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decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Kivioli_chemical_plant.JPG/375px-Kivioli_chemical_plant.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Kivioli_chemical_plant.JPG/500px-Kivioli_chemical_plant.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2006" /></a><figcaption>Kiviõli Oil Shale Processing & Chemicals Plant in <a href="/wiki/Ida-Virumaa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ida-Virumaa">Ida-Virumaa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Environmental impact of the oil shale industry</b> includes the consideration of issues such as <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land use</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">waste management</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> caused by the <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_industry" title="Oil shale industry">extraction and processing</a> of <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">oil shale</a>. <a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface mining</a> of <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_reserves" title="Oil shale reserves">oil shale deposits</a> causes the usual environmental impacts of <a href="/wiki/Open-pit_mining" title="Open-pit mining">open-pit mining</a>. In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil_extraction" title="Shale oil extraction">thermal processing</a> generate waste material, which must be disposed of, and harmful atmospheric emissions, including <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, a major <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a>. Experimental in-situ conversion processes and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> technologies may reduce some of these concerns in future, but may raise others, such as the pollution of groundwater.<sup id="cite_ref-BartisBoston_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BartisBoston-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mittal_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mittal-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Surface_mining_and_retorting">Surface mining and retorting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Surface mining and retorting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_use_and_waste_management">Land use and waste management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Land use and waste management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Surface mining and <i>in-situ</i> processing requires extensive land use. Mining, processing, and waste disposal require land to be withdrawn from traditional uses, and therefore should avoid high density population areas.<sup id="cite_ref-eu_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eu-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oil shale mining reduces the original ecosystem diversity with habitats supporting a variety of plants and animals. After mining the land has to be reclaimed, process takes time and cannot necessarily re-establish the original biodiversity.<sup id="cite_ref-eu_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eu-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kattel_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kattel-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impact of sub-surface mining on the surroundings will be less than for open pit mines. However, sub-surface mining may also cause subsidence of the surface due to the collapse of mined-out area and abandoned stone drifts.<sup id="cite_ref-eu_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eu-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Disposal of mining wastes, <a href="/wiki/Spent_oil_shale" class="mw-redirect" title="Spent oil shale">spent oil shale</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Semi-coke" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-coke">semi-coke</a>) and combustion ashes needs additional land use. According to the study of the European Academies Science Advisory Council, after processing, the waste material occupies a greater volume than the material extracted, and therefore cannot be wholly disposed underground. According to this, production of a barrel of <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil" title="Shale oil">shale oil</a> can generate up to 1.5 tonnes of semi-coke, which may occupy up to 25% greater volume than the original shale.<sup id="cite_ref-eu_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eu-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is not confirmed by the results of <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_in_Estonia" title="Oil shale in Estonia">Estonia's oil shale industry</a>. The mining and processing of about one billion tonnes of oil shale in Estonia has created about 360-370 million tonnes of solid waste, of which 90 million tonnes is a mining waste, 70–80 million tonnes is a semi-coke, and 200 million tonnes are combustion ashes.<sup id="cite_ref-kahru_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kahru-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The waste material may consist of several pollutants including <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">heavy metals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)</a>, some of which are <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogenic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oilshale2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oilshale2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tuvikene_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tuvikene-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To avoid contamination of the groundwater, the solid waste from the thermal treatment process is disposed in an <a href="/wiki/Open_dump" class="mw-redirect" title="Open dump">open dump</a> (<a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a> or "heaps"), not underground where it could potentially reach clean ground water. As semi-coke consists of, in addition to minerals, up to 10% <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organics</a> that may pose hazard to the environment owing to leaching of toxic compounds as well as to the possibility of self-ignition.<sup id="cite_ref-kahru_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kahru-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_management">Water management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Water management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mining influences the water runoff pattern of the area affected. In some cases it requires the lowering of <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> levels below the level of the oil shale strata, which may have harmful effects on the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable land</a> and forest.<sup id="cite_ref-eu_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eu-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Estonia, for each cubic meter of oil shale mined, 25 cubic meters of water must be pumped from the mine area.<sup id="cite_ref-symposium_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-symposium-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, the thermal processing of oil shale needs water for quenching hot products and the control of dust. Water concerns are a particularly sensitive issue in arid regions, such as the western part of the United States and Israel's <a href="/wiki/Negev" title="Negev">Negev Desert</a>, where there are plans to expand the oil shale industry.<sup id="cite_ref-deseret2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deseret2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on technology, above-ground retorting uses between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale oil.<sup id="cite_ref-BartisBoston_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BartisBoston-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wnonline_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wnonline-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-water_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-water-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rand_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rand-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BLM2008_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BLM2008-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-myths_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-myths-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>In situ</i> processing, according to one estimate, uses about one-tenth as much water.<sup id="cite_ref-hopes_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hopes-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Water is the main transmitter of oil shale industry pollutants. One environmental issue is to prevent noxious materials leaching from spent shale into the water supply.