CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Environmental issues with coral reefs - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"a5003d74-e810-48c0-9dfa-b6b4583437c9","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs","wgTitle":"Environmental issues with coral reefs","wgCurRevisionId":1250146365,"wgRevisionId":1250146365,"wgArticleId":27687935,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 errors: missing periodical","CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from August 2019","Articles with permanently dead external links","CS1 Malay-language sources (ms)","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","All articles with unsourced statements", "Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011","Wikipedia articles in need of updating from May 2021","All Wikipedia articles in need of updating","Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2018","All articles containing potentially dated statements","Coral reefs","Environmental conservation","Environmental impact by effect","Great Barrier Reef"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs","wgRelevantArticleId":27687935,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{ "search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q5381324","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","mediawiki.page.gallery.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready", "skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession", "wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.page.gallery.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.5"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mvey0290.jpg/1200px-Mvey0290.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="786"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mvey0290.jpg/800px-Mvey0290.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="524"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mvey0290.jpg/640px-Mvey0290.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="419"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Environmental issues with coral reefs - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs rootpage-Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Environmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Environmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Environmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Environmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Competition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Competition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Competition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Competition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Predation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fishing_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fishing_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Fishing practices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fishing_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Marine pollution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nutrient_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutrient_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.1 Nutrient pollution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutrient_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.2 Air pollution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_debris" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_debris"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Marine debris </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_debris-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dredging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dredging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Dredging </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dredging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sunscreen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sunscreen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Sunscreen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sunscreen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 Climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ocean_acidification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_acidification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.9 Ocean acidification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_acidification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ocean_deoxygenation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_deoxygenation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10 Ocean deoxygenation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_deoxygenation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11 Disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recreational_diving" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recreational_diving"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.12 Recreational diving </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recreational_diving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.13 Other issues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Oil </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Oil-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Oil subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Oil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oil_Impacts_on_Coral_Life_and_Symbiotic_Relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oil_Impacts_on_Coral_Life_and_Symbiotic_Relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Oil Impacts on Coral Life and Symbiotic Relationships </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oil_Impacts_on_Coral_Life_and_Symbiotic_Relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Threatened_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Threatened_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Threatened species </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Threatened_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues_by_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues_by_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Issues by region </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Issues_by_region-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Issues by region subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Issues_by_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Southeast Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indonesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indonesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Indonesia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indonesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philippines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philippines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Philippines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philippines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Taiwan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caribbean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caribbean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Caribbean </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caribbean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jamaica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jamaica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Jamaica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jamaica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Pacific </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Environmental issues with coral reefs</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 3 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-3" aria-hidden="true" > 3 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="قضايا بيئية متعلقة بالشعاب المرجانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قضايا بيئية متعلقة بالشعاب المرجانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impacts_des_pollutions_anthropiques_sur_les_r%C3%A9cifs_coralliens" title="Impacts des pollutions anthropiques sur les récifs coralliens – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Impacts des pollutions anthropiques sur les récifs coralliens" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedreiging_van_koraalriffen" title="Bedreiging van koraalriffen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bedreiging van koraalriffen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5381324#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&oldid=1250146365" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&id=1250146365&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEnvironmental_issues_with_coral_reefs">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEnvironmental_issues_with_coral_reefs">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5381324" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Factors which adversely affect tropical coral reefs</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mvey0290.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mvey0290.jpg/300px-Mvey0290.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mvey0290.jpg/450px-Mvey0290.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mvey0290.jpg/600px-Mvey0290.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1808" data-file-height="1184" /></a><figcaption>Island with <a href="/wiki/Fringing_reef" title="Fringing reef">fringing reef</a> off <a href="/wiki/Yap" title="Yap">Yap</a>, <a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a>. Coral reefs are dying around the world.<a href="#cite_note-Coral_reefs_around_the_world-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> Human activities have substantial impact on coral reefs, contributing to their worldwide decline.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Damaging activities encompass coral mining, pollution (both organic and non-organic), overfishing, blast fishing, as well as the excavation of canals and access points to islands and bays. Additional threats comprise disease, destructive fishing practices, and the warming of oceans.[2] Furthermore, the ocean's function as a carbon dioxide sink, alterations in the atmosphere, ultraviolet light, ocean acidification, viral infections, the repercussions of dust storms transporting agents to distant reefs, pollutants, and algal blooms represent some of the factors exerting influence on coral reefs. Importantly, the jeopardy faced by coral reefs extends far beyond coastal regions. The ramifications of climate change, notably global warming, induce an elevation in ocean temperatures that triggers coral bleaching—a potentially lethal phenomenon for coral ecosystems. Scientists estimate that over next 20 years, about 70 to 90% of all coral reefs will disappear. With primary causes being warming ocean waters, ocean acidity, and pollution.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> In 2008, a worldwide study estimated that 19% of the existing area of coral reefs had already been lost.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-4">[4]</a> Only 46% of the world's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-4">[4]</a> and about 60% of the world's reefs may be at risk due to destructive, human-related activities. The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, where 80% of reefs are <a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">endangered</a>. By the 2030s, 90% of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>; by 2050, it is predicted that all coral reefs will be in danger.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kleypas,_J.A._2006-6">[6]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Issues">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Competition">Competition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Competition">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a> and tropical <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, direct contact between coral and common <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweeds</a> causes <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">bleaching</a> and death of coral tissue via <a href="/wiki/Allelopathic" class="mw-redirect" title="Allelopathic">allelopathic</a> competition. The lipid-soluble extracts of seaweeds that harmed coral tissues, also produced rapid bleaching. At these sites, bleaching and mortality was limited to areas of direct contact with seaweed or their extracts. The seaweed then expanded to occupy the dead coral's habitat.<a href="#cite_note-RasherHay10-7">[7]</a> However, as of 2009, only 4% of coral reefs worldwide had more than 50% algal coverage which means that there are no recent global trend towards algal dominance over coral reefs.<a href="#cite_note-tough-8">[8]</a> Competitive seaweed and other <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> thrive in nutrient-rich waters in the absence of sufficient <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivorous</a> <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predators</a>. Herbivores include fish such as <a href="/wiki/Parrotfish" title="Parrotfish">parrotfish</a>, the urchin <a href="/wiki/Diadema_antillarum" title="Diadema antillarum">Diadema antillarum</a>,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Acanthuridae" title="Acanthuridae">surgeonfishes, tangs and unicornfishes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RasherHay10-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predation">Predation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Predation">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_fishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of fishing">Environmental effects of fishing</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">Overfishing</a>, particularly selective overfishing, can unbalance coral ecosystems by encouraging the excessive growth of coral predators. Predators that eat living coral, such as the <a href="/wiki/Crown-of-thorns_starfish" title="Crown-of-thorns starfish">crown-of-thorns starfish</a>, are called corallivores. Coral reefs are built from <a href="/wiki/Stony_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Stony coral">stony coral</a>, which evolved with large amounts of the <a href="/wiki/Wax" title="Wax">wax</a> <a href="/wiki/Cetyl_palmitate" title="Cetyl palmitate">cetyl palmitate</a> in their tissues. Most predators find this wax indigestible.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The crown-of-thorns starfish is a large (up to one meter) starfish protected by long, venomous spines. Its <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> system dissolves the wax in stony corals, and allows the <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a> to feed on the living animal. Starfish face predators of their own, such as the <a href="/wiki/Giant_Triton" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant Triton">giant triton</a> <a href="/wiki/Sea_snail" title="Sea snail">sea snail</a>. However, the giant triton is valued for its <a href="/wiki/Mollusc_shell" title="Mollusc shell">shell</a> and has been over fished. As a result, crown-of-thorns starfish populations can periodically grow unchecked, devastating reefs.<a href="#cite_note-PBS-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-cots_1999–2000-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Charonia_tritonis_a1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The overfished giant triton eats the crown-of-thorns starfish."><img alt="The overfished giant triton eats the crown-of-thorns starfish." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Charonia_tritonis_a1.jpg/120px-Charonia_tritonis_a1.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Charonia_tritonis_a1.jpg/180px-Charonia_tritonis_a1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Charonia_tritonis_a1.jpg/240px-Charonia_tritonis_a1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3971" data-file-height="3309" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The overfished <a href="/wiki/Giant_Triton" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant Triton">giant triton</a> eats the <a href="/wiki/Crown-of-thorns_starfish" title="Crown-of-thorns starfish">crown-of-thorns starfish</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Crown_of_Thorns_Starfish.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The crown-of-thorns starfish eats coral."><img alt="The crown-of-thorns starfish eats coral." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Crown_of_Thorns_Starfish.jpg/120px-Crown_of_Thorns_Starfish.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Crown_of_Thorns_Starfish.jpg/180px-Crown_of_Thorns_Starfish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Crown_of_Thorns_Starfish.jpg/240px-Crown_of_Thorns_Starfish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The crown-of-thorns starfish eats <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fishing_practices">Fishing practices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fishing practices">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Overfishing_threats_to_coral_reefs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Overfishing_threats_to_coral_reefs.png/440px-Overfishing_threats_to_coral_reefs.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Overfishing_threats_to_coral_reefs.png/660px-Overfishing_threats_to_coral_reefs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Overfishing_threats_to_coral_reefs.png/880px-Overfishing_threats_to_coral_reefs.png 2x" data-file-width="1344" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Overfishing threats to coral reefs – <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></div></figcaption></figure> Although some <a href="/wiki/Marine_aquarium" title="Marine aquarium">marine aquarium</a> fish species can reproduce in aquaria (such as <a href="/wiki/Pomacentridae" title="Pomacentridae">Pomacentridae</a>), most (95%) are collected from coral reefs.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Intense harvesting, especially in <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">maritime Southeast Asia</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>), damages the reefs. This is aggravated by <a href="/wiki/Destructive_fishing_practices" title="Destructive fishing practices">destructive fishing practices</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Cyanide_fishing" title="Cyanide fishing">cyanide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blast_fishing" title="Blast fishing">blast fishing</a>. Most (80–90%) aquarium fish from the Philippines are captured with <a href="/wiki/Sodium_cyanide" title="Sodium cyanide">sodium cyanide</a>. This toxic chemical is dissolved in sea water and released into areas where fish shelter. It narcotizes the fish, which are then easily captured. However, most fish collected with cyanide die a few months later from <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> damage.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Moreover, many non-marketable specimens die in the process.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> It is estimated that 4,000 or more Filipino fish collectors have used over 1,000,000 kilograms (2,200,000 lb) of cyanide on Philippine reefs alone, about 150,000 kg per year.<a href="#cite_note-McClellan-16">[16]</a> A major catalyst of <a href="/wiki/Cyanide_fishing" title="Cyanide fishing">cyanide fishing</a> is poverty within fishing communities. In countries like the Philippines that regularly employ cyanide, more than thirty percent of the population lives below the poverty line.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dynamite" title="Dynamite">Dynamite</a> <a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">fishing</a> is another destructive method for gathering fish. Sticks of dynamite, <a href="/wiki/Grenade" title="Grenade">grenades</a>, or homemade explosives are detonated in the water. This method of fishing kills the fish within the main blast area, along with many unwanted reef animals. The blast also kills the corals in the area, eliminating the reef's structure, destroying habitat for the remaining fish and other animals important for reef health.<a href="#cite_note-McClellan-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Muro-ami" class="mw-redirect" title="Muro-ami">Muro-ami</a> is the destructive practice of covering reefs with nets and dropping large stones onto the reef to produce a flight response among the fish. The stones break and kill the coral. Muro-ami was generally outlawed in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-McClellan-16">[16]</a> Fishing gear damages reefs via direct physical contact with the reef structure and substrate. They are typically made of synthetic materials that do not deteriorate in the ocean, causing a lasting effect on the ecosystem and reefs.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Gill nets, fish traps, and anchors break branching coral and cause coral death through entanglement. When fishermen drop lines by coral reefs, the lines entangle the coral. The fisher cuts the line and abandons it, leaving it attached to the reef. The discarded lines abrade coral <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyps</a> and upper tissue layers. Corals are able to recover from small lesions, but larger and recurrent damage complicates recovery. Bottom dragging gear such as <a href="/wiki/Beach_seine" class="mw-redirect" title="Beach seine">beach seines</a> can damage corals by abrasion and fracturing. A beach seine is a long net about 150 meters (490 ft) with a mesh size of 3 centimeters (1.2 in) and a weighted line to hold the net down while it is dragged across the substrate and is one of the most destructive types of fishing gear on Kenya's reefs.<a href="#cite_note-McClellan-16">[16]</a> Bottom <a href="/wiki/Trawling" title="Trawling">trawling</a> in deep oceans destroys cold-water and deep-sea corals. Historically, industrial fishers avoided coral because their nets would get caught on the reefs. In the 1980s, "rock-hopper" trawls attached large tires and rollers to allow the nets to roll over rough surfaces. Fifty-five percent of Alaskan cold-water coral that was damaged by one pass from a bottom trawl had not recovered a year later. Northeast Atlantic reefs bear scars up to 4 kilometers (2.5 mi) long. In Southern Australia, 90 percent of the surfaces on coral <a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">seamounts</a> are now bare rock. Even in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, seafloor trawling for prawns and scallops is causing localized extinction of some coral species.<a href="#cite_note-McClellan-16">[16]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">"With increased human population and improved storage and transport systems, the scale of human impacts on reefs has grown exponentially. For example, markets for fish and other <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resources</a> have become global, supplying demand for reef resources."<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_pollution">Marine pollution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Marine pollution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Land-based_sources_of_pollution_threats_to_coral_reefs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Land-based_sources_of_pollution_threats_to_coral_reefs.png/440px-Land-based_sources_of_pollution_threats_to_coral_reefs.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="339" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Land-based_sources_of_pollution_threats_to_coral_reefs.png/660px-Land-based_sources_of_pollution_threats_to_coral_reefs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Land-based_sources_of_pollution_threats_to_coral_reefs.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Land-based sources of pollution threats to coral reefs – <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></div></figcaption></figure> Reefs in close proximity to human populations are subject to poor water quality from land- and marine-based sources. In 2006 studies suggested that approximately 80 percent of ocean pollution originates from activities on land.<a href="#cite_note-2006_United_Nations_Environment_Program-21">[21]</a> Pollution arrives from land via <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a>, the wind and "injection" (deliberate introduction, e.g., drainpipes). Runoff brings with it sediment from <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> and land-clearing, nutrients and pesticides from agriculture, <a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a>, industrial <a href="/wiki/Effluent" title="Effluent">effluent</a> and miscellaneous material such as petroleum residue and trash that storms wash away. Some pollutants consume <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and lead to <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>, killing coral and other reef inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-celebrating200years.noaa.gov-22">[22]</a> An increasing fraction of the global population lives in coastal areas. Without appropriate precautions, development (e.g., buildings and paved roads) increases the fraction of rainfall and other water sources that enter the ocean as runoff by decreasing the land's ability to absorb it.<a href="#cite_note-celebrating200years.noaa.gov-22">[22]</a> Pollution can introduce <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a> sydowii has been associated with a disease in <a href="/wiki/Sea_fan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea fan">sea fans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Serratia_marcescens" title="Serratia marcescens">Serratia marcescens</a>, has been linked to the coral disease white pox.<a href="#cite_note-celebrating200years.noaa.gov-22">[22]</a> Reefs near human populations can be faced with local stresses, including poor water quality from land-based sources of pollution.<a href="#cite_note-celebrating200years.noaa.gov-22">[22]</a> Copper, a common industrial pollutant has been shown to interfere with the <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life history</a> and development of coral polyps.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barbadosdustgraph.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Barbadosdustgraph.gif/250px-Barbadosdustgraph.