Template talk:Renaissance"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Renaissance" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Renaissance"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As a wider variety of global luxury commodities entered the European markets by sea, previous European markets for <a href="/wiki/Luxury_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxury good">luxury goods</a> stagnated. The Atlantic trade largely supplanted pre-existing <a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Italian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">German</a> trading powers which had relied on their Baltic, Russian, and Islamic trade links. The new commodities also caused <a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">social change</a>, as sugar, spices, silks and chinawares entered the luxury markets of Europe. </p><p>The European economic centre shifted from the Mediterranean to Western Europe. The city of <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Duchy of Brabant</a>, became "the centre of the <i>entire</i> international economy",<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the richest city in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Centred in Antwerp first and then <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, the "<a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Dutch Golden Age</a>" was tightly linked to the Age of Discovery. </p><p>By 1549 the Portuguese were sending annual trade missions to <a href="/wiki/Shangchuan_Island" title="Shangchuan Island">Shangchuan Island</a> in China. In 1557 they managed to convince the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> court to agree on a legal port treaty that would establish Macau as an official Portuguese trade colony.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Portuguese friar <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_da_Cruz" title="Gaspar da Cruz">Gaspar da Cruz</a> (c. 1520–70) wrote the first complete book on China published in Europe; it included information on its geography, provinces, royalty, official class, bureaucracy, shipping, architecture, farming, craftsmanship, merchant affairs, clothing, religious and social customs, music and instruments, writing, education, and justice.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DelftChina18thCenturyCompanieDesIndes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/DelftChina18thCenturyCompanieDesIndes.jpg/220px-DelftChina18thCenturyCompanieDesIndes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/DelftChina18thCenturyCompanieDesIndes.jpg/330px-DelftChina18thCenturyCompanieDesIndes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/DelftChina18thCenturyCompanieDesIndes.jpg/440px-DelftChina18thCenturyCompanieDesIndes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2338" data-file-height="1593" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Delftware" title="Delftware">Delftware</a> depicting Chinese scenes, 18th century. <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Cognacq_Museum" title="Ernest Cognacq Museum">Ernest Cognacq Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>From China, the major exports were silk and porcelain, adapted to meet European tastes. The Chinese export porcelains were held in such great esteem in Europe that, in English, <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/china" class="extiw" title="wikt:china">china</a></i> became a commonly-used synonym for <i>porcelain</i>. <a href="/wiki/Kraak_porcelain" class="mw-redirect" title="Kraak porcelain">Kraak porcelain</a> was among the first Chinese ware to arrive in Europe in significant quantities; only the richest could afford these early imports.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> established trade with the East, having imported 6 million porcelain items from China to Europe between the years 1602–82.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kraak, mainly the <a href="/wiki/Blue_and_white_porcelain" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue and white porcelain">blue and white porcelain</a>, was imitated all over the world by potters in <a href="/wiki/Arita_ware" title="Arita ware">Arita, Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persia</a>—where Dutch merchants turned when the fall of the Ming dynasty rendered Chinese originals unavailable<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—and ultimately in <a href="/wiki/Delftware" title="Delftware">Delftware</a>. Dutch and later <a href="/wiki/English_Delftware" class="mw-redirect" title="English Delftware">English Delftware</a> inspired by Chinese designs persisted from about 1630 to the mid-18th century alongside European patterns. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Morga" title="Antonio de Morga">Antonio de Morga</a> (1559–1636), a Spanish official in <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a>, listed an extensive inventory of goods that were traded by Ming China at the turn of the 16th to 17th century, noting there were "rarities which, did I refer to them all, I would never finish, nor have sufficient paper for it".<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ebrey writes of the considerable size of commercial transactions: In one case a galleon to the Spanish territories in the New World carried over 50,000 pairs of silk stockings. In return China imported mostly silver from Peruvian and Mexican mines, <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">transported via Manila</a>. Chinese merchants were active in these trading ventures, and many emigrated to such places as the Philippines and Borneo to take advantage of the new commercial opportunities.<sup id="cite_ref-Ebrey_2006,_p._211_214-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebrey_2006,_p._211-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The increase in gold and silver experienced by <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spain</a> coincided with a major inflationary cycle within Spain and Europe, known as the <a href="/wiki/Price_revolution" title="Price revolution">price revolution</a>. Spain had amassed large quantities of gold and silver from the New World.<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1540s large scale extraction of silver from Mexico began. During the 16th century, Spain held the equivalent of US$1.5 trillion (1990 terms) in gold and silver from <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a>. Being the most powerful European monarch at a time full of war and religious conflicts, the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburg</a> rulers spent their wealth in wars and arts across Europe. "I learnt a proverb here", said a French traveller in 1603: "Everything is dear in Spain except silver".<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spent silver, spread throughout a cash-starved Europe, caused widespread inflation.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inflation was worsened by a growing population with a static production level, low salaries and a rising cost of living, which damaged local industry. Increasingly, Spain became dependent on the revenues flowing in from the mercantile empire, leading to Spain's first bankruptcy in 1557 due to rising military costs.<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philip II of Spain defaulted on debt payments in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596. The increase in prices as a result of currency circulation fuelled the growth of the commercial <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> in Europe, the <i><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a></i>, which came to influence the politics and culture of many countries. One effect of the inflation, particularly in Great Britain, was that tenant farmers who held long-term leases from lords saw real decreases in rent. Some lords opted to sell their leased land, giving rise to small, landowning farmers such as <a href="/wiki/Yeoman" title="Yeoman">yeoman</a> and gentlemen farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_maritime_exploration_of_Australia" title="European maritime exploration of Australia">European maritime exploration of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration" title="Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration">Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History of navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_explorations" title="List of explorations">List of explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history" title="Maritime history">Maritime history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_inventions" title="Portuguese inventions">Portuguese inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_European_exploration" title="Timeline of European exploration">Timeline of European exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline of maritime migration and exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winds_in_the_Age_of_Sail" title="Winds in the Age of Sail">Winds in the Age of Sail</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Major ports in their respective regions included Palembang on the Malaccan Strait, Calicut on the Malabar coast, and Mombasa on the Swahili Coast (see <a href="#CITEREFSen2016">Sen 2016</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Windward sailing ability, true for historic vessels as much as any other, is a combination of rig and hull shape. Other considerations are the amount of marine fouling on the hull, and a sternpost-mounted rudder gives a clear advantage over a steering oar, partly by producing less drag but also having the hydrodynamic effect of slightly reducing leeway.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer_2009_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer_2009-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://moonworldhistory.weebly.com/the-age-of-exploration.html">https://moonworldhistory.weebly.com/the-age-of-exploration.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFButel2002" class="citation book cs1">Butel, Paul (2002-03-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GL83BE8oVcwC&pg=PP1"><i>The Atlantic</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-01044-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-01044-0"><bdi>978-0-203-01044-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210421182707/https://books.google.com/books?id=GL83BE8oVcwC">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-11-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2002-03-11&rft.isbn=978-0-203-01044-0&rft.aulast=Butel&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGL83BE8oVcwC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleinhenz2004" class="citation book cs1">Kleinhenz, Christopher (2004). <i>Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. 1. 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CUP Archive. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22692-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22692-9"><bdi>978-0-521-22692-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140704165756/http://books.google.com/books?id=L-s8AAAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2014-07-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-05-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Economic+History+of+India%3A+Volume+1%2C+C.1200-c.1750&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22692-9&rft.aulast=Raychaudhuri&rft.aufirst=Tapan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL-s8AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arnold, David (2006). <i>The Age of Discovery, 1400-1600</i>, (London: Routledge), p XI, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SbIEAQAAQBAJ&q=The+Age+of+Discovery,+1400-1600">https://books.google.com/books?id=SbIEAQAAQBAJ&q=The+Age+of+Discovery,+1400-1600</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Washburn_1962_p=1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Washburn_1962_p=1_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashburn1962" class="citation journal cs1">Washburn, Wilcomb E. 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H. (1973). <i>The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration, and Settlement, 1450–1650</i>. London: Cardinal. p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPagden19935-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPagden19935_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPagden1993">Pagden 1993</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Gorman, Edmundo. The Invention of America. An Inquiry into the Historical Nature of the New World and the Meaning of History. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-06-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Assembly+of+First+Nations&rft.atitle=Dismantling+the+Doctrine+of+Discovery&rft.date=2018-01-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.afn.ca%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F02%2F18-01-22-Dismantling-the-Doctrine-of-Discovery-EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-frichner-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-frichner_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frichner, Tonya Gonnella. 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New York, NY: Springer. pp. 5350–5371. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-0465-2_1641">10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_1641</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-0426-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-0426-3"><bdi>978-1-4419-0426-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220910155322/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_1641">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=North+America+During+the+European+Contact+Period&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Global+Archaeology&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=5350-5371&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4419-0465-2_1641&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-0426-3&rft.aulast=Nassaney&rft.aufirst=Michael+Shakir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4419-0465-2_1641&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Silliman_2005_pp._55–74-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Silliman_2005_pp._55–74_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilliman2005" class="citation journal cs1">Silliman, Stephen W. (2005). "Culture Contact or Colonialism? Challenges in the Archaeology of Native North America". <i>American Antiquity</i>. <b>70</b> (1). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 55–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F40035268">10.2307/40035268</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7316">0002-7316</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40035268">40035268</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161467685">161467685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Culture+Contact+or+Colonialism%3F+Challenges+in+the+Archaeology+of+Native+North+America&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=55-74&rft.date=2005&rft.issn=0002-7316&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161467685%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40035268%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F40035268&rft.aulast=Silliman&rft.aufirst=Stephen+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilson_1999_p.-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_1999_p._23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1999" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Samuel (1999). <i>The emperor's giraffe and other stories of cultures in contact</i>. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-3585-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-3585-X"><bdi>0-8133-3585-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40567393">40567393</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+emperor%27s+giraffe+and+other+stories+of+cultures+in+contact&rft.place=Boulder%2C+Colo&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40567393&rft.isbn=0-8133-3585-X&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infoplease.com/biography/var/bartolomeudias.html">"Bartolomeu Dias"</a>. <i>infoplease</i>. Sandbox Networks, Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150521004353/http://www.infoplease.com/biography/var/bartolomeudias.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=infoplease&rft.atitle=Bartolomeu+Dias&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoplease.com%2Fbiography%2Fvar%2Fbartolomeudias.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/erikson_leif.shtml">"BBC – History – Leif Erikson"</a>. <i>www.bbc.co.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120120185237/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/erikson_leif.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-01-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=BBC+%E2%80%93+History+%E2%80%93+Leif+Erikson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fhistoric_figures%2Ferikson_leif.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernández-Armesto2007" class="citation book cs1">Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j9khjlWQPWUC"><i>Amerigo: The Man Who Gave His Name to America</i></a>. New York: Random House. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6281-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6281-2"><bdi>978-1-4000-6281-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220418214948/https://books.google.com/books?id=j9khjlWQPWUC">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-04-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amerigo%3A+The+Man+Who+Gave+His+Name+to+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-6281-2&rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez-Armesto&rft.aufirst=Felipe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj9khjlWQPWUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davidson, M. H. (1997). <i>Columbus Then and Now: A Life Re-examined. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press</i>, p. 417.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h17-am.html">"Columbus to the Caribbean"</a>. <i>fsmitha.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220331075921/http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h17-am.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-03-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-01-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fsmitha.com&rft.atitle=Columbus+to+the+Caribbean&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fsmitha.com%2Fh3%2Fh17-am.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/topics/exploration/christopher-columbus">"Christopher Columbus – Exploration"</a>. <i>history.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220624033839/https://www.history.com/topics/exploration/christopher-columbus">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-01-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=history.com&rft.atitle=Christopher+Columbus+%E2%80%93+Exploration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Fexploration%2Fchristopher-columbus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diffie, Bailey W., and George D. Winius, "Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580", p. 176</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zweig, Stefan, "Conqueror of the Seas – The Story of Magellan", Read Books, 2007, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4067-6006-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4067-6006-4">1-4067-6006-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paine_2013-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paine_2013_32-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaine2013" class="citation book cs1">Paine, Lincoln (2013). <i>The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World</i>. New York: Random House, LLC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sea+and+Civilization%3A+A+Maritime+History+of+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House%2C+LLC&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Paine&rft.aufirst=Lincoln&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Merson_1990-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Merson_1990_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerson1990" class="citation book cs1">Merson, John (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geniusthatwaschi0000mers"><i>The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World</i></a></span>. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87951-397-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87951-397-9"><bdi>978-0-87951-397-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+That+Was+China%3A+East+and+West+in+the+Making+of+the+Modern+World&rft.place=Woodstock%2C+NY&rft.pub=The+Overlook+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-87951-397-9&rft.aulast=Merson&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeniusthatwaschi0000mers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span> A companion to the PBS Series <i>The Genius That Was China</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Arnold_2002">Arnold 2002</a>, p. xi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-houben-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-houben_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Houben, 2002, pp. 102–04.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harley-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harley_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harley & Woodward, 1992, pp. 156–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Abu-Lughod_1991">Abu-Lughod 1991</a>, p. 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Arnold_2002">Arnold 2002</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Love_2006">Love 2006</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#silk-road_2008">silk-road 2008</a>, web.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#DeLamar_1992">DeLamar 1992</a>, p. 328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Abu-Lughod_1991">Abu-Lughod 1991</a>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrowley2011" class="citation book cs1">Crowley, Roger (2011). <i>City of Fortune</i> (Main ed.). Faber & Faber. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-571-24595-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-571-24595-6"><bdi>978-0-571-24595-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=City+of+Fortune&rft.edition=Main&rft.pub=Faber+%26+Faber&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-571-24595-6&rft.aulast=Crowley&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoegelin1940" class="citation journal cs1">Voegelin, Eric (1940). "The Mongol Orders of Submission to European Powers, 1245–1255". <i>Byzantion</i>. <b>15</b>: 378–413. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44168533">44168533</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Byzantion&rft.atitle=The+Mongol+Orders+of+Submission+to+European+Powers%2C+1245%E2%80%931255&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=378-413&rft.date=1940&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44168533%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Voegelin&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grousset, <i>Empire</i>, pp. 280–281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Mancall_2006">Mancall 2006</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Mancall_2006">Mancall 2006</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStark2005" class="citation book cs1">Stark, Rodney (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/victoryofreasonh00star"><i>The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism and Western Success</i></a></span>. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/victoryofreasonh00star/page/137">137</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7233-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7233-7"><bdi>978-0-8129-7233-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victory+of+Reason%3A+How+Christianity+Led+to+Freedom%2C+Capitalism+and+Western+Success&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=Random+House+Trade+Paperbacks&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-7233-7&rft.aulast=Stark&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvictoryofreasonh00star&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Ebrey_2006">Parry 2006</a>, p. 69.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (July 2021)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Diffie_1977">Diffie 1977</a>, pp. 24–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Dunn_2004">Dunn 2004</a>, p. 310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2021" class="citation journal cs1">Chen, Yuan Julian (2021-10-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/59068575">"Between the Islamic and Chinese Universal Empires: The Ottoman Empire, Ming Dynasty, and Global Age of Explorations"</a>. <i>Journal of Early Modern History</i>. <b>25</b> (5): 422–456. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15700658-bja10030">10.1163/15700658-bja10030</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1385-3783">1385-3783</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244587800">244587800</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220417192653/https://www.academia.edu/59068575">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-04-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-03-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Early+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Between+the+Islamic+and+Chinese+Universal+Empires%3A+The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+Ming+Dynasty%2C+and+Global+Age+of+Explorations&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=422-456&rft.date=2021-10-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A244587800%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1385-3783&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15700658-bja10030&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Yuan+Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F59068575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Mancall_1999">Mancall 1999</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#DeLamar_1992">DeLamar 1992</a>, p. 329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Covilham, Pero"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Covilham,_Pero">"Covilham, Pero" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 344–345.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Covilham%2C+Pero&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=344-345&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViault1991" class="citation book cs1">Viault, Birdsall (1991). <i>Modern European History</i> (II. Series ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 82–83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-067453-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-067453-1"><bdi>0-07-067453-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+European+History&rft.pages=82-83&rft.edition=II.+Series&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-07-067453-1&rft.aulast=Viault&rft.aufirst=Birdsall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicard1966" class="citation book cs1">Ricard, Robert (1966). <i>An Essay on the Apostolate and the Evangelizing Methods of the Mendicant Orders in New Spain: 1523–1572, translated from French by Lesley Bird Simpson</i>. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Essay+on+the+Apostolate+and+the+Evangelizing+Methods+of+the+Mendicant+Orders+in+New+Spain%3A+1523%E2%80%931572%2C+translated+from+French+by+Lesley+Bird+Simpson&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Ricard&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Thomas J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jesuits15341921h00camp"><i>The Jesuits, 1534–1921: A History of the Society of Jesus from Its Foundation to the Present Time</i></a>. New York: The Encyclopedia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87821-018-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87821-018-3"><bdi>978-0-87821-018-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jesuits%2C+1534%E2%80%931921%3A+A+History+of+the+Society+of+Jesus+from+Its+Foundation+to+the+Present+Time&rft.pub=New+York%3A+The+Encyclopedia+Press&rft.isbn=978-0-87821-018-3&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjesuits15341921h00camp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Arnold_2002">Arnold 2002</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Tamura_1997">Tamura 1997</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Cromer_1995">Cromer 1995</a>, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Tsai_2002">Tsai 2002</a>, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Mancall_2006">Mancall 2006</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sen16-609-11-631-3-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sen16-609-11-631-3_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sen16-609-11-631-3_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sen16-609-11-631-3_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sen16-609-11-631-3_64-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen2016">Sen (2016)</a>, 609–611 & 631–633.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen2016">Sen (2016)</a>, 609.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-se16-615-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-se16-615_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen2016">Sen (2016)</a>, 615.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen2016">Sen (2016)</a>, 620–621.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen2016">Sen (2016)</a>, 624–626.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChen2019">Chen (2019)</a>, 41–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen2016">Sen (2016)</a>, 631–633.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSen2016">Sen (2016)</a>, 611.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mancall_2006-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mancall_2006_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Mancall_2006">Mancall 2006</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spice importance for medieval <a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">humorism</a> principles of medicine was such that shortly after entering the trade, apothecaries and physicians like <a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A9_Pires" title="Tomé Pires">Tomé Pires</a> and <a href="/wiki/Garcia_de_Orta" title="Garcia de Orta">Garcia da Orta</a> (see <a href="#Burns_2001">Burns 2001</a>, p. 14) were sent to India having studied spices in works like <i>Suma Oriental</i> (see <a href="#Pires_1512">Pires 1512</a>, p. lxii) and <i><a href="/wiki/Col%C3%B3quios_dos_simples_e_drogas_da_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India">Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India</a></i> ("Conversations on the simples, drugs and materia medica of India)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#ScienceDaily_1998">ScienceDaily 1998</a>, news.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Spufford_1989">Spufford 1989</a>, pp. 339–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Spufford_1989">Spufford 1989</a>, p. 343.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Abu-Lughod_1991">Abu-Lughod 1991</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Parry_1981">Parry 1981</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorbettJanssenLundPfannestiel2024" class="citation web cs1">Corbett, P. Scott; Janssen, Volker; Lund, John M.; Pfannestiel, Todd; Waskiewicz, Sylvie; Vickery, Paul (2024-01-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openstax.org/books/us-history/pages/1-2-europe-on-the-brink-of-change">"1.2 Europe on the Brink of Change"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/OpenStax" title="OpenStax">OpenStax</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-04-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OpenStax&rft.atitle=1.2+Europe+on+the+Brink+of+Change&rft.date=2024-01-11&rft.aulast=Corbett&rft.aufirst=P.+Scott&rft.au=Janssen%2C+Volker&rft.au=Lund%2C+John+M.&rft.au=Pfannestiel%2C+Todd&rft.au=Waskiewicz%2C+Sylvie&rft.au=Vickery%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenstax.org%2Fbooks%2Fus-history%2Fpages%2F1-2-europe-on-the-brink-of-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Diffie_1977">Diffie 1977</a>, p. 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Newitt_2005">Newitt 2005</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Diffie_1960">Diffie 1960</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Diffie_1977">Diffie 1977</a>, pp. 29–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Butel_1999">Butel 1999</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaudhuri1985" class="citation book cs1">Chaudhuri, K.N. 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(New York: Dutton), p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Locke_1824">Locke 1824</a>, p. 385.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Palmer_2009-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Palmer_2009_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer2009" class="citation journal cs1">Palmer, Colin (September 2009). 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(1966). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/amerigovespuccip0000pohl"><i>Amerigo Vespucci: Pilot Major</i></a></span>. New York: Octagon Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/amerigovespuccip0000pohl/page/54">54–55</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amerigo+Vespucci%3A+Pilot+Major&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=54-55&rft.pub=Octagon+Books&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Pohl&rft.aufirst=Frederick+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Famerigovespuccip0000pohl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/4820349-amerigo-and-the-new-world">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211108102859/https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/4820349-amerigo-and-the-new-world">Archived</a> 2021-11-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Arciniegas, German (1978) <i>Amerigo and the New World: The Life & Times of Amerigo Vespucci</i>: Octagon Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morison1974-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Morison1974_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorison1974" class="citation book cs1">Morison, Samuel (1974). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/europeandiscover00mori_2"><i>The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages, 1492–1616</i></a></span>. New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+European+Discovery+of+America%3A+The+Southern+Voyages%2C+1492%E2%80%931616&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Morison&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feuropeandiscover00mori_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N. McAlister, Lyle. (1984) <i>Spain and Portugal in the New World: 1492–1700.</i> p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Crow_1992">Crow 1992</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hBTqPX4G9Y4C&dq=Cabral+four+continents&pg=PA187"><i>Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160208111121/https://books.google.com/books?id=hBTqPX4G9Y4C&pg=PA187&dq=Cabral+four+continents&hl=pt-PT&sa=X&ei=zPIIU8HvE-af7AakkYDICw&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Cabral%20four%20continents&f=false">Archived</a> 2016-02-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Bailey Wallys Diffie and George D. Winius. The University of Minnesota Press, 1977 p. 187</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200504/the.coming.of.the.portuguese.htm"><i>The Coming of the Portuguese</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141031005735/https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200504/the.coming.of.the.portuguese.htm">Archived</a> 2014-10-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Paul Lunde, London University's School of Oriental and African Studies, in Saudi Aramco World – July/August 2005 Volume 56, Number 4,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Diffie_1977">Diffie 1977</a>, pp. 456–62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Arciniegas_1978">Arciniegas 1978</a>, pp. 295–300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Diffie_1977">Diffie 1977</a>, p. 458.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icaadocs.mfah.org/icaadocs/THEARCHIVE/FullRecord/tabid/88/doc/839287/language/en-US/Default.aspx">The Invention of America</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181215122112/http://icaadocs.mfah.org/icaadocs/THEARCHIVE/FullRecord/tabid/88/doc/839287/language/en-US/Default.aspx">Archived</a> 2018-12-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Indiana University Press. pp. 106–07, by Edmundo O'Gorman</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2zZCAAAAIAAJ">Imago Mvndi – Brill Archive – Leiden, Editorial Board</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200725002724/https://books.google.com/books?id=2zZCAAAAIAAJ&hl=pt-PT&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Archived</a> 2020-07-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Leo Bagrow, Stockholm – <i>New light on Vespucci's third voyage</i>, By R. