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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Noun_classes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_classes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Noun classes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_classes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concords" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concords"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Concords </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concords-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_the_use_of_concords" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_the_use_of_concords"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Examples of the use of concords </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_the_use_of_concords-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Demonstratives_'this'_and_'that'" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonstratives_'this'_and_'that'"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Demonstratives 'this' and 'that' </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demonstratives_'this'_and_'that'-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronominal_yé,_(w)ó_etc." class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronominal_yé,_(w)ó_etc."> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Pronominal yé, (w)ó etc. </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronominal_yé,_(w)ó_etc.-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-yénse,_yékha,_yémwe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#yénse,_yékha,_yémwe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.3 yénse, yékha, yémwe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-yénse,_yékha,_yémwe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subject_prefix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subject_prefix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.4 Subject prefix </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subject_prefix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-améne_'who'" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#améne_'who'"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.5 améne 'who' </div> </a> <ul id="toc-améne_'who'-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Object_infix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Object_infix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.6 Object infix </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Object_infix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numeral_concords" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numeral_concords"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.7 Numeral concords </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numeral_concords-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demonstratives_uja_and_uno" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonstratives_uja_and_uno"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.8 Demonstratives uja and uno </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demonstratives_uja_and_uno-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perfect_tense_subject_prefix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perfect_tense_subject_prefix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.9 Perfect tense subject prefix </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perfect_tense_subject_prefix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possessive_concord" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessive_concord"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.10 Possessive concord </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessive_concord-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc--ína_'other'_and_-ení-éní_'real'" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#-ína_'other'_and_-ení-éní_'real'"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.11 -ína 'other' and -ení-éní 'real' </div> </a> <ul id="toc--ína_'other'_and_-ení-éní_'real'-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Double-prefix_adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Double-prefix_adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.12 Double-prefix adjectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Double-prefix_adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historic_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historic_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Historic changes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historic_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Verbs </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Verbs subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation_of_tenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_of_tenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Formation of tenses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_of_tenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subject-marker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subject-marker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Subject-marker </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subject-marker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Object-marker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Object-marker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Object-marker </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Object-marker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variety_of_tenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variety_of_tenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Variety of tenses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variety_of_tenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Near_vs._remote" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Near_vs._remote"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Near vs. remote </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Near_vs._remote-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perfect_vs._past" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perfect_vs._past"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.2 Perfect vs. past </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perfect_vs._past-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perfective_vs._imperfective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perfective_vs._imperfective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.3 Perfective vs. imperfective </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perfective_vs._imperfective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_tenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_tenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.4 Other tenses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_tenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negative_tenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negative_tenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Negative tenses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negative_tenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dependent_clause_tenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dependent_clause_tenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Dependent clause tenses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dependent_clause_tenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_extensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_extensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Verb extensions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_extensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oral_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oral_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Oral literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oral_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Literature </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Literature subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Story-writers_and_playwrights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Story-writers_and_playwrights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Story-writers and playwrights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Story-writers_and_playwrights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Poets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Town_Nyanja_(Zambia)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Town_Nyanja_(Zambia)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Town Nyanja (Zambia) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Town_Nyanja_(Zambia)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sample phrases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Chewa language</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" > 77 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B7%D1%8D" title="Чевабзэ – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Чевабзэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichewa" title="Chichewa – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Chichewa" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="चेवा भाषा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="चेवा भाषा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7" title="لغة الشيشيوا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة الشيشيوا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_chichewa" title="Idioma chichewa – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma chichewa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheua_%C3%B1e%27%E1%BA%BD" title="Cheua ñe'ẽ – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Cheua ñe'ẽ" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%B1yanca" title="Nıyanca – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nıyanca" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7" title="نییانجا – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نییانجا" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%8B%D1%87%D1%8D%D0%B2%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0)" title="Чычэва (мова) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Чычэва (мова)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Нянджа – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Нянджа" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tchitcheweg" title="Tchitcheweg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tchitcheweg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyanja" title="Nyanja – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nyanja" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Ci%C4%8Dev%C5%A1tina" title="Čičevština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Čičevština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilankhulo_cha_Chichewa" title="Chilankhulo cha Chichewa – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Chilankhulo cha Chichewa" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chi-Chewa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichewa" title="Chichewa – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chichewa" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichewa" title="Chichewa – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Chichewa" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyanja_(sprog)" title="Nyanja (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nyanja (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichewa" title="Chichewa – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chichewa" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njand%C5%BEa_keel" title="Njandža keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Njandža keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_chichewa" title="Idioma chichewa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma chichewa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njan%C4%9Da_lingvo" title="Njanĝa lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Njanĝa lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Txewera" title="Txewera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Txewera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%86%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="زبان چوایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان چوایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichewa_bhasa" title="Chichewa bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Chichewa bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chewa" title="Chewa – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chewa" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_chichewa" title="Lingua chichewa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua chichewa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%B4%EC%99%80%EC%96%B4" title="체와어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="체와어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaren_Chewa" title="Yaren Chewa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Yaren Chewa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Chewa" title="Bahasa Chewa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Chewa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichewa" title="Chichewa – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Chichewa" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_chewa" title="Lingua chewa – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua chewa" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igicewa" title="Igicewa – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Igicewa" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyanja" title="Kinyanja – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kinyanja" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0_(%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2)" title="Ньянджа (кыв) – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Ньянджа (кыв)" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Ci%C4%8Deva" title="Čičeva – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Čičeva" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cev%C5%B3_kalba" title="Čevų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Čevų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Чевански јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Чевански јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="ചെവ്വ ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചെവ്വ ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90" title="ნიანჯა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ნიანჯა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7" title="لغه الشيشيوا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لغه الشيشيوا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%DA%86%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="چیچوایی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="چیچوایی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Cewa" title="Bahasa Cewa – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Cewa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyanja_(taal)" title="Nyanja (taal) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nyanja (taal)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%81%E3%82%A7%E3%83%AF%E8%AA%9E" title="チェワ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="チェワ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyanja_(Spriik)" title="Nyanja (Spriik) – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Nyanja (Spriik)" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichewa" title="Chichewa – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Chichewa" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinyanja" title="Chinyanja – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Chinyanja" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chewa" title="Chewa – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Chewa" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چیوا زبان – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چیوا زبان" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%90%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="چېوايي ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="چېوايي ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_Nyanja" title="Lenga Nyanja – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga Nyanja" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_czewa" title="Język czewa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język czewa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_nianja" title="Língua nianja – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua nianja" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichewa_simi" title="Chichewa simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Chichewa simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Ньянджа – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ньянджа" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AA%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A3%E1%B1%9F_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱪᱮᱣᱟ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱪᱮᱣᱟ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chewa_leid" title="Chewa leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Chewa leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sechichewa" title="Sechichewa – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Sechichewa" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichewa" title="Chichewa – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Chichewa" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lulwimi_lwesiChewa" title="Lulwimi lwesiChewa – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Lulwimi lwesiChewa" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Ceva_(jazyk)" title="Čeva (jazyk) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Čeva (jazyk)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0_(%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA)" title="Чева (језик) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Чева (језик)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njand%C5%BEan_kieli" title="Njandžan kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Njandžan kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichewa" title="Chichewa – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Chichewa" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Chewa" title="Wikang Chewa – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Chewa" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9E%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="நியாஞ்ச மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நியாஞ்ச மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Чева теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Чева теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87evaca" title="Çevaca – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çevaca" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0" title="Ньянджа – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ньянджа" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چیوا زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چیوا زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81%C3%A9ngua_chewa" title="Łéngua chewa – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Łéngua chewa" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Chewa" title="Tiếng Chewa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Chewa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%80%BC%E8%8C%84%E8%AF%AD" title="瀼茄语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="瀼茄语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E6%8B%89%E7%B6%AD%E6%96%87" title="馬拉維文 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="馬拉維文" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87ewaki" title="Çewaki – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Çewaki" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BD%90%E5%88%87%E7%93%A6%E8%AF%AD" title="齐切瓦语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="齐切瓦语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Chewa" title="Bahasa Chewa – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Bahasa Chewa" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q33273#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Bantu language of Southern and East Africa</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;">Chewa</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;">Nyanja</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;">Chichewa, Chinyanja</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Africa" title="Southeast Africa">Southeast Africa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Chewa_people" title="Chewa people">Chewa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">7 million (2007)<a href="#cite_note-NE100-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a>? <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Atlantic%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Atlantic–Congo languages">Atlantic–Congo</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Volta-Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Volta-Congo">Volta-Congo</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Benue%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Benue–Congo languages">Benue–Congo</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Bantoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantoid">Bantoid</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bantoid_languages" title="Southern Bantoid languages">Southern Bantoid</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Nyasa_languages" title="Nyasa languages">Nyasa</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Chewa</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> (Chewa alphabet) <a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Mwangwego alphabet">Mwangwego</a> <a href="/wiki/Chewa_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Chewa Braille">Chewa Braille</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a><a href="#cite_note-language-2">[2]</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Malawi.