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Barbadosdustgraph.gif/375px-Barbadosdustgraph.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Barbadosdustgraph.gif 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="343" /></a><figcaption>Barbados dust graph.</figcaption></figure> In addition to runoff, wind blows material into the ocean. This material may be local or from other regions. For example, dust from the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> moves to the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>. Dust also blows from the <a href="/wiki/Gobi_Desert" title="Gobi Desert">Gobi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taklamakan_Desert" title="Taklamakan Desert">Taklamakan</a> <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a> across <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, and the Northern <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands" title="Hawaiian Islands">Hawaiian Islands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Since 1970, dust deposits have grown due to drought periods in Africa. Dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida varies from year to year<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> with greater flux during positive phases of the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic Oscillation">North Atlantic Oscillation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">USGS</a> links dust events to reduced health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Dust from the 1883 eruption of <a href="/wiki/Krakatoa" title="Krakatoa">Krakatoa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Annulus_(zoology)" title="Annulus (zoology)">annular</a> bands of the reef-building coral <a href="/wiki/Montastraea_annularis" class="mw-redirect" title="Montastraea annularis">Montastraea annularis</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Reef" title="Florida Reef">Florida Reeftract</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Sediment smothers corals and interferes with their ability to feed and reproduce. Pesticides can interfere with coral reproduction and growth.<a href="#cite_note-celebrating200years.noaa.gov-22">[22]</a> There are studies that present evidence that chemicals in sunscreens contribute to coral bleaching by lowering the resistance of zooxanthellae to viruses,<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> though these studies showed significant flaws in methodology and did not attempt to replicate the complex environment found in coral reefs.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nutrient_pollution">Nutrient pollution</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nutrient pollution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient pollution</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Runoff_from_this_pipe_in_the_U.S._Virgin_Islands_spews_directly_into_the_ocean_only_a_few_hundred_yards_from_reefs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Runoff_from_this_pipe_in_the_U.S._Virgin_Islands_spews_directly_into_the_ocean_only_a_few_hundred_yards_from_reefs.jpg/180px-Runoff_from_this_pipe_in_the_U.S._Virgin_Islands_spews_directly_into_the_ocean_only_a_few_hundred_yards_from_reefs.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Runoff_from_this_pipe_in_the_U.S._Virgin_Islands_spews_directly_into_the_ocean_only_a_few_hundred_yards_from_reefs.jpg/270px-Runoff_from_this_pipe_in_the_U.S._Virgin_Islands_spews_directly_into_the_ocean_only_a_few_hundred_yards_from_reefs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Runoff_from_this_pipe_in_the_U.S._Virgin_Islands_spews_directly_into_the_ocean_only_a_few_hundred_yards_from_reefs.jpg/360px-Runoff_from_this_pipe_in_the_U.S._Virgin_Islands_spews_directly_into_the_ocean_only_a_few_hundred_yards_from_reefs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="974" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cwall99_lg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Cwall99_lg.jpg/250px-Cwall99_lg.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Cwall99_lg.jpg/375px-Cwall99_lg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Cwall99_lg.jpg/500px-Cwall99_lg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>This image of an <a href="/wiki/Algae_bloom" class="mw-redirect" title="Algae bloom">algae bloom</a> off the southern coast of England, though not in a coral region, shows what a bloom can look like from a satellite <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> system.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient pollution</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> can cause <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>, upsetting the balance of the reef by enhancing algal growth and crowding out corals. This nutrient–rich water can enable <a href="/wiki/Algal_blooms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algal blooms">blooms</a> of fleshy <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> to thrive off coasts. These blooms can create <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">hypoxic</a> conditions by using all available <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. Biologically available nitrogen (nitrate plus <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>) needs to be below 1.0 <a href="/wiki/Micromole" class="mw-redirect" title="Micromole">micromole</a> per liter (less than 0.014 parts per million of nitrogen), and biologically available phosphorus (<a href="/wiki/Orthophosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthophosphate">orthophosphate</a> plus dissolved organic phosphorus) needs to be below 0.1 micromole per liter (less than 0.003 parts per million of phosphorus). In addition concentrations of chlorophyll (in the microscopic plants called phytoplankton) needs to be below 0.5 parts per billion.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Both plants also obscure sunlight, killing both fish and coral. High nitrate levels are specifically toxic to corals, while phosphates slow down skeletal growth. Excess nutrients can intensify existing disease, including potentially doubling the spread of <a href="/wiki/Aspergillosis" title="Aspergillosis">Aspergillosis</a>, a fungal infection that kills soft corals such as sea fans, and increasing yellow band disease, a <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacterial</a> <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a> that kills reef-building hard corals by fifty percent.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Air_pollution">Air pollution</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Air pollution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air pollution</a></div> A study released in April 2013 has shown that air pollution can also stunt the growth of <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>; researchers from Australia, Panama and the UK used coral records (between 1880 and 2000) from the western Caribbean to show the threat of factors such as coal-burning coal and volcanic eruptions. The researchers state that the study signifies the first time that the relationship between air pollution and coral reefs has been elucidated, while former chair of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Ian McPhail referred to the report as "fascinating" upon the public release of its findings.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_debris">Marine debris</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Marine debris">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">Marine debris</a></div> Marine debris is defined as any persistent solid material that is manufactured or processed and directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, disposed of or abandoned into the marine environment or the Great Lakes.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Debris may arrive directly from a ship or indirectly when washed out to sea via rivers, streams, and storm drains. Human-made items tend to be the most harmful such as <a href="/wiki/Plastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastics">plastics</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Plastic_bag" title="Plastic bag">bags</a> to balloons, hard hats to <a href="/wiki/Fishing_line" title="Fishing line">fishing line</a>), glass, metal, rubber (millions of <a href="/wiki/Waste_tire" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste tire">waste tires</a>), and even entire vessels.<a href="#cite_note-celebrating200years.noaa.gov-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plastic_debris" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic debris">Plastic debris</a> can kill and harm multiple reef species. Corals and coral reefs are at higher risk because they are immobile, meaning that when the water quality or other changes in their habitat occur, corals cannot move to a different place; they must adapt or they will not survive.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> There are two different classes of plastics, macro and <a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">microplastics</a> and both types can cause damage in a number of ways. For example, macroplastics such as derelict (abandoned) fishing nets and other gear—often called "<a href="/wiki/Ghost_net" title="Ghost net">ghost nets</a>" can still catch fish and other marine life and kill those organisms and break or damage reefs. Large items such as abandoned fishing nets are known as macroplastics whereas microplastics are plastic fragments that are typically less than or equal to 5 mm in length and have primarily been found to cause damage to coral reefs though corals ingesting these plastic fragments.<a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Orange_Coral_Ingesting_a_Microplastic.jpg">Fig. 1. Video frame sequence of capture and ingestion of a microplastic particle by a polyp of Astroides calycularis. Obtained from Savinelli et al. (2020)]]</a> Some researchers have found that ingestion of microlastics harms coral, and subsequently coral reefs, because ingesting these fragments reduced coral food intake as well as coral fitness since corals waste a lot of time and energy handling the plastic particles.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Unfortunately, even remote reef systems suffer the effects of marine debris, especially if it is <a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">plastic pollution</a>. Reefs in the <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Hawaiian_Islands" title="Northwestern Hawaiian Islands">Northwestern Hawaiian Islands</a> are particularly prone to the accumulation of marine debris because of their central location in the <a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a>. Fortunately, there are solutions to protect corals and coral reefs against the harmful effects of plastic pollution. However, since little to no research exists regarding specific medicinal ways to help corals recover from plastic exposure, the best solution is to not let plastics enter the marine environment at all. This can be accomplished through a number of ways, some of which are already being enacted. For example, there are measures to ban microplastics from products like cosmetics and toothpaste <a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> as well as measures that demand for products that contain microplastics to be labeled as such so as to reduce their consumption.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Additionally, newer and better detection methods are needed for microplastics <a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> and they must be installed at waste water treatment facilities <a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> to prevent these particles from entering the marine environment and causing damage to marine life, especially coral reefs. Many people are realizing the problem of plastic pollution and other marine debris though, and have taken steps to mitigate it. For example, from 2000 to 2006, <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">NOAA</a> and partners removed over 500 tons of marine debris from the reefs in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.<a href="#cite_note-celebrating200years.noaa.gov-22">[22]</a> Cigarette butts also <a href="/wiki/Cigarette#Aquatic_life_health_concerns" title="Cigarette">damage aquatic life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> In order to avoid cigarette butt litter, some <a href="/wiki/Cigarette#Solution_and_remediation_projects" title="Cigarette">solutions</a> have been proposed, including possibly banning <a href="/wiki/Cigarette_filter" title="Cigarette filter">cigarette filters</a> and implementing a deposit system for <a href="/wiki/E-cigarette" class="mw-redirect" title="E-cigarette">e-cigarette</a> pods.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dredging">Dredging</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Dredging">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dredging" title="Dredging">Dredging</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Dredging" title="Dredging">Dredging</a> operations are sometimes completed by cutting a path through a coral reef, directly destroying the reef structure and killing any organisms that live on it.<a href="#cite_note-miamiherald-47">[47]</a> Operations that directly destroy coral are often intended to deepen or otherwise enlarge <a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">shipping channels</a> or <a href="/wiki/Canals" class="mw-redirect" title="Canals">canals</a>, due to the fact that in many areas, removal of coral requires a <a href="/wiki/License" title="License">permit</a>, making it more cost-effective and simple to avoid coral reefs if possible. Dredging also releases plumes of suspended sediment, which can settle on coral reefs, damaging them by starving them of food and sunlight. Continued exposure to dredging spoil has been shown to increase rates of diseases such as <a href="/wiki/White_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="White syndrome">white syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">bleaching</a> and sediment <a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a> among others.<a href="#cite_note-theguardian-48">[48]</a> A study conducted in the <a href="/wiki/Montebello_Islands" title="Montebello Islands">Montebello</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barrow_Island_(Western_Australia)" title="Barrow Island (Western Australia)">Barrow Islands</a> showed that the number of coral colonies with signs of poor health more than doubled in <a href="/wiki/Transects" class="mw-redirect" title="Transects">transects</a> with high exposure to dredging sediment plumes.<a href="#cite_note-plosone-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sunscreen">Sunscreen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sunscreen">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CoralBleaching.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CoralBleaching.jpg/220px-CoralBleaching.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CoralBleaching.jpg/330px-CoralBleaching.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CoralBleaching.jpg/440px-CoralBleaching.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>Unbleached and <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">bleached coral</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sunscreen" title="Sunscreen">Sunscreen</a> can enter the ocean indirectly through wastewater systems when it is washed off and from swimmers and divers or directly if the sunscreen comes off people when in the ocean. Some 14,000 tons of sunscreen ends up in the ocean each year, with 4000 to 6000 tons entering reef areas annually.<a href="#cite_note-Protect_Yourself,_Protect_the_Reef!-50">[50]</a> There is an estimate that 90% of snorkeling and diving tourism is concentrated on 10% of the world's coral reefs, meaning that popular reefs are especially vulnerable to sunscreen exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Protect_Yourself,_Protect_the_Reef!-50">[50]</a> Certain formulations of sunscreen are a serious danger to coral health. The common sunscreen ingredient <a href="/wiki/Oxybenzone" title="Oxybenzone">oxybenzone</a> causes coral bleaching and has an impact on other marine fauna.<a href="#cite_note-NPR-51">[51]</a> In addition to oxybenzone, there are other sunscreen ingredients, known as chemical UV filters, that can also be harmful to corals and coral reefs and other marine life. They are: Benzophenone-1, Benzophenone-8, OD-PABA, 4-Methylbenzylidene camphor, 3-Benzylidene camphor, nano-Titanium dioxide, nano-Zinc oxide, Octinoxate, and Octocrylene.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-52">[52]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Akumal" title="Akumal">Akumal</a>, Mexico, visitors are warned not to use sunscreen and are kept out of some areas to prevent damage to the coral. In several other tourist destinations, authorities recommend the use of sunscreens prepared with the naturally occurring chemicals <a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">titanium dioxide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Zinc_oxide" title="Zinc oxide">zinc oxide</a>, or suggest the use of clothing rather than chemicals to screen the skin from the sun.<a href="#cite_note-NPR-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Protect_Yourself,_Protect_the_Reef!-50">[50]</a> The city of <a href="/wiki/Miami_Beach,_Florida" title="Miami Beach, Florida">Miami Beach, Florida</a> rejected calls for a ban on sunscreen in 2019 due to lack of evidence.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> In 2020, <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a> enacted a ban on sunscreen and skincare products containing 10 chemicals including oxybenzone. The US state of <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> enacted a similar ban which came into effect in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Care should be taken to protect both the marine environment and your skin, as sun exposure causes 90% of premature aging and could cause skin cancer, and it is possible to do both.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Climate change">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Climate_change_threats_to_coral_reefs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Climate_change_threats_to_coral_reefs.png/440px-Climate_change_threats_to_coral_reefs.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Climate_change_threats_to_coral_reefs.png/660px-Climate_change_threats_to_coral_reefs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Climate_change_threats_to_coral_reefs.png/880px-Climate_change_threats_to_coral_reefs.png 2x" data-file-width="1056" data-file-height="808" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Climate change threats to coral reefs – <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></div></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Current_sea_level_rise" class="mw-redirect" title="Current sea level rise">Rising sea levels due to climate change</a> requires coral to grow so the coral can stay close enough to the surface to continue the process of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. Water temperature changes or disease of the coral<a href="#cite_note-:0-56">[56]</a> can induce <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a>, as happened during the 1998 and 2004 <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> years, in which <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperatures</a> rose well above normal, bleaching and killing many reefs. Bleaching may be caused by different triggers, including high sea surface temperature (SST), pollution, or other diseases.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> SST coupled with high irradiance (light intensity), triggers the loss of <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">zooxanthellae</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> single cell algae that gives the coral its color and the coral's <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellate</a> pigmentation, which turns the coral white when it is expelled, which can kill the coral. Zooxanthellae provide up to 90% of their hosts' energy supply.<a href="#cite_note-:0-56">[56]</a> Healthy reefs can often recover from bleaching if water temperatures cool. However, recovery may not be possible if CO 2 levels rise to 500 <a href="/wiki/Parts_per_million" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts per million">ppm</a> because concentrations of carbonate ions may then be too low.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> In summary, ocean warming is the primary cause of mass coral bleaching and mortality (very high confidence), which, together with ocean acidification, deteriorates the balance between coral reef construction and erosion (high confidence).<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Warming seawater may also welcome the emerging problem of coral disease. Weakened by warm water, coral is much more prone to diseases including <a href="/wiki/Black_band_disease" title="Black band disease">black band disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_band_disease" title="White band disease">white band disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_eroding_band" title="Skeletal eroding band">skeletal eroding band</a>. If global temperatures increase by 2 °C during the twenty-first century, coral may not be able to adapt quickly enough to survive.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Warming seawater is also expected to cause migrations in fish populations to compensate for the change. This puts coral reefs and their associated species at risk of <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasion</a> and may cause their extinction if they are unable to compete with the invading populations.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> A 2010 report by the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Physics" title="Institute of Physics">Institute of Physics</a> predicts that unless the national targets set by the <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Accord" title="Copenhagen Accord">Copenhagen Accord</a> are amended to eliminate loopholes, then by 2100 global temperatures could rise by 4.2 °C and result in an end to coral reefs.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Even a temperature rise of just 2 °C, currently very likely to happen in the next 50 years (so by 2068 A.D.), there would be a more than 99% chance that tropical corals would be eradicated.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Warm-water coral reef ecosystems house one-quarter of the marine biodiversity and provide services in the form of food, income and shoreline protection to coastal communities around the world. These ecosystems are threatened by climate and non-climate drivers, especially ocean warming, MHWs, ocean acidification, SLR, tropical cyclones, fisheries/overharvesting, land-based pollution, disease spread and destructive shoreline practices. Warm-water coral reefs face near-term threats to their survival, but research on observed and projected impacts is very advanced.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Anthropogenic climate change has exposed ocean and coastal ecosystems to conditions that are unprecedented over millennia (high confidence2 15 ), and this has greatly impacted life in the ocean and 16 along its coasts (very high confidence).<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean_acidification">Ocean acidification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ocean acidification">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isidella_tentaculum_-_NOAA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Isidella_tentaculum_-_NOAA.jpg/220px-Isidella_tentaculum_-_NOAA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Isidella_tentaculum_-_NOAA.jpg/330px-Isidella_tentaculum_-_NOAA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Isidella_tentaculum_-_NOAA.jpg/440px-Isidella_tentaculum_-_NOAA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_coral" title="Bamboo coral">Bamboo coral</a> is an early harbinger of ocean acidification</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a> results from increases in atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. Oceans absorb around one–third of the increase.<a href="#cite_note-Kleypas,_J.A._2006-6">[6]</a> The dissolved gas reacts with the water to form <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a>, and thus acidifies the ocean. This decreasing <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> is another issue for coral reefs.<a href="#cite_note-Kleypas,_J.A._2006-6">[6]</a> Ocean surface pH is estimated to have decreased from about 8.25 to 8.14 since the beginning of the industrial era,<a href="#cite_note-jacob05-69">[69]</a> and a further drop of 0.3–0.4 units is expected.<a href="#cite_note-orr05-70">[70]</a> This drop has made it so the amount of hydrogen ions have increased by 30%.<a href="#cite_note-:1-71">[71]</a> Before the industrial age the conditions for <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> production were typically stable in surface waters since the <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> ion is at <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">supersaturated</a> concentrations. However, as the ionic concentration falls, carbonate becomes under-saturated, making calcium carbonate structures vulnerable to dissolution.<a href="#cite_note-:1-71">[71]</a> Corals experience reduced calcification or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated CO 2.<a href="#cite_note-gatt98-72">[72]</a> This causes the skeletons of the corals to weaken, or even not be made at all.<a href="#cite_note-:1-71">[71]</a> Ocean acidification may also have an effect of 'gender discrimination' as spawning female corals are significantly more susceptible to the negative effects of ocean acidification than spawning male coral <a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_coral" title="Bamboo coral">Bamboo coral</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Deep_water_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep water coral">deep water coral</a> which produces <a href="/wiki/Growth_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Growth ring">growth rings</a> similar to trees. The growth rings illustrate growth rate changes as deep sea conditions change, including changes due to ocean acidification. Specimens as old as 4,000 years have given scientists "4,000 years worth of information about what has been going on in the deep ocean interior".