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23223-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-23223-4"><bdi>978-0-521-23223-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520133454/https://books.google.com/books?id=_w0kAPYQ5xMC&q=froes">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pilotos+portugueses+en+el+Rio+de+La+Plata+durante+el+siglo+XVI&rft.place=Coimbra&rft.pages=59-61&rft.pub=UC+Biblioteca+Geral+1&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Laguarda+Trias&rft.aufirst=Rolando+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN4ruiK_IJZQC%26q%3Dpilotos%2Bportugueses%2Bla%2Bplata%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biblio.wdfiles.com/local--files/schuller-1915-nova/schuller_1915_nova.pdf">"Newen Zeytung auss Presillg Landt"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130602205142/http://biblio.wdfiles.com/local--files/schuller-1915-nova/schuller_1915_nova.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2013-06-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-07-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Newen+Zeytung+auss+Presillg+Landt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiblio.wdfiles.com%2Flocal--files%2Fschuller-1915-nova%2Fschuller_1915_nova.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.novomilenio.inf.br/sv/svh009b.htm"><i>Peabiru, the route lost</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220422020539/http://novomilenio.inf.br/sv/svh009b.htm">Archived</a> 2022-04-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> in English</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Morison_1942">Morison 1942</a>, pp. 65–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceD-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceD_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceD_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Abu-Lughod_1991">Abu-Lughod 1991</a>, 252</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernstein2008" class="citation book cs1">Bernstein, William J. (2008). <i>A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World</i>. New York: Grove Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-4416-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-4416-4"><bdi>978-0-8021-4416-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Splendid+Exchange%3A+How+Trade+Shaped+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-4416-4&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2001/may/22/artsfeatures2">"The Lusiads"</a>. <i>the Guardian</i>. 2001-05-21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220824004732/https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2001/may/22/artsfeatures2">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-08-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-08-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+Lusiads&rft.date=2001-05-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fculture%2F2001%2Fmay%2F22%2Fartsfeatures2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagazineFiegl" class="citation web cs1">Magazine, Smithsonian; Fiegl, Amanda. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/adventures-of-a-portuguese-poet-8433719/">"Adventures of a Portuguese Poet"</a>. <i>Smithsonian Magazine</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220824004730/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/adventures-of-a-portuguese-poet-8433719/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-08-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-08-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=Adventures+of+a+Portuguese+Poet&rft.aulast=Magazine&rft.aufirst=Smithsonian&rft.au=Fiegl%2C+Amanda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Ftravel%2Fadventures-of-a-portuguese-poet-8433719%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Milton_1999">Milton 1999</a>, pp. 5–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCortesão1944" class="citation book cs1">Cortesão, Armando (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&q=Simao%20Afonso%20Bisagudo&pg=PR81"><i>The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires: an account of the east, from the Red Sea to Japan, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515/The Book of Francisco Rodrigues rutter of a voyage in the Red Sea, nautical rules, almanack and maps, written and drawn in the east before 1515</i></a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hakluyt_Society" title="Hakluyt Society">Hakluyt Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0535-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0535-0"><bdi>978-81-206-0535-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211114161316/https://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-11-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-02-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Suma+Oriental+of+Tom%C3%A9+Pires%3A+an+account+of+the+east%2C+from+the+Red+Sea+to+Japan%2C+written+in+Malacca+and+India+in+1512%E2%80%931515%2FThe+Book+of+Francisco+Rodrigues+rutter+of+a+voyage+in+the+Red+Sea%2C+nautical+rules%2C+almanack+and+maps%2C+written+and+drawn+in+the+east+before+1515&rft.pub=The+Hakluyt+Society&rft.date=1944&rft.isbn=978-81-206-0535-0&rft.aulast=Cortes%C3%A3o&rft.aufirst=Armando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh82D-Y0E3TwC%26q%3DSimao%2520Afonso%2520Bisagudo%26pg%3DPR81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Pfoundes_1882">Pfoundes 1882</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Nowell_1947">Nowell 1947</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Cole_2002">Cole 2002</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Otfinoski_2004">Otfinoski 2004</a>, p. 33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Zweig_1938">Zweig 1938</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Donkin_2003">Donkin 2003</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#DeLamar_1992">DeLamar 1992</a>, p. 349.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Catholic_Encyclopædia_2007">Catholic Encyclopædia 2007</a>, web.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Fernandez-Armesto_2006">Fernandez-Armesto 2006</a>, p. 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/magellan-killed-philippine-skirmish/">"Magellan Killed in Philippine Skirmish"</a>. <i>National Geographic Society</i>. 2020-04-06. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220524100743/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/apr27/magellan-killed-philippine-skirmish/">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Society&rft.atitle=Magellan+Killed+in+Philippine+Skirmish&rft.date=2020-04-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feducation.nationalgeographic.org%2Fresource%2Fmagellan-killed-philippine-skirmish%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_147-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_147-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_147-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Newitt_2005">Newitt 2005</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Lach_1998">Lach 1998</a>, p. 1397</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Lach_1998">Lach 1998</a>, p. 1397.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Diffie_1977">Diffie 1977</a>, p. 375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Diffie_1977">Diffie 1977</a>, pp. 368, 473.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Galvano_1563">Galvano 1563</a>, p. 168</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Fernandez-Armesto_2006">Fernandez-Armesto 2006</a>, p. 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#U.C._2009">U.C. 2009</a>, web</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdetunji2019" class="citation web cs1">Adetunji, Jo (February 19, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/how-smallpox-devastated-the-aztecs-and-helped-spain-conquer-an-american-civilization-500-years-ago-111579">"How smallpox devastated the Aztecs – and helped Spain conquer an American civilization 500 years ago"</a>. <i>The Conversation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1984) <i>Spain and Portugal in the New World: 1492–1700.</i> p. 316.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Boxer_1977">Boxer 1977</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Linschoten_1598">Linschoten 1598</a>, original book</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Boxer_1969">Boxer 1969</a>, p 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_168-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_168-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Paine_2000">Paine 2000</a>, p. xvi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mount Allison University, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mta.ca/marshland/topic3_europeans/european.htm">Marshlands: Records of Life on the Tantramar: European Contact and Mapping</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419042914/https://www.mta.ca/marshland/topic3_europeans/european.htm">Archived</a> 2021-04-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Tratado das ilhas novas e descombrimento dellas e outras couzas, 1570</i> Francisco de Souza, p. 6 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3WMDAAAAQAAJ">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200125134500/https://books.google.com/books/about/Tratado_das_ilhas_novas_e_descombrimento.html%3Fid%3D3WMDAAAAQAAJ%26redir_esc%3Dy">Archived</a> 2020-01-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Cartier_E.B._2009">Cartier E.B. 2009</a>, web.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#histori.ca_2009">Histori.ca 2009</a>, web.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Gutierrez_1998">Gutierrez 1998</a>. pp. 81–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#San_Diego_HS">San Diego HS</a>, web.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pattridge, Blake D. "Francis Drake" in <i>Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture</i>, vol. 2, 402</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVon_der_Porten1975" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Von_der_Porten" title="Edward Von der Porten">Von der Porten, Edward</a> (January 1975). "Drake's First Landfall". <i>Pacific Discovery, California Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>28</b> (1): 28–30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pacific+Discovery%2C+California+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Drake%27s+First+Landfall&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=28-30&rft.date=1975-01&rft.aulast=Von+der+Porten&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorison1978" class="citation book cs1">Morison, Samuel Eliot (1978). <i>The Great Explorere: The European Discovery of America</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 700. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504222-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504222-1"><bdi>978-0-19-504222-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Explorere%3A+The+European+Discovery+of+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=700&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-19-504222-1&rft.aulast=Morison&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Eliot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassels2003" class="citation journal cs1">Cassels, Sir Simon (August 2003). "Where Did Drake Careen The Golden Hind in June/July 1579? A Mariner's Assessment". <i>The Mariner's Mirror</i>. <b>89</b> (1): 263. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00253359.2003.10659292">10.1080/00253359.2003.10659292</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161710358">161710358</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mariner%27s+Mirror&rft.atitle=Where+Did+Drake+Careen+The+Golden+Hind+in+June%2FJuly+1579%3F+A+Mariner%27s+Assessment&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=263&rft.date=2003-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00253359.2003.10659292&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161710358%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cassels&rft.aufirst=Sir+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gough1980-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gough1980_179-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gough1980_179-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGough1980" class="citation book cs1">Gough, Barry (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/distantdominionb0000goug"><i>Distant Dominion: Britain and the Northwest Coast of North America, 1579-1809</i></a></span>. Vancouver: U Univ. of British Columbia Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/distantdominionb0000goug/page/15">15</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7748-0113-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7748-0113-1"><bdi>0-7748-0113-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distant+Dominion%3A+Britain+and+the+Northwest+Coast+of+North+America%2C+1579-1809&rft.place=Vancouver&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=U+Univ.+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-7748-0113-1&rft.aulast=Gough&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdistantdominionb0000goug&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner2006" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Michael (2006). <i>In Drake's Wake Volume 2 The World Voyage</i>. United Kingdom: Paul Mould Publishing. p. 163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904959-28-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904959-28-1"><bdi>978-1-904959-28-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Drake%27s+Wake+Volume+2+The+World+Voyage&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=163&rft.pub=Paul+Mould+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-904959-28-1&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassels2003" class="citation journal cs1">Cassels, Sir Simon (August 2003). "Where Did Drake Careen The Golden Hind in June/July 1579? A Mariner's Assessment". <i>The Mariner's Mirror</i>. <b>89</b> (1): 263,264. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00253359.2003.10659292">10.1080/00253359.2003.10659292</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161710358">161710358</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mariner%27s+Mirror&rft.atitle=Where+Did+Drake+Careen+The+Golden+Hind+in+June%2FJuly+1579%3F+A+Mariner%27s+Assessment&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=263%2C264&rft.date=2003-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00253359.2003.10659292&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161710358%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cassels&rft.aufirst=Sir+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSugden2006" class="citation book cs1">Sugden, John (2006). <i>Sir Francis Drake</i>. London: Pimlico. p. 136,137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-844-13762-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-844-13762-6"><bdi>978-1-844-13762-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sir+Francis+Drake&rft.place=London&rft.pages=136%2C137&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-844-13762-6&rft.aulast=Sugden&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner2006" class="citation book cs1">Turner, Michael (2006). <i>In Drake's Wake Volume 2 The World Voyage</i>. United Kingdom: Paul Mould Publishing. p. 173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904959-28-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904959-28-1"><bdi>978-1-904959-28-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Drake%27s+Wake+Volume+2+The+World+Voyage&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=Paul+Mould+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-904959-28-1&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pattridge, "Francis Drake", 406</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Hacquebord_1995">Hacquebord 1995</a>,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDermott2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">McDermott, James (28 May 2015). "Frobisher, Sir Martin". <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F10191">10.1093/ref:odnb/10191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Frobisher%2C+Sir+Martin&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015-05-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F10191&rft.aulast=McDermott&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/sir-martin-frobisher">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220522060345/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/sir-martin-frobisher">Archived</a> 2022-05-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "Martin Frobisher", The Canadian Encyclopedia accessed 16 July 2021</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Synge_1912">Synge 1912</a>, p. 258</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#ULT_2009">ULT 2009</a>, web</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Wilford_1982">Wilford 1982</a>, p. 139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Medina_1918">Medina 1918</a>, pp. 136–246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Mutch_1942">Mutch 1942</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Lincoln_1994">Lincoln 1994</a>, p. 62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#The_Perfilyevs">The Perfilyevs</a>, web <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Sbaikal">Sbaikal</a>, web <span class="languageicon">(in Russian)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Lincoln_1994">Lincoln 1994</a>, p. 247</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Fisher_1981">Fisher 1981</a>, p. 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Dymytryshyn_1985">Dymytryshyn 1985</a>, web</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McNeill_2019-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McNeill_2019_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#McNeill_2019">McNeill 2019</a>, web.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oxfordbibliographies1-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oxfordbibliographies1_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHahn2019" class="citation web cs1">Hahn, Barbara (31 July 2019) [27 August 2018]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0141.xml">"Tobacco – Atlantic History"</a>. <i>oxfordbibliographies.com</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780199730414-0141">10.1093/obo/9780199730414-0141</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201028093226/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0141.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oxfordbibliographies.com&rft.atitle=Tobacco+%E2%80%93+Atlantic+History&rft.date=2019-07-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780199730414-0141&rft.aulast=Hahn&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fview%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780199730414%2Fobo-9780199730414-0141.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Escudero_2014-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Escudero_2014_201-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEscudero2014" class="citation book cs1">Escudero, Antonio Gutiérrez (2014). "Hispaniola's Turn to Tobacco: Products from Santo Domingo in Atlantic Commerce". In Aram, Bethany; Yun-Casalilla, Bartolomé (eds.). <i>Global Goods and the Spanish Empire, 1492–1824: Circulation, Resistance, and Diversity</i>. <a href="/wiki/Basingstoke" title="Basingstoke">Basingstoke</a>: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. pp. 216–229. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137324054_12">10.1057/9781137324054_12</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-32405-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-32405-4"><bdi>978-1-137-32405-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hispaniola%27s+Turn+to+Tobacco%3A+Products+from+Santo+Domingo+in+Atlantic+Commerce&rft.btitle=Global+Goods+and+the+Spanish+Empire%2C+1492%E2%80%931824%3A+Circulation%2C+Resistance%2C+and+Diversity&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pages=216-229&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9781137324054_12&rft.isbn=978-1-137-32405-4&rft.aulast=Escudero&rft.aufirst=Antonio+Guti%C3%A9rrez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knight_2010-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Knight_2010_202-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knight_2010_202-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2020" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Frederick C. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqQUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA65">"3 Cultivating Knowledge: African Tobacco and Cotton Workers in Colonial British America"</a>. <i>Working the Diaspora: The Impact of African Labor on the Anglo-American World, 1650–1850</i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Press" title="New York University Press">New York University Press</a>. pp. 65–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18574%2Fnyu%2F9780814748183.003.0004">10.18574/nyu/9780814748183.003.0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-4818-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-4818-3"><bdi>978-0-8147-4818-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2009026860">2009026860</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210904052526/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqQUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA65">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3+Cultivating+Knowledge%3A+African+Tobacco+and+Cotton+Workers+in+Colonial+British+America&rft.btitle=Working+the+Diaspora%3A+The+Impact+of+African+Labor+on+the+Anglo-American+World%2C+1650%E2%80%931850&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pages=65-85&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009026860&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18574%2Fnyu%2F9780814748183.003.0004&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-4818-3&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Frederick+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZqQUCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nater_2006-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nater_2006_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNater2006" class="citation book cs1">Nater, Laura (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mnvBYQqpJbQC&pg=PA93">"Colonial Tobacco: Key Commodity of the Spanish Empire, 1500–1800"</a>. In Topik, Steven; Marichal, Carlos; Frank, Zephyr (eds.). <i>From Silver to Cocaine: Latin American Commodity Chains and the Building of the World Economy, 1500–2000</i>. <a href="/wiki/Durham,_North_Carolina" title="Durham, North Carolina">Durham, North Carolina</a>: <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. pp. 93–117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F9780822388029-005">10.1215/9780822388029-005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3753-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3753-9"><bdi>978-0-8223-3753-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210904054104/https://books.google.com/books?id=mnvBYQqpJbQC&pg=PA93">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Colonial+Tobacco%3A+Key+Commodity+of+the+Spanish+Empire%2C+1500%E2%80%931800&rft.btitle=From+Silver+to+Cocaine%3A+Latin+American+Commodity+Chains+and+the+Building+of+the+World+Economy%2C+1500%E2%80%932000&rft.place=Durham%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pages=93-117&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F9780822388029-005&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-3753-9&rft.aulast=Nater&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmnvBYQqpJbQC%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mancall1998-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mancall1998_204-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMancall1998" class="citation journal cs1">Mancall, Peter C. (1998). "The Age of Discovery". <i>Reviews in American History</i>. <b>26</b> (1): 35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Frah.1998.0013">10.1353/rah.1998.0013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0048-7511">0048-7511</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30030873">30030873</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143822053">143822053</a>. <q>Other documents from the sixteenth century, such as the magnificent <a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a>, contain testimony from native observers whose views were recorded by European witnesses to the conquest. These texts provide details about indigenous practices as well as views of the conquest from the perspective of the invaded. Some of these indigenous sources have been translated into English. On the issue of the encounter, these sources concur: the arrival of Europeans brought death, displacement, sorrow, and despair to Native Americans.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+in+American+History&rft.atitle=The+Age+of+Discovery&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=35&rft.date=1998&rft.issn=0048-7511&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143822053%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30030873%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Frah.1998.0013&rft.aulast=Mancall&rft.aufirst=Peter+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Brook_1998">Cook 1998</a>, p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#OSU_2006">OSU 2006</a>, news.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.HTM">The cassava transformation in Africa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140609000851/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.HTM">Archived</a> 2014-06-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Scitizen_2007">Scitizen 2007</a>, web.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Crosby_1972">Crosby 1972</a>, p. 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Glahn1996" class="citation journal cs1">von Glahn, Richard (1996). "Myth and Reality of China's Seventeenth Century Monetary Crisis". <i>Journal of Economic History</i>. <b>2</b>: 132. <q>... silver wanders throughout all the world... before flocking to China, where it remains as if at its natural center.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=Myth+and+Reality+of+China%27s+Seventeenth+Century+Monetary+Crisis&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=132&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=von+Glahn&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuang1975" class="citation cs2">Huang, Ray (1975), "Financial management", <i>Taxation and Governmental Finance in Sixteenth-Century Ming China</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. 266–305, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511735400.011">10.1017/cbo9780511735400.011</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-73540-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-73540-0"><bdi>978-0-511-73540-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Financial+management&rft.btitle=Taxation+and+Governmental+Finance+in+Sixteenth-Century+Ming+China&rft.pages=266-305&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511735400.011&rft.isbn=978-0-511-73540-0&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_212-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_212-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlynn1995" class="citation journal cs1">Flynn, Dennis O. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180423072506/http://www.uhpress.hawaii.edu/journals/jwh/jwh062p201.pdf">"Born with a "Silver Spoon": The Origin of World Trade in 1571"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of World History</i>. University of Hawaii Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uhpress.hawaii.edu/journals/jwh/jwh062p201.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2018-04-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Born+with+a+%22Silver+Spoon%22%3A+The+Origin+of+World+Trade+in+1571&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=Dennis+O.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uhpress.hawaii.edu%2Fjournals%2Fjwh%2Fjwh062p201.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Columbia_University_2009">Columbia University 2009</a>, web.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ebrey_2006,_p._211-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ebrey_2006,_p._211_214-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ebrey_2006,_p._211_214-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Ebrey_2006">Ebrey 2006</a>, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Crosby_1972">Crosby 1972</a>, pp. 198–201</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Gernet_1962">Gernet 1962</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Crosby_1972">Crosby 1972</a>, p. 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Spence_1999">Spence 1999</a>, pp. 19–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Brook_1998">Brook 1998</a>, p. 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlynnGiraldez2002" class="citation journal cs1">Flynn, Dennis Owen; Giraldez, Arturo (2002). "Cycles of Silver: Global Economic Unity through the Mid-Eighteenth Century". <i>Journal of World History</i>. <b>13</b> (2): 391–427. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.2002.0035">10.1353/jwh.2002.0035</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1527-8050">1527-8050</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145805906">145805906</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Cycles+of+Silver%3A+Global+Economic+Unity+through+the+Mid-Eighteenth+Century&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=391-427&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145805906%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1527-8050&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.2002.0035&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=Dennis+Owen&rft.au=Giraldez%2C+Arturo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Braudel_1985">Braudel 1985</a>, p. 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Dunton_1896">Dunton 1896</a>, p. 163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Brook_1998">Brook 1998</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#AAS_1976">Aas 1976</a>, pp. 410–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a study on foreign objects in Dutch paintings, see <a href="#Hochstrasser_2007">Hochstrasser 2007</a>, <i>Still life and trade in the Dutch golden age</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Volker_1971">Volker 1971</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Brook_1998">Brook 1998</a>, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Howard_1978">Howard 1978</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Brook_1998">Brook 1998</a>, pp. 205–206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Walton_1994">Walton 1994</a>, pp. 43–44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Braudel_1979">Braudel 1979</a>, p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Tracy_1994">Tracy 1994</a>, p. 655.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Braudel_1979">Braudel 1979</a>, pp. 523–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverton1996" class="citation book cs1">Overton, Mark (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521568593"><i>Agricultural Revolution in England: The transformation of the agrarian economy 1500–1850</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56859-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56859-3"><bdi>978-0-521-56859-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agricultural+Revolution+in+England%3A+The+transformation+of+the+agrarian+economy+1500%E2%80%931850&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56859-3&rft.aulast=Overton&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780521568593&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Exploration" title="Exploration">Exploration</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Castillo_1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernal_D%C3%ADaz_del_Castillo" title="Bernal Díaz del Castillo">Castillo, Bernal Díaz del, John Michael Cohen</a> (1963) [1632]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conquestofnewspa00diaz"><i>The conquest of New Spain</i></a></span>. Penguin Classics. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conquestofnewspa00diaz/page/n2">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044123-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044123-9"><bdi>978-0-14-044123-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+conquest+of+New+Spain&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044123-9&rft.aulast=Castillo&rft.aufirst=Bernal+D%C3%ADaz+del%2C+John+Michael+Cohen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconquestofnewspa00diaz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Galvano_1563" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Galv%C3%A3o" title="António Galvão">Galvano, Antonio</a> (2004-03-01) [1563]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XivHTiZoMycC&pg=1"><i>The Discoveries of the World from Their First Original Unto the Year of Our Lord 1555, issued by the Hakluyt Society</i></a>. Kessinger Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-9022-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7661-9022-1"><bdi>978-0-7661-9022-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Discoveries+of+the+World+from+Their+First+Original+Unto+the+Year+of+Our+Lord+1555%2C+issued+by+the+Hakluyt+Society&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2004-03-01&rft.isbn=978-0-7661-9022-1&rft.aulast=Galvano&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXivHTiZoMycC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Linschoten_1598" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Huyghen_van_Linschoten" title="Jan Huyghen van Linschoten">Linschoten, Jan Huyghen van</a> (2004) [1598]. <i>Voyage to Goa and Back, 1583–1592, with His Account of the East Indies: From Linschoten's Discourse of Voyages, in 1598</i>. New Delhi, AES. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1928-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1928-9"><bdi>978-81-206-1928-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Voyage+to+Goa+and+Back%2C+1583%E2%80%931592%2C+with+His+Account+of+the+East+Indies%3A+From+Linschoten%27s+Discourse+of+Voyages%2C+in+1598&rft.pub=New+Delhi%2C+AES&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-206-1928-9&rft.aulast=Linschoten&rft.aufirst=Jan+Huyghen+van&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Mancall_2006" class="citation book cs1">Mancall, Peter C. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hNUROuYfFb4C&pg=1"><i>Travel narratives from the age of discovery: an anthology</i></a>. Oxford University Press US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515597-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515597-6"><bdi>978-0-19-515597-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220726071913/https://books.google.com/books?id=hNUROuYfFb4C&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-07-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Travel+narratives+from+the+age+of+discovery%3A+an+anthology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515597-6&rft.aulast=Mancall&rft.aufirst=Peter+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhNUROuYfFb4C%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Pires_1512" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A9_Pires" title="Tomé Pires">Pires, Tomé, Armando Cortesão, Francisco Rodrigues</a> (1990) [1512]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&pg=1"><i>The Suma oriental of Tome Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, written in Malacca and India in 1512–1515; and, The book of Francisco Rodrigues: Pilot-Major of the armada that discovered Banda and the Moluccas</i></a>. Asian Educational Services. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0535-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0535-0"><bdi>978-81-206-0535-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520133454/https://books.google.com/books?id=h82D-Y0E3TwC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Suma+oriental+of+Tome+Pires%3A+an+account+of+the+East%2C+from+the+Red+Sea+to+China%2C+written+in+Malacca+and+India+in+1512%E2%80%931515%3B+and%2C+The+book+of+Francisco+Rodrigues%3A+Pilot-Major+of+the+armada+that+discovered+Banda+and+the+Moluccas&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-81-206-0535-0&rft.aulast=Pires&rft.aufirst=Tom%C3%A9%2C+Armando+Cortes%C3%A3o%2C+Francisco+Rodrigues&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh82D-Y0E3TwC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Cervantes_web" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/historia/CarlosV/9_9.shtml">"Real Cédula aprobando la capitulación concedida por Carlos V a Francisco Pizarro para la conquista y población del Perú"</a> (in Spanish). Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811120811/http://bib.cervantesvirtual.com/historia/CarlosV/9_9.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 11 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Real+C%C3%A9dula+aprobando+la+capitulaci%C3%B3n+concedida+por+Carlos+V+a+Francisco+Pizarro+para+la+conquista+y+poblaci%C3%B3n+del+Per%C3%BA&rft.pub=Biblioteca+Virtual+Miguel+de+Cervantes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cervantesvirtual.com%2Fhistoria%2FCarlosV%2F9_9.