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malawi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Malawi.svg/35px-Flag_of_Malawi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Malawi.svg/45px-Flag_of_Malawi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Mozambique.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mozambique.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Mozambique.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mozambique.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Flag_of_Mozambique.svg/45px-Flag_of_Mozambique.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg/46px-Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #ffddaa;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">ISO 639-1</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=ny">ny</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=335">nya</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/nya" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:nya">nya</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/nyan1308">nyan1308</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Guthrie_classification_of_Bantu_languages" title="Guthrie classification of Bantu languages">Guthrie code</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code>N.30 (N.31, N.121)</code><a href="#cite_note-Guthrie-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">99-AUS-xaa – xag</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chewa_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Chewa_map.svg/320px-Chewa_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Chewa_map.svg/480px-Chewa_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Chewa_map.svg/640px-Chewa_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="397" /></a><div style="text-align:left;">Areas where Chewa is the dominant language (purple). Solid green signifies a nation where Chewa is an official language, striped green signifies a nation where Chewa is a recognized minority language.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="background:#fff6d9"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Person</th><td class="infobox-data">Mchewa</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">People</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chewa_people" title="Chewa people">Achewa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Language</th><td class="infobox-data">Chichewa</td></tr></tbody></table> Chewa (also known as Nyanja, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈnjændʒə/</a>) is a <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu language</a> spoken in <a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a> and a recognised minority in <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">noun class</a> prefix chi- is used for languages,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> so the language is usually called Chichewa and Chinyanja. In Malawi, the name was officially changed from Chinyanja to Chichewa in 1968 at the insistence of President <a href="/wiki/Hastings_Banda" title="Hastings Banda">Hastings Kamuzu Banda</a> (himself of the <a href="/wiki/Chewa_people" title="Chewa people">Chewa people</a>), and this is still the name most commonly used in Malawi today.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> In Zambia, the language is generally known as Nyanja or Cinyanja/Chinyanja '(language) of the lake' (referring to <a href="/wiki/Lake_Malawi" title="Lake Malawi">Lake Malawi</a>).<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Chewa belongs to the same language group (<a href="/wiki/Guthrie_classification_of_Bantu_languages#Zone_N" title="Guthrie classification of Bantu languages">Guthrie Zone N</a>) as <a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_language" title="Tumbuka language">Tumbuka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sena_language" title="Sena language">Sena</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nsenga_language" title="Nsenga language">Nsenga</a>. Throughout the history of Malawi, only Chewa and <a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_language" title="Tumbuka language">Tumbuka</a> have at one time been the primary dominant national languages used by government officials and in school curricula. However, the Tumbuka language suffered a lot during the rule of President Hastings Kamuzu Banda, since in 1968 as a result of his one-nation, one-language policy it lost its status as an official language in Malawi. As a result, Tumbuka was removed from the school curriculum, the national radio, and the print media.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> With the advent of multi-party democracy in 1994, Tumbuka programmes were started again on the radio, but the number of books and other publications in Tumbuka remains low.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Distribution">edit</a>]</div> Chewa is the most widely known language of <a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a>, spoken mostly in the Central and Southern Regions of that country.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> It is also spoken in Eastern Province of <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, especially in the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Tete_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Tete province">Tete</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niassa,_Mozambique" class="mw-redirect" title="Niassa, Mozambique">Niassa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">self-published source?</a>] It was one of the 55 languages featured on the <a href="/wiki/Voyager_Golden_Record" title="Voyager Golden Record">Voyager spacecraft</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> The Chewa were a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Maravi" title="Maravi">Maravi</a> people who lived in the Eastern Province of <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> and in northern Mozambique as far south as the <a href="/wiki/River_Zambezi" class="mw-redirect" title="River Zambezi">River Zambezi</a> from the 16th century or earlier.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The name "Chewa" (in the form Chévas) was first recorded by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ant%C3%B3nio_Gamitto&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="António Gamitto (page does not exist)">António Gamitto</a>, who at the age of 26 in 1831 was appointed as second-in-command of an expedition from <a href="/wiki/Tete,_Mozambique" title="Tete, Mozambique">Tete</a> to the court of King <a href="/wiki/Kazembe" title="Kazembe">Kazembe</a> in what became Zambia. His route took him through the country of King Undi west of the Dzalanyama mountains, across a corner of present-day Malawi and on into Zambia.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Later he wrote an account including some ethnographic and linguistic notes and vocabularies. According to Gamitto, the Malawi or Maravi people (Maraves) were those ruled by King Undi south of the Chambwe stream (not far south of the present border between Mozambique and Zambia), while the Chewa lived north of the Chambwe.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Another, more extensive, list of 263 words and phrases of the language was made by the German missionary <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_Koelle" title="Sigismund Koelle">Sigismund Koelle</a> who, working in <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> in West Africa, interviewed some 160 former slaves and recorded vocabularies in their languages. He published the results in a book called <a href="/wiki/Polyglotta_Africana" title="Polyglotta Africana">Polyglotta Africana</a> in 1854. Among other slaves was one Mateke, who spoke what he calls "Maravi". Mateke's language is clearly an early form of Nyanja, but in a southern dialect. For example, the modern Chichewa phrase zaka ziwiri 'two years' was dzaka dziŵiri in Mateke's speech, whereas for Johannes Rebmann's informant Salimini, who came from the Lilongwe region, it was bzaka bziŵiri.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The same dialect difference survives today in the word dzala or bzala '(to) plant'.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Apart from the few words recorded by Gamitto and Koelle, the first extensive record of the Chewa language was made by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Rebmann" title="Johannes Rebmann">Johannes Rebmann</a> in his Dictionary of the Kiniassa Language, published in 1877 but written in 1853–4. Rebmann was a missionary living near Mombasa in Kenya, and he obtained his information from a Malawian slave, known by the Swahili name Salimini, who had been captured in Malawi some ten years earlier.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Salimini, who came from a place called Mphande apparently in the Lilongwe region, also noted some differences between his own dialect, which he called Kikamtunda, the "language of the plateau", and the Kimaravi dialect spoken further south; for example, the Maravi gave the name <a href="/wiki/Miombo" title="Miombo">mombo</a> to the tree which he himself called kamphoni.