<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ocellaris_clownfish.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Ocellaris_clownfish.JPG/220px-Ocellaris_clownfish.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Ocellaris_clownfish.JPG/330px-Ocellaris_clownfish.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Ocellaris_clownfish.JPG/440px-Ocellaris_clownfish.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Higher levels of carbon dioxide in the water harms the ability of young clown and damsel fishes to smell and hear</figcaption></figure><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: The following paragraph may need an update, based on the last paragraph in this section. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2021)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Rising carbon dioxide levels could confuse brain signaling in fish. In 2012, researchers reported on their results after studying the behavior of baby <a href="/wiki/Clownfish" title="Clownfish">clown</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damselfish" title="Damselfish">damselfishes</a> for several years in water with elevated levels of dissolved carbon dioxide, in line with what may exist by the end of the century. They found that the higher carbon dioxide disrupted a key brain <a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptor</a> in the fish, interfering with <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> functions. The damaged central nervous systems affected fish behavior and diminishing their sensory capacity to a point "likely to impair their chances of survival". The fishes were less able to locate reefs by smell or "detect the warning smell of a predator fish". Nor could they hear the sounds made by other reef fish, compromising their ability to locate safe reefs and avoid dangerous ones. They also lost their usual tendencies to turn to the left or right, damaging their ability to <a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">school</a> with other fish.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Although previous experiments found several detrimental effects on coral fish behavior from projected end-of-21st-century ocean acidification, a 2020 replication study found that "end-of-century ocean acidification levels have negligible effects on [three] important behaviors of coral reef fishes" and with "data simulations, [showed] that the large effect sizes and small within-group variances that have been reported in several previous studies are highly improbable".<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> In 2021 it emerged that allegations of some of the previous studies being fraudulent have been raised.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Effect_size" title="Effect size">effect sizes</a> of studies assessing ocean acidification effects on fish behavior have declined dramatically over a decade of research on this topic, with effects appearing negligible since 2015.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean_deoxygenation">Ocean deoxygenation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ocean deoxygenation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Brain_coral.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/The_Brain_coral.jpg/220px-The_Brain_coral.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/The_Brain_coral.jpg/330px-The_Brain_coral.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/The_Brain_coral.jpg/440px-The_Brain_coral.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1952" /></a><figcaption>Some coral reefs are experiencing <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">hypoxia</a> which can lead to bleaching and mass coral die-offs</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></div> There has been a severe increase in mass mortality events associated with low oxygen causing mass hypoxia with the majority having been in the last 2 decades. The rise in water temperature leads to an increase in oxygen demand and the increase for <a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">ocean deoxygenation</a> which causes these large coral reef <a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">dead zones.</a> For many <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>, the response to this hypoxia is very dependent on the magnitude and duration of the deoxygenation. The symptoms can be anywhere from reduced <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcification</a> to <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">bleaching</a>. Hypoxia can have indirect effects like the abundance of algae and spread of coral diseases in the <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>. While coral is unable to handle such low levels of oxygen, algae is quite tolerant. Because of this, in interaction zones between algae and coral, increased hypoxia will cause more coral death and higher spread of algae. The increase mass coral dead zones is reinforced by the spread of coral diseases. Coral diseases can spread easily when there are high concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfide</a> and hypoxic conditions. Due to the loop of hypoxia and coral reef mortality, the fish and other marine life that inhabit the coral reefs have a change in behavioral in response to the hypoxia. Some fish will go upwards to find more oxygenated water, and some enter a phase of metabolic and ventilatory depression. Invertebrates migrate out of their homes to the surface of <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">substratum</a> or move to the tips of arborescent <a href="/wiki/Coral_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral colonies">coral colonies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Laffoley2019-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Around 6 million people, the majority who live in developing countries, depend on <a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">coral reef fisheries</a>. These mass die-offs due to extreme hypoxic events can have severe impacts on reef fish populations. Coral reef ecosystems offer a variety of essential ecosystem services including shoreline protection, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>, and waste assimilation, and tourism opportunities. The continued decline of oxygen in oceans on coral reefs is concerning because it takes many years (decades) to repair and regrow corals.<a href="#cite_note-Laffoley2019-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disease">Disease</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Disease">edit</a>]</div> Disease is a serious threat to many coral species. The diseases of coral may consist of bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasitic infections. Due to stressors like climate change and pollution, coral can become more vulnerable to diseases. Some examples of coral disease are Vibrio, white syndrome, white band, rapid wasting disease, and many more.<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[84]</a> These diseases have different effects on the corals, ranging from damaging and killing individual corals to wiping out entire reefs.<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[84]</a> In the Caribbean, white band disease is one of the primary causes for the death of over eighty percent of Staghorn and Elkhorn coral (Reef Resilience). It is a disease that can destroy miles of coral reef fast. A disease such as white plague can spread over a coral colony by a half an inch a day. By the time the disease has fully taken over the colony, it leaves behind a dead skeleton. Dead standing coral structures are what most people see after disease has taken over a reef. Recently, the Florida Reef Tract in the United States has been plagued by a stony coral tissue loss disease. The disease was first identified in 2014 and as of 2018 has been reported in every part of the reef except the lower Florida Keys and the Dry Tortugas. The cause of the disease is unknown but is thought to be caused by bacteria and be transmitted through direct contact and water circulation. This disease event is unique due to its large geographic range, extended duration, rapid progression, high rates of mortality and the number of species affected.<a href="#cite_note-auto-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recreational_diving">Recreational diving</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Recreational diving">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_recreational_diving" title="Environmental impact of recreational diving">Environmental impact of recreational diving</a></div> During the 20th century recreational scuba diving was considered to have generally low environmental impact, and was consequently one of the activities permitted in most marine protected areas. Since the 1970s diving has changed from an elite activity to a more accessible recreation, marketed to a very wide demographic. To some extent better equipment has been substituted for more rigorous training, and the reduction in perceived risk has shortened minimum training requirements by several training agencies. Training has concentrated on an acceptable risk to the diver, and paid less attention to the environment. The increase in the popularity of diving and in tourist access to sensitive ecological systems has led to the recognition that the activity can have significant environmental consequences.<a href="#cite_note-Hammerton_2014-86">[86]</a> Scuba diving has grown in popularity during the 21st century, as is shown by the number of certifications issued worldwide, which has increased to about 23 million by 2016 at about one million per year.<a href="#cite_note-Lucrezi_2016-87">[87]</a> Scuba diving tourism is a growth industry, and it is necessary to consider <a href="/wiki/Environmental_sustainability" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental sustainability">environmental sustainability</a>, as the expanding impact of divers can adversely affect the <a href="/wiki/Marine_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine environment">marine environment</a> in several ways, and the impact also depends on the specific environment. Tropical coral reefs are more easily damaged by poor diving skills than some temperate reefs, where the environment is more robust due to rougher sea conditions and fewer fragile, slow-growing organisms. The same pleasant sea conditions that allow development of relatively delicate and highly diverse ecologies also attract the greatest number of tourists, including divers who dive infrequently, exclusively on vacation and never fully develop the skills to dive in an environmentally friendly way.<a href="#cite_note-Dimmock_et_al_2013-88">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Low_impact_diving" title="Low impact diving">Low impact diving</a> training has been shown to be effective in reducing diver contact to more sustainable levels.<a href="#cite_note-Hammerton_2014-86">[86]</a> Experience appears to be the most important factor in explaining divers' underwater behaviour, followed by their attitude towards diving and the environment, and <a href="/wiki/Personality_type" title="Personality type">personality type</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ong_and_Musa_2012-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_issues">Other issues</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Other issues">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CoralSandAruba.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/CoralSandAruba.jpg/220px-CoralSandAruba.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/CoralSandAruba.jpg/330px-CoralSandAruba.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/CoralSandAruba.jpg/440px-CoralSandAruba.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Coral_sand" title="Coral sand">Coral sand</a> from a beach on <a href="/wiki/Aruba" title="Aruba">Aruba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a>.</figcaption></figure> Within the last 20 years, once-prolific <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">seagrass meadows</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">mangrove forests</a>, which absorb massive amounts of nutrients and <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a>, have been destroyed. Both the loss of wetlands, mangrove habitats and seagrass meadows affect the <a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">water quality</a> of inshore reefs.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Coral_sand" title="Coral sand">Coral mining</a> is another threat. Both small scale harvesting by villagers and industrial scale mining by companies are serious threats. Mining is usually done to produce construction material which is valued as much as 50% cheaper than other rocks, such as from <a href="/wiki/Quarries" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarries">quarries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Greenpeace_Book_of_Coral_Reefs-91">[91]</a> The rocks are ground and mixed with other materials, like cement to make concrete. Ancient coral used for construction is known as <a href="/wiki/Coral_rag" title="Coral rag">coral rag</a>. Building directly on the reef also takes its toll, altering water circulation and the tides which bring the nutrients to the reef. The pressing reason for building on reefs is simply lack of space, and because of this, some of the areas with heavily mined coral reefs have still not been able to recover. Another pressing issue is coral collecting. There are bountiful amounts of coral that are deemed so beautiful that they are often collected. The collected coral are used to make a handful of things, including jewelry and home decorations. The breakage of coral branches is unhealthy for the reefs; therefore, tourists and those who purchase such items contribute greatly to the already devastating coral reefs and climate change.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral-reef-bioerosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Coral-reef-bioerosion.jpg/220px-Coral-reef-bioerosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Coral-reef-bioerosion.jpg/330px-Coral-reef-bioerosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Coral-reef-bioerosion.jpg/440px-Coral-reef-bioerosion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>Eroded coral<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></figcaption></figure> Boats and ships require access points into bays and islands to load and unload cargo and people. For this, parts of reefs are often chopped away to clear a path. Negative consequences can include altered water circulation and altered <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tidal</a> patterns which can disrupt the reef's nutrient supply; sometimes destroying a great part of the reef. <a href="/wiki/Fishing_vessel" title="Fishing vessel">Fishing vessels</a> and other large boats occasionally run aground on a reef. Two types of damage can result. Collision damage occurs when a coral reef is crushed and split by a vessel's hull into multiple fragments. Scarring occurs when boat propellers tear off the live coral and expose the skeleton. The physical damage can be noticed as striations. <a href="/wiki/Mooring_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mooring (watercraft)">Mooring</a> causes damage which can be reduced by using mooring <a href="/wiki/Buoy" title="Buoy">buoys</a>. Buoys can attach to the seafloor using concrete blocks as weights or by penetrating the seafloor, which further reduces damage.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Also, <a href="/wiki/Tetiaroa#Future_of_Teti'aroa" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetiaroa">reef docks</a> can be used to move over goods from large, seagoing vessels to small, flat-bottomed vessels. Coral in Taiwan is being threatened by the influx of human population growth. Since 2007, several local environmental groups conducted research and found that much of the coral populations are being affected by untreated sewage, an influx of tourists taking corals for souvenirs, without fully understanding the destructive impact on the coral's ecological system. Researchers reported to the Taiwanese government that many coral populations have turned black in the southeast coast of Taiwan. Potentially, this could lead to loss of food supply, medicinal sources and tourism due to the breakdown of the food chain.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oil">Oil</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Oil">edit</a>]</div> Causes and Effects of Oil Spills The causes for oils spills can be separated into 2 categories: natural and anthropogenic causes.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Natural causes can be from oil that leaks out from the ocean floor into the water; erosion of the seafloor; or even climate change. The amount that naturally seeps into the ocean is 181 million gallons, which varies yearly.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:North_Sea_Oil_Rig_(7573694644).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/North_Sea_Oil_Rig_%287573694644%29.jpg/220px-North_Sea_Oil_Rig_%287573694644%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/North_Sea_Oil_Rig_%287573694644%29.jpg/330px-North_Sea_Oil_Rig_%287573694644%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/North_Sea_Oil_Rig_%287573694644%29.jpg/440px-North_Sea_Oil_Rig_%287573694644%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4896" data-file-height="3672" /></a><figcaption>Oil Rig in the North Sea</figcaption></figure> Anthropogenic causes involve human activities and is how most oil enters the ocean. The ways oil spills anthropogenically in the ocean are because of drilling rigs, pipelines, refineries, and wars. Anthropogenic spills are more harmful than naturals spills, as unlike natural spills, they leak about 210 million gallons of petroleum each year. Also, anthropogenic spills cause abrupt changes to ecosystems with long-term effects and even longer remediations.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> When oil spills occur, the affects can be felt in an area for decades and can cause massive damage to the aquatic life. For aquatic plant life an oil spill could affect how light, and oxygen is available for photosynthesis.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_Reef,_Belize.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Coral_Reef%2C_Belize.jpg/220px-Coral_Reef%2C_Belize.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Coral_Reef%2C_Belize.jpg/330px-Coral_Reef%2C_Belize.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Coral_Reef%2C_Belize.jpg/440px-Coral_Reef%2C_Belize.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Coral Reef Community</figcaption></figure> Two other examples of the many ways oil harms wildlife are in the form of <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_oil_exposure_on_wildlife" title="Effects of oil exposure on wildlife">oil toxicity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fouling" title="Fouling">fouling</a>. Oil toxicity affects the wildlife when the toxic compounds oil is made up of enters the body doing damage to the internal organs, and eventually causes death. Fouling is when oil harms wildlife via coating itself on an animal or plant physically.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Oil Impacts on Coral Reef Communities Oil pollution is hazardous to living marine habitats due to its toxic constituents. <a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spills</a> occur due to natural seepage and during activities such as transportation and handling. These spills harm the marine and coastal wildlife. When the organisms have become exposed to these oil spills, it can lead them to suffer from <a href="/wiki/Irritation" title="Irritation">skin irritation</a>, decreased immunity and gastrointestinal damage.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> When oil floats above the coral reef, it will have no effect on the coral below, it is when the oil starts to sink to the ocean floor when it becomes a problem. The problem is the physical effect from the oil-sediment particle which has been found to be less harmful than if the coral came in contact with the toxic oil.<a href="#cite_note-:02-103">[103]</a> When the oil comes into contact with <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, not only the reef system will be affected but fish, crabs and many more marine <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates.</a> Just a few drops of oil can cause coral reef fish to make poor decisions. Oil will impact the thinking of the coral reef fish in a way that could be dangerous to the fish and the coral reef where they choose their home.<a href="#cite_note-:02-103">[103]</a> It can negatively affect their growth, survival, settlement behaviors, and increases predation. It has been found that larval fish who have been exposed to oil will eventually have heart issues and physical irregularities later in life.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oil_Impacts_on_Coral_Life_and_Symbiotic_Relationships">Oil Impacts on Coral Life and Symbiotic Relationships</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Oil Impacts on Coral Life and Symbiotic Relationships">edit</a>]</div> Evidence for the damaging effects of oil spills on coral reef structures can be seen at a reef site a few kilometers southwest of the Macondo well. Coral at this site, which has been covered in crude oil chemicals and brown flocculent particles, were found dying just seven months after the <a href="/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill" title="Deepwater Horizon oil spill">Deepwater Horizon eruption</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorgone_de_Mayotte.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a9/Gorgone_de_Mayotte.jpeg/220px-Gorgone_de_Mayotte.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a9/Gorgone_de_Mayotte.jpeg/330px-Gorgone_de_Mayotte.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a9/Gorgone_de_Mayotte.jpeg/440px-Gorgone_de_Mayotte.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Gorgonian Coral</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Alcyonacea" title="Alcyonacea">Gorgonian octocorals</a> (soft coral communities) are highly susceptible to damage from oil spills. This is due to the structure and function of their polyps, which are specialized in filtering tiny particles from the water.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Corals have a complex relationship with many different <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotic</a> organisms, including probiotic microorganisms that protect the corals from harmful environmental pollutants. However, research has shown that oil spills damage these organisms, and weaken their ability to protect reef structures in the presence of oil pollution.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Oil Clean up Methods <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil_Spill_Containment_Boom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Oil_Spill_Containment_Boom.jpg/220px-Oil_Spill_Containment_Boom.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Oil_Spill_Containment_Boom.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="157" /></a><figcaption>Oil Spill Containment Boom</figcaption></figure> Booms are floating barricades that are placed in an oil spreading area that restrict the movement of floating oil. Booms are often utilized alongside skimmers, which are sponges and oil absorbent ropes that collect oil from the water. Moreover, insitu-burning and chemical <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(chemistry)" title="Dispersion (chemistry)">dispersion</a> can be utilized during an oil spillage. Insitu-burning refers to burning oil that has been collected to one location with a fire-resistant containment boom, however, the combustion from insitu-burning does not fully remove the oil but instead breaks it down into different chemicals which can negatively affect marine reefs.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Chemical dispersants consist of <a href="/wiki/Emulsion" title="Emulsion">emulsifiers</a> and solvents that break oil into small droplets and are the most common form of oil removal, however, these can reduce corals <a href="/wiki/Resilience_of_coral_reefs" title="Resilience of coral reefs">resilience</a> to environmental <a href="/wiki/Stressor" title="Stressor">stressors</a>. Moreover, chemical dispersants can physically harm coral species when exposed.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Dispersants have been also utilized to clean oil spills, however, they harm early stages of coral and reduces the settlement on reef systems and have since been banned. However, there is still one formulation of dispersants used, the <a href="/wiki/Corexit" title="Corexit">Corexit 9427</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Microbial biosurfactants can be utilized to reduce the damage to reef ecosystems as an eco-friendly method, however, there are limitations to their effect. This method is still being studied and is not a certain method of oil clean up.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Threatened_species">Threatened species</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Threatened species">edit</a>]</div> The global standard for recording <a href="/wiki/Threatened_species" title="Threatened species">threatened</a> marine species is the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature">IUCN</a> Red List of Threatened Species.