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secondary_works">Secondary works</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Secondary works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Abu-Lughod_1991" class="citation book cs1">Abu-Lughod, Janet (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rYlgGU2SLiQC&q=1&pg=PP1"><i>Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350</i></a>. Oxford University Press US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506774-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506774-3"><bdi>978-0-19-506774-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220522204840/https://books.google.com/books?id=rYlgGU2SLiQC&q=1&pg=PP1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+European+Hegemony%3A+The+World+System+A.D.+1250%E2%80%931350&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506774-3&rft.aulast=Abu-Lughod&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrYlgGU2SLiQC%26q%3D1%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Anderson_2000" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, James Maxwell (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UoryGn9o4x0C&pg=1"><i>The history of Portugal</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31106-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31106-2"><bdi>978-0-313-31106-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407215801/https://books.google.com/books?id=UoryGn9o4x0C&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-04-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+Portugal&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-313-31106-2&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=James+Maxwell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUoryGn9o4x0C%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Arciniegas_1978" class="citation book cs1">Arciniegas, Germán (1978). <i>Amerigo and the New World: The Life & Times of Amerigo Vespucci</i>. Octagon Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-90280-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-90280-3"><bdi>978-0-374-90280-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amerigo+and+the+New+World%3A+The+Life+%26+Times+of+Amerigo+Vespucci&rft.pub=Octagon+Books&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-374-90280-3&rft.aulast=Arciniegas&rft.aufirst=Germ%C3%A1n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Fernandez-Armesto_2006" class="citation book cs1">Armesto, Felipe Fernandez (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba00fern"><i>Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration</i></a>. W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06259-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06259-5"><bdi>978-0-393-06259-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pathfinders%3A+A+Global+History+of+Exploration&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-393-06259-5&rft.aulast=Armesto&rft.aufirst=Felipe+Fernandez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpathfindersgloba00fern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Arnold_2002" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, David (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YGufteqeJA4C&pg=1"><i>The Age of Discovery, 1400–1600, Lancaster pamphlets</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27996-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27996-3"><bdi>978-0-415-27996-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520144448/https://books.google.com/books?id=YGufteqeJA4C&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Discovery%2C+1400%E2%80%931600%2C+Lancaster+pamphlets&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-27996-3&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYGufteqeJA4C%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Boxer_1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._R._Boxer" title="C. R. Boxer">Boxer, Charles Ralph</a> (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/portugueseseabor0000boxe"><i>The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415–1825</i></a></span>. Hutchinson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-131071-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-131071-4"><bdi>978-0-09-131071-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Portuguese+Seaborne+Empire+1415%E2%80%931825&rft.pub=Hutchinson&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-09-131071-4&rft.aulast=Boxer&rft.aufirst=Charles+Ralph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fportugueseseabor0000boxe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Boxer_1977" class="citation book cs1">Boxer, Charles Ralph (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fx4OAAAAQAAJ&pg=1"><i>The Dutch seaborne empire, 1600–1800</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-131051-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-131051-6"><bdi>978-0-09-131051-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220522204841/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fx4OAAAAQAAJ&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dutch+seaborne+empire%2C+1600%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-09-131051-6&rft.aulast=Boxer&rft.aufirst=Charles+Ralph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFx4OAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Braudel_1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel" title="Fernand Braudel">Braudel, Fernand</a> (1992) [1979]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WPDbSXQsvGIC&pg=1"><i>The Wheels of Commerce, vol. II of Civilization and Capitalism 15th–18th Century</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08115-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08115-4"><bdi>978-0-520-08115-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414133041/https://books.google.com/books?id=WPDbSXQsvGIC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wheels+of+Commerce%2C+vol.+II+of+Civilization+and+Capitalism+15th%E2%80%9318th+Century&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08115-4&rft.aulast=Braudel&rft.aufirst=Fernand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWPDbSXQsvGIC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Braudel_1985" class="citation book cs1">Braudel, Fernand (1992) [1985]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xMZI2QEer9QC&pg=1"><i>The perspective of the world</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08116-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08116-1"><bdi>978-0-520-08116-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520143804/https://books.google.com/books?id=xMZI2QEer9QC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+perspective+of+the+world&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08116-1&rft.aulast=Braudel&rft.aufirst=Fernand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxMZI2QEer9QC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Brook_1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Brook_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Timothy Brook (historian)">Brook, Timothy</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YuMcHWWbXqMC&pg=1"><i>The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22154-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22154-3"><bdi>978-0-520-22154-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520144004/https://books.google.com/books?id=YuMcHWWbXqMC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Confusions+of+Pleasure%3A+Commerce+and+Culture+in+Ming+China&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22154-3&rft.aulast=Brook&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYuMcHWWbXqMC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Burns_2001" class="citation book cs1">Burns, William E. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=59ITUOLbVkoC&pg=1"><i>The scientific revolution: an encyclopædia</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-875-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-875-8"><bdi>978-0-87436-875-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520144448/https://books.google.com/books?id=59ITUOLbVkoC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+scientific+revolution%3A+an+encyclop%C3%A6dia&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-87436-875-8&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D59ITUOLbVkoC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Butel_1999" class="citation book cs1">Butel, Paul (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GL83BE8oVcwC&pg=1"><i>The Atlantic</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10690-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10690-0"><bdi>978-0-415-10690-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220910155323/https://books.google.com/books?id=GL83BE8oVcwC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-09-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-10690-0&rft.aulast=Butel&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGL83BE8oVcwC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Cole_2002" class="citation book cs1">Cole, Juan Ricardo (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ntarP5hrza0C&pg=1"><i>Sacred Space and Holy War</i></a>. I.B.Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-736-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-736-9"><bdi>978-1-86064-736-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520152831/https://books.google.com/books?id=ntarP5hrza0C&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+Space+and+Holy+War&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-86064-736-9&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Juan+Ricardo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DntarP5hrza0C%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Cole_2002" class="citation book cs1">Cook, Noble David (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dvjNyZTFrS4C&pg=1"><i>Born to die: disease and New World conquest, 1492–1650</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62730-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62730-6"><bdi>978-0-521-62730-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407192321/https://books.google.com/books?id=dvjNyZTFrS4C&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-04-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Born+to+die%3A+disease+and+New+World+conquest%2C+1492%E2%80%931650&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62730-6&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Noble+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdvjNyZTFrS4C%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Crosby_1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_W._Crosby" title="Alfred W. Crosby">Crosby, Alfred W. Jr</a> (2003) [1972]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7yClMF7IQt8C&pg=1"><i>The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492</i></a> (30th Anniversary ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98092-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98092-4"><bdi>978-0-275-98092-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220522215448/https://books.google.com/books?id=7yClMF7IQt8C&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Columbian+Exchange%3A+Biological+and+Cultural+Consequences+of+1492&rft.edition=30th+Anniversary&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98092-4&rft.aulast=Crosby&rft.aufirst=Alfred+W.+Jr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7yClMF7IQt8C%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Cromer_1995" class="citation book cs1">Cromer, Alan (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8cT2C87tb-sC&q=Zheng+He+voyages&pg=PA117"><i>Uncommon Sense: The Heretical Nature of Science</i></a>. Oxford University Press US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509636-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509636-1"><bdi>978-0-19-509636-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414073220/https://books.google.com/books?id=8cT2C87tb-sC&q=Zheng+He+voyages&pg=PA117">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uncommon+Sense%3A+The+Heretical+Nature+of+Science&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509636-1&rft.aulast=Cromer&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8cT2C87tb-sC%26q%3DZheng%2BHe%2Bvoyages%26pg%3DPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Crow_1992" class="citation book cs1">Crow, John A. (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epicoflatinameri00crow"><i>The Epic of Latin America</i></a></span>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epicoflatinameri00crow/page/136">136</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07723-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07723-2"><bdi>978-0-520-07723-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Epic+of+Latin+America&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07723-2&rft.aulast=Crow&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fepicoflatinameri00crow&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2019" class="citation journal cs1">Chen, Zhongping (2019). "Toward a Global Network Revolution: Zheng He's Maritime Voyages and Tribute-Trade Relations Between China and the Indian Ocean World". <i>China and Asia</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 3–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2589465X-00101002">10.1163/2589465X-00101002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+and+Asia&rft.atitle=Toward+a+Global+Network+Revolution%3A+Zheng+He%27s+Maritime+Voyages+and+Tribute-Trade+Relations+Between+China+and+the+Indian+Ocean+World&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-49&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2589465X-00101002&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Zhongping&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Daus_1983" class="citation book cs1">Daus, Ronald (1983). <i>Die Erfindung des Kolonialismus</i>. Wuppertal/Germany: Peter Hammer Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-87294-202-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-87294-202-9"><bdi>978-3-87294-202-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Erfindung+des+Kolonialismus&rft.place=Wuppertal%2FGermany&rft.pub=Peter+Hammer+Verlag&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-3-87294-202-9&rft.aulast=Daus&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Davenport_1917" class="citation book cs1">Davenport, Frances Gardiner (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_uLILAAAAIAAJ"><i>European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648</i></a>. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute of Washington<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Treaties+Bearing+on+the+History+of+the+United+States+and+Its+Dependencies+to+1648&rft.pub=Washington%2C+DC%3A+Carnegie+Institute+of+Washington&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Davenport&rft.aufirst=Frances+Gardiner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_uLILAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="DeLamar_1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/De_Lamar_Jensen" title="De Lamar Jensen">De Lamar, Jensen</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/renaissanceeurop00dela"><i>Renaissance Europe: age of recovery and reconciliation</i></a>. D.C. Heath. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-669-20007-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-669-20007-2"><bdi>978-0-669-20007-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renaissance+Europe%3A+age+of+recovery+and+reconciliation&rft.pub=D.C.+Heath&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-669-20007-2&rft.aulast=De+Lamar&rft.aufirst=Jensen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frenaissanceeurop00dela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Diffie_1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bailey_W._Diffie" title="Bailey W. Diffie">Diffie, Bailey</a> (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC"><i>Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580</i></a>. University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-0782-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-0782-2"><bdi>978-0-8166-0782-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161128183431/https://books.google.com/books?id=vtZtMBLJ7GgC">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-11-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+the+Portuguese+Empire%2C+1415%E2%80%931580&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-8166-0782-2&rft.aulast=Diffie&rft.aufirst=Bailey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvtZtMBLJ7GgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Diffie_1960" class="citation book cs1">Diffie, Bailey (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IjBfEorbZWAC"><i>Prelude to empire: Portugal overseas before Henry the Navigator</i></a>. University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-5049-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-5049-9"><bdi>978-0-8032-5049-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132950/https://books.google.com/books?id=IjBfEorbZWAC">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prelude+to+empire%3A+Portugal+overseas+before+Henry+the+Navigator&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-5049-9&rft.aulast=Diffie&rft.aufirst=Bailey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIjBfEorbZWAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Dymytryshyn_1985" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dymytryshyn, Basil, E.A.P. Crownhart-Vaughan, Thomas Vaughan (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rulex.ru/01220001.htm"><i>Russia's conquest of Siberia, 1558–1700: a documentary record</i></a> (in Russian). Western Imprints, The Press of the Oregon Historical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-5049-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-5049-9"><bdi>978-0-8032-5049-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130626164205/http://www.rulex.ru/01220001.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-06-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-02-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+conquest+of+Siberia%2C+1558%E2%80%931700%3A+a+documentary+record&rft.pub=Western+Imprints%2C+The+Press+of+the+Oregon+Historical+Society&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-5049-9&rft.aulast=Dymytryshyn&rft.aufirst=Basil%2C+E.A.P.+Crownhart-Vaughan%2C+Thomas+Vaughan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rulex.ru%2F01220001.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Donkin_2003" class="citation book cs1">Donkin, R.A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_B4IFMnssyqgC"><i>Between East and West: the Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices up to the arrival of Europeans</i></a>. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Diane Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_B4IFMnssyqgC/page/n18">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-248-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-248-1"><bdi>978-0-87169-248-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+East+and+West%3A+the+Moluccas+and+the+Traffic+in+Spices+up+to+the+arrival+of+Europeans&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Memoirs+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society%2C+Diane+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-87169-248-1&rft.aulast=Donkin&rft.aufirst=R.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_B4IFMnssyqgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Dunn_2004" class="citation book cs1">Dunn, Ross E. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Js8qHFVw2gEC&pg=1"><i>The adventures of Ibn Battuta, a Muslim traveler of the fourteenth century</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24385-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24385-9"><bdi>978-0-520-24385-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520152831/https://books.google.com/books?id=Js8qHFVw2gEC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+adventures+of+Ibn+Battuta%2C+a+Muslim+traveler+of+the+fourteenth+century&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-520-24385-9&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=Ross+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJs8qHFVw2gEC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Dunton_1896" class="citation book cs1">Dunton, Larkin (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldanditspeop05duntgoog"><i>The World and Its People</i></a>. Silver, Burdett.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+and+Its+People&rft.pub=Silver%2C+Burdett&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Dunton&rft.aufirst=Larkin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldanditspeop05duntgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Ebrey_2006" class="citation book cs1">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, Anne Walthall, James B. Palais (2006–2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I7Pf-X2VuokC"><i>East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</i></a>. Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-13384-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-13384-0"><bdi>978-0-618-13384-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414072656/https://books.google.com/books?id=I7Pf-X2VuokC">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+History&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2006%2F2008&rft.isbn=978-0-618-13384-0&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley%2C+Anne+Walthall%2C+James+B.+Palais&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI7Pf-X2VuokC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Fisher_1981" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, Raymond H. (1981). <i>The Voyage of Semen Dezhnev in 1648</i>. The Hakluyt Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-904180-07-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-904180-07-7"><bdi>978-0-904180-07-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Voyage+of+Semen+Dezhnev+in+1648&rft.pub=The+Hakluyt+Society&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-904180-07-7&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Raymond+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Fiske_1892" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Fiske_(philosopher)" title="John Fiske (philosopher)">Fiske, John</a> (1892–2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bG1kIHQn_6wC"><i>The Discovery of America: With Some Account of Ancient America and the Spanish Conquest</i></a>. Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-110-32015-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-110-32015-8"><bdi>978-1-110-32015-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414073224/https://books.google.com/books?id=bG1kIHQn_6wC">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Discovery+of+America%3A+With+Some+Account+of+Ancient+America+and+the+Spanish+Conquest&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1892%2F2009&rft.isbn=978-1-110-32015-8&rft.aulast=Fiske&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbG1kIHQn_6wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Forbes_1993" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Jack D. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6aLAeB5QiHAC&pg=1"><i>Africans and Native Americans: the language of race and the evolution of Red-Black peoples</i></a>. University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06321-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06321-3"><bdi>978-0-252-06321-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407010233/https://books.google.com/books?id=6aLAeB5QiHAC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-04-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africans+and+Native+Americans%3A+the+language+of+race+and+the+evolution+of+Red-Black+peoples&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06321-3&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Jack+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6aLAeB5QiHAC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Gernet_1962" class="citation book cs1">Gernet, Jacques (1962). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinchina00gernrich"><i>Daily life in China, on the eve of the Mongol invasion, 1250–1276</i></a></span>. Stanford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinchina00gernrich/page/n0">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0720-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0720-6"><bdi>978-0-8047-0720-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+life+in+China%2C+on+the+eve+of+the+Mongol+invasion%2C+1250%E2%80%931276&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0720-6&rft.aulast=Gernet&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifeinchina00gernrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Gitzen_2011" class="citation book cs1">Gitzen, Garry (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fortnehalem.net/"><i>Francis Drake in Nehalem Bay 1579, Setting the Historical Record Straight</i></a>. Fort Nehalem. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111017221846/http://www.fortnehalem.net/">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-10-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Francis+Drake+in+Nehalem+Bay+1579%2C+Setting+the+Historical+Record+Straight&rft.pub=Fort+Nehalem&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Gitzen&rft.aufirst=Garry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fortnehalem.net%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="AAS_1976" class="citation book cs1">Goodrich, Luther Carrington, Chao-ying Fang, Ming Biographical History Project Committee – Association for Asian Studies. (1976). <i>Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368–1644</i>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-03833-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-03833-1"><bdi>978-0-231-03833-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Ming+biography%2C+1368%E2%80%931644&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-231-03833-1&rft.aulast=Goodrich&rft.aufirst=Luther+Carrington%2C+Chao-ying+Fang%2C+Ming+Biographical+History+Project+Committee+%E2%80%93+Association+for+Asian+Studies.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Gutierrez_1998" class="citation book cs1">Gutierrez, Ramon A, and Richard J. Orsi (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nWXbXmUQ8ZUC&pg=1"><i>Contested Eden: California before the Gold Rush</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21274-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21274-9"><bdi>978-0-520-21274-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220522204840/https://books.google.com/books?id=nWXbXmUQ8ZUC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contested+Eden%3A+California+before+the+Gold+Rush&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21274-9&rft.aulast=Gutierrez&rft.aufirst=Ramon+A%2C+and+Richard+J.+Orsi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnWXbXmUQ8ZUC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Hacquebord_1995" class="citation journal cs1">Hacquebord, Louwrens (September 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic48-3-248.pdf">"In Search of <i>Het Behouden Huys</i>: A Survey of the Remains of the House of Willem Barentsz on Novaya Zemlya"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Arctic</i>. <b>48</b> (3): 250. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.505.5702">10.1.1.505.5702</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14430%2Farctic1246">10.14430/arctic1246</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090327084815/http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic48-3-248.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 27 March 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arctic&rft.atitle=In+Search+of+Het+Behouden+Huys%3A+A+Survey+of+the+Remains+of+the+House+of+Willem+Barentsz+on+Novaya+Zemlya&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=250&rft.date=1995-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.505.5702%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14430%2Farctic1246&rft.aulast=Hacquebord&rft.aufirst=Louwrens&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.aina.ucalgary.ca%2Farctic%2FArctic48-3-248.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Hochstrasser_2007" class="citation book cs1">Hochstrasser, Julie (2007). <i>Still life and trade in the Dutch golden age</i>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10038-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10038-9"><bdi>978-0-300-10038-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Still+life+and+trade+in+the+Dutch+golden+age&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10038-9&rft.aulast=Hochstrasser&rft.aufirst=Julie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Howard_1978" class="citation book cs1">Howard, David and John Ayers (1978). <i>China for the West: Chinese Porcelain and other Decorative Arts for Export, Illustrated from the Mottahedeh Collection</i>. London and New York: Sotheby Parke Bernet.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+for+the+West%3A+Chinese+Porcelain+and+other+Decorative+Arts+for+Export%2C+Illustrated+from+the+Mottahedeh+Collection&rft.pub=London+and+New+York%3A+Sotheby+Parke+Bernet&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=David+and+John+Ayers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Lach_1998" class="citation book cs1">Lach, Donald F., Edwin J. Van Kley (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M4t8S7BfgeIC&q=ternate%20tidore%20portuguese%20spanish%20conflict&pg=PA1397"><i>Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance. Book 3: Southeast Asia</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46768-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-46768-9"><bdi>978-0-226-46768-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132419/https://books.google.com/books?id=M4t8S7BfgeIC&q=ternate%20tidore%20portuguese%20spanish%20conflict&pg=PA1397">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+in+the+Making+of+Europe%2C+Volume+III%3A+A+Century+of+Advance.+Book+3%3A+Southeast+Asia&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-226-46768-9&rft.aulast=Lach&rft.aufirst=Donald+F.%2C+Edwin+J.+Van+Kley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM4t8S7BfgeIC%26q%3Dternate%2520tidore%2520portuguese%2520spanish%2520conflict%26pg%3DPA1397&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Lawson_2007" class="citation book cs1">Lawson, Edward W. (2007). <i>The Discovery of Florida and Its Discoverer Juan Ponce de Leon</i>. Kessinger Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4325-6124-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4325-6124-6"><bdi>978-1-4325-6124-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Discovery+of+Florida+and+Its+Discoverer+Juan+Ponce+de+Leon&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4325-6124-6&rft.aulast=Lawson&rft.aufirst=Edward+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Lincoln_1994" class="citation book cs1">Lincoln, W. Bruce (2007) [1994]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a7JrTvgU4yMC&pg=1"><i>The Conquest of a Continent: Siberia and the Russians</i></a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8922-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8922-8"><bdi>978-0-8014-8922-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520135128/https://books.google.com/books?id=a7JrTvgU4yMC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conquest+of+a+Continent%3A+Siberia+and+the+Russians&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8922-8&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=W.+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da7JrTvgU4yMC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Locke_1824" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke, John</a> (1824). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eMl8Np7zLiQC&q=1"><i>The works of John Locke: in nine volumes, Volume 9" The history of navigation</i></a>. C. and J. Rivington. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132855/https://books.google.com/books?id=eMl8Np7zLiQC&q=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+works+of+John+Locke%3A+in+nine+volumes%2C+Volume+9%22+The+history+of+navigation&rft.pub=C.+and+J.+Rivington&rft.date=1824&rft.aulast=Locke&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeMl8Np7zLiQC%26q%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Love_2006" class="citation book cs1">Love, Ronald S. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r_5Jsi20qcUC&pg=1"><i>Maritime Exploration in the Age of Discovery, 1415–1800</i></a>. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32043-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32043-9"><bdi>978-0-313-32043-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520144448/https://books.google.com/books?id=r_5Jsi20qcUC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maritime+Exploration+in+the+Age+of+Discovery%2C+1415%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32043-9&rft.au=Love%2C+Ronald+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr_5Jsi20qcUC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Mancall_1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Mancall" title="Peter C. Mancall">Mancall, Peter C.</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DpDCdaB_ruIC&pg=PA26"><i>"The Age of Discovery" in The Challenge of American History, ed. Louis Masur</i></a>. Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6222-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6222-9"><bdi>978-0-8018-6222-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414073922/https://books.google.com/books?id=DpDCdaB_ruIC&pg=PA26">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22The+Age+of+Discovery%22+in+The+Challenge+of+American+History%2C+ed.+Louis+Masur&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6222-9&rft.aulast=Mancall&rft.aufirst=Peter+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDpDCdaB_ruIC%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Medina_1918" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Medina (1974) [1918]. <i>El Piloto Juan Fernandez descubridor de las islas que ilevan su hombre, y Juan Jufre, armador de la expedicion que hizo en busca de otras en el mar del zur</i> (in Spanish). Gabriela Mistral. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32043-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32043-9"><bdi>978-0-313-32043-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El+Piloto+Juan+Fernandez+descubridor+de+las+islas+que+ilevan+su+hombre%2C+y+Juan+Jufre%2C+armador+de+la+expedicion+que+hizo+en+busca+de+otras+en+el+mar+del+zur&rft.pub=Gabriela+Mistral&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32043-9&rft.au=Medina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Milton_1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Giles_Milton" title="Giles Milton">Milton, Giles</a> (1999). <i>Nathaniel's Nutmeg</i>. London: Sceptre. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-69676-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-69676-7"><bdi>978-0-340-69676-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nathaniel%27s+Nutmeg&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Sceptre&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-340-69676-7&rft.aulast=Milton&rft.aufirst=Giles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Morison_1942" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Eliot_Morison" title="Samuel Eliot Morison">Morison, Samuel Eliot</a> (2007) [1942]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T5x5xjsJtlwC&pg=1"><i>Admiral of the Ocean Sea: The Life of Christopher Columbus</i></a>. Read Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-5027-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-5027-0"><bdi>978-1-4067-5027-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220522215449/https://books.google.com/books?id=T5x5xjsJtlwC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Admiral+of+the+Ocean+Sea%3A+The+Life+of+Christopher+Columbus&rft.pub=Read+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4067-5027-0&rft.aulast=Morison&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Eliot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT5x5xjsJtlwC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Mutch_1942" class="citation book cs1">Mutch, T.D. (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600631h.html"><i>The First Discovery of Australia</i></a>. Sydney: Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629102750/http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600631h.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Discovery+of+Australia&rft.place=Sydney&rft.pub=Journal+of+the+Royal+Australian+Historical+Society&rft.date=1942&rft.aulast=Mutch&rft.aufirst=T.D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.net.au%2Febooks06%2F0600631h.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Newitt_2005" class="citation book cs1">Newitt, Malyn D.D. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vpteLQcx6J4C"><i>A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400–1668</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23979-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23979-0"><bdi>978-0-415-23979-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111214072624/http://books.google.com/books?id=vpteLQcx6J4C">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-12-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Portuguese+Overseas+Expansion%2C+1400%E2%80%931668&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-23979-0&rft.aulast=Newitt&rft.aufirst=Malyn+D.