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The first grammar, A Grammar of the Chinyanja language as spoken at Lake Nyasa with Chinyanja–English and English–Chinyanja vocabulary, was written by Alexander Riddel in 1880. Further early grammars and vocabularies include A grammar of Chinyanja, a language spoken in British Central Africa, on and near the shores of Lake Nyasa by George Henry (1891) and M.E. Woodward's A vocabulary of English–Chinyanja and Chinyanja–English: as spoken at Likoma, Lake Nyasa (1895). The whole Bible was translated into the <a href="/wiki/Likoma_Island" title="Likoma Island">Likoma Island</a> dialect of Nyanja by <a href="/wiki/William_Percival_Johnson" title="William Percival Johnson">William Percival Johnson</a> and published as Chikalakala choyera: ndicho Malangano ya Kale ndi Malangano ya Chapano in 1912.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Another Bible translation, known as the Buku Lopatulika ndilo Mau a Mulungu, was made in a more standard Central Region dialect about 1900–1922 by missionaries of the Dutch Reformed Mission and Church of Scotland with the help of some Malawians. This has recently (2016) been reissued in a revised and slightly modernised version.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Another early grammar, concentrating on the <a href="/wiki/Kasungu" title="Kasungu">Kasungu</a> dialect of the language, was <a href="/wiki/Mark_Hanna_Watkins" title="Mark Hanna Watkins">Mark Hanna Watkins</a>' A Grammar of Chichewa (1937). This book, the first grammar of any African language to be written by an American, was a work of cooperation between a young black PhD student and young student from Nyasaland studying in Chicago, <a href="/wiki/Hastings_Banda" title="Hastings Banda">Hastings Kamuzu Banda</a>, who in 1966 was to become the first President of the Republic of Malawi.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> This grammar is also remarkable in that it was the first to mark the tones of the words. Modern monographs on aspects of Chichewa grammar include <a href="/wiki/Al_Mtenje" title="Al Mtenje">Mtenje</a> (1986), Kanerva (1990), Mchombo (2004) and <a href="/wiki/Laura_J._Downing" title="Laura J. Downing">Downing</a> & Mtenje (2017). In recent years the language has changed considerably, and a dichotomy has grown between the traditional Chichewa of the villages and the language of city-dwellers.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> Chewa has five short vowel sounds: a, ɛ, i, ɔ, u; these are written a, e, i, o, u. Long vowels are sometimes found, e.g. áákúlu 'big' (class 2), kufúula 'to shout'.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> When a word comes at the end of a phrase, its penultimate vowel tends to be lengthened,<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> except for non-Chewa names and words, such as Muthárika or ófesi, in which the penultimate vowel always remains short.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The added 'u' or 'i' in borrowed words such as láputopu 'laptop' or íntaneti 'internet' tends to be very short.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Chewa Vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>, (iː) </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>, (uː) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>, (ɛː) </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>, (ɔː) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>, (aː) </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Vowels are generally lengthened in the penultimate syllable of a prosodic phrase.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> Chewa consonants can be simple (directly preceding a vowel) or may be followed by w or y: <ul><li>b, kh, g, f, m, s etc.</li> <li>bw, khw, gw, fw, mw, sw etc.</li> <li>bz, tch, j, fy, ny, sh etc.</li></ul> In the orthography, the place of by is taken by the affricate bz, the place of gy is taken by j, and that of sy by sh. Voiced and aspirated consonants, as well as [f] and [s], can also be preceded by a <a href="/wiki/Homorganic_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Homorganic consonants">homorganic</a> nasal: <ul><li>mb, ngw, nj, mv, nz etc.</li> <li>mph, nkhw, ntch, mf, ns etc.</li></ul> It is debated whether these are <a href="/wiki/Consonant_cluster" title="Consonant cluster">consonant clusters</a> /NC/, /Cy/ and /Cw/, or whether Chichewa has <a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">prenasalized</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palatalized_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatalized consonant">palatalized</a> and <a href="/wiki/Labialized_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Labialized consonant">labialized</a> consonants /ᴺC/, /Cʲ/, /Cʷ/. The most straightforward analysis is that they are clusters.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The consonant inventory under a cluster analysis is as follows: <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Chewa consonants (cluster analysis)<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant">Labio- dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post- alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td>m /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>n /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>ny /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a>/ </td> <td>ng' /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a> </th> <td>p /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>t /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>k /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> </th> <td>ph /<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> th /<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>kh /<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">implosive</a> </th> <td>b /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_implosive" title="Voiced bilabial implosive">ɓ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>d /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar implosive">ɗ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td>(b) /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>(d) /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>g /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ts /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a>/ </td> <td>ch /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>tch /<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">t͡ʃʰ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>dz /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">d͡z</a>/ </td> <td>j /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>f /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td>s /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td>sh /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(h) /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td>(ŵ) /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> </td> <td>v /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/ </td> <td>z /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Semivowel</a> </th> <td>w /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>y /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2">la/ra [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_flap" title="Voiced retroflex lateral flap">𝼈</a>] </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Consonants in parentheses are marginal or found mainly in loanwords. The lateral is an approximant [l] word-initially and a flap [𝼈] medially.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">source that it's reflexive?</a>] If the more complex syllable onsets are analyzed as single consonants, the inventory is as follows: <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Chewa consonants (unitary analysis) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a>/<a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatal-ised</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labial-ised</a> </th> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatal-ised</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labial-ised</a> </th> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatal-ised</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labial-ised</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td>m /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/</td> <td> </td> <td>my /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">mʲ</a>/ </td> <td>mw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">mʷ</a>/ </td> <td>n /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td>ny /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>ng' /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>ng'w /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ŋʷ</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a> </th> <td>p /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/</td> <td> </td> <td>py /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">pʲ</a>/ </td> <td>pw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">pʷ</a>/ </td> <td>t /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td>ty /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">tʲ</a>/ </td> <td>tw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">tʷ</a>/ </td> <td>k /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>kw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">kʷ</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> </th> <td>ph /<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a>/</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>phw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">pʷʰ</a>/ </td> <td>th /<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a>/ </td> <td>thy /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">tʲʰ</a>/ </td> <td>thw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">tʷʰ</a>/ </td> <td>kh /<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>khw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">kʷʰ</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">Pre-nasalized</a> <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> </th> <td>mph /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐpʰ</a>/</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>mphw /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐpʷʰ</a>/ </td> <td>nth /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtʰ</a>/ </td> <td>nthy /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtʲʰ</a>/ </td> <td>nthw /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿtʷʰ</a>/ </td> <td>nkh /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵑkʰ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>nkhw /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵑkʷʰ</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td>b /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_implosive" title="Voiced bilabial implosive">ɓ</a>/</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>bw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ɓʷ</a>/ </td> <td>d /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar implosive">ɗ</a>/ </td> <td>dy /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">ɗʲ</a>/ </td> <td>dw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ɗʷ</a>/ </td> <td rowspan="2">g /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/ </td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td rowspan="2">gw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ɡʷ</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>(b) /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(d) /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">Pre-nasalized</a> <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td>mb /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐb</a>/</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>mbw /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐbʷ</a>/ </td> <td>nd /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿd</a>/ </td> <td>ndy /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿdʲ</a>/ </td> <td>ndw /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿdʷ</a>/ </td> <td>ng /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵑɡ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>ngw /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵑɡʷ</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a> </th> <td></td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ts /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>tsw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">t͡sʷ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>ch /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> </th> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>ps /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">pʃʲ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>tch /<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">t͡ʃʰ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">Pre-nasalized</a> <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated</a> </th> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>mps /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐpsʲ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ntch /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿt͡ʃʰ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>bz /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">bʒʲ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>dz /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">d͡z</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>(dzw) /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">d͡zʷ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>j /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">Pre-nasalized</a> <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td></td> <td> </td> <td>mbz /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᵐbzʲ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>(ndz) /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿd͡z</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>nj /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿd͡ʒ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td></td> <td>f /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td>(fy) /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">fʲ</a>/ </td> <td>fw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">fʷ</a>/ </td> <td>s /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td>sh /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td>sw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">sʷ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(h) /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">Pre-nasalized</a> </th> <td></td> <td>mf /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶬf</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ns /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿs</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>nsw /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿsʷ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td>(ŵ) /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>/</td> <td>v /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/ </td> <td>(vy) /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">vʲ</a>/ </td> <td>vw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">vʷ</a>/ </td> <td>z /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/ </td> <td>(zy) /<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">zʲ~ʒ</a>/ </td> <td>zw /<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">zʷ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">Pre-nasalized</a> <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td></td> <td>mv /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ᶬv</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>nz /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿz</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td>nzw /<a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">ⁿzʷ</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral approximant">Lateral approximant</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Lateral_flap" title="Lateral flap">flap</a> </th> <td></td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>l/r [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_flap" title="Voiced retroflex lateral flap">𝼈</a>] </td> <td> </td> <td>lw/rw [<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">lʷ</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">𝼈ʷ</a>] </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td>w /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/</td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>y /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> The spelling used here is that introduced in 1973,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> which is the one generally in use in the Malawi at the present time, replacing the Chinyanja Orthography Rules of 1931.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Notes on the consonants <ul><li>In most words, Chewa b and d (when not <a href="/wiki/Prenasalized_consonant" title="Prenasalized consonant">prenasalised</a>) are pronounced <a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">implosively</a>, by sucking slightly.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> However, there is also a plosive b and d, mostly found in foreign words, such as bála 'bar', yôdúla 'expensive' (from Afrikaans duur) (in contrast to the implosive b and d in native words such as bála 'wound' and yôdúla 'which cuts').<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> A plosive d is also found in kudínda 'to stamp (a document)' and mdidi 'confident step'.</li> <li>The affricate sounds bv and pf were formerly commonly heard but are now generally replaced by v and f, e.g. (b)vúto 'problem', (p)fúpa 'bone'. In the Mtanthauziramawu wa Chinyanja dictionary produced by the University of Malawi, the spellings bv and pf are not used in any of the headwords, but bv is used two or three times in the definitions.</li> <li>The combination bz is described by Atkins as an "alveolar-labialised fricative".<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The combination sounds approximately as [bʒ] or [bʒʲ]. Similarly ps is pronounced approximately as [pʃ] or [pʃʲ].</li> <li>The sounds written ch, k, p and t are pronounced less forcibly than the English equivalents and generally without aspiration. Stevick notes that in relaxed speech, the first three are sometimes replaced with the voiced fricatives [ʒ], [ɣ] and [β], and t can be heard as a voiced flap.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> In the combination -ti (e.g. angáti? 'how many'), t may be lightly aspirated.</li> <li>h is also used in Chewa but mostly only in loanwords such as hotéra 'hotel', hátchi 'horse', mswahála 'monthly allowance given to chiefs'.</li> <li>j is described by Scotton and Orr as being pronounced "somewhat more forward in the mouth" than in English and as sounding "somewhere between an English d and j".<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></li> <li>l and r are the same phoneme,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> representing a retroflex tap [𝼈], approximately between [l] and [r]. According to the official spelling rules, the sound is written as 'r' after 'i' or 'e', otherwise 'l'. It is also written with 'l' after a prefix containing 'i', as in lilíme 'tongue'.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></li> <li>m is syllabic [m̩] in words where it is derived from mu, e.g. m'balé 'relative' (3 syllables), mphunzitsi 'teacher' (4 syllables), anáḿpatsa 'he gave him' (5 syllables). However, in class 9 words, such as mphátso 'gift', mbale 'plate', or mfíti 'witch', and also in the class 1 word mphaká 'cat', the m is pronounced very short and does not form a separate syllable. In Southern Region dialects of Malawi, the syllabic m in words like mkángo 'lion' is pronounced in a <a href="/wiki/Homorganic_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Homorganic consonants">homorganic</a> manner, i.e. [ŋ̍.ká.ᵑɡo] (with three syllables), but in the Central Region, it is pronounced as it is written, i.e. [m̩.ká.ᵑɡo].<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></li> <li>n, in combinations such as nj, ntch, nkh etc., is assimilated to the following consonant, that is, it is pronounced [ɲ] or [ŋ] as appropriate. In words of class 9, such as njóka 'snake' or nduná 'minister' it is pronounced very short, as part of the following syllable. However, [n] can also be syllabic, when it is contracted from ndi 'it is' or ndí 'and', e.g. ń'kúpíta 'and to go'; also in the remote past continuous tense, e.g. ankápítá 'he used to go'. In some borrowed words such as bánki or íntaneti the combinations nk and nt with non-syllabic n can be found but not in native words.