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> This list is the foundation for marine conservation priorities worldwide. A species is listed in the threatened category if it is considered to be <a href="/wiki/Critically_endangered_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Critically endangered species">critically endangered</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">endangered</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Vulnerable_species" title="Vulnerable species">vulnerable</a>. Other categories are <a href="/wiki/Near_threatened" class="mw-redirect" title="Near threatened">near threatened</a> and <a href="/wiki/Data_deficient" title="Data deficient">data deficient</a>. By 2008, the <a href="/wiki/IUCN" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN">IUCN</a> had assessed all 845 known reef-building corals species, marking 27% as <a href="/wiki/Threatened_species" title="Threatened species">Threatened</a>, 20% as <a href="/wiki/Near_threatened" class="mw-redirect" title="Near threatened">near threatened</a>, and 17% as <a href="/wiki/Data_deficient" title="Data deficient">data deficient</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IUCN_factsheet-113">[113]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Coral_Triangle" title="Coral Triangle">coral triangle</a> (Indo-Malay-Philippine archipelago) region has the highest number of reef-building coral species in threatened category as well as the highest coral species diversity. The loss of coral reef ecosystems will have devastating effects on many marine species, as well as on people that depend on reef resources for their livelihoods.<a href="#cite_note-IUCN_factsheet-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues_by_region">Issues by region</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Issues by region">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oa-sami.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Oa-sami.jpg/220px-Oa-sami.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="441" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Oa-sami.jpg/330px-Oa-sami.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Oa-sami.jpg/440px-Oa-sami.jpg 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption> A <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanographic_and_Meteorological_Laboratory" title="Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory">AOML</a>) in situ pCO 2 sensor (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sunburstsensors.com/">SAMI-CO2</a>), attached to a Coral Reef Early Warning System station in <a href="/wiki/Discovery_Bay,_Jamaica" title="Discovery Bay, Jamaica">Discovery Bay</a>, Jamaica, utilized in conducting <a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a> studies near coral reef areas</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_threats_to_the_Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef">Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a> is the world's largest <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reef</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-UNEP-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-GBRWHV-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-1975review-117">[117]</a> The reef is located in the <a href="/wiki/Coral_Sea" title="Coral Sea">Coral Sea</a> and a large part of the reef is protected by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef_Marine_Park" title="Great Barrier Reef Marine Park">Great Barrier Reef Marine Park</a>. Particular environmental pressures include <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a> fluctuations, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, cyclic crown-of-thorns outbreaks, <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>, and spills or improper ballast discharge. According to the 2014 report of the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Australia">Government of Australia</a>'s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA), climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef.<a href="#cite_note-Outlook-118">[118]</a> As of 2018<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit">[update]</a>, 50% of the coral on the Great Barrier Reef has been lost.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Asia">Southeast Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Southeast Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_coral_reefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeast Asia coral reefs">Southeast Asia coral reefs</a></div> Southeast Asian coral reefs are at risk from damaging <a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">fishing</a> practices (such as <a href="/wiki/Cyanide_fishing" title="Cyanide fishing">cyanide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blast_fishing" title="Blast fishing">blast fishing</a>), <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>, sedimentation, pollution and bleaching. Activities including education, regulation and the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">marine protected areas</a> help protect these reefs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Indonesia">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> is home to one-third of the world's coral reefs, with coral that covers nearly 85,000 square kilometres (33,000 sq mi) and is home to one-quarter of its fish <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>. Indonesia's coral reefs are located in the heart of the <a href="/wiki/Coral_Triangle" title="Coral Triangle">Coral Triangle</a> and have fallen victim to destructive fishing, tourism and bleaching. Data from LIPI in 1998 found that only 7 percent is in excellent condition, 24 percent is in good condition and approximately 69 percent is in poor-to-fair condition. According to one source, Indonesia will lose 70 percent of its coral reef by 2050 if restoration action does not occur.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philippines">Philippines</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Philippines">edit</a>]</div> In 2007, <a href="/wiki/Reef_Check" title="Reef Check">Reef Check</a>, the world's largest reef <a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">conservation</a> organization, stated that only 5% of <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> 27,000 square kilometres (10,000 sq mi) of coral reef are in "excellent condition": <a href="/wiki/Tubbataha_Reef" title="Tubbataha Reef">Tubbataha Reef</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine Park">Marine Park</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palawan" title="Palawan">Palawan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apo_Island" title="Apo Island">Apo Island</a> in <a href="/wiki/Negros_Oriental" title="Negros Oriental">Negros Oriental</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apo_Reef" title="Apo Reef">Apo Reef</a> in <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Galera" title="Puerto Galera">Puerto Galera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mindoro" title="Mindoro">Mindoro</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Verde_Island" title="Verde Island">Verde Island</a> Passage off <a href="/wiki/Batangas" title="Batangas">Batangas</a>. <a href="/wiki/Philippine" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine">Philippine</a> <a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral reefs">coral reefs</a> is <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>'s second largest.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Taiwan">edit</a>]</div> Coral reefs in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> are being threatened by human population growth. Many corals are affected by untreated sewage and souvenir-hunting tourists, not knowing that this practice destroys habitat and causes disease. Many corals have turned black from disease off Taiwan's southeast coast.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caribbean">Caribbean</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Caribbean">edit</a>]</div> Coral disease was first recognized as a threat to Caribbean reefs in 1972 when <a href="/wiki/Black_band_disease" title="Black band disease">black band disease</a> was discovered. Since then diseases have been occurring with higher frequency.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> It has been estimated that 50% of the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a> coral cover has disappeared since the 1960s. According to a <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Environment Program">United Nations Environment Program</a> report, the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> coral reefs might face <a href="/wiki/Local_extinction" title="Local extinction">extirpation</a> in next 20 years due to population expansion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas, global warming, and invasive species.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In 2005, the Caribbean lost about 50% of its reef in one year due to coral bleaching. The warm water from <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Islands" title="Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a> travelled south to cause this coral bleaching.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jamaica">Jamaica</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Jamaica">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_of_Jamaica%27s_reefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental issues of Jamaica's reefs">Environmental issues of Jamaica's reefs</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> is the third largest Caribbean island. The Caribbean's coral reefs will cease to exist in 20 years if a conservation effort is not made.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> In 2005, 34 percent of Jamaica's coral reefs were bleached due to rising sea temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Jamaica's coral reefs are also threatened by <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>, pollution, natural disasters, and reef mining.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> In 2009, researchers concluded that many of the corals are recovering very slowly.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> Southeastern Florida's reef track is 300 miles long.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Florida's coral reefs are currently undergoing an unprecedented stony coral tissue loss disease. The disease covers a large geographic range and affects many species of coral.<a href="#cite_note-auto-85">[85]</a> In January 2019, science divers confirmed that the outbreak of stony coral tissue that extends south and west of <a href="/wiki/Key_West" title="Key West">Key West</a>. In December 2018, Disease was spotted at Maryland Shoals, near the <a href="/wiki/Saddlebunch_Keys" title="Saddlebunch Keys">Saddlebunch Keys</a>. By mid January 5 more sites between American Shoal and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Dry_Rocks" title="Eastern Dry Rocks">Eastern Dry Rocks</a> were confirmed diseased.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Puerto Rico is home to over 5,000 square kilometers of shallow coral reef ecosystems. Puerto Rico's coral reefs and associated ecosystems have an average economic value of nearly $1.1 billion per year.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> The U.S. Virgin Islands’ coral reefs and associated ecosystems have an average economic value of $187 million per year.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific">Pacific</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Pacific">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States_2">United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> Hawaii's coral reefs (e.g. <a href="/wiki/French_Frigate_Shoals" title="French Frigate Shoals">French Frigate Shoals</a>) are a major factor in Hawaii's $800 million a year marine tourism and are being affected negatively by coral bleaching and increased sea surface temperatures, which in turn leads to coral reef diseases. The first large-scale coral bleaching occurred in 1996 and in 2004 it was found that the sea surface temperatures had been steadily increasing and if this pattern continues, bleaching events will occur more frequently and severely.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_cloud_brightening#Research" title="Marine cloud brightening">Marine cloud brightening</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Coral_reefs_around_the_world-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Coral_reefs_around_the_world_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/interactive/2009/sep/02/coral-world-interactive">"Coral reefs around the world"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Guardian.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Guardian.com">Guardian.com</a>. 2 September 2009. Retrieved 12 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Coral+reefs+around+the+world&rft.pub=Guardian.com&rft.date=2009-09-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2Finteractive%2F2009%2Fsep%2F02%2Fcoral-world-interactive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUS_EPA2017" class="citation web cs1">US EPA, OW (2017-01-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/coral-reefs/threats-coral-reefs">"Threats to Coral Reefs"</a>. www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2024-06-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.epa.gov&rft.atitle=Threats+to+Coral+Reefs&rft.date=2017-01-30&rft.aulast=US+EPA&rft.aufirst=OW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcoral-reefs%2Fthreats-coral-reefs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNace2020" class="citation news cs1">Nace, Trevor (24 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2020/02/24/70-90-percent-of-coral-reefs-will-disappear-over-the-next-20-years-scientists-say/?sh=4b425437d87b">"Nearly All Coral Reefs Will Disappear Over The Next 20 Years, Scientists Say"</a>. Forbes. Retrieved 15 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=Nearly+All+Coral+Reefs+Will+Disappear+Over+The+Next+20+Years%2C+Scientists+Say&rft.date=2020-02-24&rft.aulast=Nace&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Ftrevornace%2F2020%2F02%2F24%2F70-90-percent-of-coral-reefs-will-disappear-over-the-next-20-years-scientists-say%2F%3Fsh%3D4b425437d87b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilkinson-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilkinson_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilkinson_4-1">b</a> Wilkinson, Clive (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icriforum.org/sites/default/files/Status%20Coral%20%20Reefs%20of%20World%202008%20%20Executive%20Summary_0.pdf">Status of Coral Reefs of the World: Executive Summary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131219004526/http://www.icriforum.org/sites/default/files/Status%20Coral%20%20Reefs%20of%20World%202008%20%20Executive%20Summary_0.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-12-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdf.wri.org/reefs_at_risk_revisited_executive_summary.pdf">"Reefs at Risk Revisited"</a> (PDF). World Resources Institute. February 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reefs+at+Risk+Revisited&rft.pub=World+Resources+Institute&rft.date=2011-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdf.wri.org%2Freefs_at_risk_revisited_executive_summary.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kleypas,_J.A._2006-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kleypas,_J.A._2006_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kleypas,_J.A._2006_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kleypas,_J.A._2006_6-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleypasFeelyFabryLangdon2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joan_Kleypas" title="Joan Kleypas">Kleypas, Joan A.</a>; Feely, Richard A.; Fabry, Victoria J.; Langdon, Chris; Sabine, Christopher L.; Robbins, Lisa L. (June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720101953/http://www.ucar.edu/communications/Final_acidification.pdf">"Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs and Other Marine Calcifiers: A Guide for Future Research"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucar.edu/communications/Final_acidification.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Impacts+of+Ocean+Acidification+on+Coral+Reefs+and+Other+Marine+Calcifiers%3A+A+Guide+for+Future+Research&rft.date=2006-06&rft.aulast=Kleypas&rft.aufirst=Joan+A.&rft.au=Feely%2C+Richard+A.&rft.au=Fabry%2C+Victoria+J.&rft.au=Langdon%2C+Chris&rft.au=Sabine%2C+Christopher+L.&rft.au=Robbins%2C+Lisa+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucar.edu%2Fcommunications%2FFinal_acidification.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RasherHay10-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RasherHay10_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RasherHay10_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRasherHay2010" class="citation journal cs1">Rasher, Douglas B.; Hay, Mark E. (May 25, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2906836">"Chemically rich seaweeds poison corals when not controlled by herbivores"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (21): 9683–9688. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..107.9683R">2010PNAS..107.9683R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0912095107">10.1073/pnas.0912095107</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2906836">2906836</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20457927">20457927</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Chemically+rich+seaweeds+poison+corals+when+not+controlled+by+herbivores&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=9683-9688&rft.date=2010-05-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2906836%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20457927&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0912095107&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..107.9683R&rft.aulast=Rasher&rft.aufirst=Douglas+B.&rft.au=Hay%2C+Mark+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2906836&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tough-8"><a href="#cite_ref-tough_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090601111932.htm">"In The Turf War Against Seaweed, Coral Reefs More Resilient Than Expected"</a>. Science Daily. June 3, 2009. Retrieved 1 February 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=In+The+Turf+War+Against+Seaweed%2C+Coral+Reefs+More+Resilient+Than+Expected&rft.pub=Science+Daily&rft.date=2009-06-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2009%2F06%2F090601111932.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hvhl.nl/nieuws/items/2019/nieuw-onderzoek-naar-zee-egel-om-koraalriffen-te-beschermen.html">"Nieuw onderzoek naar zee-egel om koraalriffen te beschermen - hvhl.nl"</a>. www.hvhl.nl.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hvhl.nl&rft.atitle=Nieuw+onderzoek+naar+zee-egel+om+koraalriffen+te+beschermen+-+hvhl.nl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hvhl.nl%2Fnieuws%2Fitems%2F2019%2Fnieuw-onderzoek-naar-zee-egel-om-koraalriffen-te-beschermen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Benson AA and Muscatine L (1974) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/2834385">Wax in Coral Mucus: Energy Transfer From Corals to Reef Fishes</a> Limnology and Oceanography, 19 (5) 810–814. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aslo.org/lo/toc/vol_19/issue_5/0810.pdf">Download</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720114936/http://www.aslo.org/lo/toc/vol_19/issue_5/0810.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-07-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-PBS-11"><a href="#cite_ref-PBS_11-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/survival/coral/predators.html">Predators and Prey</a> <a href="/wiki/PBS.org" class="mw-redirect" title="PBS.org">PBS.org</a>. Retrieved 11 December 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-cots_1999–2000-12"><a href="#cite_ref-cots_1999–2000_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070829092853/http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/techreport/techrept32.htm">"CRC Reef Research Centre Technical Report No. 32 — Crown-of-thorns starfish(Acanthaster planci) in the central Great Barrier Reef region. Results of fine-scale surveys conducted in 1999–2000"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/techreport/techrept32.htm">the original</a> on 29 August 2007. Retrieved 7 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CRC+Reef+Research+Centre+Technical+Report+No.+32+%E2%80%94+Crown-of-thorns+starfish%28Acanthaster+planci%29+in+the+central+Great+Barrier+Reef+region.+Results+of+fine-scale+surveys+conducted+in+1999%E2%80%932000.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reef.crc.org.au%2Fpublications%2Ftechreport%2Ftechrept32.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCRC_Reef_Research_Centre" class="citation web cs1">CRC Reef Research Centre. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060826192429/http://www.reef.crc.org.au//publications/brochures/COTS_web_Nov2003.pdf">"Crown-of-thorns starfish on the Great Barrier Reef"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reef.crc.org.au/publications/brochures/COTS_web_Nov2003.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 26 August 2006. Retrieved 28 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Crown-of-thorns+starfish+on+the+Great+Barrier+Reef&rft.au=CRC+Reef+Research+Centre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reef.crc.org.au%2Fpublications%2Fbrochures%2FCOTS_web_Nov2003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> (PDF) </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral-overfishing.html">How does overfishing threaten coral reefs?</a> NOAA: National Ocean Service. Retrieved 9 February 2020. Updated: 25 June 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLecchiniPoltiNakamuraMosconi2006" class="citation journal cs1">Lecchini, David; Polti, Sandrine; Nakamura, Yohei; Mosconi, Pascal; Tsuchiya, Makoto; Remoissenet, Georges; Planes, Serge (2006). "David LECCHINI, Sandrine POLTI, Yohei NAKAMURA, Pascal MOSCONI, Makoto TSUCHIYA, Georges REMOISSENET, Serge PLANES (2006) "New perspectives on aquarium fish trade" Fisheries Science 72 (1), 40–47". Fisheries Science. 72: 40–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1444-2906.2006.01114.x">10.1111/j.1444-2906.2006.01114.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35182758">35182758</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fisheries+Science&rft.atitle=David+LECCHINI%2C+Sandrine+POLTI%2C+Yohei+NAKAMURA%2C+Pascal+MOSCONI%2C+Makoto+TSUCHIYA%2C+Georges+REMOISSENET%2C+Serge+PLANES+%282006%29+%22New+perspectives+on+aquarium+fish+trade%22+Fisheries+Science+72+%281%29%2C+40%E2%80%9347&rft.volume=72&rft.pages=40-47&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1444-2906.2006.01114.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A35182758%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lecchini&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Polti%2C+Sandrine&rft.au=Nakamura%2C+Yohei&rft.au=Mosconi%2C+Pascal&rft.au=Tsuchiya%2C+Makoto&rft.au=Remoissenet%2C+Georges&rft.au=Planes%2C+Serge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McClellan-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McClellan_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McClellan_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McClellan_16-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McClellan_16-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McClellan_16-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClellanBruno2008" class="citation web cs1">McClellan, Kate; Bruno, John (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eoearth.org/article/Coral_degradation_through_destructive_fishing_practices">"Coral degradation through destructive fishing practices"</a>. Encyclopedia of Earth. Retrieved 25 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Coral+degradation+through+destructive+fishing+practices&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+of+Earth&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=McClellan&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft.au=Bruno%2C+John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eoearth.org%2Farticle%2FCoral_degradation_through_destructive_fishing_practices&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/philippines/">"CIA—The World Factbook—Philippines"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>. Retrieved 1 February 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CIA%E2%80%94The+World+Factbook%E2%80%94Philippines&rft.pub=CIA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fphilippines%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilardiCarlson-BremerJuneAntonelis2010" class="citation journal cs1">Gilardi, Kirsten V. K.; Carlson-Bremer, Daphne; June, Jeffrey A.; Antonelis, Kyle; Broadhurst, Ginny; Cowan, Tom (1 March 2010). "Marine species mortality in derelict fishing nets in Puget Sound, WA and the cost/benefits of derelict net removal". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 60 (3): 376–382. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010MarPB..60..376G">2010MarPB..60..376G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.marpolbul.2009.10.016">10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.10.016</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20031176">20031176</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Pollution+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Marine+species+mortality+in+derelict+fishing+nets+in+Puget+Sound%2C+WA+and+the+cost%2Fbenefits+of+derelict+net+removal&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=376-382&rft.date=2010-03-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20031176&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.marpolbul.2009.10.016&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010MarPB..60..376G&rft.aulast=Gilardi&rft.aufirst=Kirsten+V.+K.&rft.au=Carlson-Bremer%2C+Daphne&rft.au=June%2C+Jeffrey+A.&rft.au=Antonelis%2C+Kyle&rft.au=Broadhurst%2C+Ginny&rft.au=Cowan%2C+Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2003" class="citation journal cs1">Hughes; et al. (15 August 2003). "Climate Change, Human Impacts, and the Resilience of Coral Reefs". <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>. 301 (5635): 929–933. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Sci...301..929H">2003Sci...301..929H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1085046">10.1126/science.1085046</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12920289">12920289</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1521635">1521635</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Climate+Change%2C+Human+Impacts%2C+and+the+Resilience+of+Coral+Reefs&rft.volume=301&rft.issue=5635&rft.pages=929-933&rft.date=2003-08-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1085046&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1521635%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12920289&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Sci...301..929H&rft.au=Hughes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral-pollution.html">How does land-based pollution threaten coral reefs?</a> NOAA: National Ocean Service. Accessed 9 February 2020. Update 18 April 2019. </li> <li id="cite_note-2006_United_Nations_Environment_Program-21"><a href="#cite_ref-2006_United_Nations_Environment_Program_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20070214054525/http://www.unep.org/pdf/annualreport/UNEP_AR_2006_English.pdf">"UNEP in 2006"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unep.org/pdf/annualreport/UNEP_AR_2006_English.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 14 February 2007. Retrieved 18 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UNEP+in+2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unep.org%2Fpdf%2Fannualreport%2FUNEP_AR_2006_English.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-celebrating200years.noaa.gov-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-celebrating200years.noaa.gov_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-celebrating200years.noaa.gov_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-celebrating200years.noaa.gov_22-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-celebrating200years.noaa.gov_22-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-celebrating200years.noaa.gov_22-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-celebrating200years.noaa.gov_22-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-celebrating200years.noaa.gov_22-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/visions/coral/side.html">"How Pollution Affects Coral Reefs"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NOAA" class="mw-redirect" title="NOAA">NOAA</a>. Retrieved 18 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Pollution+Affects+Coral+Reefs&rft.pub=NOAA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcelebrating200years.noaa.gov%2Fvisions%2Fcoral%2Fside.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmma_Young2003" class="citation web cs1">Emma Young (February 18, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn4391">"Copper decimates coral reef spawning"</a>. <a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a>. Retrieved 26 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Copper+decimates+coral+reef+spawning&rft.pub=New+Scientist&rft.date=2003-02-18&rft.au=Emma+Young&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle.ns%3Fid%3Ddn4391&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuceUnniRayProspero1980" class="citation journal cs1">Duce, R.A.; Unni, C.K.; Ray, B.J.; Prospero, J.M.; Merrill, J.T. (1980). "Long-range atmospheric transport of soil dust from Asia to the tropical North Pacific: Temporal variability". Science. 209 (4464): 1522–1524. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980Sci...209.1522D">1980Sci...209.1522D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.209.4464.1522">10.1126/science.209.4464.1522</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17745962">17745962</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30337924">30337924</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Long-range+atmospheric+transport+of+soil+dust+from+Asia+to+the+tropical+North+Pacific%3A+Temporal+variability&rft.volume=209&rft.issue=4464&rft.pages=1522-1524&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.209.4464.1522&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30337924%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17745962&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980Sci...209.1522D&rft.aulast=Duce&rft.aufirst=R.A.&rft.au=Unni%2C+C.K.&rft.au=Ray%2C+B.J.&rft.au=Prospero%2C+J.M.&rft.au=Merrill%2C+J.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Usinfo.state.gov.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gcrio.org/OnLnDoc/pdf/african_dust.pdf">Study Says African Dust Affects Climate in U.S., Caribbean.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070620013708/http://www.gcrio.org/OnLnDoc/pdf/african_dust.pdf">Archived</a> 2007-06-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 10 June 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProspero_J.M.Nees_R.T.1986" class="citation journal cs1">Prospero J.M.; Nees R.T. (1986). "Impact of the North African drought and El Niño on mineral dust in the Barbados trade winds". Nature. 320 (6064): 735–738. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986Natur.320..735P">1986Natur.320..735P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F320735a0">10.1038/320735a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33094175">33094175</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Impact+of+the+North+African+drought+and+El+Ni%C3%B1o+on+mineral+dust+in+the+Barbados+trade+winds&rft.volume=320&rft.issue=6064&rft.pages=735-738&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A33094175%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F320735a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986Natur.320..735P&rft.au=Prospero+J.M.&rft.au=Nees+R.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coastal.er.usgs.gov/african_dust/">Coral Mortality and African Dust.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120502091350/http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/african_dust/">Archived</a> 2012-05-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 10 June 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Merman, E.A. 2001. Atmospheric inputs to the tropical ocean—unlocking the record in annually banded corals. Master's thesis. University of South Florida, St. Petersburg. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanovaroBongiorniCorinaldesiGiovannelli2008" class="citation journal cs1">Danovaro, Roberto; Bongiorni, Lucia; Corinaldesi, Cinzia; Giovannelli, Donato; Damiani, Elisabetta; Astolfi, Paola; Greci, Lucedio; Pusceddu, Antonio (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2291018">"Sunscreens Cause Coral Bleaching by Promoting Viral Infections"</a>. Environmental Health Perspectives. 116 (4): 441–447. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.10966">10.1289/ehp.10966</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2291018">2291018</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18414624">18414624</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Sunscreens+Cause+Coral+Bleaching+by+Promoting+Viral+Infections&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=441-447&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2291018%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18414624&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.10966&rft.aulast=Danovaro&rft.aufirst=Roberto&rft.au=Bongiorni%2C+Lucia&rft.au=Corinaldesi%2C+Cinzia&rft.au=Giovannelli%2C+Donato&rft.au=Damiani%2C+Elisabetta&rft.au=Astolfi%2C+Paola&rft.au=Greci%2C+Lucedio&rft.au=Pusceddu%2C+Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2291018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDownsKramarsky-WinterFauthSegal2014" class="citation journal cs1">Downs, C. A.; Kramarsky-Winter, E.; Fauth, J. E.; Segal, R.; Bronstein, O.; Jeger, R.; Loya, Y. (2014). "Toxicological effects of the sunscreen UV filter, benzophenone-2, on planulae and in vitro cells of the coral, Stylophora pistillata". Ecotoxicology. 23 (2): 175–191. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014Ecotx..23..175D">2014Ecotx..23..175D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10646-013-1161-y">10.1007/s10646-013-1161-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24352829">24352829</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1505199">1505199</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecotoxicology&rft.atitle=Toxicological+effects+of+the+sunscreen+UV+filter%2C+benzophenone-2%2C+on+planulae+and+in+vitro+cells+of+the+coral%2C+Stylophora+pistillata&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-191&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10646-013-1161-y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1505199%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24352829&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014Ecotx..23..175D&rft.aulast=Downs&rft.aufirst=C.+A.&rft.au=Kramarsky-Winter%2C+E.&rft.au=Fauth%2C+J.+E.&rft.au=Segal%2C+R.&rft.au=Bronstein%2C+O.&rft.au=Jeger%2C+R.&rft.au=Loya%2C+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgles2019" class="citation web cs1">Ogles, Jacob (22 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://floridapolitics.com/archives/294229-scientific-consensus-mounts-in-favor-of-sunscreen">"Scientific consensus mounts in favor of sunscreen"</a>. Florida Politics. Peter Schorsch.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Florida+Politics&rft.atitle=Scientific+consensus+mounts+in+favor+of+sunscreen&rft.date=2019-04-22&rft.aulast=Ogles&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffloridapolitics.com%2Farchives%2F294229-scientific-consensus-mounts-in-favor-of-sunscreen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDownsKramarsky-WinterSegalFauth2016" class="citation journal cs1">Downs, C. A.; Kramarsky-Winter, Esti; Segal, Roee; Fauth, John; Knutson, Sean; Bronstein, Omri; Ciner, Frederic R.; Jeger, Rina; Lichtenfeld, Yona; Woodley, Cheryl M.; Pennington, Paul; Cadenas, Kelli; Kushmaro, Ariel; Loya, Yossi (February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubpeer.com/publications/E3A59C5143AF504D4577F5D710C39A#">"PubPeer: Toxicopathological Effects of the Sunscreen UV Filter, Oxybenzone (Benzophenone-3), on Coral Planulae and Cultured Primary Cells and Its Environmental Contamination in Hawaii and the U.S. Virgin Islands"</a>. PubPeer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PubPeer&rft.atitle=PubPeer%3A+Toxicopathological+Effects+of+the+Sunscreen+UV+Filter%2C+Oxybenzone+%28Benzophenone-3%29%2C+on+Coral+Planulae+and+Cultured+Primary+Cells+and+Its+Environmental+Contamination+in+Hawaii+and+the+U.S.+Virgin+Islands&rft.date=2016-02&rft.aulast=Downs&rft.aufirst=C.+A.&rft.au=Kramarsky-Winter%2C+Esti&rft.au=Segal%2C+Roee&rft.au=Fauth%2C+John&rft.au=Knutson%2C+Sean&rft.au=Bronstein%2C+Omri&rft.au=Ciner%2C+Frederic+R.&rft.au=Jeger%2C+Rina&rft.au=Lichtenfeld%2C+Yona&rft.au=Woodley%2C+Cheryl+M.&rft.au=Pennington%2C+Paul&rft.au=Cadenas%2C+Kelli&rft.au=Kushmaro%2C+Ariel&rft.au=Loya%2C+Yossi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubpeer.com%2Fpublications%2FE3A59C5143AF504D4577F5D710C39A%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101009031955/http://www.globalcoral.org/Eutrophication%20and%20Water%20quality.html">"Eutrofication and water quality"</a>. Global Coral Reef Alliance. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globalcoral.org/Eutrophication%20and%20Water%20quality.html">the original</a> on 9 October 2010. Retrieved 1 February 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eutrofication+and+water+quality&rft.pub=Global+Coral+Reef+Alliance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.globalcoral.org%2FEutrophication%2520and%2520Water%2520quality.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRachel_Nowak2004" class="citation web cs1">Rachel Nowak (11 January 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn4539">"Sewage nutrients fuel coral disease"</a>. New Scientist. Retrieved 10 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sewage+nutrients+fuel+coral+disease&rft.pub=New+Scientist&rft.date=2004-01-11&rft.au=Rachel+Nowak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle.ns%3Fid%3Ddn4539&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiz_Minchin2013" class="citation web cs1">Liz Minchin (8 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/air-pollution-casts-a-cloud-over-coral-reef-growth-13319">"Air pollution casts a cloud over coral reef growth"</a>. The Conversation. The Conversation Media Group. Retrieved 9 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=Air+pollution+casts+a+cloud+over+coral+reef+growth&rft.date=2013-04-08&rft.au=Liz+Minchin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fair-pollution-casts-a-cloud-over-coral-reef-growth-13319&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUS_Department_of_Commerce" class="citation web cs1">US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/marinedebris.html">"What is marine debris?"</a>. oceanservice.noaa.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oceanservice.noaa.gov&rft.atitle=What+is+marine+debris%3F&rft.aulast=US+Department+of+Commerce&rft.aufirst=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foceanservice.noaa.gov%2Ffacts%2Fmarinedebris.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> (Richards & Beger, 2011) </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> (Savinelli et al., 2020) </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> (Prata, 2018, as cited in Pettipas et al., 2016; Rochman et al., 2015; Xanthos and Walker, 2017), </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> (Prata, 2018, as cited in Chang, 2015) </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> (Prata, 2018) </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> (Murphy et al., 2016) </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUS_EPA2017" class="citation web cs1">US EPA, OW (January 30, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/coral-reefs/what-you-can-do-help-protect-coral-reefs">"What You Can Do to Help Protect Coral Reefs"</a>. US EPA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=US+EPA&rft.atitle=What+You+Can+Do+to+Help+Protect+Coral+Reefs&rft.date=2017-01-30&rft.aulast=US+EPA&rft.aufirst=OW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcoral-reefs%2Fwhat-you-can-do-help-protect-coral-reefs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reefrelief.org/2013/02/the-environmental-impact-of-cigarette-butt-waste-just-the-facts/">"The Environmental Impact of Cigarette Butt Waste: Just the Facts"</a>. February 5, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Environmental+Impact+of+Cigarette+Butt+Waste%3A+Just+the+Facts&rft.date=2013-02-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reefrelief.org%2F2013%2F02%2Fthe-environmental-impact-of-cigarette-butt-waste-just-the-facts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190810125852/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/cigarettes-story-of-plastic/">"Cigarette butts are toxic plastic pollution. Should they be banned?"</a>. Environment. August 9, 2019. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/08/cigarettes-story-of-plastic/">the original</a> on August 10, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Environment&rft.atitle=Cigarette+butts+are+toxic+plastic+pollution.+Should+they+be+banned%3F&rft.date=2019-08-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fenvironment%2F2019%2F08%2Fcigarettes-story-of-plastic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/08/the-worst-contaminants-of-oceans-are-not-plastic-straws-theyre-cigarette-butts/">"Forget straws, cigarette butts are doing more damage to the oceans"</a>. World Economic Forum. 28 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Economic+Forum&rft.atitle=Forget+straws%2C+cigarette+butts+are+doing+more+damage+to+the+oceans&rft.date=2018-08-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weforum.org%2Fagenda%2F2018%2F08%2Fthe-worst-contaminants-of-oceans-are-not-plastic-straws-theyre-cigarette-butts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-miamiherald-47"><a href="#cite_ref-miamiherald_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140715171454/http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/06/06/4162375/scientists-race-to-save-coral.html">"Scientists race to save coral doomed by Government Cut dredging - Environment - MiamiHerald.com"</a>. miamiherald.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/06/06/4162375/scientists-race-to-save-coral.html">the original</a> on 15 July 2014. Retrieved 21 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scientists+race+to+save+coral+doomed+by+Government+Cut+dredging+-+Environment+-+MiamiHerald.com&rft.pub=miamiherald.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.miamiherald.com%2F2014%2F06%2F06%2F4162375%2Fscientists-race-to-save-coral.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-theguardian-48"><a href="#cite_ref-theguardian_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/16/coral-reefs-face-heightened-risk-of-fatal-disease-from-dredging-says-research">"Coral reefs face heightened risk of fatal disease from dredging, says research | Environment | theguardian.com"</a>. The Guardian. 16 July 2014. Retrieved 21 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Coral+reefs+face+heightened+risk+of+fatal+disease+from+dredging%2C+says+research+%26%23124%3B+Environment+%26%23124%3B+theguardian.com&rft.date=2014-07-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2014%2Fjul%2F16%2Fcoral-reefs-face-heightened-risk-of-fatal-disease-from-dredging-says-research&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-plosone-49"><a href="#cite_ref-plosone_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollockLambFieldHeron2014" class="citation journal cs1">Pollock, F. Joseph; Lamb, Joleah B.; Field, Stuart N.; Heron, Scott F.; Schaffelke, Britta; Shedrawi, George; Bourne, David G.; Willis, Bette L. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4100925">"PLOS ONE: Sediment and Turbidity Associated with Offshore Dredging Increase Coral Disease Prevalence on Nearby Reefs"</a>. PLOS ONE. 9 (7): e102498. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0102498">10.1371/journal.pone.0102498</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4100925">4100925</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25029525">25029525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=PLOS+ONE%3A+Sediment+and+Turbidity+Associated+with+Offshore+Dredging+Increase+Coral+Disease+Prevalence+on+Nearby+Reefs&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=e102498&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4100925%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25029525&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0102498&rft.aulast=Pollock&rft.aufirst=F.+Joseph&rft.au=Lamb%2C+Joleah+B.&rft.au=Field%2C+Stuart+N.&rft.au=Heron%2C+Scott+F.&rft.au=Schaffelke%2C+Britta&rft.au=Shedrawi%2C+George&rft.au=Bourne%2C+David+G.&rft.au=Willis%2C+Bette+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4100925&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Protect_Yourself,_Protect_the_Reef!-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Protect_Yourself,_Protect_the_Reef!_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Protect_Yourself,_Protect_the_Reef!_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Protect_Yourself,_Protect_the_Reef!_50-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdhc.noaa.gov/_docs/Site%20Bulletin_Sunscreen_final.pdf">"National Park Service - Protect Yourself, Protect the Reef!"</a> (PDF). Retrieved 2019-01-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=National+Park+Service+-+Protect+Yourself%2C+Protect+the+Reef%21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdhc.noaa.gov%2F_docs%2FSite%2520Bulletin_Sunscreen_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NPR-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NPR_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NPR_51-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner2015" class="citation news cs1">Wagner, Laura (October 20, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/10/20/450276158/chemicals-in-sunscreen-are-harming-coral-reefs-says-new-study">"Chemicals In Sunscreen Are Harming Coral Reefs, Says New Study"</a>. NPR. Retrieved 2017-04-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Chemicals+In+Sunscreen+Are+Harming+Coral+Reefs%2C+Says+New+Study&rft.date=2015-10-20&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fthetwo-way%2F2015%2F10%2F20%2F450276158%2Fchemicals-in-sunscreen-are-harming-coral-reefs-says-new-study&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_52-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUS_Department_of_Commerce" class="citation web cs1">US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/sunscreen-corals.html">"Sunscreen Chemicals and Marine Life"</a>. oceanservice.noaa.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oceanservice.noaa.gov&rft.atitle=Sunscreen+Chemicals+and+Marine+Life&rft.aulast=US+Department+of+Commerce&rft.aufirst=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foceanservice.noaa.gov%2Fnews%2Fsunscreen-corals.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2019" class="citation web cs1">Wang, Francis (13 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://miami.cbslocal.com/2019/03/13/miami-beach-city-commission-meets-to-discuss-ordinance-that-would-ban-chemicals-in-sunscreen/">"Miami Beach Commissioners Vote Not To Ban Sunscreen Ingredients Experts Say Harm Coral Reefs"</a>. CBS Miami. CBS.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CBS+Miami&rft.atitle=Miami+Beach+Commissioners+Vote+Not+To+Ban+Sunscreen+Ingredients+Experts+Say+Harm+Coral+Reefs&rft.date=2019-03-13&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmiami.cbslocal.com%2F2019%2F03%2F13%2Fmiami-beach-city-commission-meets-to-discuss-ordinance-that-would-ban-chemicals-in-sunscreen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50963080">"Palau is first country to ban 'reef toxic' sun cream"</a>. BBC News. January 2020. Retrieved 2020-01-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Palau+is+first+country+to+ban+%27reef+toxic%27+sun+cream&rft.date=2020-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-asia-50963080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coralreef-climate.html">How does climate change affect coral reefs?</a> NOAA: National Ocean Service. Accessed 9 February 2020. Update 13 November 2019. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_56-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Ocean. DK. 2006. p. 263.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ocean&rft.pages=263&rft.pub=DK&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Ocean. DK. 2006. pp. 152–155.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ocean&rft.pages=152-155&rft.pub=DK&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeahy2007" class="citation web cs1">Leahy, Stephen (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091008064436/http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=40021">"Environment: Between a Reef and a Hard Place"</a>. NoticiasFinancieras. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=40021">the original</a> on 2009-10-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Environment%3A+Between+a+Reef+and+a+Hard+Place&rft.pub=NoticiasFinancieras&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Leahy&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fipsnews.net%2Fnews.asp%3Fidnews%3D40021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoegh-Guldberg1999">Hoegh-Guldberg 1999</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf">"IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report Chapter 3"</a> (PDF). IPCC Sixth Assessment Report: 42. February 28, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IPCC+Sixth+Assessment+Report&rft.atitle=IPCC+WGII+Sixth+Assessment+Report+Chapter+3&rft.pages=42&rft.date=2022-02-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freport.ipcc.ch%2Far6wg2%2Fpdf%2FIPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlynn1993" class="citation journal cs1">Glynn, P.W. (March 1993). "Coral Reef Bleaching: Ecological Perspectives" Earth and Environmental Science". Coral Reefs. 12 (1): 1–17. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993CorRe..12....1G">1993CorRe..12....1G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00303779">10.1007/BF00303779</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46595398">46595398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Coral+Reefs&rft.atitle=Coral+Reef+Bleaching%3A+Ecological+Perspectives%22+Earth+and+Environmental+Science&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=1993-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46595398%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00303779&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993CorRe..12....1G&rft.aulast=Glynn&rft.aufirst=P.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAiramé2009" class="citation journal cs1">Airamé, S. (June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2791481">"Climate Change, Coral Reef Ecosystems, and Management Options for Marine Protected Areas"</a>. Environmental Management. 44 (6): 1069–1088. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009EnMan..44.1069K">2009EnMan..44.1069K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00267-009-9346-0">10.1007/s00267-009-9346-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2791481">2791481</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19636605">19636605</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Management&rft.atitle=Climate+Change%2C+Coral+Reef+Ecosystems%2C+and+Management+Options+for+Marine+Protected+Areas.&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1069-1088&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2791481%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19636605&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00267-009-9346-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009EnMan..44.1069K&rft.aulast=Airam%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2791481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iop.org/news/sep10/page_44805.html">Climate Accord loopholes could spell 4.2°C rise in temperature and end of coral reefs by 2100</a> <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Physics" title="Institute of Physics">Institute of Physics</a>, Press release, 29 September 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogeljChenNabelMacey2010" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joeri_Rogelj" title="Joeri Rogelj">Rogelj J</a>, Chen C, Nabel J, Macey K, Hare W, Schaeffer M, Markmann K, Höhne N, Andersen KK, et al. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iop.org/news/sep10/page_44805.html">"Analysis of the Copenhagen Accord pledges and its global climatic impacts—a snapshot of dissonant ambitions"</a>. Environmental Research Letters. 5 (3): 3. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010ERL.....5c4013R">2010ERL.....5c4013R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F5%2F3%2F034013">10.1088/1748-9326/5/3/034013</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0028-1370-8">11858/00-001M-0000-0028-1370-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+the+Copenhagen+Accord+pledges+and+its+global+climatic+impacts%E2%80%94a+snapshot+of+dissonant+ambitions&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-0028-1370-8&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1748-9326%2F5%2F3%2F034013&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010ERL.....5c4013R&rft.aulast=Rogelj&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Chen%2C+C&rft.au=Nabel%2C+J&rft.au=Macey%2C+K&rft.au=Hare%2C+W&rft.au=Schaeffer%2C+M&rft.au=Markmann%2C+K&rft.au=H%C3%B6hne%2C+N&rft.au=Andersen%2C+KK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iop.org%2Fnews%2Fsep10%2Fpage_44805.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatts2018" class="citation news cs1">Watts, Jonathan (November 11, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/11/next-generation-may-never-see-coral-reefs">"Next generation 'may never see the glory of coral reefs'"</a>. The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Next+generation+%27may+never+see+the+glory+of+coral+reefs%27&rft.date=2018-11-11&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2018%2Fnov%2F11%2Fnext-generation-may-never-see-coral-reefs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter03.pdf">"Oceans and Coastal Ecosystems and their Services"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oceans+and+Coastal+Ecosystems+and+their+Services&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Freport%2Far6%2Fwg2%2Fdownloads%2Freport%2FIPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf">"IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report Chapter 3"</a> (PDF). IPCC Sixth Assessment Report: 42. February 28, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IPCC+Sixth+Assessment+Report&rft.atitle=IPCC+WGII+Sixth+Assessment+Report+Chapter+3&rft.pages=42&rft.date=2022-02-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freport.ipcc.ch%2Far6wg2%2Fpdf%2FIPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf">"Oceans and Coastal Ecosystems and their Services"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oceans+and+Coastal+Ecosystems+and+their+Services&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freport.ipcc.ch%2Far6wg2%2Fpdf%2FIPCC_AR6_WGII_FinalDraft_Chapter03.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jacob05-69"><a href="#cite_ref-jacob05_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobson2005" class="citation journal cs1">Jacobson, M. Z. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110628202728/http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/OceanEq.pdf">"Studying ocean acidification with conservative, stable numerical schemes for nonequilibrium air-ocean exchange and ocean equilibrium chemistry"</a> (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 110: D07302. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2004JD005220">10.1029/2004JD005220</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/OceanEq.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research%3A+Atmospheres&rft.atitle=Studying+ocean+acidification+with+conservative%2C+stable+numerical+schemes+for+nonequilibrium+air-ocean+exchange+and+ocean+equilibrium+chemistry&rft.volume=110&rft.pages=D07302&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2004JD005220&rft.aulast=Jacobson&rft.aufirst=M.+Z.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stanford.edu%2Fgroup%2Fefmh%2Fjacobson%2FOceanEq.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-orr05-70"><a href="#cite_ref-orr05_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrr,_J._C.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Orr, J. C.; et al. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080625100559/http://www.ipsl.jussieu.fr/~jomce/acidification/paper/Orr_OnlineNature04095.pdf">"Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms"</a> (PDF). Nature. 437 (7059): 681–686. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.437..681O">2005Natur.437..681O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04095">10.1038/nature04095</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16193043">16193043</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4306199">4306199</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipsl.jussieu.fr/~jomce/acidification/paper/Orr_OnlineNature04095.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2008-06-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Anthropogenic+ocean+acidification+over+the+twenty-first+century+and+its+impact+on+calcifying+organisms&rft.volume=437&rft.issue=7059&rft.pages=681-686&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature04095&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4306199%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16193043&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Natur.437..681O&rft.au=Orr%2C+J.+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipsl.jussieu.fr%2F~jomce%2Facidification%2Fpaper%2FOrr_OnlineNature04095.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_71-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_71-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GVRL&sw=w&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CCX3233900059&it=r&asid=fcfad6eeb5d5e02417a421935811fc5b.%20Accessed%2030%20Jan.%202017.&authCount=1">"Coral Reefs and Coral"</a>. Gale Virtual Reference Library. 2009. Retrieved 2017-03-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gale+Virtual+Reference+Library&rft.atitle=Coral+Reefs+and+Coral&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgo.galegroup.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DGVRL%26sw%3Dw%26v%3D2.1%26id%3DGALE%257CCX3233900059%26it%3Dr%26asid%3Dfcfad6eeb5d5e02417a421935811fc5b.%2520Accessed%252030%2520Jan.%25202017.%26authCount%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gatt98-72"><a href="#cite_ref-gatt98_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGattuso,_J.-P.Frankignoulle,_M.Bourge,_I.Romaine,_S.1998" class="citation journal cs1">Gattuso, J.-P.; Frankignoulle, M.; Bourge, I.; Romaine, S. & Buddemeier, R. W. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190720181400/http://www.obs-vlfr.fr/~gattuso/jpg_papers_list.php">"Effect of calcium carbonate saturation of seawater on coral calcification"</a>. Glob. Planet. Change. 18 (1–2): 37–46. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998GPC....18...37G">1998GPC....18...37G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0921-8181%2898%2900035-6">10.1016/S0921-8181(98)00035-6</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.obs-vlfr.fr/~gattuso/jpg_papers_list.php">the original</a> on 2019-07-20. Retrieved 2010-06-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Glob.+Planet.+Change&rft.atitle=Effect+of+calcium+carbonate+saturation+of+seawater+on+coral+calcification&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=37-46&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0921-8181%2898%2900035-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998GPC....18...37G&rft.au=Gattuso%2C+J.-P.&rft.au=Frankignoulle%2C+M.&rft.au=Bourge%2C+I.&rft.au=Romaine%2C+S.&rft.au=Buddemeier%2C+R.+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.obs-vlfr.fr%2F~gattuso%2Fjpg_papers_list.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolcombCohenMcCorkle2011" class="citation journal cs1">Holcomb, M.; Cohen, A. L.; McCorkle, D. C. (2011-08-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bg.copernicus.org/preprints/8/8485/2011/bgd-8-8485-2011.pdf">"A gender bias in the calcification response to ocean acidification"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fbgd-8-8485-2011">10.5194/bgd-8-8485-2011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+gender+bias+in+the+calcification+response+to+ocean+acidification&rft.date=2011-08-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5194%2Fbgd-8-8485-2011&rft.aulast=Holcomb&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Cohen%2C+A.+L.&rft.au=McCorkle%2C+D.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbg.copernicus.org%2Fpreprints%2F8%2F8485%2F2011%2Fbgd-8-8485-2011.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2009/20090305_coral.html">"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration – New Deep-Sea Coral Discovered on NOAA-Supported Mission"</a>. www.noaanews.noaa.gov. Retrieved 11 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration+%E2%80%93+New+Deep-Sea+Coral+Discovered+on+NOAA-Supported+Mission&rft.pub=www.noaanews.noaa.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.noaanews.noaa.gov%2Fstories2009%2F20090305_coral.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2012/01/16/3409053.htm">Carbon dioxide affecting fish brains: study</a> ABC, 16 January 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/337677/title/Rising_carbon_dioxide_confuses_brain_signaling_in_fish">Rising carbon dioxide confuses brain signaling in fish</a> Science News Online, 16 January 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNilssonDixsonDomeniciMcCormick2012" class="citation journal cs1">Nilsson GE, Dixson DL, Domenici P, McCormick MI, Sørensen C, Watson S, Munday PL (2012). "Near-future carbon dioxide levels alter fish behaviour by interfering with neurotransmitter function Letter". Nature Climate Change. 2 (3): 1. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012NatCC...2..201N">2012NatCC...2..201N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnclimate1352">10.1038/nclimate1352</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:67762214">67762214</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=Near-future+carbon+dioxide+levels+alter+fish+behaviour+by+interfering+with+neurotransmitter+function+Letter&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A67762214%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnclimate1352&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012NatCC...2..201N&rft.aulast=Nilsson&rft.aufirst=GE&rft.au=Dixson%2C+DL&rft.au=Domenici%2C+P&rft.au=McCormick%2C+MI&rft.au=S%C3%B8rensen%2C+C&rft.au=Watson%2C+S&rft.au=Munday%2C+PL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkRabyRocheBinning2020" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, Timothy D.; Raby, Graham D.; Roche, Dominique G.; Binning, Sandra A.; Speers-Roesch, Ben; Jutfelt, Fredrik; Sundin, Josefin (2020-01-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1903-y">"Ocean acidification does not impair the behaviour of coral reef fishes"</a>. Nature. 577 (7790): 370–375. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Natur.577..370C">2020Natur.577..370C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-019-1903-y">10.1038/s41586-019-1903-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31915382">31915382</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:210118722">210118722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Ocean+acidification+does+not+impair+the+behaviour+of+coral+reef+fishes&rft.volume=577&rft.issue=7790&rft.pages=370-375&rft.date=2020-01-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A210118722%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020Natur.577..370C&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-019-1903-y&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31915382&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Timothy+D.&rft.au=Raby%2C+Graham+D.&rft.au=Roche%2C+Dominique+G.&rft.au=Binning%2C+Sandra+A.&rft.au=Speers-Roesch%2C+Ben&rft.au=Jutfelt%2C+Fredrik&rft.au=Sundin%2C+Josefin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41586-019-1903-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnserink2020" class="citation web cs1">Enserink, Martin (2020-01-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/analysis-challenges-slew-studies-claiming-ocean-acidification-alter-fish-behavior">"Analysis challenges slew of studies claiming ocean acidification alters fish behavior"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a> news.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+news&rft.atitle=Analysis+challenges+slew+of+studies+claiming+ocean+acidification+alters+fish+behavior&rft.date=2020-01-08&rft.aulast=Enserink&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fanalysis-challenges-slew-studies-claiming-ocean-acidification-alter-fish-behavior&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnserinkMay._62021" class="citation web cs1">EnserinkMay. 6, Martin (2021-05-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/does-ocean-acidification-alter-fish-behavior-fraud-allegations-create-sea-doubt">"Does ocean acidification alter fish behavior? Fraud allegations create a sea of doubt"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a> news.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+news&rft.atitle=Does+ocean+acidification+alter+fish+behavior%3F+Fraud+allegations+create+a+sea+of+doubt&rft.date=2021-05-06&rft.aulast=EnserinkMay.+6&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fdoes-ocean-acidification-alter-fish-behavior-fraud-allegations-create-sea-doubt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClementsSundinClarkJutfelt2022" class="citation journal cs1">Clements, Jeff C.; Sundin, Josefin; Clark, Timothy D.; Jutfelt, Fredrik (2022-02-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8812914">"Meta-analysis reveals an extreme "decline effect" in the impacts of ocean acidification on fish behavior"</a>. PLOS Biology. 20 (2): e3001511. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.3001511">10.1371/journal.pbio.3001511</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1545-7885">1545-7885</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8812914">8812914</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35113875">35113875</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.atitle=Meta-analysis+reveals+an+extreme+%22decline+effect%22+in+the+impacts+of+ocean+acidification+on+fish+behavior&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e3001511&rft.date=2022-02-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8812914%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1545-7885&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35113875&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.3001511&rft.aulast=Clements&rft.aufirst=Jeff+C.&rft.au=Sundin%2C+Josefin&rft.au=Clark%2C+Timothy+D.&rft.au=Jutfelt%2C+Fredrik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8812914&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Laffoley2019-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Laffoley2019_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Laffoley2019_82-1">b</a> Laffoley, D. & Baxter, J.M. (eds.) (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/08.8%20DEOX.pdf">Ocean deoxygenation: Everyone’s problem - Causes, impacts, consequences and solutions</a>. IUCN, Switzerland. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Vanwonterghem, I. and Webster, N.S. (2020) "Coral reef microorganisms in a changing climate". Iscience, 23(4). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.isci.2020.100972">10.1016/j.isci.2020.100972</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_84-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruckner1998" class="citation web cs1">Bruckner, Andrew and Robin (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pierce.ctc.edu:2189/ehost/detail/detail?vid=14&sid=f278f495-82f3-4790-a5bf-2bf8783710ca%40sessionmgr4010&hid=4114&bdata=JnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%3d#AN=503444154&db=scf">"Emerging Infections on the Reefs"</a>. EBSCO. Retrieved 2017-03-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EBSCO&rft.atitle=Emerging+Infections+on+the+Reefs&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Bruckner&rft.aufirst=Andrew+and+Robin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pierce.ctc.edu%3A2189%2Fehost%2Fdetail%2Fdetail%3Fvid%3D14%26sid%3Df278f495-82f3-4790-a5bf-2bf8783710ca%2540sessionmgr4010%26hid%3D4114%26bdata%3DJnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%253d%23AN%3D503444154%26db%3Dscf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_85-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/coral-disease/">"Florida Reef Tract Coral Disease Outbreak"</a>. NOAA Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Retrieved 2019-01-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Florida+Reef+Tract+Coral+Disease+Outbreak&rft.pub=NOAA+Florida+Keys+National+Marine+Sanctuary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffloridakeys.noaa.gov%2Fcoral-disease%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hammerton_2014-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hammerton_2014_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hammerton_2014_86-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammerton2014" class="citation thesis cs1">Hammerton, Zan (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1456&context=theses">SCUBA-diver impacts and management strategies for subtropical marine protected areas</a> (Thesis). Southern Cross University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=SCUBA-diver+impacts+and+management+strategies+for+subtropical+marine+protected+areas&rft.inst=Southern+Cross+University&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Hammerton&rft.aufirst=Zan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fepubs.scu.edu.au%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1456%26context%3Dtheses&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucrezi_2016-87"><a href="#cite_ref-Lucrezi_2016_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucrezi2016" class="citation web cs1">Lucrezi, Serena (18 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/how-scuba-diving-is-warding-off-threats-to-its-future-52504">"How scuba diving is warding off threats to its future"</a>. The Conversation. Retrieved 5 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=How+scuba+diving+is+warding+off+threats+to+its+future&rft.date=2016-01-18&rft.aulast=Lucrezi&rft.aufirst=Serena&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fhow-scuba-diving-is-warding-off-threats-to-its-future-52504&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dimmock_et_al_2013-88"><a href="#cite_ref-Dimmock_et_al_2013_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimmockCumminsMusa2013" class="citation book cs1">Dimmock, Kay; Cummins, Terry; Musa, Ghazali (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259489022">"Chapter 10: The business of Scuba diving"</a>. In Musa, Ghazali; Dimmock, Kay (eds.). Scuba Diving Tourism. Routledge. pp. 161–173.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+10%3A+The+business+of+Scuba+diving&rft.btitle=Scuba+Diving+Tourism&rft.pages=161-173&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Dimmock&rft.aufirst=Kay&rft.au=Cummins%2C+Terry&rft.au=Musa%2C+Ghazali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F259489022&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ong_and_Musa_2012-89"><a href="#cite_ref-Ong_and_Musa_2012_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOngMusa2012" class="citation journal cs1">Ong, Tah Fatt; Musa, Ghazali (2012). "Examining the influences of experience, personality and attitude on SCUBA divers' underwater behaviour: A structural equation model". Tourism Management. 33 (6). Elsevier: 1521–1534. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tourman.2012.02.007">10.1016/j.tourman.2012.02.007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tourism+Management&rft.atitle=Examining+the+influences+of+experience%2C+personality+and+attitude+on+SCUBA+divers%27+underwater+behaviour%3A+A+structural+equation+model&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1521-1534&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tourman.2012.02.007&rft.aulast=Ong&rft.aufirst=Tah+Fatt&rft.au=Musa%2C+Ghazali&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustralian_Government_Productivity_Commission2003" class="citation web cs1">Australian Government Productivity Commission (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060906134413/http://www.pc.gov.au/study/gbr/finalreport/keypoints.html">"Industries, Land Use and Water Quality in the Great Barrier Reef Catchment – Key Points"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pc.gov.au/study/gbr/finalreport/keypoints.html">the original</a> on 6 September 2006. Retrieved 29 May 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Industries%2C+Land+Use+and+Water+Quality+in+the+Great+Barrier+Reef+Catchment+%E2%80%93+Key+Points&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Australian+Government+Productivity+Commission&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pc.gov.au%2Fstudy%2Fgbr%2Ffinalreport%2Fkeypoints.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Greenpeace_Book_of_Coral_Reefs-91"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Greenpeace_Book_of_Coral_Reefs_91-0">^</a> The Greenpeace Book of Coral Reefs </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coral.org/coral-reefs-101/reef-threats/direct/">"Direct Threats"</a>. Coral Reef Alliance.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Coral+Reef+Alliance&rft.atitle=Direct+Threats&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcoral.org%2Fcoral-reefs-101%2Freef-threats%2Fdirect%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan_Holl2003" class="citation web cs1">Ryan Holl (17 April 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030902051522/http://www.biology.iastate.edu/intop/1Australia/Australia%20papers/Bioerosion.htm">"Bioerosion: an essential, and often overlooked, aspect of reef ecology"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Iowa_State_University" title="Iowa State University">Iowa State University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biology.iastate.edu/intop/1Australia/Australia%20papers/Bioerosion.htm">the original</a> on 2 September 2003. Retrieved 2 November 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bioerosion%3A+an+essential%2C+and+often+overlooked%2C+aspect+of+reef+ecology&rft.pub=Iowa+State+University&rft.date=2003-04-17&rft.au=Ryan+Holl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biology.iastate.edu%2Fintop%2F1Australia%2FAustralia%2520papers%2FBioerosion.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100722063256/http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2003/jan03/noaa03r402.html">"Department of Commerce Awards Bronze Medal to Florida Biologist John Halas"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2003/jan03/noaa03r402.html">the original</a> on 2010-07-22. Retrieved 2010-06-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Department+of+Commerce+Awards+Bronze+Medal+to+Florida+Biologist+John+Halas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicaffairs.noaa.gov%2Freleases2003%2Fjan03%2Fnoaa03r402.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-taiwan-coral-idUSTRE5151HL20090206">"Taiwan coral reefs "turn black" with disease"</a>. Reuters. 2009-02-06. Retrieved 2023-05-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Taiwan+coral+reefs+%22turn+black%22+with+disease&rft.date=2009-02-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-taiwan-coral-idUSTRE5151HL20090206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org/oil-spill/causes/">"Oil Spill Causes | Environmental Pollution Centers"</a>. www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org. Retrieved 2022-04-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org&rft.atitle=Oil+Spill+Causes+%7C+Environmental+Pollution+Centers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.environmentalpollutioncenters.org%2Foil-spill%2Fcauses%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGUNDLACHHAYES1978" class="citation journal cs1">GUNDLACH, E. R; HAYES, M. O (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/770409334">"Vulnerability of coastal environments to oil spill impacts"</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/770409334">770409334</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Vulnerability+of+coastal+environments+to+oil+spill+impacts&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F770409334&rft.aulast=GUNDLACH&rft.aufirst=E.+R&rft.au=HAYES%2C+M.+O&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F770409334&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.environmentbuddy.com/environment/oil-spills-causes-effects-solutions/">"Oil Spills; Causes, Effects, Solutions | Environment Buddy"</a>. Retrieved 2022-04-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oil+Spills%3B+Causes%2C+Effects%2C+Solutions+%7C+Environment+Buddy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.environmentbuddy.com%2Fenvironment%2Foil-spills-causes-effects-solutions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingston2002" class="citation journal cs1">Kingston, Paul F (2002-06-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1353256102000518">"Long-term Environmental Impact of Oil Spills"</a>. Spill Science & Technology Bulletin. 7 (1): 53–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1353-2561%2802%2900051-8">10.1016/S1353-2561(02)00051-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1353-2561">1353-2561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Spill+Science+%26+Technology+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Long-term+Environmental+Impact+of+Oil+Spills&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=53-61&rft.date=2002-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1353-2561%2802%2900051-8&rft.issn=1353-2561&rft.aulast=Kingston&rft.aufirst=Paul+F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS1353256102000518&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFragoso_ados_SantosDuarteRachidChaloub2015" class="citation journal cs1">Fragoso ados Santos, Henrique; Duarte, Gustavo Adolpho Santos; Rachid, Caio TavoraCoelho da Costa; Chaloub, Ricardo Moreira; Calderon, Emiliano Nicolas; Marangoni, Laura Fernandes de Barros; Bianchini, Adalto; Nudi, Adriana Haddad; do Carmo, Flávia Lima; van Elsas, Jan Dirk; Rosado, Alexandre Soares (2015-12-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4677405">"Impact of oil spills on coral reefs can be reduced by bioremediation using probiotic microbiota"</a>. Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 18268. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015NatSR...518268F">2015NatSR...518268F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep18268">10.1038/srep18268</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322">2045-2322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4677405">4677405</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26658023">26658023</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5277926">5277926</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Impact+of+oil+spills+on+coral+reefs+can+be+reduced+by+bioremediation+using+probiotic+microbiota&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18268&rft.date=2015-12-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4677405%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5277926%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015NatSR...518268F&rft.issn=2045-2322&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep18268&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26658023&rft.aulast=Fragoso+ados+Santos&rft.aufirst=Henrique&rft.au=Duarte%2C+Gustavo+Adolpho+Santos&rft.au=Rachid%2C+Caio+TavoraCoelho+da+Costa&rft.au=Chaloub%2C+Ricardo+Moreira&rft.au=Calderon%2C+Emiliano+Nicolas&rft.au=Marangoni%2C+Laura+Fernandes+de+Barros&rft.au=Bianchini%2C+Adalto&rft.au=Nudi%2C+Adriana+Haddad&rft.au=do+Carmo%2C+Fl%C3%A1via+Lima&rft.au=van+Elsas%2C+Jan+Dirk&rft.au=Rosado%2C+Alexandre+Soares&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4677405&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaskey2011" class="citation cs2">Waskey, Andrew J. (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/disasterrelief/n179.xml">"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)"</a>, Encyclopedia of Disaster Relief, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 440–442, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412994064">10.4135/9781412994064</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412971010" title="Special:BookSources/9781412971010"><bdi>9781412971010</bdi></a>, retrieved 2022-04-21</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration+%28NOAA%29&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Disaster+Relief&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks&rft.pages=440-442&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412994064&rft.isbn=9781412971010&rft.aulast=Waskey&rft.aufirst=Andrew+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsk.sagepub.com%2Freference%2Fdisasterrelief%2Fn179.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrasadNairJosephMohanty2022" class="citation journal cs1">Prasad, S J; Nair, T M Balakrishnan; Joseph, Sudheer; Mohanty, P C (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12040-021-01791-z">"Simulating the spatial and temporal distribution of oil spill over the coral reef environs along the southeast coast of Mauritius: A case study on MV Wakashio vessel wreckage, August 2020"</a>. Journal of Earth System Science. 131 (1): 42. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022JESS..131...42P">2022JESS..131...42P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12040-021-01791-z">10.1007/s12040-021-01791-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2347-4327">2347-4327</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246481260">246481260</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Earth+System+Science&rft.atitle=Simulating+the+spatial+and+temporal+distribution+of+oil+spill+over+the+coral+reef+environs+along+the+southeast+coast+of+Mauritius%3A+A+case+study+on+MV+Wakashio+vessel+wreckage%2C+August+2020&rft.volume=131&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=42&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12040-021-01791-z&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246481260%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2347-4327&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022JESS..131...42P&rft.aulast=Prasad&rft.aufirst=S+J&rft.au=Nair%2C+T+M+Balakrishnan&rft.au=Joseph%2C+Sudheer&rft.au=Mohanty%2C+P+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2Fs12040-021-01791-z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_103-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoyaRinkevich1980" class="citation journal cs1">Loya, Y; Rinkevich, B (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps003167">"Effects of Oil Pollution on Coral Reef Communities"</a>. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 3: 167–180. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980MEPS....3..167L">1980MEPS....3..167L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps003167">10.3354/meps003167</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0171-8630">0171-8630</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Effects+of+Oil+Pollution+on+Coral+Reef+Communities&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=167-180&rft.date=1980&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps003167&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980MEPS....3..167L&rft.aulast=Loya&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Rinkevich%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3354%252Fmeps003167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartmannSandinChamberlandMarhaver2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hartmann, AC; Sandin, SA; Chamberland, VF; Marhaver, KL; de Goeij, JM; Vermeij, MJA (2015-09-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps11437">"Crude oil contamination interrupts settlement of coral larvae after direct exposure ends"</a>. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 536: 163–173. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015MEPS..536..163H">2015MEPS..536..163H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps11437">10.3354/meps11437</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0171-8630">0171-8630</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Crude+oil+contamination+interrupts+settlement+of+coral+larvae+after+direct+exposure+ends&rft.volume=536&rft.pages=163-173&rft.date=2015-09-29&rft.issn=0171-8630&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps11437&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015MEPS..536..163H&rft.aulast=Hartmann&rft.aufirst=AC&rft.au=Sandin%2C+SA&rft.au=Chamberland%2C+VF&rft.au=Marhaver%2C+KL&rft.au=de+Goeij%2C+JM&rft.au=Vermeij%2C+MJA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3354%252Fmeps11437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisherDemopoulosCordesBaums2014" class="citation journal cs1">Fisher, Charles R.; Demopoulos, Amanda W. J.; Cordes, Erik E.; <a href="/wiki/Iliana_Baums" title="Iliana Baums">Baums, Iliana B.</a>; White, Helen K.; Bourque, Jill R. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/64/9/796/269808/Coral-Communities-as-Indicators-of-EcosystemLevel">"Coral Communities as Indicators of Ecosystem-Level Impacts of the Deepwater Horizon Spill"</a>. BioScience. 64 (9): 796–807. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbiosci%2Fbiu129">10.1093/biosci/biu129</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1525-3244">1525-3244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=Coral+Communities+as+Indicators+of+Ecosystem-Level+Impacts+of+the+Deepwater+Horizon+Spill&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=796-807&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbiosci%2Fbiu129&rft.issn=1525-3244&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Charles+R.&rft.au=Demopoulos%2C+Amanda+W.+J.&rft.au=Cordes%2C+Erik+E.&rft.au=Baums%2C+Iliana+B.&rft.au=White%2C+Helen+K.&rft.au=Bourque%2C+Jill+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbioscience%2Farticle%2F64%2F9%2F796%2F269808%2FCoral-Communities-as-Indicators-of-EcosystemLevel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEtnoyerWickesSilvaDubick2015" class="citation journal cs1">Etnoyer, Peter J.; Wickes, Leslie N.; Silva, Mauricio; Dubick, J. D.; Balthis, Len; Salgado, Enrique; MacDonald, Ian R. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00338-015-1363-2">"Decline in condition of gorgonian octocorals on mesophotic reefs in the northern Gulf of Mexico: before and after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill"</a>. Coral Reefs. 35 (1): 77–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00338-015-1363-2">10.1007/s00338-015-1363-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0722-4028">0722-4028</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18048850">18048850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Coral+Reefs&rft.atitle=Decline+in+condition+of+gorgonian+octocorals+on+mesophotic+reefs+in+the+northern+Gulf+of+Mexico%3A+before+and+after+the+Deepwater+Horizon+oil+spill&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=77-90&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18048850%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0722-4028&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00338-015-1363-2&rft.aulast=Etnoyer&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Wickes%2C+Leslie+N.&rft.au=Silva%2C+Mauricio&rft.au=Dubick%2C+J.+D.&rft.au=Balthis%2C+Len&rft.au=Salgado%2C+Enrique&rft.au=MacDonald%2C+Ian+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs00338-015-1363-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFragoso_ados_SantosDuarteRachidChaloub2015" class="citation journal cs1">Fragoso ados Santos, Henrique; Duarte, Gustavo Adolpho Santos; Rachid, Caio TavoraCoelho da Costa; Chaloub, Ricardo Moreira; Calderon, Emiliano Nicolas; Marangoni, Laura Fernandes de Barros; Bianchini, Adalto; Nudi, Adriana Haddad; do Carmo, Flávia Lima; van Elsas, Jan Dirk; Rosado, Alexandre Soares (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4677405">"Impact of oil spills on coral reefs can be reduced by bioremediation using probiotic microbiota"</a>. Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 18268. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015NatSR...518268F">2015NatSR...518268F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep18268">10.1038/srep18268</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322">2045-2322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4677405">4677405</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26658023">26658023</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Impact+of+oil+spills+on+coral+reefs+can+be+reduced+by+bioremediation+using+probiotic+microbiota&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18268&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4677405%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015NatSR...518268F&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26658023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep18268&rft.issn=2045-2322&rft.aulast=Fragoso+ados+Santos&rft.aufirst=Henrique&rft.au=Duarte%2C+Gustavo+Adolpho+Santos&rft.au=Rachid%2C+Caio+TavoraCoelho+da+Costa&rft.au=Chaloub%2C+Ricardo+Moreira&rft.au=Calderon%2C+Emiliano+Nicolas&rft.au=Marangoni%2C+Laura+Fernandes+de+Barros&rft.au=Bianchini%2C+Adalto&rft.au=Nudi%2C+Adriana+Haddad&rft.au=do+Carmo%2C+Fl%C3%A1via+Lima&rft.au=van+Elsas%2C+Jan+Dirk&rft.au=Rosado%2C+Alexandre+Soares&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4677405&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPradhan-Das-Pradhan2021" class="citation web cs1">Pradhan-Das-Pradhan, Binapani-Madhumita-Madhumita (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tshe.org/ea/pdf/EA14(3)/EA14(3)_02.pdf">"Marine Oil Spills: Implications on Response Plan"</a> (PDF). Environment Asia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Environment+Asia&rft.atitle=Marine+Oil+Spills%3A+Implications+on+Response+Plan&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Pradhan-Das-Pradhan&rft.aufirst=Binapani-Madhumita-Madhumita&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tshe.org%2Fea%2Fpdf%2FEA14%283%29%2FEA14%283%29_02.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilvaVillelaSantosDuarte2021" class="citation journal cs1">Silva, Denise P.; Villela, Helena D. M.; Santos, Henrique F.; Duarte, Gustavo A. S.; Ribeiro, José Roberto; Ghizelini, Angela M.; Vilela, Caren L. S.; Rosado, Phillipe M.; Fazolato, Carolline S.; Santoro, Erika P.; Carmo, Flavia L. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8138999">"Multi-domain probiotic consortium as an alternative to chemical remediation of oil spills at coral reefs and adjacent sites"</a>. Microbiome. 9 (1): 118. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40168-021-01041-w">10.1186/s40168-021-01041-w</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2049-2618">2049-2618</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8138999">8138999</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34020712">34020712</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microbiome&rft.atitle=Multi-domain+probiotic+consortium+as+an+alternative+to+chemical+remediation+of+oil+spills+at+coral+reefs+and+adjacent+sites&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=118&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8138999%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2049-2618&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34020712&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs40168-021-01041-w&rft.aulast=Silva&rft.aufirst=Denise+P.&rft.au=Villela%2C+Helena+D.+M.&rft.au=Santos%2C+Henrique+F.&rft.au=Duarte%2C+Gustavo+A.+S.&rft.au=Ribeiro%2C+Jos%C3%A9+Roberto&rft.au=Ghizelini%2C+Angela+M.&rft.au=Vilela%2C+Caren+L.+S.&rft.au=Rosado%2C+Phillipe+M.&rft.au=Fazolato%2C+Carolline+S.&rft.au=Santoro%2C+Erika+P.&rft.au=Carmo%2C+Flavia+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8138999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/public_lands/energy/dirty_energy_development/oil_and_gas/gulf_oil_spill/dispersants.html">"Dispersants"</a>. www.biologicaldiversity.org. Retrieved 2022-04-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.biologicaldiversity.org&rft.atitle=Dispersants&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biologicaldiversity.org%2Fprograms%2Fpublic_lands%2Fenergy%2Fdirty_energy_development%2Foil_and_gas%2Fgulf_oil_spill%2Fdispersants.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatelHomaeiPatilDaverey2018" class="citation journal cs1">Patel, Seema; Homaei, Ahmad; Patil, Sangram; Daverey, Achlesh (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00253-018-9434-2">"Microbial biosurfactants for oil spill remediation: pitfalls and potentials"</a>. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 103 (1): 27–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00253-018-9434-2">10.1007/s00253-018-9434-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0175-7598">0175-7598</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30343430">30343430</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53042649">53042649</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Microbiology+and+Biotechnology&rft.atitle=Microbial+biosurfactants+for+oil+spill+remediation%3A+pitfalls+and+potentials&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-37&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=0175-7598&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53042649%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30343430&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00253-018-9434-2&rft.aulast=Patel&rft.aufirst=Seema&rft.au=Homaei%2C+Ahmad&rft.au=Patil%2C+Sangram&rft.au=Daverey%2C+Achlesh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs00253-018-9434-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090706005808/http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/introduction">"The 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/introduction">the original</a> on July 6, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+2008+IUCN+Red+List+of+Threatened+Species&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iucnredlist.org%2Fstatic%2Fintroduction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IUCN_factsheet-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IUCN_factsheet_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IUCN_factsheet_113-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/IUCN" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN">IUCN</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/status_of_the_world_s_marine_species.pdf">Status of the world's marine species</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNEP-114"><a href="#cite_ref-UNEP_114-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUNEP_World_Conservation_Monitoring_Centre1980" class="citation web cs1">UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060115152058/http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html">"Protected Areas and World Heritage – Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Environment_and_Heritage" title="Department of the Environment and Heritage">Department of the Environment and Heritage</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/gbrmp.html">the original</a> on 15 January 2006. Retrieved 10 June 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Protected+Areas+and+World+Heritage+%E2%80%93+Great+Barrier+Reef+World+Heritage+Area&rft.pub=Department+of+the+Environment+and+Heritage&rft.date=1980&rft.au=UNEP+World+Conservation+Monitoring+Centre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsea.unep-wcmc.org%2Fsites%2Fwh%2Fgbrmp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GBRWHV-115"><a href="#cite_ref-GBRWHV_115-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061006181457/http://www.deh.gov.au/heritage/worldheritage/sites/gbr/values.html">"Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Values"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deh.gov.au/heritage/worldheritage/sites/gbr/values.html">the original</a> on 6 October 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Great+Barrier+Reef+World+Heritage+Values&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deh.gov.au%2Fheritage%2Fworldheritage%2Fsites%2Fgbr%2Fvalues.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFodor's" class="citation web cs1">Fodor's. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fodors.com/miniguides/mgresults.cfm?destination=great_barrier@230&cur_section=ove">"Great Barrier Reef Travel Guide"</a>. Retrieved 8 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Great+Barrier+Reef+Travel+Guide&rft.au=Fodor%27s&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fodors.com%2Fminiguides%2Fmgresults.cfm%3Fdestination%3Dgreat_barrier%40230%26cur_section%3Dove&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-1975review-117"><a href="#cite_ref-1975review_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDepartment_of_the_Environment_and_Heritage" class="citation web cs1">Department of the Environment and Heritage. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061018005108/http://deh.gov.au/coasts/publications/gbr-marine-park-act.html">"Review of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/publications/gbr-marine-park-act.html">the original</a> on 18 October 2006. Retrieved 2 November 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Review+of+the+Great+Barrier+Reef+Marine+Park+Act+1975&rft.au=Department+of+the+Environment+and+Heritage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deh.gov.au%2Fcoasts%2Fpublications%2Fgbr-marine-park-act.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Outlook-118"><a href="#cite_ref-Outlook_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGBRMPA2014" class="citation web cs1">GBRMPA (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140813000159/http://asp-au.secure-zone.net/v2/index.jsp?id=1342%2F1518%2F5784&lng=en">"GBRMPA Outlook Report 2014"</a>. Australian Government Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Australian Government. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asp-au.secure-zone.net/v2/index.jsp?id=1342/1518/5784&lng=en">the original</a> (PDF) on 13 August 2014. Retrieved 15 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australian+Government+Great+Barrier+Reef+Marine+Park+Authority&rft.atitle=GBRMPA+Outlook+Report+2014&rft.date=2014&rft.au=GBRMPA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fasp-au.secure-zone.net%2Fv2%2Findex.jsp%3Fid%3D1342%2F1518%2F5784%26lng%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2018" class="citation news cs1">James, Lauren E. (August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180809074121/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/08/explore-atlas-great-barrier-reef-coral-bleaching-map-climate-change/">"Half of the Great Barrier Reef is Dead"</a>. National Geographic. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/08/explore-atlas-great-barrier-reef-coral-bleaching-map-climate-change/">the original</a> on August 9, 2018. Retrieved February 1, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Half+of+the+Great+Barrier+Reef+is+Dead&rft.date=2018-08&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Lauren+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fmagazine%2F2018%2F08%2Fexplore-atlas-great-barrier-reef-coral-bleaching-map-climate-change%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDitulis_oleh_susan2010" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ditulis oleh susan (30 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipmawatisusan.blogspot.com/2010/11/mengenali-sumberdaya-pesisir-dan-laut.html">"Mengenali Sumberdaya Pesisir dan Laut"</a>. Pelajar Progressif (in Malay). Google, Inc. Retrieved 22 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pelajar+Progressif&rft.atitle=Mengenali+Sumberdaya+Pesisir+dan+Laut&rft.date=2010-11-30&rft.au=Ditulis+oleh+susan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fipmawatisusan.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F11%2Fmengenali-sumberdaya-pesisir-dan-laut.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20070709212017/http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/storypage.aspx?StoryID=93671">"ABS-CBN Interactive"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/storypage.aspx">the original</a> on 2007-07-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ABS-CBN+Interactive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abs-cbnnews.com%2Fstorypage.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJennings2009" class="citation news cs1">Jennings, R. (Feb 6, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE5151HL20090206">"Taiwan coral reefs "turn black" with disease"</a>. Reuters.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Taiwan+coral+reefs+%22turn+black%22+with+disease&rft.date=2009-02-06&rft.aulast=Jennings&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FidUSTRE5151HL20090206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdhc.noaa.gov/disease/default.aspx">"Information about Coral Disease"</a>. NOAA Coral Disease & Health Consortium. Retrieved 15 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Information+about+Coral+Disease&rft.pub=NOAA+Coral+Disease+%26+Health+Consortium&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdhc.noaa.gov%2Fdisease%2Fdefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/07/caribbean-coral-reefs-may-disappear-within-20-years-report/">"Caribbean coral reefs may disappear within 20 years: Report"</a>. IANS. news.biharprabha.com. Retrieved 3 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IANS&rft.atitle=Caribbean+coral+reefs+may+disappear+within+20+years%3A+Report&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.biharprabha.com%2F2014%2F07%2Fcaribbean-coral-reefs-may-disappear-within-20-years-report%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUS_Department_of_Commerce" class="citation web cs1">US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html">"What is coral bleaching?"</a>. oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 5 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=oceanservice.noaa.gov&rft.atitle=What+is+coral+bleaching%3F&rft.aulast=US+Department+of+Commerce&rft.aufirst=National+Oceanic+and+Atmospheric+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foceanservice.noaa.gov%2Ffacts%2Fcoral_bleach.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAldred2014" class="citation news cs1">Aldred, Jessica (2014-07-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jul/02/caribbean-coral-reef-lost-fishing-pollution-report">"Caribbean coral reefs 'will be lost within 20 years' without protection"</a>. The Guardian. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. Retrieved 2017-08-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Caribbean+coral+reefs+%27will+be+lost+within+20+years%27+without+protection&rft.date=2014-07-02&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Aldred&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2014%2Fjul%2F02%2Fcaribbean-coral-reef-lost-fishing-pollution-report&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://traveltips.usatoday.com/coral-reefs-jamaica-1380.html">"Coral Reefs in Jamaica"</a>. Retrieved 2017-08-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Coral+Reefs+in+Jamaica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftraveltips.usatoday.com%2Fcoral-reefs-jamaica-1380.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1994" class="citation journal cs1">Hughes, Terence P. (1994). "Catastrophes, Phase Shifts, and Large-Scale Degradation of a Caribbean Coral Reef". Science. 265 (5178): 1547–1551. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994Sci...265.1547H">1994Sci...265.1547H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.265.5178.1547">10.1126/science.265.5178.1547</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2884556">2884556</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17801530">17801530</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43204708">43204708</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Catastrophes%2C+Phase+Shifts%2C+and+Large-Scale+Degradation+of+a+Caribbean+Coral+Reef&rft.volume=265&rft.issue=5178&rft.pages=1547-1551&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43204708%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994Sci...265.1547H&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17801530&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.265.5178.1547&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2884556%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Terence+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrabbe2009" class="citation journal cs1">Crabbe, M.J.C. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00482199/file/PEER_stage2_10.1016%252Fj.marenvres.2009.01.003.pdf">"Scleractinian coral population size structures and growth rates indicate coral resilience on the fringing reefs of North Jamaica"</a> (PDF). Marine Environmental Research. 67 (4–5): 189–198. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009MarER..67..189C">2009MarER..67..189C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.marenvres.2009.01.003">10.1016/j.marenvres.2009.01.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19269026">19269026</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32292527">32292527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Environmental+Research&rft.atitle=Scleractinian+coral+population+size+structures+and+growth+rates+indicate+coral+resilience+on+the+fringing+reefs+of+North+Jamaica&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=4%E2%80%935&rft.pages=189-198&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.marenvres.2009.01.003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32292527%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19269026&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009MarER..67..189C&rft.aulast=Crabbe&rft.aufirst=M.J.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-00482199%2Ffile%2FPEER_stage2_10.1016%25252Fj.marenvres.2009.01.003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coast.noaa.gov/states/florida.html">"Florida"</a>. NOAA Office for Coastal Management. Retrieved 16 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Florida&rft.pub=NOAA+Office+for+Coastal+Management&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcoast.noaa.gov%2Fstates%2Fflorida.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNOAA" class="citation web cs1">NOAA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/coral-disease/">"Florida Reef Tract Coral Disease Outbreak | Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary"</a>. floridakeys.noaa.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=floridakeys.noaa.gov&rft.atitle=Florida+Reef+Tract+Coral+Disease+Outbreak+%7C+Florida+Keys+National+Marine+Sanctuary&rft.au=NOAA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffloridakeys.noaa.gov%2Fcoral-disease%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coast.noaa.gov/states/puerto-rico.html">"Puerto Rico"</a>. NOAA Office for Coastal Management. Retrieved 16 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Puerto+Rico&rft.pub=NOAA+Office+for+Coastal+Management&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcoast.noaa.gov%2Fstates%2Fpuerto-rico.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coast.noaa.gov/states/usvi.html">"U.S. Virgin Islands"</a>. NOAA Office for Coastal Management. Retrieved 16 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Virgin+Islands&rft.pub=NOAA+Office+for+Coastal+Management&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcoast.noaa.gov%2Fstates%2Fusvi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAeby" class="citation web cs1">Aeby, Greta. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200608181743/https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/coralreefs/climate-change-and-marine-disease/">"Coral Reefs : Climate Change and Marine Disease"</a>. dlnr.hawaii.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/coralreefs/climate-change-and-marine-disease/">the original</a> on 8 June 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dlnr.hawaii.gov&rft.atitle=Coral+Reefs+%3A+Climate+Change+and+Marine+Disease&rft.aulast=Aeby&rft.aufirst=Greta&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdlnr.hawaii.gov%2Fcoralreefs%2Fclimate-change-and-marine-disease%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livingoceansfoundation.org/science/reef-resilience/">"Reef Resilience: Coral Reef Resilience to Crown of Thorns Starfish and Coral Bleaching"</a>. livingoceansfoundation.org. Khaled bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation. 16 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=livingoceansfoundation.org&rft.atitle=Reef+Resilience%3A+Coral+Reef+Resilience+to+Crown+of+Thorns+Starfish+and+Coral+Bleaching&rft.date=2016-11-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livingoceansfoundation.org%2Fscience%2Freef-resilience%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Barber, Charles V. and Vaughan R. Pratt. 1998. Poison and Profit: Cyanide Fishing in the Indo-Pacific. Environment, <a href="/wiki/Heldref_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Heldref Publications">Heldref Publications</a>.</li> <li>Martin, Glen. 2002. "The depths of destruction Dynamite fishing ravages Philippines' precious coral reefs". <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle" title="San Francisco Chronicle">San Francisco Chronicle</a>, 30 May 2002</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinkevich2014" class="citation journal cs1">Rinkevich, Baruch (1 April 2014). "Rebuilding coral reefs: does active reef restoration lead to sustainable reefs?". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 7: 28–36. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014COES....7...28R">2014COES....7...28R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cosust.2013.11.018">10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Environmental+Sustainability&rft.atitle=Rebuilding+coral+reefs%3A+does+active+reef+restoration+lead+to+sustainable+reefs%3F&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=28-36&rft.date=2014-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cosust.2013.11.018&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014COES....7...28R&rft.aulast=Rinkevich&rft.aufirst=Baruch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoegh-Guldberg1999" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ove_Hoegh-Guldberg_(biologist)" title="Ove Hoegh-Guldberg (biologist)">Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100614033126/http://site.videoproject.com/coralreefs/">"Climate Change: Coral Reefs on the Edge"</a>. Global Change Institute, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Queensland" title="University of Queensland">University of Queensland</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://site.videoproject.com/coralreefs/">the original</a> on 2010-06-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Climate+Change%3A+Coral+Reefs+on+the+Edge&rft.pub=Global+Change+Institute%2C+University+of+Queensland&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Hoegh-Guldberg&rft.aufirst=Ove&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsite.videoproject.com%2Fcoralreefs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+with+coral+reefs" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100610065226/http://ccma.nos.noaa.gov/ecosystems/coralreef/coral2008/welcome.html">NOAA Report: The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2008</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090209180622/http://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/coral_reef/">A special report on the plight of the planet's coral reefs—and how you can help—from Mother Jones magazine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Effects of climate change on livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of green belts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle#Human_influences" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Possible_impacts" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Water degradation">Water degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">Community resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-economic_decoupling" title="Eco-economic decoupling">Decoupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_mitigation" title="Environmental mitigation">Environmental mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitigation_banking" title="Mitigation banking">Mitigation banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Environmental impact">Commons</a></li> <li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_source" title="Category:Environmental impact by source">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_country" title="Category:Environmental impact by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Category:Environmental impact assessment">assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_mitigation" title="Category:Environmental mitigation">mitigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Corals_and_coral_reefs" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Corals" title="Template:Corals"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Corals" title="Template talk:Corals"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Corals" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Corals"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Corals_and_coral_reefs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">Corals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_coral" title="Black coral">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_coral" title="Brain coral">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalaphyllia" title="Catalaphyllia">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermatypic_coral" title="Hermatypic coral">Hermatypic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pectiniidae" title="Pectiniidae">Chalice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pillar_coral" title="Pillar coral">Pillar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acropora" title="Acropora">Table</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elkhorn_coral" title="Elkhorn coral">Elkhorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staghorn_coral" title="Staghorn coral">Staghorn</a></li></ul></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Rugosa" title="Rugosa">Rugose</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Tabulata" title="Tabulata">Tabulate</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:FFS_Table_bottom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FFS_Table_bottom.jpg/140px-FFS_Table_bottom.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FFS_Table_bottom.jpg/210px-FFS_Table_bottom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FFS_Table_bottom.jpg/280px-FFS_Table_bottom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="330" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_coral" title="Bamboo coral">Bamboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_coral" title="Blue coral">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_pipe_coral" title="Organ pipe coral">Organ pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcyonacea" title="Alcyonacea">Sea fans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_pen" title="Sea pen">Sea pens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cay" title="Cay">Cay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesophotic_coral_reef" title="Mesophotic coral reef">mesophotic coral reef</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringing_reef" title="Fringing reef">Fringing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microatoll" title="Microatoll">Microatoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Coral_Reefs" title="Census of Coral Reefs">Census of Coral Reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs" title="The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs">The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catlin_Seaview_Survey" title="Catlin Seaview Survey">Catlin Seaview Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spur_and_groove_formation" title="Spur and groove formation">Spur and groove formation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef#Distribution" title="Coral reef">Coral regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reefs" title="List of reefs">List of reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_coral_reefs" title="African coral reefs">African coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Reef" title="Amazon Reef">Amazon Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andros,_Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Andros, Bahamas">Andros, Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apo_Reef" title="Apo Reef">Apo Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_wildlife_of_Baa_Atoll" title="Marine wildlife of Baa Atoll">Baa Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belize_Barrier_Reef" title="Belize Barrier Reef">Belize Barrier Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Sea_Islands" title="Coral Sea Islands">Coral Sea Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Triangle" title="Coral Triangle">Coral Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_coral_coast" title="East African coral coast">East African coral coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys_National_Marine_Sanctuary" title="Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary">Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_in_India" title="Coral reefs in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_Jamaica" title="Coral reefs of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_Kiribati" title="Coral reefs of Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_the_Maldives" title="Wildlife of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Barrier_Reef_System" title="Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System">Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Caledonian_barrier_reef" title="New Caledonian barrier reef">New Caledonia barrier reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningaloo_Coast" title="Ningaloo Coast">Ningaloo Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_in_non-tropical_regions" title="Coral in non-tropical regions">Non-tropical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papah%C4%81naumoku%C4%81kea_Marine_National_Monument" title="Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument">Northwestern Hawaiian Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulley_Ridge" title="Pulley Ridge">Pulley Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raja_Ampat_Islands" title="Raja Ampat Islands">Raja Ampat Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_the_Solomon_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral reefs of the Solomon Islands">Solomon Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_coral_reefs" title="Southeast Asian coral reefs">Southeast Asian coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_Tuvalu" title="Coral reefs of Tuvalu">Tuvalu Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="Coral reefs of the Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yabiji" title="Yabiji">Yabiji</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Coral diseases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_band_disease" title="Black band disease">Black band disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletal_eroding_band" title="Skeletal eroding band">Skeletal eroding band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stony_coral_tissue_loss_disease" title="Stony coral tissue loss disease">Stony coral tissue loss disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_band_disease" title="White band disease">White band disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_pox_disease" title="White pox disease">White pox disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conservation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Environmental issues with coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_protection" title="Coral reef protection">Coral reef protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_restoration" title="Coral reef restoration">Coral reef restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resilience_of_coral_reefs" title="Resilience of coral reefs">Reef resilience</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_organizations" title="Coral reef organizations">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Reef_Alliance" title="Coral Reef Alliance">Coral Reef Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Fins" title="Green Fins">Green Fins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Coral_Reef_Society" title="International Coral Reef Society">International Coral Reef Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PADI_AWARE" title="PADI AWARE">Project AWARE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Ball_Foundation" title="Reef Ball Foundation">Reef Ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Check" title="Reef Check">Reef Check</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbiotic algae</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">Zooxanthellae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidinium" title="Amphidinium">Amphidinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_reef" title="Artificial reef">Artificial reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_coral" title="Aquaculture of coral">Aquaculture of coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_dermatitis" title="Coral dermatitis">Coral dermatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precious_coral" title="Precious coral">Precious coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_rag" title="Coral rag">Coral rag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_sand" title="Coral sand">Coral sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">Coralline algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_coral" title="Fire coral">Fire coral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&oldid=1250146365">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&oldid=1250146365</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Coral_reefs" title="Category:Coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_conservation" title="Category:Environmental conservation">Environmental conservation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_effect" title="Category:Environmental impact by effect">Environmental impact by effect</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Category:Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical">CS1 errors: missing periodical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_August_2019" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from August 2019">Articles with dead external links from August 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Malay-language_sources_(ms)" title="Category:CS1 Malay-language sources (ms)">CS1 Malay-language sources (ms)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2011" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_in_need_of_updating_from_May_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles in need of updating from May 2021">Wikipedia articles in need of updating from May 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_in_need_of_updating" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles in need of updating">All Wikipedia articles in need of updating</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2018" title="Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2018">Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements" title="Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements">All articles containing potentially dated statements</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 8 October 2024, at 18:43 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-78f4c97c5d-gpgrq","wgBackendResponseTime":163,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.432","walltime":"1.664","ppvisitednodes":{"value":8250,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":311567,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6141,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":21,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":463962,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1390.705 1 -total"," 60.75% 844.862 1 Template:Reflist"," 23.04% 320.414 62 Template:Cite_web"," 17.04% 237.016 37 Template:Cite_journal"," 8.04% 111.762 3 Template:Navbox"," 7.24% 100.745 1 Template:Human_impact_on_the_environment"," 6.01% 83.529 1 Template:Harvnb"," 5.39% 75.018 1 Template:Short_description"," 3.89% 54.079 10 Template:Main_other"," 3.52% 48.897 3 Template:Fix"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.857","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":11385679,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAeby\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAiramé2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAldred2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustralian_Government_Productivity_Commission2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruckner1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCRC_Reef_Research_Centre\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarkRabyRocheBinning2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClementsSundinClarkJutfelt2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrabbe2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanovaroBongiorniCorinaldesiGiovannelli2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDepartment_of_the_Environment_and_Heritage\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDimmockCumminsMusa2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDitulis_oleh_susan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDownsKramarsky-WinterFauthSegal2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDownsKramarsky-WinterSegalFauth2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuceUnniRayProspero1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmma_Young2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnserink2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnserinkMay._62021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEtnoyerWickesSilvaDubick2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisherDemopoulosCordesBaums2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFodor\u0026#039;s\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFragoso_ados_SantosDuarteRachidChaloub2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGBRMPA2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGUNDLACHHAYES1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGattuso,_J.-P.Frankignoulle,_M.Bourge,_I.Romaine,_S.1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilardiCarlson-BremerJuneAntonelis2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlynn1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammerton2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartmannSandinChamberlandMarhaver2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoegh-Guldberg1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolcombCohenMcCorkle2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacobson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJennings2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKingston2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleypasFeelyFabryLangdon2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeahy2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLecchiniPoltiNakamuraMosconi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiz_Minchin2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoyaRinkevich1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucrezi2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcClellanBruno2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNOAA\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNace2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNilssonDixsonDomeniciMcCormick2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOgles2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOngMusa2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrr,_J._C.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatelHomaeiPatilDaverey2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollockLambFieldHeron2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPradhan-Das-Pradhan2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrasadNairJosephMohanty2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProspero_J.M.Nees_R.T.1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRachel_Nowak2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRasherHay2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRinkevich2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogeljChenNabelMacey2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyan_Holl2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilvaVillelaSantosDuarte2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUNEP_World_Conservation_Monitoring_Centre1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUS_Department_of_Commerce\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFUS_EPA2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWagner2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaskey2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatts2018\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Center\"] = 3,\n [\"Chem\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 37,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 62,\n [\"Clear\"] = 3,\n [\"Convert\"] = 6,\n [\"Corals\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Human impact on the environment\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 11,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Update\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 4,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-7649cfcddd-kllck","timestamp":"20241127123253","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Environmental issues with coral reefs","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q5381324","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q5381324","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2010-06-12T08:18:26Z","dateModified":"2024-10-08T18:43:48Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/7\/77\/Mvey0290.jpg","headline":"factors which adversely affect tropical coral reefs"}</script> </body> </html>