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvpteLQcx6J4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Nowell_1947" class="citation book cs1">Nowell, Charles E. (1947). <i>The Discovery of the Pacific: A Suggested Change of Approach</i>. The Pacific Historical Review" (Volume XVI, Number 1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Discovery+of+the+Pacific%3A+A+Suggested+Change+of+Approach&rft.pub=The+Pacific+Historical+Review%22+%28Volume+XVI%2C+Number+1%29&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Nowell&rft.aufirst=Charles+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Otfinoski_2004" class="citation book cs1">Otfinoski, Steven (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a90qy5P8UnsC&pg=1"><i>Vasco Nuñez de Balboa: explorer of the Pacific</i></a>. Marshall Cavendish. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-1609-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-1609-8"><bdi>978-0-7614-1609-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220910155324/https://books.google.com/books?id=a90qy5P8UnsC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-09-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vasco+Nu%C3%B1ez+de+Balboa%3A+explorer+of+the+Pacific&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7614-1609-8&rft.aulast=Otfinoski&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da90qy5P8UnsC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Pacey_1991" class="citation book cs1">Pacey, Arnold (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&pg=1"><i>Technology in world civilization: a thousand-year history</i></a>. MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-66072-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-66072-3"><bdi>978-0-262-66072-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520133454/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7e8rHL1lf4C&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+in+world+civilization%3A+a+thousand-year+history&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-262-66072-3&rft.aulast=Pacey&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX7e8rHL1lf4C%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagden1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Pagden" title="Anthony Pagden">Pagden, Anthony</a> (1993). <i>European Encounters with the New World: From Renaissance to Romanticism</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Encounters+with+the+New+World%3A+From+Renaissance+to+Romanticism&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Pagden&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Paine_2000" class="citation book cs1">Paine, Lincoln P. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J9W4QO1b_A8C&pg=1"><i>Ships of discovery and exploration</i></a>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-98415-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-98415-4"><bdi>978-0-395-98415-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220522204841/https://books.google.com/books?id=J9W4QO1b_A8C&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ships+of+discovery+and+exploration&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-395-98415-4&rft.aulast=Paine&rft.aufirst=Lincoln+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ9W4QO1b_A8C%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Parry_1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._H._Parry" title="J. H. Parry">Parry, J. H.</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6l5rXRkpkFgC&pg=1"><i>The Age of Reconnaissance</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04235-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04235-3"><bdi>978-0-520-04235-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220522215448/https://books.google.com/books?id=6l5rXRkpkFgC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Reconnaissance&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04235-3&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=J.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6l5rXRkpkFgC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Parry_1981" class="citation book cs1">Parry, J. H. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_kCREcRCFD0QC"><i>The Discovery of the Sea</i></a>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_kCREcRCFD0QC/page/n12">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04237-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04237-7"><bdi>978-0-520-04237-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Discovery+of+the+Sea&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04237-7&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=J.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_kCREcRCFD0QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Penrose_1955" class="citation book cs1">Penrose, Boies (1955). <i>Travel and Discovery in the Renaissance:1420–1620</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-689-70153-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-689-70153-5"><bdi>978-0-689-70153-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Travel+and+Discovery+in+the+Renaissance%3A1420%E2%80%931620&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1955&rft.isbn=978-0-689-70153-5&rft.aulast=Penrose&rft.aufirst=Boies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Pfoundes_1882" class="citation book cs1">Pfoundes, C. (1882). <i>Notes on the History of Eastern Adventure, Exploration, and Discovery, and Foreign Intercourse with Japan</i>. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (Volume X).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notes+on+the+History+of+Eastern+Adventure%2C+Exploration%2C+and+Discovery%2C+and+Foreign+Intercourse+with+Japan&rft.pub=Transactions+of+the+Royal+Historical+Society+%28Volume+X%29&rft.date=1882&rft.aulast=Pfoundes&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Restall_2004" class="citation book cs1">Restall, Matthew (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7MU12foNm9MC&pg=1"><i>Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517611-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517611-7"><bdi>978-0-19-517611-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220910155326/https://books.google.com/books?id=7MU12foNm9MC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-09-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seven+Myths+of+the+Spanish+Conquest&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517611-7&rft.aulast=Restall&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7MU12foNm9MC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Russell-Wood_1998" class="citation book cs1">Russell-Wood, A.J.R. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JTVH7PZU1hUC&pg=1"><i>The Portuguese empire, 1415–1808: a world on the move</i></a>. JHU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5955-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-5955-7"><bdi>978-0-8018-5955-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520133459/https://books.google.com/books?id=JTVH7PZU1hUC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Portuguese+empire%2C+1415%E2%80%931808%3A+a+world+on+the+move&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-5955-7&rft.aulast=Russell-Wood&rft.aufirst=A.J.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJTVH7PZU1hUC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen2016" class="citation journal cs1">Sen, Tansen (2016). "The Impact of Zheng He's Expeditions on Indian Ocean Interactions". <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</i>. <b>79</b> (3): 609–636. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X16001038">10.1017/S0041977X16001038</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+Zheng+He%27s+Expeditions+on+Indian+Ocean+Interactions&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=609-636&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X16001038&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=Tansen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Spence_1999" class="citation book cs1">Spence, Jonathan D. (1999). <i>The Chan's Great Continent: China in Western Minds</i>. W.W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31989-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31989-7"><bdi>978-0-393-31989-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chan%27s+Great+Continent%3A+China+in+Western+Minds&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31989-7&rft.aulast=Spence&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Spufford_1989" class="citation book cs1">Spufford, Peter (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G5ThrCQiTOEC&pg=1"><i>Money and its Use in Medieval Europe</i></a>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37590-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37590-0"><bdi>978-0-521-37590-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520135128/https://books.google.com/books?id=G5ThrCQiTOEC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Money+and+its+Use+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.pub=Cambridge%2C+UK%3A+Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-521-37590-0&rft.aulast=Spufford&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG5ThrCQiTOEC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Bagrow_1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Bagrow" title="Leo Bagrow">Bagrow, Leo, R.A. Skelton</a> (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OBeB4tDmJv8C&pg=1"><i>History of cartography</i></a>. Transaction Publishers, 2009. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-1154-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-1154-5"><bdi>978-1-4128-1154-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520143804/https://books.google.com/books?id=OBeB4tDmJv8C&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+cartography&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers%2C+2009&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-1154-5&rft.aulast=Bagrow&rft.aufirst=Leo%2C+R.A.+Skelton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOBeB4tDmJv8C%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Synge_1912" class="citation book cs1">Synge, J.B. (2007) [1912]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=synge&book=discoverybook&story=_contents&PHPSESSID=458b6ee0d"><i>A Book of Discovery</i></a>. Yesterday's Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59915-192-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59915-192-2"><bdi>978-1-59915-192-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610050434/http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=synge&book=discoverybook&story=_contents&PHPSESSID=458b6ee0d">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Book+of+Discovery&rft.pub=Yesterday%27s+Classics&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-59915-192-2&rft.aulast=Synge&rft.aufirst=J.B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mainlesson.com%2Fdisplay.php%3Fauthor%3Dsynge%26book%3Ddiscoverybook%26story%3D_contents%26PHPSESSID%3D458b6ee0d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Tamura_1997" class="citation book cs1">Tamura, Eileen H.; Mention, Linda K.; Lush, Noren W.; Tsui, Francis K.C.; Cohen, Warren (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O0TQ_Puz-w8C&q=Zheng+He+voyages&pg=PA70"><i>China: Understanding Its Past</i></a>. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1923-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1923-1"><bdi>978-0-8248-1923-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414133031/https://books.google.com/books?id=O0TQ_Puz-w8C&q=Zheng+He+voyages&pg=PA70">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+Understanding+Its+Past&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1923-1&rft.aulast=Tamura&rft.aufirst=Eileen+H.&rft.au=Mention%2C+Linda+K.&rft.au=Lush%2C+Noren+W.&rft.au=Tsui%2C+Francis+K.C.&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DO0TQ_Puz-w8C%26q%3DZheng%2BHe%2Bvoyages%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Tracy_1994" class="citation book cs1">Tracy, James D. (1994). <i>Handbook of European History 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation</i>. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09762-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09762-9"><bdi>978-90-04-09762-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+European+History+1400%E2%80%931600%3A+Late+Middle+Ages%2C+Renaissance%2C+and+Reformation&rft.pub=Boston%3A+Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09762-9&rft.aulast=Tracy&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Tsai_2002" class="citation book cs1">Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aU5hBMxNgWQC&q=Zheng+He+voyages&pg=PA201"><i>Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle</i></a>. University of Washington Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98124-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98124-6"><bdi>978-0-295-98124-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132905/https://books.google.com/books?id=aU5hBMxNgWQC&q=Zheng+He+voyages&pg=PA201">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Perpetual+Happiness%3A+The+Ming+Emperor+Yongle&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-295-98124-6&rft.aulast=Tsai&rft.aufirst=Shih-Shan+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaU5hBMxNgWQC%26q%3DZheng%2BHe%2Bvoyages%26pg%3DPA201&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Volker_1971" class="citation book cs1">Volker, T. (1971). <i>Porcelain and the Dutch East India Company: as recorded in the Dagh-registers of Batavia Castle, those of Hirado and Deshima and other contemporary papers, 1602–1682</i>. E.J. Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Porcelain+and+the+Dutch+East+India+Company%3A+as+recorded+in+the+Dagh-registers+of+Batavia+Castle%2C+those+of+Hirado+and+Deshima+and+other+contemporary+papers%2C+1602%E2%80%931682&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Volker&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Walton_1994" class="citation book cs1">Walton, Timothy R. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1cW22CKF2UMC&pg=1"><i>The Spanish Treasure Fleets</i></a>. Pineapple Press (FL). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56164-049-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56164-049-2"><bdi>978-1-56164-049-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220522215448/https://books.google.com/books?id=1cW22CKF2UMC&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Treasure+Fleets&rft.pub=Pineapple+Press+%28FL%29&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-56164-049-2&rft.aulast=Walton&rft.aufirst=Timothy+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1cW22CKF2UMC%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Weddle_1985" class="citation book cs1">Weddle, Robert S. (1985). <i>Spanish Sea: the Gulf Of Mexico in North American Discovery, 1500–1685</i>. Texas A&M University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89096-211-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89096-211-4"><bdi>978-0-89096-211-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spanish+Sea%3A+the+Gulf+Of+Mexico+in+North+American+Discovery%2C+1500%E2%80%931685&rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-89096-211-4&rft.aulast=Weddle&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Wilford_1982" class="citation book cs1">Wilford, John Noble (1982). <i>The Mapmakers, the Story of the Great Pioneers in Cartography from Antiquity to Space Age</i>. Vintage Books, Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-75303-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-75303-4"><bdi>978-0-394-75303-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mapmakers%2C+the+Story+of+the+Great+Pioneers+in+Cartography+from+Antiquity+to+Space+Age&rft.pub=Vintage+Books%2C+Random+House&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-394-75303-4&rft.aulast=Wilford&rft.aufirst=John+Noble&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Zweig_1938" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stefan_Zweig" title="Stefan Zweig">Zweig, Stefan</a> (2007) [1938]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tLoWg9mMh04C&pg=1"><i>Conqueror of the Seas – The Story of Magellan</i></a>. Read Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-6006-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-6006-4"><bdi>978-1-4067-6006-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220520144004/https://books.google.com/books?id=tLoWg9mMh04C&pg=1">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-05-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-06-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conqueror+of+the+Seas+%E2%80%93+The+Story+of+Magellan&rft.pub=Read+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4067-6006-4&rft.aulast=Zweig&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtLoWg9mMh04C%26pg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Web_sources">Web sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Web sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Catholic_Encyclopædia_2" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15384b.htm">"Amerigo Vespucci"</a>. Catholic Encyclopædia (New Advent). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110905030119/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15384b.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Amerigo+Vespucci&rft.pub=Catholic+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+%28New+Advent%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F15384b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="silk-road_2008" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.silk-road.com/artl/srtravelmain.shtml">"Ancient Silk Road Travelers"</a>. Silk Road Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525113916/http://www.silk-road.com/artl/srtravelmain.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+Silk+Road+Travelers&rft.pub=Silk+Road+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.silk-road.com%2Fartl%2Fsrtravelmain.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Sbaikal" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111115174244/http://www.sbaikal.ru/rus/region/history.html">"By the road of pathfinders"</a> (in Russian). Sbaikal.ru. 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Drake Navigators Guild. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110921192406/http://www.drakenavigatorsguild.org/booklet.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Discovering+Francis+Drake%27s+California+Harbor&rft.pub=Drake+Navigators+Guild&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.drakenavigatorsguild.org%2Fbooklet.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Oregon_History" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fortnehalem.net/">"Oregon History of Francis Drake"</a>. Fort Nehalem Publishing. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140512230907/http://www.fortnehalem.net/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oregon+History+of+Francis+Drake&rft.pub=Fort+Nehalem+Publishing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fortnehalem.net%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="histori.ca_2009" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100301080846/http://www.histori.ca/minutes/minute.do?id=10123">"Exploration–Jacques Cartier"</a>. The Historica Dominion Institute. 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Catholic Encyclopædia (New Advent). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070113184512/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09526b.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 13 January 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ferdinand+Magellan&rft.pub=Catholic+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+%28New+Advent%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F09526b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="ScienceDaily_1998" class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1998/03/980305053307.htm">"Food Bacteria-Spice Survey Shows Why Some Cultures Like It Hot"</a>. <i>ScienceDaily</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 28,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ScienceDaily&rft.atitle=Food+Bacteria-Spice+Survey+Shows+Why+Some+Cultures+Like+It+Hot&rft.date=1998-03-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F1998%2F03%2F980305053307.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Grunberg_2007" class="citation journal cs1">Grunberg, Bernard (July–August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.histoire.presse.fr/content/2_recherche-index/article?id=6494">"La folle aventure d'Hernan Cortés"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Histoire" title="L'Histoire">L'Histoire</a></i>. <b>322</b>: 22. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629195353/http://www.histoire.presse.fr/content/2_recherche-index/article?id=6494">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-06-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of San Francisco. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110829073150/http://etc.usf.edu/maps/galleries/us/california/index.php">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historic+and+contemporary+political+and+physical+maps+of+California%2C+including+early+exploration&rft.pub=University+of+San+Francisco&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetc.usf.edu%2FMaps%2Fgalleries%2Fus%2Fcalifornia%2Findex.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="McNeill_2019" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._R._McNeill" title="J. R. McNeill">McNeill, J. R.</a>; Sampaolo, Marco; Wallenfeldt, Jeff (30 September 2019) [28 September 2019]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Columbian-exchange">"Columbian Exchange"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>: <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Inc." title="Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200421055242/https://www.britannica.com/event/Columbian-exchange">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm">the original</a> on 22 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Issues+and+Trends+in+China%27s+Demographic+History&rft.pub=Columbia+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fafe.easia.columbia.edu%2Fspecial%2Fchina_1950_population.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Cartier_E.B._2009" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_J._Eccles" title="William J. Eccles">Eccles, W.J.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/97444/Jacques-Cartier">"Jacques Cartier"</a>. Britannica Online Encyclopædia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100712235655/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/97444/Jacques-Cartier">Archived</a> from the original on 12 July 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jacques+Cartier&rft.pub=Britannica+Online+Encyclop%C3%A6dia&rft.au=Eccles%2C+W.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F97444%2FJacques-Cartier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="San_Diego_HS" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sandiegohistory.org/bio/cabrillo/cabrillo.htm">"Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo"</a>. San Diego Historical Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090505173316/http://www.sandiegohistory.org/bio/cabrillo/cabrillo.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Juan+Rodriguez+Cabrillo&rft.pub=San+Diego+Historical+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sandiegohistory.org%2Fbio%2Fcabrillo%2Fcabrillo.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Scitizen_2007" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scitizen.com/biotechnology/maize-streak-virus-resistant-transgenic-maize-an-african-solution-to-an-african-problem_a-28-925.html">"Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem"</a>. www.scitizen.com. August 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191227141323/http://scitizen.com/biotechnology/maize-streak-virus-resistant-transgenic-maize-an-african-solution-to-an-african-problem_a-28-925.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Maize+Streak+Virus-Resistant+Transgenic+Maize%3A+an+African+solution+to+an+African+Problem&rft.pub=www.scitizen.com&rft.date=2007-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscitizen.com%2Fbiotechnology%2Fmaize-streak-virus-resistant-transgenic-maize-an-african-solution-to-an-african-problem_a-28-925.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Croxton_2007" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dedicatedwriters.com/paper/The_Cabot_Dilemma_John_Cabots_1497_Voyage_%26_the_Limits_of_Historiography-162005.html">"The Cabot Dilemma: John Cabot's 1497 Voyage & the Limits of Historiography"</a> <span class="cs1-format">((on subscription))</span>. Derek Croxton, University of Virginia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110709005558/http://www.dedicatedwriters.com/paper/The_Cabot_Dilemma_John_Cabots_1497_Voyage_%26_the_Limits_of_Historiography-162005.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Cabot+Dilemma%3A+John+Cabot%27s+1497+Voyage+%26+the+Limits+of+Historiography&rft.pub=Derek+Croxton%2C+University+of+Virginia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dedicatedwriters.com%2Fpaper%2FThe_Cabot_Dilemma_John_Cabots_1497_Voyage_%2526_the_Limits_of_Historiography-162005.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="U.C._2009" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100722043124/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/index.html">"The European Voyages of Exploration"</a>. The Applied History Research Group, University of Calgary. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+European+Voyages+of+Exploration&rft.pub=The+Applied+History+Research+Group%2C+University+of+Calgary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucalgary.ca%2Fapplied_history%2Ftutor%2Feurvoya%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Maclean_2008" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071221163614/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/fort-of-columbus-200801.html">"The Lost Fort of Columbus"</a>. <i>Smithsonian Magazine</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/fort-of-columbus-200801.html">the original</a> on 21 December 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Lost+Fort+of+Columbus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory-archaeology%2Ffort-of-columbus-200801.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="The_Perfilyevs" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100505141438/http://www.vsp.ru/show_article.php?id=37293">"The Perfilyevs family"</a> (in Russian). VSP.ru. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vsp.ru/show_article.php?id=37293">the original</a> on 5 May 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Perfilyevs+family&rft.pub=VSP.ru&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vsp.ru%2Fshow_article.php%3Fid%3D37293&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="OSU_2006" class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131208143623/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm">"Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa"</a>. <i>Researchnews, The Ohio State University</i>. May 24, 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm">the original</a> on December 8, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Researchnews%2C+The+Ohio+State+University&rft.atitle=Super-Sized+Cassava+Plants+May+Help+Fight+Hunger+In+Africa&rft.date=2006-05-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearchnews.osu.edu%2Farchive%2Fsuprtubr.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="ULT_2009" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ub.uit.no/northernlights/eng/wbarentsz.htm">"Willem Barentsz and the Northeast passage"</a>. University Library of Tromsø – The Northern Lights Route. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110825050825/http://www.ub.uit.no/northernlights/eng/wbarentsz.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 25 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Willem+Barentsz+and+the+Northeast+passage&rft.pub=University+Library+of+Troms%C3%B8+%E2%80%93+The+Northern+Lights+Route&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ub.uit.no%2Fnorthernlights%2Feng%2Fwbarentsz.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAge+of+Discovery" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Age_of_Discovery&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Age of Discovery</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Age+of+Discovery">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Age+of+Discovery&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and 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<i><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Age_of_Discovery#Q133641" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Age_of_Discovery" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170427081217/http://fortnightlyreview.co.uk/2012/06/explore-duchesne/">"The Faustian Impulse and European Exploration"</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/The_Fortnightly_Review" title="The Fortnightly Review">The Fortnightly Review</a></i> (archived 27 April 2017)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Early_modern_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Early_Modern_Europe" title="Template:Early Modern Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Early_Modern_Europe" title="Template talk:Early Modern Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Early_Modern_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Early Modern Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Early_modern_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Renaissance" title="Outline of the Renaissance">Outline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1648%E2%80%931814)" title="International relations (1648–1814)">International relations (1648–1814)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Papacy" title="Renaissance Papacy">Papacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries" title="Renaissance in the Low Countries">Low Countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">Decline of the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li>Technological:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing#Impact_of_German_movable_type_printing_press" title="Printing">Printing Revolution</a></li> <li>Intellectual:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism_of_Early_Modern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Journalism of Early Modern Europe">Journalism of Early Modern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_General_Crisis" title="The General Crisis">The General Crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_imperial_city" title="Free imperial city">Free imperial city</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Germany in the early modern period">Germany </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Britain" title="Early modern Britain">Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands_(1500%E2%80%931815)" title="Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)">Economic history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown">Lands of the Bohemian Crown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Union" title="Protestant Union">Protestant Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li>England <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">House of Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">House of Tudor</a></li></ul></li> <li>France <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy_in_France" title="Absolute monarchy in France">Absolute monarchy in France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_wars" title="Cabinet wars">Cabinet wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Second Hundred Years' War">Second Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93Habsburg_rivalry" title="French–Habsburg rivalry">French–Habsburg rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Nijmegen" title="Treaties of Nijmegen">Treaties of Nijmegen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution_of_1756" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatic Revolution of 1756">Diplomatic Revolution of 1756</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">History of European Jews in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation_in_Switzerland" title="Reformation in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic <br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Philosophy:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism_in_Northern_Europe" title="Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance" title="Science in the Renaissance">Science in the Renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486)</a></i></li> <li><u> Authors</u>:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Palmieri" title="Matteo Palmieri">Matteo Palmieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance art</a></li> <li>Painting: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting" title="Italian Renaissance painting">Italian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florentine_painting" title="Florentine painting">Florentine painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_painting" title="Venetian painting">Venetian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting" title="Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting">Dutch and Flemish painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting" title="Early Netherlandish painting">Early Netherlandish painting</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">End of period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Exploration" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Exploration" title="Template:Exploration"><abbr title="View this 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exploration">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_exploration" title="Deep-sea exploration">Deep-sea</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Exploration by<br />region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_European_exploration_of_Asia" title="Chronology of European exploration of Asia">Chronology of European exploration of Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_exploration_in_Tibet" title="History of European exploration in Tibet">History of European exploration in Tibet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_exploration_of_Africa" title="European exploration of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_maritime_exploration_of_Australia" title="European maritime exploration of Australia">European maritime exploration of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_land_exploration_of_Australia" title="European land exploration of Australia">European land exploration of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_the_Americas" title="Exploration of the Americas">Exploration of the Americas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Settlement of the Americas">Settlement of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_the_Pacific" title="Exploration of the Pacific">Exploration of the Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesian navigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_exploration" title="Polar exploration">Polar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_exploration" title="Arctic exploration">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Antarctica" class="mw-redirect" title="Exploration of Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_exploration" title="Chinese exploration">Chinese exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_European_exploration" title="Timeline of European exploration">Timeline of European exploration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Major_explorations_after_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Major explorations after the Age of Discovery">Major explorations after the Age of Discovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_European_exploration_of_Asia" title="Chronology of European exploration of Asia">Chronology of European exploration of Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline of maritime migration and exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_space_exploration" title="Timeline of space exploration">Timeline of space exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Expeditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1928_Great_Barrier_Reef_expedition" title="1928 Great Barrier Reef expedition">1928 Great Barrier Reef expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_expedition_to_Brazil" title="Austrian expedition to Brazil">Austrian expedition to Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Challenger_expedition" title="Challenger expedition">Challenger expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dana_expeditions" title="Dana expeditions">Dana expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Tristan_Da_Cunha_1937-1938" class="mw-redirect" title="Norwegian Scientific Expedition to Tristan Da Cunha 1937-1938">Norwegian Scientific Expedition to Tristan Da Cunha 1937-1938</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sunshine_(USS_Nautilus)" title="Operation Sunshine (USS Nautilus)">Operation Sunshine (USS Nautilus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition" title="Whitney South Sea Expedition">Whitney South Sea Expedition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_explorers" title="List of explorers">Lists of<br />explorers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country of origin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_explorers" title="List of French explorers">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_explorers" title="List of Italian explorers">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Portuguese_people#Navigators,_explorers_and_pioneers" title="List