</li> <li>ng is pronounced [ŋɡ] as in 'finger' and ng’ is pronounced [ŋ] as in 'singer'. Both of these consonants can occur at the beginning of a word: ngoma '<a href="/wiki/Kudu" title="Kudu">kudu</a>', ng'ombe 'cow or <a href="/wiki/Ox" title="Ox">ox</a>'.</li> <li>w in the combinations awu, ewu, iwu, owa, uwa (e.g. mawú 'voice', msewu 'road', liwú 'sound', lowa 'enter', duwa 'flower') although often written is generally not pronounced.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Combinations such as gwo or mwo are not found; thus ngwábwino (short for ndi wábwino)<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> 'he is good' but ngóípa (short for ndi wóípa) 'he is bad'; mwalá 'stone' but móto 'fire'.</li> <li>ŵ, a "closely lip-rounded [w] with the tongue in the close-i position",<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> was formerly used in Central Region dialects but is now rarely heard, usually being replaced by 'w'. ("It is doubtful whether the majority of speakers have [β] in their phoneme inventory" (Kishindo).)<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The symbol 'ŵ' is generally omitted in current publications such as newspapers.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In the dialects that use the sound, it is found only before a, i, and e, while before o and u it becomes [w].<a href="#cite_note-Watkins13-49">[49]</a> To some linguists (e.g. Watkins) it sounds similar to the Spanish [β].<a href="#cite_note-Watkins13-49">[49]</a></li> <li>zy (as in zyoliká 'be upside down like a bat') can be pronounced [ʒ].<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tones">Tones</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tones">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chichewa_tones" title="Chichewa tones">Chichewa tones</a></div> Like most other Bantu languages, Chewa is a <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tonal</a> language; that is to say, the pitch of the syllables (high or low) plays an important role in it. Tone is used in various ways in the language. First of all, each word has its own tonal pattern, for example:<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <ul><li>munthu [mu.ⁿtʰu] 'person' (Low, Low)</li> <li>galú [ɡă.𝼈ú] 'dog' (Rising, Mid)</li> <li>mbúzi [ᵐbû.zi] 'goat' (Falling, Low)</li> <li>chímanga [t͡ʃí.ma.ᵑɡa] 'maize' (High, Low, Low)</li></ul> Usually there is only one high tone in a word (generally on one of the last three syllables), or none. However, in compound words there can be more than one high tone, for example: <ul><li>chákúdyá [t͡ʃá.kú.ɗʲá] 'food' (High, High, High; derived from chá + kudyá, 'a thing of eating')</li></ul> A second important use of tone is in the verb. Each tense of the verb has its own characteristic tonal pattern (negative tenses usually have a different pattern from positive ones).<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> For example, the present habitual has high tones on the initial syllable and the penultimate, the other syllables being low: <ul><li>ndí-ma-thandíza 'I (usually) help'</li></ul> The recent past continuous and present continuous, on the other hand, have a tone on the third syllable: <ul><li>ndi-ma-thándiza 'I was helping'</li> <li>ndi-ku-thándiza 'I am helping'</li></ul> Tones can also indicate whether a verb is being used in a <a href="/wiki/Independent_clause" title="Independent clause">main clause</a> or in a <a href="/wiki/Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause">dependent clause</a> such as a relative clause:<a href="#cite_note-Stevick_et_al._1965,_p.147-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <ul><li>sabatá yatha 'the week has ended'</li> <li>sabatá yátha 'the week which has ended (i.e. last week)'</li></ul> A third use of tones in Chewa is to show phrasing and sentence <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonation</a>. For example, immediately before a pause in the middle of a sentence the speaker's voice tends to rise up; this rise is referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Boundary_tone" title="Boundary tone">boundary tone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Other intonational tones are sometimes heard, for example a rising or falling tone at the end of a yes-no question.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noun_classes">Noun classes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Noun classes">edit</a>]</div> Chewa nouns are divided for convenience into a number of classes, which are referred to by the Malawians themselves by names such as "Mu-A-",<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> but by Bantu specialists by numbers such as "1/2", corresponding to the classes in other <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a>. Conventionally, they are grouped into pairs of singular and plural. However, irregular pairings are also possible, especially with loanwords; for example, bánki 'bank', which takes the concords of class 9 in the singular, has a plural mabánki (class 6).<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> When assigning nouns to a particular class, initially the prefix of the noun is used. Where there is no prefix, or where the prefix is ambiguous, the concords (see below) are used as a guide to the noun class. For example, katúndu 'possessions' is put in class 1, since it takes the class 1 demonstrative uyu 'this'.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Some nouns belong to one class only, e.g. tomáto 'tomato(es)' (class 1), mowa 'beer' (class 3), malayá 'shirt(s)' (class 6), udzudzú 'mosquito(es)' (class 14), and do not change between singular and plural. Despite this, such words can still be counted if appropriate: tomáto muwíri 'two tomatoes', mowa uwíri 'two beers', malayá amódzi 'one shirt', udzudzú umódzi 'one mosquito'.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Class 11 (Lu-) is not found in Chewa. Words like lumo 'razor' and lusó 'skill' are considered to belong to class 5/6 (Li-Ma-) and take the concords of that class.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <ul><li>Mu-A- (1/2): munthu pl. anthu 'person'; mphunzitsi pl. aphunzitsi 'teacher'; mwaná pl. aná 'child'   (1a/2): galú pl. agalú 'dog'. Class 1a refers to nouns which have no m- prefix.   The plural a- is used only for humans and animals. It can also be used for respect, e.g. aphunzitsi áthu 'our teacher'   (1a/6): kíyi pl. makíyi 'key'; gúle pl. magúle 'dance'   (1a): tomáto 'tomato(es)'; katúndu 'luggage, furniture'; feteréza 'fertilizer' (no pl.)</li> <li>Mu-Mi- (3/4): mudzi pl. midzi 'village'; mténgo pl. miténgo 'tree'; moyo pl. miyoyo 'life'; msika pl. misika 'village'   (3): mowa 'beer'; móto 'fire'; bowa 'mushroom(s)' (no pl.)</li> <li>Li-Ma- (5/6): dzína pl. maína 'name'; vúto pl. mavúto 'problem'; khásu pl. makásu 'hoe'; díso pl. masó 'eye'   Often the first consonant is softened or omitted in the plural in this class.   (6): madzí 'water', mankhwála 'medicine', maló 'place' (no sg.)</li> <li>Chi-Zi- (7/8): chinthu pl. zinthu 'thing'; chaká pl. zaká 'year'   (7): chímanga 'maize'; chikóndi 'love' (no pl.)</li> <li>I-Zi- (9/10): nyumbá pl. nyumbá 'house'; mbúzi pl. mbúzi 'goat'   (10): ndevu 'beard'; ndíwo 'relish'; nzerú 'intelligence' (no sg.)   (9/6): bánki pl. mabánki 'bank'</li> <li>Ka-Ti- (12/13): kamwaná pl. tianá 'baby'; kanthu pl. tinthu 'small thing'   (12): kasamalidwe 'method of taking care'; kavinidwe 'way of dancing' (no pl.)   (13): tuló 'sleep' (no sg.)</li> <li>U-Ma- (14): usíku 'night time'; ulimi 'farming'; udzudzú 'mosquito(es)' (no pl.)   (14/6): utá pl. mautá 'bow'</li></ul> Infinitive class: <ul><li>Ku- (15): kuóna 'to see, seeing'</li></ul> Locative classes: <ul><li>Pa- (16): pakamwa 'mouth'</li> <li>Ku- (17): kukhosi 'neck'</li> <li>Mu- (18): mkamwa 'inside the mouth'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concords">Concords</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Concords">edit</a>]</div> Pronouns, adjectives, and verbs have to show <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">agreement</a> with nouns in Chichewa. This is done by means of prefixes, for example: <ul><li>Uyu ndi mwaná wángá 'this is my child' (class 1)</li> <li>Awa ndi aná ángá 'these are my children' (class 2)</li> <li>Ichi ndi chímanga chánga 'this is my maize' (class 7)</li> <li>Iyi ndi nyumbá yángá 'this is my house' (class 9)</li></ul> Class 2 (the plural of class 1) is often used for respect when referring to elders. According to Corbett and Mtenje, a word like bambo 'father', even though it is singular, will take plural concords (e.g. bambo anga akuyenda, ndikuwaona 'my father is walking, I see him'); they note that to use the singular object-marker -mu- would be 'grossly impolite'.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The various prefixes are shown on the table below: <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Table of Chewa concords </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>noun </th> <th>English </th> <th>this </th> <th>that </th> <th>pron </th> <th>subj </th> <th>object </th> <th>num </th> <th>rem </th> <th>of </th> <th>of+vb </th> <th>other </th> <th>adj </th></tr> <tr> <th>1 </th> <td>mwaná</td> <td>child</td> <td>uyu</td> <td>uyo</td> <td>yé-</td> <td>a-</td> <td>mú/ḿ-</td> <td>m/(mu)-</td> <td>uja</td> <td>wá</td> <td>wó-</td> <td>wína</td> <td>wám- </td></tr> <tr> <th>2 </th> <td>aná</td> <td>children</td> <td>awa</td> <td>awo</td> <td>ó-</td> <td>a-</td> <td>-á/wá-</td> <td>a-</td> <td>aja</td> <td>á</td> <td>ó-</td> <td>éna</td> <td>áa- </td></tr> <tr> <th>3 </th> <td>mutú</td> <td>head</td> <td>uwu</td> <td>uwo</td> <td>wó-</td> <td>u-</td> <td>-ú-</td> <td>u-</td> <td>uja</td> <td>wá</td> <td>wó-</td> <td>wína</td> <td>wau- </td></tr> <tr> <th>4 </th> <td>mitú</td> <td>heads</td> <td>iyi</td> <td>iyo</td> <td>yó-</td> <td>i-</td> <td>-í/yí-</td> <td>i-</td> <td>ija</td> <td>yá</td> <td>yó-</td> <td>ína</td> <td>yái- </td></tr> <tr> <th>5 </th> <td>díso</td> <td>eye</td> <td>ili</td> <td>ilo</td> <td>ló-</td> <td>li-</td> <td>-lí-</td> <td>li-</td> <td>lija</td> <td>lá</td> <td>ló-</td> <td>lína</td> <td>láli- </td></tr> <tr> <th>6 </th> <td>masó</td> <td>eyes</td> <td>awa</td> <td>awo</td> <td>ó-</td> <td>a-</td> <td>-wá-</td> <td>a-</td> <td>aja</td> <td>á</td> <td>ó-</td> <td>éna</td> <td>áa- </td></tr> <tr> <th>7 </th> <td>chaká</td> <td>year</td> <td>ichi</td> <td>icho</td> <td>chó-</td> <td>chi-</td> <td>-chí-</td> <td>chi-</td> <td>chija</td> <td>chá</td> <td>chó-</td> <td>chína</td> <td>cháchi- </td></tr> <tr> <th>8 </th> <td>zaká</td> <td>years</td> <td>izi</td> <td>izo</td> <td>zó-</td> <td>zi-</td> <td>-zí-</td> <td>zi-</td> <td>zija</td> <td>zá</td> <td>zó-</td> <td>zína</td> <td>zázi- </td></tr> <tr> <th>9 </th> <td>nyumbá</td> <td>house</td> <td>iyi</td> <td>iyo</td> <td>yó-</td> <td>i-</td> <td>-í/yí-</td> <td>i-</td> <td>ija</td> <td>yá</td> <td>yó-</td> <td>ína</td> <td>yái- </td></tr> <tr> <th>10 </th> <td>nyumbá</td> <td>houses</td> <td>izi</td> <td>izo</td> <td>zó-</td> <td>zi-</td> <td>-zí-</td> <td>zi-</td> <td>zija</td> <td>zá</td> <td>zó-</td> <td>zína</td> <td>zázi- </td></tr> <tr> <th>12 </th> <td>kamwaná</td> <td>baby</td> <td>aka</td> <td>ako</td> <td>kó-</td> <td>ka-</td> <td>-ká-</td> <td>ka-</td> <td>kaja</td> <td>ká</td> <td>kó-</td> <td>kéna</td> <td>káka- </td></tr> <tr> <th>13 </th> <td>tianá</td> <td>babies</td> <td>iti</td> <td>ito</td> <td>tó-</td> <td>ti-</td> <td>-tí-</td> <td>ti-</td> <td>tija</td> <td>tá</td> <td>tó-</td> <td>tína</td> <td>táti- </td></tr> <tr> <th>14 </th> <td>utá</td> <td>bow</td> <td>uwu</td> <td>uwo</td> <td>wó-</td> <td>u-</td> <td>-ú-</td> <td>u-</td> <td>uja</td> <td>wá</td> <td>wó-</td> <td>wína</td> <td>wáu- </td></tr> <tr> <th>15 </th> <td>kugúla</td> <td>buying</td> <td>uku</td> <td>uko</td> <td>kó-</td> <td>ku-</td> <td>-kú-</td> <td>ku-</td> <td>kuja</td> <td>kwá</td> <td>kó-</td> <td>kwína</td> <td>kwáku- </td></tr> <tr> <th>16 </th> <td>pansí</td> <td>underneath</td> <td>apa</td> <td>apo</td> <td>pó-</td> <td>pa-</td> <td>-po</td> <td>pa-</td> <td>paja</td> <td>pá</td> <td>pó-</td> <td>péna</td> <td>pápa- </td></tr> <tr> <th>17 </th> <td>kutsogoló</td> <td>in front</td> <td>uku</td> <td>uko</td> <td>kó-</td> <td>ku-</td> <td>-ko</td> <td>ku-</td> <td>kuja</td> <td>kwá</td> <td>kó-</td> <td>kwína</td> <td>kwáku- </td></tr> <tr> <th>18 </th> <td>mkatí</td> <td>inside</td> <td>umu</td> <td>umo</td> <td>mó-</td> <td>m/mu-</td> <td>-mo</td> <td>m/mu-</td> <td>muja</td> <td>mwá</td> <td>mó-</td> <td>mwína</td> <td>mwám'- </td></tr></tbody></table> There are 17 different noun classes, but because some of them share concords there are in fact only 12 distinct sets of prefixes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples_of_the_use_of_concords">Examples of the use of concords</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Examples of the use of concords">edit</a>]</div> In the examples below, the concords are illustrated mainly with nouns of classes 1 and 2. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demonstratives_'this'_and_'that'">Demonstratives 'this' and 'that'</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Demonstratives 'this' and 'that'">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>uyu ndaní? 'who is this?'; awa ndaní? 'who are these?' (or: 'who is this gentleman?' (respectful))</li> <li>mwaná uyu (mwanáyu) 'this child'; aná awa (anáwa) 'these children'</li> <li>mwaná uyo (mwanáyo) 'that child'; aná awo (anáwo) 'those children'</li></ul> The shortened forms are more common. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pronominal_yé,_(w)ó_etc.">Pronominal yé, (w)ó etc.</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Pronominal yé, (w)ó etc.">edit</a>]</div> Prefixed by a supporting vowel, or by ná 'with' or ndi 'it is', these make the pronouns 'he/she' and 'they': <ul><li>iyé 'he/she'; iwó 'they' (or 'he/she' (respectful))</li> <li>náye 'with him/her'; náwo 'with them' (or 'with him/her' (respectful))</li> <li>ndiyé 'it is he/she'; ndiwó 'it is they'</li></ul> For classes other than classes 1 and 2, a demonstrative is used instead of a freestanding pronoun, for example in class 6 ichi or icho. But forms prefixed by ná- and ndi- such as nácho and ndichó are found. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="yénse,_yékha,_yémwe">yénse, yékha, yémwe</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: yénse, yékha, yémwe">edit</a>]</div> The three pronominal adjectives yénse 'all', yékha 'alone', yémwe 'that same' (or 'who') have the same pronominal concords yé- and (w)ó-, this time as prefixes: <ul><li>Maláwi yénse 'the whole of Malawi'</li> <li>aná ónse 'all the children'</li> <li>yékha 'on his/her own'</li> <li>ókha 'on their own'</li> <li>mwaná yemwéyo 'that same child'</li> <li>aná omwéwo 'those same children'</li></ul> In classes 2 and 6, ó- often becomes wó- (e.g. wónse for ónse etc.). The commonly used word álíyensé 'every' is compounded from the verb áli 'who is' and yénse 'all'. Both parts of the word have concords: <ul><li>mwaná álíyensé 'every child'</li> <li>aná awíri álíonsé 'every two children'</li> <li>nyumbá ílíyonsé 'every house' (class 4)</li> <li>chaká chílíchonsé 'every year' (class 7)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subject_prefix">Subject prefix</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Subject prefix">edit</a>]</div> As with other Bantu languages, all Chewa verbs have a prefix which agrees with the subject of the verb. In modern Chewa, the class 2 prefix (formerly ŵa-) has become a-, identical with the prefix of class 1: <ul><li>mwaná ápita 'the child will go'; aná ápita 'the children will go'</li></ul> The perfect tense (wapita 'he/she has gone', apita 'they have gone') has different subject prefixes from the other tenses (see below). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="améne_'who'">améne 'who'</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: améne 'who'">edit</a>]</div> The relative pronoun améne 'who' and demonstrative améneyo use the same prefixes as a verb: <ul><li>mwaná améne 'the child who'</li> <li>aná améne 'the children who'</li> <li>mwaná améneyo 'that child'</li> <li>aná aménewo 'those children'</li> <li>nyumbá iméneyo 'that house'</li> <li>nyumbá ziménezo 'those houses'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Object_infix">Object infix</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Object infix">edit</a>]</div> The use of an object infix is not obligatory in Chewa (for example, ndagula means 'I have bought (them)'). If used, it comes immediately before the verb root, and agrees with the object: <ul><li>ndamúona 'I have seen him/her'; ndawáona 'I have seen them' (sometimes shortened to ndaáona).</li></ul> The object infix of classes 16, 17, and 18 is usually replaced by a suffix: ndaonámo 'I have seen inside it'. The same infix with verbs with the applicative suffix -ira represents the indirect object, e.g. ndamúlembera 'I have written to him'. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Numeral_concords">Numeral concords</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Numeral concords">edit</a>]</div> Numeral concords are used with numbers -módzi 'one', -wíri 'two', -tátu 'three', -náyi 'four', -sanu 'five', and the words -ngáti? 'how many', -ngápo 'several': <ul><li>mwaná mmódzi 'one child'; aná awíri 'two children'; aná angáti? 'how many children?'</li></ul> The class 1 prefix m- becomes mu- before -wiri: tomáto muwíri 'two tomatoes'. The number khúmi 'ten' has no concord. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demonstratives_uja_and_uno">Demonstratives uja and uno</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Demonstratives uja and uno">edit</a>]</div> The demonstrative pronouns uja 'that one you know' and uno 'this one we are in' take the concords u- and a- in classes 1 and 2. For semantic reasons, class 1 uno is rare: <ul><li>mwaná uja 'that child (the one you know)'; aná aja 'those children' (those ones you know)</li> <li>mwezí uno 'this month (we are in)' (class 3); masíkú ano 'these days'; ku Maláwí kuno 'here in Malawi (where we are now)' (class 17).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perfect_tense_subject_prefix">Perfect tense subject prefix</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Perfect tense subject prefix">edit</a>]</div> The same concords w- (derived from u-) and a-, combined with the vowel a, make the subject prefix of the perfect tense. In the plural the two prefixes a-a- combine into a single vowel: <ul><li>mwaná wapita 'the child has gone; aná apita 'the children have gone'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Possessive_concord">Possessive concord</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Possessive concord">edit</a>]</div> The concords w- (derived from u-) and a- are also found in the word á 'of': <ul><li>mwaná wá Mphátso 'Mphatso's child'; aná á Mphátso 'Mphatso's children'</li></ul> The same concords are used in possessive adjectives -ánga 'my', -áko 'your', -áke 'his/her/its/their', -áthu 'our', -ánu 'your (plural or respectful singular), -áwo 'their'/'his/her' (respectful): <ul><li>mwaná wángá 'my child'; aná ángá 'my children'</li></ul> -áwo 'their' is used only of people (-áke is used for things). Wá 'of' can be combined with nouns or adverbs to make adjectives: <ul><li>mwaná wánzérú 'an intelligent child'; aná ánzérú 'intelligent children'</li> <li>mwaná ábwino a good child'; aná ábwino 'good children'</li></ul> In the same way wá 'of' combines with the ku- of the infinitive to make verbal adjectives. Wá + ku- usually shortens to wó-, except where the verb root is monosyllabic: <ul><li>mwaná wókóngola 'a beautiful child'; aná ókóngola 'beautiful children'</li> <li>mwaná wákúbá 'a thieving child'; aná ákúbá 'thieving children'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="-ína_'other'_and_-ení-éní_'real'">-ína 'other' and -ení-éní 'real'</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: -ína 'other' and -ení-éní 'real'">edit</a>]</div> The same w- and a- concords are found with the words -ína 'other' and -ení-éní 'real'. In combination with these words the plural concord a- is converted to e-: <ul><li>mwaná wína 'a certain child, another child'; aná éna 'certain children, other children'</li> <li>mwaná weníwéní 'a real child'; aná eníéní 'real children'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Double-prefix_adjectives">Double-prefix adjectives</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Double-prefix adjectives">edit</a>]</div> Certain adjectives (-kúlu 'big', -ng'óno 'small'; -(a)múna 'male', -kázi 'female'; -táli 'long', 'tall', -fúpi 'short'; -wisi 'fresh') have a double prefix, combining the possessive concord (wá-) and the number concord (m- or mw-): <ul><li>mwaná wáḿkúlu 'a big child'; aná áákúlu 'big children'</li> <li>mwaná wáḿng'óno 'a small child'; aná ááng'óno 'little children'</li> <li>mwaná wámwámúna 'a male child'; aná áámúna 'male children'</li> <li>mwaná wáḿkázi 'a female child'; aná áákázi 'female children'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historic_changes">Historic changes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Historic changes">edit</a>]</div> Early dictionaries, such as those of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Rebmann" title="Johannes Rebmann">Rebmann</a>, and of Scott and Hetherwick, show that formerly the number of concords was greater. The following changes have taken place: <ul><li>Class 2 formerly had the concord ŵa- (e.g. ŵanthu aŵa 'these people'), but this has now become a- for most speakers.