<sup id="cite_ref-eu_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eu-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oil shale processing is accompanied by the formation of process waters and waste waters containing <a href="/wiki/Phenols" title="Phenols">phenols</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tar" title="Tar">tar</a> and several other products, heavily separable and toxic to the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-kahru_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kahru-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2008 programmatic <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_statement" title="Environmental impact statement">environmental impact statement</a> issued by the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Land_Management" title="Bureau of Land Management">United States Bureau of Land Management</a> stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 U.S. gallons (7.6 to 37.9 L; 1.7 to 8.3 imp gal) of waste water per 1 short ton (0.91 t) of processed oil shale.<sup id="cite_ref-BLM2008_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BLM2008-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_pollution_management">Air pollution management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Air pollution management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Main air pollution is caused by the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuel power plant">oil shale-fired power plants</a>. These factory plants provide the atmospheric emissions of gaseous products like <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide" title="Nitrogen oxide">nitrogen oxides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride" title="Hydrogen chloride">hydrogen chloride</a>, and the airborne particulate matter (<a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">fly ash</a>). It includes particles of different types (carbonaceous, inorganic ones) and different sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-arvoots_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arvoots-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kirso_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kirso-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concentration of air pollutants in <a href="/wiki/Flue_gas" title="Flue gas">flue gas</a> depends primarily on the combustion technology and burning regime, while the emissions of solid particles are determined by the efficiency of fly ash-capturing devices.<sup id="cite_ref-arvoots_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arvoots-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Open deposition of semi-coke causes distribution of pollutants in addition to aqueous vectors also via air (dust).<sup id="cite_ref-kahru_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kahru-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are possible links from being in an oil shale area to a higher risk of asthma and lung cancer than other areas.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greenhouse_gas_emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Greenhouse gas emissions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carbon dioxide emissions from the production of shale oil and shale gas are higher than conventional oil production and a report for the <a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_European_Union" title="Energy policy of the European Union">European Union</a> warns that increasing public concern about the adverse consequences of global warming may lead to opposition to oil shale development.<sup id="cite_ref-BartisBoston_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BartisBoston-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eu_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eu-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emissions arise from several sources. These include <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub></a> released by the decomposition of the <a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">kerogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonate minerals">carbonate minerals</a> in the extraction process, the generation of the energy needed to heat the shale and in the other oil and gas processing operations, and fuel used in the mining of the rock and the disposal of waste.<sup id="cite_ref-eu_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eu-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-arvoots_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arvoots-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-koel_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koel-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the varying mineral composition and <a href="/wiki/Heating_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Heating value">calorific value</a> of oil shale deposits varies widely, the actual values vary considerably.<sup id="cite_ref-eu_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eu-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At best, the direct combustion of oil shales produces <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">carbon emissions</a> similar to those from the lowest form of coal, <a href="/wiki/Lignite" title="Lignite">lignite</a>, at 2.15 <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">moles</a> CO<sub>2</sub>/<a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">MJ</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-eu_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eu-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an energy source which is also politically contentious due to its high emission levels.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For both power generation and oil extraction, the CO<sub>2</sub> emissions can be reduced by better utilization of <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> from the product streams. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In-situ_processing"><i>In-situ</i> processing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In-situ processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Currently, the <i><a href="/wiki/In-situ" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ">in-situ</a></i> process is the most attractive proposition due to the reduction in standard surface environmental problems. However, <i>in-situ</i> processes do involve possible significant environmental costs to <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a>, especially since <i>in-situ</i> methods may require ice-capping or some other form of barrier to restrict the flow of the newly gained oil into the groundwater aquifers. However, after the removal of the freeze wall these methods can still cause groundwater contamination as the hydraulic conductivity of the remaining shale increases allowing groundwater to flow through and leach salts from the newly toxic aquifer.<sup id="cite_ref-rand_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rand-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-grunewald_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grunewald-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_geology" title="Oil shale geology">Oil shale geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_industry" title="Oil shale industry">Oil shale industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_economics" title="Oil shale economics">Oil shale economics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-BartisBoston-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BartisBoston_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BartisBoston_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BartisBoston_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBartis2006" class="citation conference cs1">Bartis, Jim (26 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721161801/http://www.aspo-usa.com/fall2006/presentations/pdf/Bartis_J_Boston_2006.pdf"><i>Unconventional Liquid Fuels Overview</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links and further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080314013800/http://www.ostseis.anl.gov/">Oil Shale and Tar Sands Draft Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)</a> Concerning potential leases of Federal oil sands lands in Utah and oil shale lands in Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Effects of climate change on livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of green belts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle#Human_influences" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Possible_impacts" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Water degradation">Water degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">Community resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-economic_decoupling" title="Eco-economic decoupling">Decoupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_mitigation" title="Environmental mitigation">Environmental mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitigation_banking" title="Mitigation banking">Mitigation banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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