of Portuguese people">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conquistadors" title="List of conquistadors">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romanian_explorers" title="List of Romanian explorers">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_explorers" title="List of Russian explorers">Russian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By environment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_circumnavigations" title="List of circumnavigations">Circumnavigators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climbers_and_mountaineers" title="List of climbers and mountaineers">Climbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_polar_explorers" title="List of polar explorers">Polar explorers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_underwater_explorers" title="List of underwater explorers">Underwater explorers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_maritime_explorers" title="List of maritime explorers">Seafarers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_space_travelers_by_nationality" title="List of space travelers by nationality">Space travelers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_by_continent" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_by_continent" title="Template:History by continent"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_by_continent" title="Template talk:History by continent"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_by_continent" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History by continent"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_by_continent" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History by continent</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Americas" title="History of the Americas">Americas</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America" title="History of North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America" title="History of South America">South America</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Antarctica" title="History of Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eurasia" title="History of Eurasia">Eurasia</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asia" title="History of Asia">Asia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia" title="History of Australia">Australia</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dutch_colonial_empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dutch_colonies" title="Template:Dutch colonies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dutch_colonies" title="Template talk:Dutch colonies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dutch_colonies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dutch colonies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dutch_colonial_empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch colonial empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Colonies_and_trading_posts_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company_(1602–1798)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Colonies and trading posts of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> (1602–1798)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governorate General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governorates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Ambon" title="Governorate of Ambon">Ambon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_Banda_Islands" title="Governorate of the Banda Islands">Banda Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Celebes" title="Dutch Celebes">Celebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Ceylon" title="Dutch Ceylon">Ceylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Coromandel" title="Dutch Coromandel">Coromandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Formosa" title="Dutch Formosa">Formosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malacca" title="Dutch Malacca">Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands#Dutch" title="Maluku Islands">Moluccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semarang#History" title="Semarang">Northeast coast of Java</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Directorates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Bengal" title="Dutch Bengal">Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandar_Abbas" title="Bandar Abbas">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Suratte" title="Dutch Suratte">Suratte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commandments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banten_(town)" title="Banten (town)">Bantam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malabar" title="Dutch Malabar">Malabar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padang" title="Padang">West coast of Sumatra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Residency_(administrative_division)" title="Residency (administrative division)">Residencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banten_(town)" title="Banten (town)">Bantam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banjarmasin" title="Banjarmasin">Banjarmasin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirebon" title="Cirebon">Cheribon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Malang" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Malang">Malang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parahyangan" title="Parahyangan">Preanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontianak,_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontianak, Indonesia">Pontianak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opperhoofd" title="Opperhoofd">Opperhoofd</a> settlements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Canton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dejima" title="Dejima">Dejima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Mauritius" title="Dutch Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom#Contacts_with_the_West" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Siam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Timor" title="West Timor">Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin" title="Tonkin">Tonkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BB%8Bnh%E2%80%93Nguy%E1%BB%85n_War" title="Trịnh–Nguyễn War">Vietnam (1637–1643)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Colonies_and_trading_posts_of_the_Dutch_West_India_Company_(1621–1792)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Colonies and trading posts of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">Dutch West India Company</a> (1621–1792)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Colonies in the Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berbice" title="Berbice">Berbice</a> <sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Brazil" title="Dutch Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayenne_(Dutch_colony)" title="Cayenne (Dutch colony)">Cayenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao_and_Dependencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Curaçao and Dependencies">Curaçao and Dependencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demerara" title="Demerara">Demerara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essequibo_(colony)" title="Essequibo (colony)">Essequibo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeroon_(colony)" title="Pomeroon (colony)">Pomeroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SSS_islands" title="SSS islands">Sint Eustatius and Dependencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surinam_(Dutch_colony)" title="Surinam (Dutch colony)">Surinam</a> <sup><small>2</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Virgin_Islands" title="Dutch Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trading posts in Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arguin" title="Arguin">Arguin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Gold_Coast" title="Dutch Gold Coast">Gold Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Loango-Angola" title="Dutch Loango-Angola">Loango-Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegambia_(Dutch_West_India_Company)" title="Senegambia (Dutch West India Company)">Senegambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Slave Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Governed by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Berbice" title="Society of Berbice">Society of Berbice</a></li> <li><sup><small>2</small></sup> Governed by the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Suriname" title="Society of Suriname">Society of Suriname</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Settlements_of_the_Noordsche_Compagnie_(1614–1642)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Settlements of the <a href="/wiki/Noordsche_Compagnie" title="Noordsche Compagnie">Noordsche Compagnie</a> (1614–1642)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Settlements" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Settlements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Mayen" title="Jan Mayen">Jan Mayen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smeerenburg" title="Smeerenburg">Smeerenburg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Colonies_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands_(1815–1975)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Colonies of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> (1815–1975)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Until 1825</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Bengal" title="Dutch Bengal">Bengal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Coromandel" title="Dutch Coromandel">Coromandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Malacca" title="Dutch Malacca">Malacca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Suratte" title="Dutch Suratte">Suratte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Until 1853</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dejima" title="Dejima">Dejima</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Until 1872</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Gold_Coast" title="Dutch Gold Coast">Gold Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Until 1949</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Until 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao_and_Dependencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Curaçao and Dependencies">Curaçao and Dependencies</a> <sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surinam_(Dutch_colony)" title="Surinam (Dutch colony)">Surinam</a> <sup><small>3</small></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Until 1962</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_New_Guinea" title="Dutch New Guinea">New Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup><small>3</small></sup> <span class="wrap">Became <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands#Constituent_countries" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">constituent countries</a> of the Kingdom of the Netherlands; <a href="/wiki/Suriname_(Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands)" title="Suriname (Kingdom of the Netherlands)">Suriname</a> gained <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">full independence</a> in 1975, Curaçao and Dependencies was renamed to the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands_Antilles" title="Netherlands Antilles">Netherlands Antilles</a>, which was eventually dissolved in 2010.</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_overseas_empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_overseas_empire" title="Template:French overseas empire"><abbr title="View this 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mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Template:Former French colonies in Africa and the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Template talk:Former French colonies in Africa and the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former French colonies in Africa and the Indian Ocean"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_French_colonies_in_Africa_and_the_Indian_Ocean" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">Former French colonies</a> in Africa and the Indian Ocean</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">North Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="French protectorate in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia" title="French protectorate of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">West Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Ivory_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="French Ivory Coast">Côte d'Ivoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Dahomey" title="French Dahomey">Dahomey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Sudan" title="French Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guinea" title="French Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Mauritania" title="Colonial Mauritania">Mauritania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arguin" title="Arguin">Arguin Island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Niger" title="Colony of Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="French Senegal">Senegal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Communes" title="Four Communes">Four Communes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Upper_Volta" title="French Upper Volta">Upper Volta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Togoland" title="French Togoland">Togoland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunta_Kinteh_Island" title="Kunta Kinteh Island">James Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albreda" title="Albreda">Albreda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">Equatorial Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Chad" title="French Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">Middle Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubangi-Shari" title="Ubangi-Shari">Ubangi-Shari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Cameroons" class="mw-redirect" title="French Cameroons">Cameroons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Comoros" class="mw-redirect" title="French Comoros">Comoros</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anjouan" title="Anjouan">Anjouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grande_Comore" title="Grande Comore">Grande Comore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moh%C3%A9li" title="Mohéli">Mohéli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Somaliland" title="French Somaliland">Somaliland (Djibouti)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle_de_France_(Mauritius)" title="Isle de France (Mauritius)">Isle de France</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Template:Former French colonies in the Americas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Template talk:Former French colonies in the Americas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former French colonies in the Americas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_French_colonies_in_the_Americas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">Former French colonies</a> <a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">in the Americas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">French North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada_(New_France)" title="Canada (New France)">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Terre Neuve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Florida" title="French Florida">French Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_Texas" title="French colonization of Texas">French Texas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French Caribbean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominica" title="Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenadines" title="Grenadines">The Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ha%C3%AFti" class="mw-redirect" title="Haïti">Haïti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Era_de_Francia" title="Era de Francia">Dominican Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts_%26_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Kitts & Nevis">Saint Kitts & Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Vincent_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Vincent (island)">Saint Vincent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the British Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Equinoctial_France" title="Equinoctial France">Equinoctial France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berbice" title="Berbice">Berbice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Antarctique" title="France Antarctique">France Antarctique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inini" title="Inini">Inini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_India_Company" title="French West India Company">French West India Company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" title="Template:Former French colonies in Asia and Oceania"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" title="Template talk:Former French colonies in Asia and Oceania"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Former French colonies in Asia and Oceania"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Former_French_colonies_in_Asia_and_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">Former French colonies</a> in Asia and Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chandannagar" title="Chandannagar">Chandernagor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coromandel_Coast" title="Coromandel Coast">Coromandel Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chennai" title="History of Chennai">Madras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C3%A9,_India" title="Mahé, India">Mahé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puducherry" title="History of Puducherry">Pondichéry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaikal" title="Karaikal">Karaikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanam" title="Yanam">Yanaon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">Indochinese Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Cambodia" title="French protectorate of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Laos" title="French protectorate of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li>Vietnam<sup>[<a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A1p_thu%E1%BB%99c" class="extiw" title="vi:Pháp thuộc">vi</a>]</sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">Cochinchina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">Annam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leased_Territory_of_Guangzhouwan" title="Leased Territory of Guangzhouwan">Kouang-Tchéou-Wan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Mandate for Syria<br />and the Lebanon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1925%E2%80%931930)" title="State of Syria (1925–1930)">State of Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Aleppo" title="State of Aleppo">Aleppo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Damascus" title="State of Damascus">Damascus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawite_State" title="Alawite State">Alawite State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">Greater Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabal_Druze_State" title="Jabal Druze State">Jabal al-Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Alexandretta" title="Sanjak of Alexandretta">Sanjak of Alexandretta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides" title="New Hebrides">New Hebrides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vanuatu" title="History of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanto-Bordelaise_Company" title="Nanto-Bordelaise Company">Port Louis-Philippe (Akaroa)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Asia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="France–Asia relations">France–Asia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_East_India_Company" title="French East India Company">French East India Company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Overseas_France" title="Template:Overseas France"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Overseas_France" title="Template talk:Overseas France"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Overseas_France" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Overseas France"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Overseas_France" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_France" title="Overseas France">Overseas France</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Inhabited_territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Inhabited territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_departments_and_regions_of_France" title="Overseas departments and regions of France">Overseas<wbr /> regions</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_collectivity" title="Overseas collectivity">Overseas<wbr /> collectivities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin" title="Collectivity of Saint Martin">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallis_and_Futuna" title="Wallis and Futuna">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">Sui generis</a><wbr /> collectivity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Uninhabited_territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Uninhabited territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">North Pacific Ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clipperton_Island" title="Clipperton Island">Clipperton Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Overseas_territory_(France)" title="Overseas territory (France)">Overseas territory</a><wbr /> (<a href="/wiki/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands" title="French Southern and Antarctic Lands">French Southern<wbr /> and Antarctic Lands</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_Land" title="Adélie Land">Adélie Land</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crozet_Islands" title="Crozet Islands">Crozet Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_domains_of_Saint_Helena" title="French domains of Saint Helena">French domains of Saint Helena</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_domains_of_the_Holy_Land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French domains of the Holy Land (page does not exist)">French domains of the Holy Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerguelen_Islands" title="Kerguelen Islands">Kerguelen Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Saint-Paul" title="Île Saint-Paul">Saint Paul</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Amsterdam" title="Île Amsterdam">Amsterdam Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Scattered_Islands_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean">Scattered Islands in<wbr /> the Indian Ocean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bassas_da_India" title="Bassas da India">Bassas da India</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europa_Island" title="Europa Island">Europa Island</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorioso_Islands" title="Glorioso Islands">Glorioso Islands</a><sup><small>2, 3</small></sup> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Banc_du_Geyser" title="Banc du Geyser">Banc du Geyser</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Nova_Island" title="Juan de Nova Island">Juan de Nova Island</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tromelin_Island" title="Tromelin Island">Tromelin Island</a><sup><small>4</small></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Also known as <a href="/wiki/Overseas_departments_and_regions_of_France" title="Overseas departments and regions of France">overseas departments</a></li> <li><sup><small>2</small></sup> Claimed by the <a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><sup><small>3</small></sup> Claimed by <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><sup><small>4</small></sup> Claimed by <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Portuguese_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks plainlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Portuguese_overseas_empire" title="Template:Portuguese overseas empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Portuguese_overseas_empire" title="Template talk:Portuguese overseas empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Portuguese_overseas_empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Portuguese overseas empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Portuguese_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="North_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>15th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1415–1640</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1458–1550</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ksar_es-Seghir" title="Ksar es-Seghir">Alcácer Ceguer <span style="font-size:85%;">(El Qsar es Seghir)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1471–1550</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Asilah" title="Portuguese Asilah">Arzila <span style="font-size:85%;">(Asilah)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1471–1662</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Tangier" title="Portuguese Tangier">Tangier</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1485–1550</td><td> <a href="/wiki/El_Jadida" title="El Jadida">Mazagan <span style="font-size:85%;">(El Jadida)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1487–16th century</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ouadane" title="Ouadane">Ouadane</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1488–1541</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Safi,_Morocco" title="Safi, Morocco">Safim <span style="font-size:85%;">(Safi)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1489</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Graciosa_fortress" title="Graciosa fortress">Graciosa</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1505–1541</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Agadir" title="Agadir">Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué <span style="font-size:85%;">(Agadir)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1506–1525</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Essaouira" title="Essaouira">Mogador <span style="font-size:85%;">(Essaouira)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1506–1525</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Souira_Guedima" title="Souira Guedima">Aguz <span style="font-size:85%;">(Souira Guedima)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1506–1769</td><td> <a href="/wiki/El_Jadida" title="El Jadida">Mazagan <span style="font-size:85%;">(El Jadida)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1513–1541</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Azemmour" title="Azemmour">Azamor <span style="font-size:85%;">(Azemmour)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–1541</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mehdya,_Morocco" title="Mehdya, Morocco">São João da Mamora <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mehdya)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1577–1589</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Asilah" title="Asilah">Arzila <span style="font-size:85%;">(Asilah)</span></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Anachronous map of the Portuguese Empire (1415-1999)"><img alt="Anachronous map of the Portuguese Empire (1415-1999)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png/300px-Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png/450px-Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png/600px-Portugal_Imp%C3%A9rio_total.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="Sub-Saharan_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Sub-Saharan Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>15th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1455–1633</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Arguin" title="Arguin">Arguim</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1462–1975</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Cape_Verde" title="Portuguese Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1470–1975</td><td> <span style="position:relative; bottom:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_Island" title="São Tomé Island">São Tomé</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1471–1975</td><td> <span style="position:relative; bottom:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Príncipe">Príncipe</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1474–1778</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Annob%C3%B3n" title="Annobón">Annobón</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1478–1778</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Bioko" title="Bioko">Fernando Poo <span style="font-size:85%;">(Bioko)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1482–1637</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Elmina" title="Elmina">Elmina <span style="font-size:85%;">(São Jorge da Mina)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1482–1642</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Gold_Coast" title="Portuguese Gold Coast">Portuguese Gold Coast</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1498–1540</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mascarene_Islands" title="Mascarene Islands">Mascarene Islands</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1500–1630</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Malindi" title="Malindi">Malindi</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1501–1975</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Mozambique" title="Portuguese Mozambique">Portuguese Mozambique</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1502–1659</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1503–1698</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1505–1512</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kilwa_Kisiwani" title="Kilwa Kisiwani">Quíloa <span style="font-size:85%;">(Kilwa)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1506–1511</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1508–1547<sup><small>2</small></sup></td><td> <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1557–1578</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Accra" title="Accra">Accra</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1575–1975</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Portuguese Angola</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1588–1974</td><td> <span style="position:relative; bottom:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Cacheu" title="Cacheu">Cacheu</a><sup><small>4</small></sup></span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1593–1698</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombassa <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mombasa)</span></a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>17th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1645–1888</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ziguinchor" title="Ziguinchor">Ziguinchor</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1680–1961</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Fort_of_S%C3%A3o_Jo%C3%A3o_Baptista_de_Ajud%C3%A1" title="Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá">São João Baptista de Ajudá, Benin</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1687–1974</td><td> <span style="position:relative; bottom:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Bissau" title="Bissau">Bissau</a><sup><small>4</small></sup></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>18th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1728–1729</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mombasa" title="Mombasa">Mombassa <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mombasa)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1753–1975</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe">Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>19th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1879–1974</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Portuguese Guinea</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1885–1974</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Cabinda_Province" title="Cabinda Province">Portuguese Congo</a><sup><small>5</small></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="plainlist" style="padding:0.5em 0 0.75em 0.25em;font-size:90%;line-height:1.2em;"><ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Part of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a> from 1753.</li><li><sup><small>2</small></sup> Or 1600.</li><li><sup><small>3</small></sup> A factory (<a href="/wiki/Anosy" title="Anosy">Anosy Region</a>) and small temporary coastal bases.</li><li><sup><small>4</small></sup> Part of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Guinea" title="Portuguese Guinea">Portuguese Guinea</a> from 1879.</li><li><sup><small>5</small></sup> Part of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Portuguese Angola</a> from the 1920s.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="Middle_East_&#91;Persian_Gulf&#93;" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Middle East [Persian Gulf]</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1506–1615</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Bandar_Abbas" title="Bandar Abbas">Gamru <span style="font-size:85%;">(Bandar Abbas)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1507–1643</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Sohar" title="Sohar">Sohar</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–1622</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ormus" title="Ormus">Hormuz <span style="font-size:85%;">(Ormus)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–1648</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Qurayyat,_Oman" title="Qurayyat, Oman">Quriyat</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Qalhat" title="Qalhat">Qalhat</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–1650</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515?–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Barka,_Oman" title="Barka, Oman">Barka</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–1633?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ras_Al_Khaimah" title="Ras Al Khaimah">Julfar (Ras al-Khaimah)</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1521–1602</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Muharraq" title="Muharraq">Muharraq</a> • <a href="/wiki/Manama" title="Manama">Manama</a>)</span></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1521–1529?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Qatif" title="Qatif">Qatif</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1521?–1551?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Tarout_Island" title="Tarout Island">Tarut Island</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1550–1551</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Qatif" title="Qatif">Qatif</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1588–1648</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Muttrah" title="Muttrah">Matrah</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>17th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1620–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Khor_Fakkan" title="Khor Fakkan">Khor Fakkan</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1621?–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Seeb" title="Seeb">As Sib</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1621–1622</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Qeshm_Island" title="Qeshm Island">Qeshm</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1623–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Khasab" title="Khasab">Khasab</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1623–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Al_Badiyah" title="Al Badiyah">Libedia</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1624–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kalba" title="Kalba">Kalba</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1624–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Madha" title="Madha">Madha</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1624–1648</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Dibba_Al-Hisn" title="Dibba Al-Hisn">Dibba Al-Hisn</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1624?–?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kong,_Iran" title="Kong, Iran">Bandar-e Kong</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="South_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South Asia</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>15th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1498–1545</td><td> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Laccadive Islands<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(Lakshadweep)</span></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b></span> <br /><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1500–1663</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kochi" title="Kochi">Cochim <span style="font-size:85%;">(Kochi)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1501–1663</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kannur" title="Kannur">Cannanore <span style="font-size:85%;">(Kannur)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"> • 1502–1658<br /><span style="padding-left:0.65em;"> </span>1659–1661</div></td><td> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(Coulão / Kollam)</span></a></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1502–1661</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Pallippuram,_Ernakulam" title="Pallippuram, Ernakulam">Pallipuram <span style="font-size:85%;">(Cochin de Cima)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1507–1657</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Negapatam" title="Portuguese Negapatam">Negapatam <span style="font-size:85%;">(Nagapatnam)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1510–1961</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"> • 1512–1525<br /><span style="padding-left:0.65em;"> </span>1750</div></td><td> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Kozhikode" title="Kozhikode">Calicut<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(Kozhikode)</span></a></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1518–1619</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Pulicat" title="Pulicat">Portuguese Paliacate outpost <span style="font-size:85%;">(Pulicat)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1521–1740</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chaul" title="Chaul">Chaul</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  </td><td> (Portuguese India)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1523–1662</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mylapore" title="Mylapore">Mylapore</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1528–1666</td><td> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_settlement_in_Chittagong" title="Portuguese settlement in Chittagong">Chittagong<br /><span style="font-size:85%;">(Porto Grande De Bengala)</span></a></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1531–1571</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chaul" title="Chaul">Chaul</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1531–1571</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chaliyam" title="Chaliyam">Chalé</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1534–1601</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Salsette_Island" title="Salsette Island">Salsette Island</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1534–1661</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Bombay <span style="font-size:85%;">(Mumbai)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1535</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ponnani" title="Ponnani">Ponnani</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1535–1739</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Vasai-Virar" title="Vasai-Virar">Baçaím <span style="font-size:85%;">(Vasai-Virar)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1536–1662</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kodungallur" title="Kodungallur">Cranganore <span style="font-size:85%;">(Kodungallur)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1540–1612</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Surat" title="Surat">Surat</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1548–1658</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Thoothukudi" title="Thoothukudi">Tuticorin <span style="font-size:85%;">(Thoothukudi)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1559–1961</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Daman_and_Diu" title="Daman and Diu">Daman and Diu</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1568–1659</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mangalore" title="Mangalore">Mangalore</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  </td><td> (Portuguese India)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1579–1632</td><td><a href="/wiki/Hugli-Chuchura" title="Hugli-Chuchura">Hugli</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1598–1610</td><td><a href="/wiki/Machilipatnam" title="Machilipatnam">Masulipatnam <span style="font-size:85%;">(Machilipatnam)</span></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1518–1521</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1518–1658</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Ceylon" title="Portuguese Ceylon">Portuguese Ceylon <span style="font-size:85%;">(Sri Lanka)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1558–1573</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>17th century</b></span> <br />Portuguese India </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1687–1749</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Mylapore" title="Mylapore">Mylapore</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>18th century</b></span> <br />Portuguese India </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1779–1954</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Dadra_and_Nagar_Haveli" class="mw-redirect" title="Dadra and Nagar Haveli">Dadra and Nagar Haveli</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="East_Asia_and_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">East Asia and Oceania</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1511–1641</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Malacca" title="Portuguese Malacca">Portuguese Malacca</a> [Malaysia]</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1512–1621</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Maluku</a> [Indonesia]</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1522–1575</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Ternate" title="Ternate">Ternate</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1576–1605</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Ambon_Island" title="Ambon Island">Ambon</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1578–1650</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1512–1665</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Makassar" title="Makassar">Makassar</a> [Indonesia]</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1515–1859</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Larantuka" title="Kingdom of Larantuka">Larantuka</a> [Indonesia]</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1557–1999</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Macau</a> [China]</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1580–1586</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Nagasaki" title="Portuguese Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a> [Japan]</td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>17th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1642–1975</td><td> <span style="position:relative; bottom:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Timor" title="Portuguese Timor">Portuguese Timor</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/East_Timor" title="East Timor">East Timor</a>)</span><sup><small>1</small></sup></span></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>19th century</b></span> <br /><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Portuguese Macau</a> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1864–1999</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Coloane" title="Coloane">Coloane</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1851–1999</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Taipa" title="Taipa">Taipa</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1890–1999</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Ilha_Verde" title="Ilha Verde">Ilha Verde</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>20th century</b></span> <br />Portuguese Macau </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1938–1941</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Hengqin" title="Hengqin">Lapa and Montanha <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hengqin)</span></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="plainlist" style="padding:0.5em 0 0.75em 0.25em;font-size:90%;line-height:1.2em;"><ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> 1975 is the year of East Timor's Declaration of Independence and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_invasion_of_East_Timor" title="Indonesian invasion of East Timor">invasion by Indonesia</a>. In 2002, East Timor's independence was fully recognized.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="North_America_and_North_Atlantic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America and North Atlantic</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>15th century</b> [Atlantic islands]</span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1420</td><td> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Madeira" title="Madeira">Madeira</a></b></i></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1432</td><td> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a></b></i></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b> [Canada]</span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1500–1579?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Terra Nova <span style="font-size:85%;">(Newfoundland)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1500–1579?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Labrador" title="Labrador">Labrador</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1516–1579?</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;"><div id="South_America_and_Caribbean" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America and Caribbean</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-left:1.0em;text-align:left;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>16th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1500–1822</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Brazil</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1534–1549</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_Colonies_of_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Captaincy Colonies of Brazil">Captaincy Colonies of Brazil</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1549–1572</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Governorate_General_of_Brazil" title="Governorate General of Brazil">Brazil</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1572–1578</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Governorate_General_of_Bahia" title="Governorate General of Bahia">Bahia</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1572–1578</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Governorate_General_of_Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Governorate General of Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1578–1607</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/Governorate_General_of_Brazil" title="Governorate General of Brazil">Brazil</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td>  • 1621–1815</td><td> <span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span><a href="/wiki/State_of_Brazil" title="State of Brazil">Brazil</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1536–1620</td><td> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Barbados" title="History of Barbados">Barbados</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>17th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1621–1751</td><td> <a href="/wiki/State_of_Maranh%C3%A3o_(colonial)" title="State of Maranhão (colonial)">Maranhão</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1680–1777</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Colonia_del_Sacramento" title="Colonia del Sacramento">Nova Colónia do Sacramento</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>18th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1751–1772</td><td> <a href="/wiki/State_of_Gr%C3%A3o-Par%C3%A1_and_Maranh%C3%A3o" title="State of Grão-Pará and Maranhão">Grão-Pará and Maranhão</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1772–1775</td><td> <a href="/wiki/State_of_Gr%C3%A3o-Par%C3%A1_and_Rio_Negro" title="State of Grão-Pará and Rio Negro">Grão-Pará and Rio Negro</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1772–1775</td><td> <a href="/wiki/State_of_Maranh%C3%A3o_and_Piau%C3%AD" title="State of Maranhão and Piauí">Maranhão and Piauí</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break"> <p><span style="font-size:120%"><b>19th century</b></span> </p> <table style="line-height: 1.5em; border-spacing:0;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1808–1822</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Cisplatina" title="Cisplatina">Cisplatina <span style="font-size:85%;">(Uruguay)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1809–1817</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Amap%C3%A1" title="Amapá">Portuguese Guiana <span style="font-size:85%;">(Amapá)</span></a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td> 1822</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Upper_Peru" title="Upper Peru">Upper Peru <span style="font-size:85%;">(Bolivia)</span></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="background:#efefef;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.2em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_Portuguese_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Armorial of Portuguese colonies">Armorial of Portuguese colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_Portuguese_Empire" title="Evolution of the Portuguese Empire">Evolution of the Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonial_architecture" title="Portuguese colonial architecture">Portuguese colonial architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Portuguese colonization of the Americas">Portuguese colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire_in_the_Indonesian_Archipelago" title="Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago">Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_Portuguese_discovery_of_Australia" title="Theory of the Portuguese discovery of Australia">Theory of the Portuguese discovery of Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spanish_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spanish_Empire" title="Template:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spanish_Empire" title="Template talk:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spanish_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Timeline–immersed" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline–immersed</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Conquest of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Asia and the Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cognac" title="War of the League of Cognac">War of the League of Cognac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomiendas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws in favour of the indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Bruneian–Spanish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Piracy in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese Restoration War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Bourbons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">Bourbon Reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_(13_January_1750)" title="Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750)">Treaty of Madrid (1750)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootka_Convention" title="Nootka Convention">Nootka Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Napoleonic invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso" title="Third Treaty of San Ildefonso">Third Treaty of San Ildefonso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Independence of Spanish continental Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Liberal constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlist_Wars" title="Carlist Wars">Carlist Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Spanish_Treaty_(1899)" title="German–Spanish Treaty (1899)">German–Spanish Treaty (1899)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco#Independent_Morocco_(since_1956)" title="History of Morocco">Independence of Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Independence of Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Europe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castille" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of Castille">Crown of Castille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Union with Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Southern Italy (Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples#Aragonese_dynasty" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily#The_insular_kingdom_of_Sicily_under_the_Crown_of_Aragon_and_Spain" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia#Aragonese_period" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Union with Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9" title="Franche-Comté">Franche-Comté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Catalonia" title="Northern Catalonia">Pyrénées-Orientales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Coastal Alaska</a>, Central United States (<a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spanish Louisiana</a>), Western United States (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish Texas</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kingdom of Mexico (page does not exist)">Mexico</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="extiw" title="es:Reino de México">es</a>]</span>, Central America (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Captaincy General of Yucatan">Captaincy General of Yucatan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish Caribbean</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Central_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Central America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Captaincy General of Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish West Indies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Dominican Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago#Spanish_period" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Santiago" title="Colony of Santiago">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti#Spanish_history_(1492–1625)" title="History of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruba#History" title="Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao#History" title="Curaçao">Curazao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaire#History" title="Bonaire">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belize_(1506%E2%80%931862)" title="History of Belize (1506–1862)">Belize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Ecuador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela, part of Guyana</a>, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Peru</a> (Peru, <a href="/wiki/Acre_(state)" title="Acre (state)">Acre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a> (Bolivia), <a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental</a> (Uruguay), <a href="/wiki/Misiones_Orientales" title="Misiones Orientales">Misiones Orientales</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Falkland_Islands" title="History of the Falkland Islands">Malvinas</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asia_and_Oceania_(Spanish_East_Indies)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia and Oceania (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Captaincy General of the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Mariana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Northern Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li>Northern Africa (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Western Sahara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="Spanish protectorate in Morocco">Spanish Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Tripoli" title="Spanish Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunis#Spanish_occupation_and_Ottoman_control" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers" title="Peñón of Algiers">Peñón of Algiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oran#Spanish_period_(1509–1708,_1732–1792)" title="Oran">Oran</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa#Muslim_and_feudal_rulers" title="Béjaïa">Béjaïa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ifni" title="Ifni">Ifni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Juby" title="Cape Juby">Cape Juby</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctica" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Antarctica</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Terra Australis, Spain">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayuntamiento" title="Ayuntamiento">Ayuntamiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabildo_(council)" title="Cabildo (council)">Cabildo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_(guild)" title="Germania (guild)">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Hermandad" title="Santa Hermandad">Santa Hermandad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exequatur" title="Exequatur">Exequatur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_the_Indies" title="Laws of the Indies">Laws of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">Papal bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Decree_of_Graces_of_1815" title="Royal Decree of Graces of 1815">Royal Decree of Graces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_residence" title="Trial of residence">Trial of residence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Titles and positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcalde" title="Alcalde">Alcalde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corregidor_(position)" title="Corregidor (position)">Corregidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_president" title="Municipal president">Municipal president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regidor" title="Regidor">Regidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndic" title="Syndic">Syndic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vecino" title="Vecino">Vecino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administrative_subdivisions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administrative subdivisions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Viceroy#In_the_Americas" title="Viceroy">Viceroyalties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_Viceroyalty" title="Columbian Viceroyalty">Columbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Perú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Captaincies_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Captaincies of the Spanish Empire">Captaincies General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincias_Internas" title="Provincias Internas">Provincias Internas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Captaincy General of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Governorates of the Spanish Empire">Governorates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castilla_de_Oro" title="Castilla de Oro">Castilla de Oro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Cuba" title="Governorate of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">La Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">La Luisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia_(1501%E2%80%931513)" title="Governorate of New Andalusia (1501–1513)">New Andalusia (1501–1513)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia" title="Governorate of New Andalusia">New Andalusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Castile" title="Governorate of New Castile">New Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Navarre" title="New Navarre">New Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Toledo" title="Governorate of New Toledo">New Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis" title="Governorate of Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia" title="Real Audiencia">Audiencias</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Bogotá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Buenos_Aires" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Concepci%C3%B3n" title="Real Audiencia of Concepción">Concepción</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Cusco" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Audiencia of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Guadalajara" title="Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara">Guadalajara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Guatemala" title="Real Audiencia of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Lima" title="Real Audiencia of Lima">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Manila" title="Real Audiencia of Manila">Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panamá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Quito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santiago" title="Real Audiencia of Santiago">Santiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Currency_of_Spanish_America" title="Currency of Spanish America">Currencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Dollar (Peso)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_real" title="Spanish colonial real">Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraved%C3%AD" title="Maravedí">Maravedí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_escudo" title="Spanish escudo">Escudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columnarios" class="mw-redirect" title="Columnarios">Columnario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubloon" title="Doubloon">Doubloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guipuzcoan_Company_of_Caracas" title="Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas">Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcelona_Trading_Company" title="Barcelona Trading Company">Barcelona Trading Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_of_the_Sea" title="Consulate of the Sea">Consulate of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camino_Real_de_Tierra_Adentro" title="Camino Real de Tierra Adentro">Camino Real de Tierra Adentro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Consulate_of_Buenos_Aires" title="Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires">Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Company_of_Volunteers_of_Catalonia" title="Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia">Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">Indian auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_line_of_Spain" title="List of ships of the line of Spain">Ships of the line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_independence)" title="Royalist (Spanish American independence)">Royalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Legion" title="Spanish Legion">Legión</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(Spain)" title="Army of Africa (Spain)">Army of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Strategists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Duke of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Leyva,_Duke_of_Terranova" title="Antonio de Leyva, Duke of Terranova">Antonio de Leyva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Goiti" title="Martín de Goiti">Martín de Goiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_d%27Avalos" title="Alfonso d'Avalos">Alfonso d'Avalos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Toledo_Osorio,_4th_Marquis_of_Villafranca" class="mw-redirect" title="García de Toledo Osorio, 4th Marquis of Villafranca">García de Toledo Osorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Philibert,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy">Duke of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n_the_Elder" title="Álvaro de Bazán the Elder">Álvaro de Bazán the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">John of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonaventure_de_Longueval,_Count_of_Bucquoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy">Charles Bonaventure de Longueval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Zubiaur" title="Pedro de Zubiaur">Pedro de Zubiaur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola,_1st_Marquis_of_the_Balbases" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases">Ambrosio Spinola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blas_de_Lezo" title="Blas de Lezo">Blas de Lezo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_de_G%C3%A1lvez" title="Bernardo de Gálvez">Bernardo de Gálvez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Mariners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinz%C3%B3n_brothers" title="Pinzón brothers">Pinzón brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cosa" title="Juan de la Cosa">Juan de la Cosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s" title="Pedro Menéndez de Avilés">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_Ocampo" title="Sebastián de Ocampo">Sebastián de Ocampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvar_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_Cabeza_de_Vaca" title="Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca">Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda" title="Alonso de Ojeda">Alonso de Ojeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Salazar" title="Alonso de Salazar">Alonso de Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Ulloa" title="Antonio de Ulloa">Antonio de Ulloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos" title="Ruy López de Villalobos">Ruy López de Villalobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Columbus" title="Diego Columbus">Diego Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ercilla" title="Alonso de Ercilla">Alonso de Ercilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_de_Ovando" title="Nicolás de Ovando">Nicolás de Ovando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Ayala" title="Juan de Ayala">Juan de Ayala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_Vizca%C3%ADno" title="Sebastián Vizcaíno">Sebastián Vizcaíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_(explorer)" title="Juan Fernández (explorer)">Juan Fernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Fajardo_y_Ru%C3%ADz_de_Avenda%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Fajardo y Ruíz de Avendaño">Luis Fajardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Ahedo" title="Felipe González de Ahedo">Felipe González de Ahedo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">Conquistadors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Coronado" title="Francisco Vázquez de Coronado">Francisco Vázquez de Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portol%C3%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaspar de Portolà">Gaspar de Portolà</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_Fages_i_Beleta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere Fages i Beleta">Pere Fages i Beleta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Orp%C3%AD" title="Joan Orpí">Joan Orpí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Urs%C3%BAa" title="Martín de Ursúa">Martín de Ursúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Almagro" title="Diego de Almagro">Diego de Almagro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Mazariegos" title="Diego de Mazariegos">Diego de Mazariegos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_Luis_de_Cabrera" title="Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera">Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_d%27Albern%C3%AD_i_Teixidor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor">Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_L%C3%B3pez_de_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="García López de Cárdenas">García López de Cárdenas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Notable battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros" title="Revolt of the Comuneros">Comuneros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bicocca" title="Battle of Bicocca">Bicocca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)" title="Sack of Rome (1527)">Rome (1527)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Landriano" title="Battle of Landriano">Landriano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Pavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%BChlberg" title="Battle of Mühlberg">Mühlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1557)">St. Quentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)" title="Battle of Gravelines (1558)">Gravelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Lepanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">Antwerp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ponta_Delgada" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ponta Delgada">Azores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mons_(1572)" title="Siege of Mons (1572)">Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)" title="Battle of Gembloux (1578)">Gembloux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">Ostend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Armada" title="English Armada">English Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Celidonia" title="Battle of Cape Celidonia">Cape Celidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">White Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Breda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">Nördlingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valenciennes_(1656)" title="Battle of Valenciennes (1656)">Valenciennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Ceuta_(1694%E2%80%931727)" title="Sieges of Ceuta (1694–1727)">Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bitonto" title="Battle of Bitonto">Bitonto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bail%C3%A9n" title="Battle of Bailén">Bailén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria" title="Battle of Vitoria">Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_T%C3%A9touan" title="Battle of Tétouan">Tetouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alhucemas_landing" title="Alhucemas landing">Alhucemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Capo_d%27Orso" title="Battle of Capo d'Orso">Capo d'Orso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">Vienna (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza" title="Battle of Preveza">Preveza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Castelnuovo" title="Siege of Castelnuovo">Siege of Castelnuovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1541)" title="Algiers expedition (1541)">Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ceresole" title="Battle of Ceresole">Ceresole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_the_Balearic_Islands_(1558)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands (1558)">Balearic Islands (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Djerba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Leiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montes_Claros" title="Battle of Montes Claros">Montes Claros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Passaro" title="Battle of Cape Passaro">Passaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Manila Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Trafalgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Somosierra" title="Battle of Somosierra">Somosierra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Annual" title="Battle of Annual">Annual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mactan" title="Battle of Mactan">Mactan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cajamarca" title="Battle of Cajamarca">Cajamarca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cusco" title="Siege of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Bogotá savanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penco" title="Battle of Penco">Penco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mataquito" title="Battle of Mataquito">Mataquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalupe_Island_(1595)" title="Battle of Guadalupe Island (1595)">Guadalupe Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Recife_(1595)" title="Capture of Recife (1595)">Recife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">San Juan (1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Bahia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Colonia_del_Sacramento" title="Siege of Colonia del Sacramento">Colonia del Sacramento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(Paraguay)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (Paraguay)">Comuneros (Paraguay)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuerno_Verde" title="Cuerno Verde">Cuerno Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Túpac Amaru II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Katari" title="Túpac Katari">Túpac Katari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pensacola" title="Siege of Pensacola">Pensacola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_expedition" title="Newfoundland expedition">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1797)" title="Battle of San Juan (1797)">San Juan (1797)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War">Iguape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tucapel" title="Battle of Tucapel">Tucapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raleigh%27s_El_Dorado_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Raleigh's El Dorado Expedition">Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Curalaba" title="Battle of Curalaba">Curalaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">Comuneros (New Granada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Trinidad_(1797)" title="Invasion of Trinidad (1797)">Trinidad (1797)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chacabuco" title="Battle of Chacabuco">Chacabuco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1" title="Battle of Boyacá">Boyacá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Carabobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pichincha" title="Battle of Pichincha">Pichincha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Ayacucho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Guam" title="Capture of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santiago_de_Cuba" title="Battle of Santiago de Cuba">Santiago de Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Campaign#Battle_of_Asomante" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Campaign">Asomante</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Spanish_conquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Spanish conquests</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">The Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Maya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Nicaragua" title="Spanish conquest of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Chibchan_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations">Chibchan Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1521%E2%80%931898)#Spanish_expeditions_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (1521–1898)">Philippines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Other_civil_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other civil topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish missions in the Americas">Spanish missions in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Codices" title="Mesoamerican Codices">Mesoamerican Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cusco_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Cusco School">Cusco painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indochristian_art" title="Indochristian art">Indochristian painting in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quito_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Quito School">Quito painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapada_lime%C3%B1a" title="Tapada limeña">Tapada limeña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academia_Ant%C3%A1rtica" title="Academia Antártica">Academia Antártica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_universities_in_Hispanic_America" title="List of colonial universities in Hispanic America">Colonial universities in Hispanic America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_oldest_schools_in_the_Philippines" title="List of the oldest schools in the Philippines">Colonial universities in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Archive_of_the_Indies" title="General Archive of the Indies">General Archive of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Spanish_Horse" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Spanish Horse">Colonial Spanish Horse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mustang" title="Mustang">Mustang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Castas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people#Spanish_colonial_caste_system" title="Criollo people">Criollos in the colonial society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Old inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Spanish_New_World_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies">Slavery in Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiento" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiento">Asiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans#Colonial_era" title="African Americans">Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Potos%C3%AD_Mint_Fraud_of_1649" title="Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649">Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Historiography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Historiography" title="Template:Historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Historiography" title="Template talk:Historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Historiography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">Historians</a></b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_historians" title="List of historians">list</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_historians_by_area_of_study" title="List of historians by area of study">by area of study</a></b></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Historians" title="Category:Historians">historians</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Historicity" title="Category:Historicity">historicity</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:History" title="Category:History">history</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_history" title="Category:Theories of history">theories of history</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_source" title="Historical source">Historical sources</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">Primary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_source" title="Secondary source">Secondary sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_source" title="Tertiary source">Tertiary sources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annals" title="Annals">Annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_site" title="Archaeological site">Archaeological site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">Chronicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deeds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facsimile" title="Facsimile">Facsimiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_document" title="Historical document">Historical documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logbook" title="Logbook">Logbooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">Manuscripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">Oral tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Religious texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">Scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_diary" title="War diary">War diaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Service_record" title="Service record">Service records</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fields_of_study" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">Fields of study</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By scale</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_history" title="Local history">Local history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microhistory" title="Microhistory">Microhistory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By source</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archival_science" title="Archival science">Archival science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Library_and_information_science" title="Library and information science">Library and information science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Template:Libraries_and_library_science" title="Template:Libraries and library science">template</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codicology" title="Codicology">Books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorography" title="Chorography">Chorography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">Chronology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">dating</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatics" title="Diplomatics">Diplomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedistics" title="Encyclopaedistics">Encyclopaedistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraldry" title="Heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numismatics" title="Numismatics">Numismatics (Money)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomastics" title="Onomastics">Onomastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">Oral history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_history_preservation" title="Oral history preservation">preservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaleristics" title="Phaleristics">Phaleristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philately" title="Philately">Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography" title="Prosopography">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigillography" title="Sigillography">Sigillography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">Toponymy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vexillology" title="Vexillology">Vexillology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_ecology" title="Historical ecology">Ecology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_history" title="Business history">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalism" title="History of capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_history" title="Intellectual history">Intellectual</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geistesgeschichte" title="Geistesgeschichte">Geistesgeschichte</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_ecclesiastic_historiography" title="Medieval ecclesiastic historiography">Medieval churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Military historiography">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_history" title="Constitutional history">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history" title="Diplomatic history">Diplomatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_history" title="Gender history">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history" title="Labor history">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history" title="LGBTQ history">LGBTQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_history" title="Rural history">Rural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_history" title="Urban history">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Methodology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Methodology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_eras" title="Category:Historical eras">Historical eras</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tarikh" title="Tarikh">Tarikh</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">Three-age system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Approaches,_schools" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches,<br /> schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mentalities" title="History of mentalities">History of mentalities</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_histoire" title="Nouvelle histoire">Nouvelle histoire</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiometry" title="Historiometry">Historiometry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cliometrics" title="Cliometrics">Cliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative historical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_historiography" title="Critical historiography">Critical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decoloniality" title="Decoloniality">Decoloniality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_anthropology" title="Historical anthropology">Historical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_determinism" title="Historical determinism">Historical determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">Historical-critical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_historiography" title="Humanistic historiography">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indiscipline_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indiscipline of history (page does not exist)">Indiscipline of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indisciplina_da_hist%C3%B3ria" class="extiw" title="pt:Indisciplina da história">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninist_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Leninist historiography">Leninist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Marxist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_historiography" title="Nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_civilisation" title="Ancestral civilisation">Ancestral civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_history" title="Nationalization of history">Nationalization of history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_history" title="People's history">People's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_Studies" title="Subaltern Studies">Subaltern Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_history" title="Popular history">Pop history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_history" title="Quantitative history">Quantitative history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_history" title="Transnational history">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Man_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Man theory">Great Man theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Change_and_continuity" title="Change and continuity">Change and continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_preservation" title="Historic preservation">Historic preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_recurrence" title="Historic recurrence">Historic recurrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_significance" title="Historical significance">Historical significance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity" title="Historicity">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiology">Historiology</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiolog%C3%ADa" class="extiw" title="es:Historiología">es</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_history&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of history (page does not exist)">Theory of history</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorie_der_Geschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Theorie der Geschichte">de</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_legend" title="Black legend">Black legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge" title="Coloniality of knowledge">Coloniality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">decolonization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historian%27s_fallacy" title="Historian's fallacy">Historian's fallacy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Presentism_(historical_analysis)" title="Presentism (historical analysis)">Presentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Invented tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernisation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernisation theory">Modernisation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_history" title="Narrative history">Narratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_periods_of_regional_peace" title="List of periods of regional peace">Pax</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Paxes" title="Template:Paxes">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-year_rule" title="Thirty-year rule">Thirty-year rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhistoricity" title="Transhistoricity">Transhistoricity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_imperii" title="Translatio imperii">Translatio imperii</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Translatio_studii" title="Translatio studii">Translatio studii</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vaticinium_ex_eventu" title="Vaticinium ex eventu">Vaticinium ex eventu</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Periodization_ofmodern_history" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodization of<br /><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_War" title="European Civil War">European Civil War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Second Thirty Years' War">Second Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_eighteenth_century" title="Long eighteenth century">Long 18th</a> / <a href="/wiki/Long_nineteenth_century" title="Long nineteenth century">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By country or region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African_historiography" title="African historiography">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Egypt <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramid_construction_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian pyramid construction techniques">Pyramid construction techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black_Egypt_Thesis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Black Egypt Thesis (page does not exist)">Black Egypt Thesis</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%C3%B3tesis_del_Egipto_Negro" class="extiw" title="es:Hipótesis del Egipto Negro">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_historiography" title="Ethiopian historiography">Ethiopia</a></li> <li>Morocco <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rwanda <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_genocide_theory_(Rwanda)" title="Double genocide theory (Rwanda)">Double genocide theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maafa" title="Maafa">Maafa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Canada" title="Historiography of Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan-hinterland_thesis" title="Metropolitan-hinterland thesis">Metropolitan-hinterland thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_history_wars" title="Canadian history wars">Residential schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staples_thesis" title="Staples thesis">Staples thesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous population history</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_studies" title="Latin American studies">Latin America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Argentina" title="Historiography of Argentina">Argentina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Historiography of the May Revolution">May Revolution</a> / <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_May_Revolution" title="Causes of the May Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_revisionism_in_Argentina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical revisionism in Argentina (page does not exist)">Revisionist</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionismo_hist%C3%B3rico_en_Argentina" class="extiw" title="es:Revisionismo histórico en Argentina">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Peru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Peru (page does not exist)">Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iquicha_War_of_1825%E2%80%931828#Historiography" title="Iquicha War of 1825–1828">Iquicha Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Colonial_Spanish_America" title="Historiography of Colonial Spanish America">Colonial Spanish America</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Casta</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history#Historiography" title="African-American history">African-American history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoabolitionism_(race_relations)" title="Neoabolitionism (race relations)">Neoabolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era#Legacy_and_historiography" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_history" title="Consensus history">Consensus history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclical_theory_(United_States_history)" title="Cyclical theory (United States history)">Cyclical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontier_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontier thesis">Frontier thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_in_the_United_States" title="Political history in the United States">Political history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Eras</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_historians" title="Progressive historians">Progressive-era historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Albania" title="Historiography of Albania">Albania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dealbanisation" title="Dealbanisation">Dealbanisation</a></li></ul></li> <li>Austria <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_myth" title="Habsburg myth">Habsburg myth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balhae_controversies" title="Balhae controversies">Balhae</a></li> <li>Belarus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Litvinism" title="Litvinism">Litvinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_historiography" title="Bulgarian historiography">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Byzantine Empire</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinische_Geschichtsschreibung" class="extiw" title="de:Byzantinische Geschichtsschreibung">de</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Byzantine_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Early Byzantine historiography (page does not exist)">Early</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Ранневизантийская историография">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_historiography" title="Croatian historiography">Croatia</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_ancient_Europe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of ancient Europe (page does not exist)">Ancient</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Античная историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval historiography">Medieval</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Средневековая историография">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Age_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Age historiography (page does not exist)">New Age</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Нового времени">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aryan_Kartli" title="Aryan Kartli">Aryan Kartli</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_historiography" title="Hellenic historiography">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Ages of Man</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iran <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500-year celebration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Japan" title="Historiography of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Korea" title="Historiography of Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_nationalist_historiography" title="Korean nationalist historiography">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo_controversies" title="Goguryeo controversies">Goguryeo controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_North_Macedonia" title="Historiography in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Philippines" title="Historiography of the Philippines">Philippines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Philippine_settlements" title="Historiography of early Philippine settlements">Early settlements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiograpy_of_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiograpy of Portugal (page does not exist)">Portugal</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_de_Portugal" class="extiw" title="pt:Historiografia de Portugal">pt</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lusotropicalism" title="Lusotropicalism">Lusotropicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Romania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Union" title="Great Union">Great Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_historiography" title="Serbian historiography">Serbia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Myth" title="Kosovo Myth">Kosovo Myth</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sweden <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6taland_theory" title="Götaland theory">Götaland theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Switzerland" title="Historiography of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwanese_historiography" title="History of Taiwanese historiography">Taiwan</a></li> <li>Ukraine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vietnam <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nam_ti%E1%BA%BFn" title="Nam tiến">Nam tiến</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C6%B0ng_sisters" title="Trưng sisters">Trưng sisters</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Ancient Rome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_conspiracy#Historiography" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Catilinarian conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Christianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Romanisation" title="Historiography of Romanisation">Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of Western Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosopography_of_ancient_Rome" title="Prosopography of ancient Rome">Prosopography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Succession to the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome" title="Moscow, third Rome">Moscow, third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Ottoman claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_two_emperors" title="Problem of two emperors">Problem of two emperors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_thousand_years_of_Chinese_civilization" title="Five thousand years of Chinese civilization">5000-year civilization assertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wunu_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wunu School (page does not exist)">Wunu School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E5%A5%B4%E6%B4%BE" class="extiw" title="zh:无奴派">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">Century of humiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_dynasty" title="Conquest dynasty">Conquest dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_on_the_Chineseness_of_the_Yuan_and_Qing_dynasties" title="Debate on the Chineseness of the Yuan and Qing dynasties">"Chineseness" debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Qing_History" title="New Qing History">New Qing History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ages_of_China" title="Golden ages of China">Golden ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua%E2%80%93Yi_distinction" title="Hua–Yi distinction">Hua–Yi distinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Barbarians" title="Four Barbarians">Four Barbarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">Sinocentrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-Strengthening_Movement#Evaluation" title="Self-Strengthening Movement">Self-Strengthening Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprouts_of_capitalism" title="Sprouts of capitalism">Sprouts of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_sovereignty_debate" title="Tibetan sovereignty debate">Tibetan sovereignty debate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(international_relations)" title="Cordon sanitaire (international relations)">Cordon sanitaire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frankish_Interregnum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frankish Interregnum (page does not exist)">Frankish Interregnum</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interr%C3%A8gne_franc" class="extiw" title="fr:Interrègne franc">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grand_Si%C3%A8cle" title="Grand Siècle">Grand Siècle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legendary_Saracen_in_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legendary Saracen in France (page does not exist)">Legendary Saracen</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9gendaire_sarrasin_en_France" class="extiw" title="fr:Légendaire sarrasin en France">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiographical_debate_on_the_location_of_Al%C3%A9sia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiographical debate on the location of Alésia (page does not exist)">Location of Alésia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_d%C3%A9bat_sur_la_localisation_d%27Al%C3%A9sia" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du débat sur la localisation d'Alésia">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Lyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Lyon (page does not exist)">Lyon</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_de_Lyon" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie de Lyon">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Germany" title="Historiography of Germany">Germany</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alltagsgeschichte" title="Alltagsgeschichte">Alltagsgeschichte</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borussian_myth" title="Borussian myth">Borussian myth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historikerstreit" title="Historikerstreit">Historikerstreit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sonderweg" title="Sonderweg">Sonderweg</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Strukturgeschichte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strukturgeschichte (page does not exist)">Strukturgeschichte</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturgeschichte" class="extiw" title="de:Strukturgeschichte">de</a>]</span></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybel-Ficker_controversy" title="Sybel-Ficker controversy">Sybel-Ficker controversy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vergangenheitsbew%C3%A4ltigung" title="Vergangenheitsbewältigung">Vergangenheitsbewältigung</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_India" title="Historiography of India">India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magadha" title="Greater Magadha">Greater Magadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indocentrism" title="Indocentrism">Indocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland#Historiography" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)#Analysis_of_the_government's_role" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/More_Irish_than_the_Irish_themselves" title="More Irish than the Irish themselves">More Irish than the Irish themselves</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Ireland)" title="Revisionism (Ireland)">Revisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_revolutionary_period" title="Irish revolutionary period">Revolutionary period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy#Historiography" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth Italian War of Independence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historiae_Patriae_Monumenta" title="Historiae Patriae Monumenta">Historiae Patriae Monumenta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Series_of_the_Bank_of_Italy" title="Historical Series of the Bank of Italy">Historical Series of the Bank of Italy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Italiani_brava_gente" title="Italiani brava gente">Italiani brava gente</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_italicarum_scriptores" title="Rerum italicarum scriptores">Rerum italicarum scriptores</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_of_Risorgimento" title="Revisionism of Risorgimento">Revisionism of Risorgimento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Bourbonism" title="Neo-Bourbonism">Neo-Bourbonism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Liberty#Assessment" title="Golden Liberty">Golden Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmatism" title="Sarmatism">Sarmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)#In_popular_culture" title="Deluge (history)">Deluge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland#Reasons,_legality_and_justifications" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_about_Polish_People%27s_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography about Polish People's Republic (page does not exist)">Polish People's Republic</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiografia_PRL" class="extiw" title="pl:Historiografia PRL">pl</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Normanism" title="Anti-Normanism">Anti-Normanism</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Revolution_Russian_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pre-Revolution Russian historiography (page does not exist)">Pre-Revolutionary Russia</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" class="extiw" title="ru:Российская дореволюционная историография">ru</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Skeptic_School&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skeptic School (page does not exist)">Skeptic School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Скептическая школа">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Historiography in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution#Historiography" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Holodomor" title="Causes of the Holodomor">Causes of the Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_genocide_question" title="Holodomor genocide question">Holodomor genocide question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor_in_modern_politics" title="Holodomor in modern politics">Holodomor in modern politics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">Black legend</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_(Spain)#White_legend" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Legend (Spain)">White legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanism" title="Hispanism">Hispanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_on_Carlism_during_the_Francoist_era" title="Historiography on Carlism during the Francoist era">Carlism in the Francoist era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Convivencia" title="Convivencia">Convivencia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Legend_of_the_Spanish_Inquisition" title="Black Legend of the Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpieza_de_sangre_controversy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limpieza de sangre controversy (page does not exist)">Limpieza de sangre controversy</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre#Los_estatutos_de_limpieza_de_sangre,_¿el_origen_del_racismo_europeo?" class="extiw" title="es:Estatutos de limpieza de sangre">es</a>]</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_revolution_of_Spain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic revolution of Spain (page does not exist)">Islamic revolution of Spain</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_revoluci%C3%B3n_isl%C3%A1mica_en_Occidente" class="extiw" title="es:La revolución islámica en Occidente">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Spain)" title="Revisionism (Spain)">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty#Controversy_over_whether_the_American_Viceroyalties_were_Colonies_or_Provinces" title="Viceroyalty">Colonies or Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_decline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spanish decline (page does not exist)">Spanish decline</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decadencia_espa%C3%B1ola" class="extiw" title="es:Decadencia española">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ser de España (page does not exist)">Ser de España</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ser_de_Espa%C3%B1a" class="extiw" title="es:Ser de España">es</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kemalist_historiography" title="Kemalist historiography">Kemalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Historiography of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline thesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historiography of the United Kingdom">United<br />Kingdom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Poor_Laws" title="Historiography of the Poor Laws">Poor Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Scotland" title="Historiography of Scotland">Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Origins of the Kingdom of Alba">Kingdom of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Stone_theory" title="Westminster Stone theory">Westminster Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_over_the_gentry" title="Storm over the gentry">Storm over the gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Suffragettes" title="Historiography of the Suffragettes">Suffragette Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_myth" title="Tudor myth">Tudor myth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ricardian_(Richard_III)" title="Ricardian (Richard III)">Ricardians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_of_Discontent#Legacy" title="Winter of Discontent">Winter of Discontent</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="BritishEmpire" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">British<br />Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_School_(imperial_history)" title="Cambridge School (imperial history)">Cambridge School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porter%E2%80%93MacKenzie_debate" title="Porter–MacKenzie debate">Porter–MacKenzie debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_colonial_occupation" title="Second colonial occupation">Second colonial occupation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_history_wars" title="Australian history wars">Colonial Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_war,_conflict" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By war, conflict</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_historiography" title="Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_historiography" title="Template talk:Military historiography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_historiography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military historiography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_historiography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_museums" title="List of military museums">List of military museums</a></b></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-18th century<br />conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade#Legacy" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catharism#Historical_and_current_scholarship" title="Catharism">Catharism debate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Crusades" title="Historiography of the Crusades">Crusades</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_the_crusades" title="Islamic views on the crusades">Islamic views</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Historiography of the Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Origins of the Eighty Years' War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon#Historiography" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars#Historiography" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorian_invasion" title="Dorian invasion">Dorian invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />century conflicts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Coalition_Wars(1792–1815)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Coalition Wars</a><br />(1792–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">French Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=French_pre-revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French pre-revolution (page does not exist)">Pre-revolution</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9r%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" class="extiw" title="fr:Prérévolution française">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Russian_School_(French_Revolution)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Russian School (French Revolution) (page does not exist)">New Russian School</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%AB%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%C2%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_XVIII_%D0%B2." class="extiw" title="ru:«Новая русская школа» в историографии Французской революции XVIII в.">ru</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e#Historiography" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_studies" title="Napoleonic studies">Napoleonic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia#Historical_assessment" title="French invasion of Russia">Invasion of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo#Historical_importance" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">American Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li></ul></li> <li>Franco-Prussian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paris_Commune" title="Historiography of the Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Great_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Great Game">Great Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857#Historiography" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Paraguayan_War" title="Historiography of the Paraguayan War">Paraguayan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Historiography of the War of 1812">War of 1812</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_War_of_1812" title="Origins of the War of 1812">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>War of the Pacific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_War_of_the_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes of the War of the Pacific">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Myth_of_English_aid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Myth of English aid (page does not exist)">Myth of English aid</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mito_de_la_ayuda_inglesa" class="extiw" title="es:Mito de la ayuda inglesa">es</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of World War I">World War I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_causes_of_World_War_I" title="Historiography of the causes of World War I">Causes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Color_book" title="Color book">Color books</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Fischer_(historian)#Fischer_thesis" title="Fritz Fischer (historian)">Fischer thesis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ottoman_genocides" title="Late Ottoman genocides">Late Ottoman genocides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Armenian_genocide" title="Causes of the Armenian genocide">Causes of the Armenian genocide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patriotic_consent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patriotic consent (page does not exist)">Patriotic consent</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consentement_patriotique" class="extiw" title="fr:Consentement patriotique">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_famine_of_1917%E2%80%931919" title="Persian famine of 1917–1919">Persian famine of 1917–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powder_keg_of_Europe" title="Powder keg of Europe">Powder keg of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan#History" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1914" title="Spirit of 1914">Spirit of 1914</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_1917" title="Spirit of 1917">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_the_Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (page does not exist)">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" class="extiw" title="ru:Историография Брестского мира">ru</a>]</span></li> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Treaty_ofVersailles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Historical_assessments" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of<br />Versailles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations#Analysis" title="World War I reparations">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_guilt_question" title="War guilt question">War guilt question</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">Article 231</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reichstag_inquiry_into_guilt_for_World_War_I" title="Reichstag inquiry into guilt for World War I">Reichstag inquiry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_burning_of_Smyrna" title="Responsibility for the burning of Smyrna">Burning of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War#Aftermath_and_legacy" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Causes of the Polish–Soviet War">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li>Spanish Civil War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War" title="Background of the Spanish Civil War">Background</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_II" title="Historiography of World War II">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg#Post-war_controversy" title="Blitzkrieg">"Blitzkrieg" concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broad_front_versus_narrow_front_controversy_in_World_War_II" title="Broad front versus narrow front controversy in World War II">Broad vs. narrow front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_German_resistance_to_Nazism" title="Historiography of German resistance to Nazism">German resistance to Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_foreign_policy_debate" title="Nazi foreign policy debate">Nazi foreign policy debate</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact#Postwar_commentary_on_motives_of_Stalin_and_Hitler" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_offensive_plans_controversy" title="Soviet offensive plans controversy">Soviet offensive plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising#Soviet_stance" title="Warsaw Uprising">Soviets and the Warsaw Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Historiography of the massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Winter_War" title="Aftermath of the Winter War">Winter War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Winter_War" title="Background of the Winter War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_the_Winter_War" title="Spirit of the Winter War">Spirit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">The Holocaust</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_bombing_debate" title="Auschwitz bombing debate">Auschwitz bombing debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Awareness in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism%E2%80%93intentionalism_debate" title="Functionalism–intentionalism debate">Functionalism–intentionalism debate</a></li> <li>In relation to the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide</a> / <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_and_the_Nakba" title="The Holocaust and the Nakba">Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust#Historiography" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pius_Wars" title="Pius Wars">Pius Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%22Polish_death_camp%22_controversy" title=""Polish death camp" controversy">"Polish death camp"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="Historiography of the Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Australia" title="Battle for Australia">"Battle for Australia"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengal_famine_of_1943#Historiography" title="Bengal famine of 1943">Bengal famine</a></li> <li>Second Sino-Japanese War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Nanjing_Massacre" title="Historiography of the Nanjing Massacre">Nanjing Massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Front</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Battle_of_France" title="Historiography of the Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guilty_Men" title="Guilty Men">Guilty Men</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9sistancialisme" title="Résistancialisme">Résistancialisme</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Vichy_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Vichy France (page does not exist)">Vichy France</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiographie_du_r%C3%A9gime_de_Vichy" class="extiw" title="fr:Historiographie du régime de Vichy">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Cold_War" title="Historiography of the Cold War">Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war#Historiography" title="1948 Palestine war">1948 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="Causes of the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">Palestinian expulsion and flight</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ongoing_Nakba" title="Ongoing Nakba">Ongoing Nakba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">Zionism as settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Historians" title="New Historians">New Historians</a></li></ul></li> <li>Malayan Emergency <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Malayan_Emergency" title="Background and causes of the Malayan Emergency">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Algerian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of the Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li>Six-Day War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Six-Day_War" title="Origins of the Six-Day War">Origins</a></li></ul></li> <li>Iranian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Iranian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Iranian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_and_memory_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Legacy and memory of the Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Falklands_War" title="Aftermath of the Falklands War">Falklands War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands_sovereignty_dispute" title="Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute">Sovereignty dispute</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sri Lankan civil war <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war">Origins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Russo-Georgian War <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_of_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Background of the Russo-Georgian War">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Responsibility for the Russo-Georgian War">Responsibility</a></li></ul></li> <li>Syrian revolution <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_revolution" title="Background and causes of the Syrian revolution">Causes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">Conflict thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_genocide" title="War and genocide">War and genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_historiography" title="Category:Military historiography">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_person" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By person</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Adolf_Hitler" title="Historiography of Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Historiography of Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini#Evaluations_of_Husseini's_historical_significance" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb#Assessments_and_legacy" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Cato_the_Younger" title="Legacy of Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Che_Guevara" title="Legacy of Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Ching-kuo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Ching-kuo (page does not exist)">Chiang Ching-kuo</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E7%B6%93%E5%9C%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣經國的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Chiang_Kai_Shek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Chiang Kai Shek (page does not exist)">Chiang Kai Shek</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對蔣中正的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great#Historiography" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palamism#Initial_Western_reactions" title="Palamism">Gregory Palamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson" title="Legacy of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson">Horatio Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia#Legacy" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Jiang_Zemin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Jiang Zemin (page does not exist)">Jiang Zemin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E6%B1%9F%E6%BE%A4%E6%B0%91%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對江澤民的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Joseph_Stalin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Joseph Stalin (page does not exist)">Joseph Stalin</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84_%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87#Мнения_и_оценки_личности_Сталина" class="extiw" title="ru:Сталин, Иосиф Виссарионович">ru</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn#Historiography" title="Legacy of José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Juan_Manuel_de_Rosas" title="Historiography of Juan Manuel de Rosas">Juan Manuel de Rosas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_assessment_of_Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich">Klemens von Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Legacy of Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Louis_Riel" title="Historiography of Louis Riel">Louis Riel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Mao_Zedong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Mao Zedong (page does not exist)">Mao Zedong</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%B1%E4%BA%A7%E5%85%9A%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%84%E8%AE%BA" class="extiw" title="zh:对中国共产党的评论">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_and_legacy_of_Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Reception and legacy of Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Napoleon" title="Legacy of Napoleon">Napoleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain#Legacy_and_reputation" title="Neville Chamberlain">Neville Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Pedro_II_of_Brazil" title="Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil">Pedro II of Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar#Legacy" title="Simón Bolívar">Simon Bolivar</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cult_of_personality_of_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cult of personality of Simón Bolívar (page does not exist)">Cult of personality</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culto_a_la_personalidad_de_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" class="extiw" title="es:Culto a la personalidad de Simón Bolívar">es</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarianism" title="Bolivarianism">Bolivarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin#Recognition_and_legacy" title="Saladin">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Sun_Yat_Tse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Sun Yat Tse (page does not exist)">Sun Yat Tse</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%AD%AB%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對孫中山的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas#Legacy,_veneration,_and_modern_reception" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Historical reputation of Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Historical reputation of Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reputation_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Historical reputation of Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Yuan_Shikai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Yuan Shikai (page does not exist)">Yuan Shikai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%A2%81%E4%B8%96%E5%87%B1%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對袁世凱的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhou_Enlai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhou Enlai (page does not exist)">Zhou Enlai</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E5%91%A8%E6%81%A9%E4%BE%86%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對周恩來的評價">zh</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historiography_of_Zhuge_Liang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historiography of Zhuge Liang (page does not exist)">Zhuge Liang</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8D%E8%AB%B8%E8%91%9B%E4%BA%AE%E7%9A%84%E8%A9%95%E5%83%B9" class="extiw" title="zh:對諸葛亮的評價">zh</a>]</span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Historicalrankings" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_heads_of_government" title="Historical rankings of heads of government">Historical<br />rankings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Australia" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_Canada" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_chancellors_of_Germany" title="Historical rankings of chancellors of Germany">Modern Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Netherlands" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Historical rankings of prime ministers of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_the_Beatles" title="Cultural impact of the Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Industry" title="Darwin Industry">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovecraft_studies" title="Lovecraft studies">H. P. Lovecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reception_history_of_Jane_Austen" title="Reception history of Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammed" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammed">Muhammed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Muhammad" title="Historicity of Muhammad">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Muhammad" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Muhammad">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Christian_views_on_Muhammad" title="Medieval Christian views on Muhammad">Medieval Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus" title="Historicity of Jesus">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_perspectives_on_Jesus" title="Religious perspectives on Jesus">Religious perspectives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism%27s_view_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism's view of Jesus">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Islam" title="Jesus in Islam">Islam</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolkien_research" title="Tolkien research">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_reception_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="Literary reception of The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_Madonna" title="Cultural impact of Madonna">Madonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_surrounding_Robert_Falcon_Scott" title="Controversies surrounding Robert Falcon Scott">Robert Falcon Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_problem" title="Socratic problem">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_and_reception_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Influence and reception of Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reputation_of_William_Shakespeare" title="Reputation of William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bears_in_antiquity" title="Bears in antiquity">Bears in antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crisis_of_historiography&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crisis of historiography (page does not exist)">Crisis of historiography</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crise_da_historiografia" class="extiw" title="pt:Crise da historiografia">pt</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_feudalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Nationalism in the Middle Ages">Nationalism in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Professionalization_and_institutionalization_of_history" title="Professionalization and institutionalization of history">Professionalization and institutionalization of history</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_salon" title="Historiography of the salon">Salons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization">Western European colonialism and colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Recession" title="Causes of the Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Great_Depression" title="Causes of the Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li>School of Thoughts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical school of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_historical_school_of_economics" title="English historical school of economics">English historical school of economics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_religion" title="Historiography of religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_geography" title="Avestan geography">Avestan geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Christianity" title="Historiography of early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_reliability_of_the_Gospels" title="Historical reliability of the Gospels">Historical reliability of the Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_Peter" title="Primacy of Peter">Primacy of Peter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papal_supremacy#Opposition" title="Papal supremacy">Opposition to Papal supremacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">Proto-orthodox Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Early Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Criticism of the Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic golden age">Islamic golden age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites#Legacy" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council#Controversies" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermeneutics_of_Vatican_Council_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II (page does not exist)">Hermeneutics of Vatican Council II</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ermeneutica_del_Concilio_Vaticano_II" class="extiw" title="it:Ermeneutica del Concilio Vaticano II">it</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychast_controversy" title="Hesychast controversy">Hesychast controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation#Conclusion_and_legacy" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Protestantism" title="Criticism of Protestantism">Criticism of Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuits#Controversies" title="Jesuits">Jesuit historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern Jewish history</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wissenschaft_des_Judentums" title="Wissenschaft des Judentums">Wissenschaft des Judentums</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Schools of thought <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panbabylonism" title="Panbabylonism">Panbabylonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urreligion" title="Urreligion">Urreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School_(perennialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School (perennialism)">Perennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religions_school" title="History of religions school">Religionsgeschichtliche Schule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_school_of_Islamic_studies" title="Revisionist school of Islamic studies">Revisionist school of Islamic studies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Science</a> /<br />Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Merton thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">Protestant Ethic and Capitalism</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Heroic_theory_of_invention_and_scientific_development" title="Heroic theory of invention and scientific development">Heroic theory of invention and scientific development</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_gunpowder_and_gun_transmission" title="Historiography of gunpowder and gun transmission">Gunpowder and gun transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Organizations,_publications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Organizations, publications</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heritage_registers" title="List of heritage registers">Heritage registers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_society" title="Historical society">Historical society</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_societies" title="List of historical societies">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/History_institutes" class="extiw" title="c:History institutes">History institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_history_journals" title="List of history journals">History journals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:History_journals" title="Template:History journals">template</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemorative_plaque" title="Commemorative plaque">Commemorative plaque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">Documentary film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">Hagiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical realism">Historical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_metafiction" title="Historiographic metafiction">Historiographic metafiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geographic_information_system" title="Historical geographic information system">Historical geographic information system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" 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href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Historiography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Historiography">Multimedia</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geography_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_topics" title="Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_topics" title="Template talk:Geography topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Glossary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography#Tasks_and_tools_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Techniques and tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">Remote sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geographic_data_and_information_organizations" title="Category:Geographic data and information organizations">Geographic data and information organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Geographical societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations" title="List of geoscience organizations">Geoscience societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_mapping_agency" title="National mapping agency">National mapping agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_education" title="Category:Geography education">Geography education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geo-literacy" title="Geo-literacy">Geo-literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographers_on_Film" title="Geographers on Film">Geographers on Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Geography_Olympiad" title="International Geography Olympiad">International Geography Olympiad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_Geographic_Education" title="National Council for Geographic Education">National Council for Geographic Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_citizenship" title="Spatial citizenship">Spatial citizenship</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img 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Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups"," 7.22% 173.964 1 Template:Historiography"," 5.28% 127.162 36 Template:Cite_web"," 4.98% 120.091 43 Template:Ill"," 4.51% 108.565 3 Template:Sfn"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.518","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24845669,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"AAS_1976\"] = 1,\n [\"Abu-Lughod_1991\"] = 1,\n [\"Anderson_2000\"] = 1,\n [\"Arciniegas_1978\"] = 1,\n [\"Arnold_2002\"] = 1,\n [\"Bagrow_1964\"] = 1,\n [\"Boxer_1969\"] = 1,\n [\"Boxer_1977\"] = 1,\n [\"Braudel_1979\"] = 1,\n [\"Braudel_1985\"] = 1,\n [\"Brook_1998\"] = 1,\n [\"Burns_2001\"] = 1,\n [\"Butel_1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdetunji2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernstein2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBethell1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButel2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCassels2003\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFChaudhuri1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorbettJanssenLundPfannestiel2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCortesão1944\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrowley2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDNLee2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElbl1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEscudero2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFernández-Armesto2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynnGiraldez2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGough1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHahn2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuang1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleinhenz2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnight2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaguarda_Trias1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLusa\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagazineFiegl\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMancall1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDermott2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerson1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorison1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorison1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNassaney2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNater2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOverton1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPagden1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaine2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPohl1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaychaudhuri1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenstrom2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRicard1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoyConversation2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilliman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStark2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSugden2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFViault1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVoegelin1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVon_der_Porten1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWashburn1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitehurst\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvon_Glahn1996\"] = 1,\n [\"Cartier_E.B._2009\"] = 1,\n [\"Castillo_1963\"] = 1,\n [\"Catholic_Encyclopædia_2\"] = 1,\n [\"Catholic_Encyclopædia_2007\"] = 1,\n [\"Cervantes_web\"] = 1,\n [\"Cole_2002\"] = 2,\n [\"Columbia_University_2009\"] = 1,\n [\"Cromer_1995\"] = 1,\n [\"Crosby_1972\"] = 1,\n [\"Crow_1992\"] = 1,\n [\"Croxton_2007\"] = 1,\n [\"Daus_1983\"] = 1,\n [\"Davenport_1917\"] = 1,\n [\"DeLamar_1992\"] = 1,\n [\"Diffie_1960\"] = 1,\n [\"Diffie_1977\"] = 1,\n [\"Donkin_2003\"] = 1,\n [\"Drake_N.Guild\"] = 1,\n [\"Dunn_2004\"] = 1,\n [\"Dunton_1896\"] = 1,\n [\"Dymytryshyn_1985\"] = 1,\n [\"Ebrey_2006\"] = 1,\n [\"Fernandez-Armesto_2006\"] = 1,\n [\"Fisher_1981\"] = 1,\n [\"Fiske_1892\"] = 1,\n [\"Forbes_1993\"] = 1,\n [\"Galvano_1563\"] = 1,\n [\"Gernet_1962\"] = 1,\n [\"Gitzen_2011\"] = 1,\n [\"Grunberg_2007\"] = 1,\n [\"Gutierrez_1998\"] = 1,\n [\"Hacquebord_1995\"] = 1,\n [\"Hochstrasser_2007\"] = 1,\n [\"Howard_1978\"] = 1,\n [\"Lach_1998\"] = 1,\n [\"Lawson_2007\"] = 1,\n [\"Lincoln_1994\"] = 1,\n [\"Linschoten_1598\"] = 1,\n [\"Locke_1824\"] = 1,\n [\"Love_2006\"] = 1,\n [\"Maclean_2008\"] = 1,\n [\"Mancall_1999\"] = 1,\n [\"Mancall_2006\"] = 1,\n [\"McNeill_2019\"] = 1,\n [\"Medina_1918\"] = 1,\n [\"Milton_1999\"] = 1,\n [\"Morison_1942\"] = 1,\n [\"Mutch_1942\"] = 1,\n [\"Newitt_2005\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowell_1947\"] = 1,\n [\"OSU_2006\"] = 1,\n [\"Oregon_History\"] = 1,\n [\"Otfinoski_2004\"] = 1,\n [\"Pacey_1991\"] = 1,\n [\"Paine_2000\"] = 1,\n [\"Parry_1963\"] = 1,\n [\"Parry_1981\"] = 1,\n [\"Penrose_1955\"] = 1,\n [\"Pfoundes_1882\"] = 1,\n [\"Pires_1512\"] = 1,\n [\"Restall_2004\"] = 1,\n [\"Russell-Wood_1998\"] = 1,\n [\"San_Diego_HS\"] = 1,\n [\"Sbaikal\"] = 1,\n [\"ScienceDaily_1998\"] = 1,\n [\"Scitizen_2007\"] = 1,\n [\"Spence_1999\"] = 1,\n [\"Spufford_1989\"] = 1,\n [\"Synge_1912\"] = 1,\n [\"Tamura_1997\"] = 1,\n [\"The_Perfilyevs\"] = 1,\n [\"Tracy_1994\"] = 1,\n [\"Tsai_2002\"] = 1,\n [\"U.C._2009\"] = 1,\n [\"ULT_2009\"] = 1,\n [\"USF_2010\"] = 1,\n [\"Volker_1971\"] = 1,\n [\"Walton_1994\"] = 1,\n [\"Weddle_1985\"] = 1,\n [\"Wilford_1982\"] = 1,\n [\"Zweig_1938\"] = 1,\n [\"histori.ca_2009\"] = 1,\n [\"silk-road_2008\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite ODNB\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 105,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 36,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Cn\"] = 5,\n [\"Colonialism\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 9,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Dutch colonies\"] = 1,\n [\"Early Modern Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Exploration\"] = 1,\n [\"Former French colonies\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Geography sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Geography topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 8,\n [\"Historiography\"] = 1,\n [\"History by continent\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"History of geography sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Langx\"] = 3,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 8,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Portuguese overseas empire\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 3,\n [\"Refend\"] = 3,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 1,\n [\"Renaissance\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 6,\n [\"See also\"] = 7,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"Ship\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Spanish Empire\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Too much detail\"] = 1,\n [\"Very long\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 12,\n [\"Western culture\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikivoyage\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","420","25.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","15.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","6.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","6.1"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","4.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","3.7"],["(for 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