</li> <li>Class 8, formerly using dzi- (Southern Region) or bzi/bvi/vi- (Central Region) (e.g. bzaká bziŵíri 'two years'),<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> has now adopted the concords of class 10.</li> <li>Class 6, formerly with ya- concords (e.g. mazira aya 'these eggs'),<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> now has the concords of class 2.</li> <li>Class 11 (lu-) had already been assimilated to class 5 even in the 19th century, although it still exists in some dialects of the neighbouring language <a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_language" title="Tumbuka language">Tumbuka</a>.</li> <li>Class 14, formerly with bu- concords (e.g. ufá bwángá 'my flour'),<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> now has the same concords as class 3.</li> <li>Class 13 (ti-) had tu- in Rebmann's time (e.g. tumpeni utu 'these small knives'). This prefix still survives in words like tuló 'sleep'.</li></ul> In addition, classes 4 and 9, and classes 15 and 17 have identical concords, so the total number of concord sets (singular and plural) is now twelve. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verbs">Verbs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Verbs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chichewa_tenses" title="Chichewa tenses">Chichewa tenses</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_of_tenses">Formation of tenses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Formation of tenses">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">Tenses</a> in Chichewa are differentiated in two ways, by their tense-marker (or tense-<a href="/wiki/Infix" title="Infix">infix</a>), and by their tonal pattern. Sometimes two tenses have the same tense-marker and differ in their tonal pattern alone. In the following examples, the tense-marker is underlined:<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <ul><li>ndi-ku-gúla 'I am buying'</li> <li>ndí-ma-gúla 'I usually buy'</li> <li>ndi-ma-gúla 'I was buying', 'I used to buy'</li> <li>ndí-dzá-gula 'I will buy (tomorrow or in future)'</li> <li>ndí-ká-gula 'I will buy (when I get there)'</li></ul> One tense has no tense-marker: <ul><li>ndí-gula 'I will buy (soon)'</li></ul> Tenses can be modified further by adding certain other infixes, called 'aspect-markers', after the tense-marker. These are -má- 'always, usually' -ká- 'go and', -dzá 'come and' or 'in future', and -ngo- 'only', 'just'. These infixes can also be used on their own, as tense-markers in their own right (compare the use of -ma- and -dza- in the list of tenses above). For example: <ul><li>ndi-ku-má-gúlá 'I am always buying'<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></li> <li>ndi-ná-ká-gula 'I went and bought'<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></li> <li>ndí-má-ngo-gúla 'I just usually buy'<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></li></ul> Compound tenses, such as the following, are also found in Chichewa:<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <ul><li>nd-a-khala ndí-kú-gúla 'I have been buying'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subject-marker">Subject-marker</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Subject-marker">edit</a>]</div> Chichewa verbs (with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative mood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a>) begin with a <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefix</a> agreeing grammatically with the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> This prefix is referred to by some grammarians as the 'subject-marker'.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <ul><li>(ife) ti-ku-píta 'we are going'</li> <li>mténgo w-a-gwa (for *u-a-gwa) 'the tree has fallen'<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></li></ul> The subject-marker can be: <ul><li>Personal: ndi- 'I', u- 'you (singular)', a- 'he, she', ti- 'we', mu- 'you (plural or polite)', a- 'they'; 'he/she (respectful or polite). (In the perfect tense, the subject-marker for 'he, she' is w-: w-a-pita 'he has gone'.)<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></li> <li>Impersonal: a- (class 1, 2 or 6), u- (class 3 or 14), i- (class 4 or 9), li- (class 5), etc.</li> <li>Locative: ku-, pa-, mu-</li></ul> An example of a locative subject-marker is: <ul><li>m'madzí muli nsómba 'in the water there are fish'<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></li></ul> Both the 2nd and the 3rd person plural pronouns and subject-markers are used respectfully to refer to a single person:<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <ul><li>mukupíta 'you are going' (plural or respectful)</li> <li>apita 'they have gone' or 'he/she has gone' (respectful)</li></ul> Except in the perfect tense, the 3rd person subject marker when used of people is the same whether singular or plural. So in the present tense the 3rd person subject-marker is a-: <ul><li>akupíta 'he/she is going'</li> <li>akupíta 'they are going', 'he/she is going' (respectful)</li></ul> But in the perfect tense wa- (singular) contrasts with a- (plural or respectful): <ul><li>wapita 'he/she has gone'</li> <li>apita 'they have gone', 'he/she has gone' (respectful)</li></ul> When the subject is a noun not in class 1, the appropriate class prefix is used even if referring to a person: <ul><li>mfúmu ikupíta 'the chief is going' (class 9)</li> <li>tianá tikupíta 'the babies are going' (class 13)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Object-marker">Object-marker</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Object-marker">edit</a>]</div> An object-marker can also optionally be added to the verb; if one is added it goes immediately before the verb-stem.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The 2nd person plural adds -ni after the verb: <ul><li>ndí-ma-ku-kónda 'I love you' (ndi = 'I', ku = 'you')</li> <li>ndí-ma-ku-kónda-ni 'I love you' (plural or formal)</li></ul> The object-marker can be: <ul><li>Personal: -ndi- 'me', -ku- 'you', -mu- or -m'- 'him, her', -ti- 'us', -wa- or -a- 'them', 'him/her (polite)'.</li> <li>Impersonal: -mu- (class 1), -wa- (class 2), -u- (class 3 or 14), etc.</li> <li>Locative: e.g. m'nyumbá mu-ku-mú-dzíwa 'you know the inside of the house';<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> but usually a locative suffix is used instead: nd-a-oná-mo 'I have seen inside it'</li> <li>Reflexive: -dzi- 'himself', 'herself', 'themselves', 'myself', etc.</li></ul> When used with a toneless verb tense such as the perfect, the object-marker has a high tone, but in some tenses such as the present habitual, the tone is lost:<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <ul><li>nd-a-mú-ona 'I have seen him'</li> <li>ndí-ma-mu-óna 'I usually see him'</li></ul> With the imperative or subjunctive, the tone of the object-marker goes on the syllable following it, and the imperative ending changes to -e:<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <ul><li>ndi-pátse-ni mpungá 'could you give me some rice?'</li> <li>ndi-thándízé-ni! 'help me!'</li> <li>mu-mu-thándízé 'you should help him'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variety_of_tenses">Variety of tenses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Variety of tenses">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chichewa_tenses" title="Chichewa tenses">Chichewa tenses</a></div> Chewa has a large number of tenses, some of which differ in some respects from the tenses met with in European languages. The distinction between one tense and another is made partly by the use of infixes, such as -na- and -ku-, and partly by the intonation of the verb, since each tense has its own particular tonal pattern. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Near_vs._remote">Near vs. remote</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Near vs. remote">edit</a>]</div> There are five time-frames (remote past, near past, present, <a href="/wiki/Near_future_(grammar)" title="Near future (grammar)">near future</a>, and remote future). The distinction between near and remote tenses is not exact. The remote tenses are not used of events of today or last night, but the near tenses can sometimes be used of events of earlier or later than today: <ul><li>ndi-ná-gula 'I bought (yesterday or some days ago)' (remote perfect)</li> <li>nd-a-gula 'I have bought (today)' (perfect)</li> <li>ndi-ku-gúla 'I am buying (now)' (present)</li> <li>ndí-gula 'I'll buy (today)' (near future)</li> <li>ndi-dzá-gula 'I'll buy (tomorrow or later)' (remote future)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perfect_vs._past">Perfect vs. past</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Perfect vs. past">edit</a>]</div> Another distinction is between perfect and past.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The two perfect tenses imply that the event described had an outcome which still obtains now. The two past tenses usually imply that the result of the action has been reversed in some way: Recent time (today): <ul><li>nd-a-gula 'I have bought it' (and still have it) (Perfect)</li> <li>ndi-na-gúla 'I bought it (but no longer have it)' (Recent Past)</li></ul> Remote time (yesterday or earlier): <ul><li>ndi-ná-gula or ndi-dá-gula 'I bought it' (and still have it) (Remote Perfect)</li> <li>ndí-ná-a-gúla or ndí-dá-a-gúla 'I bought it (but no longer have it)' (Remote Past)</li></ul> When used in narrating a series of events, however, these implications are somewhat relaxed: the Remote Perfect is used for narrating earlier events, and the Recent Past for narrating events of today.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perfective_vs._imperfective">Perfective vs. imperfective</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Perfective vs. imperfective">edit</a>]</div> Another important distinction in Chewa is between perfective and imperfective aspect. Imperfective tenses are used for situations, events which occur regularly, or events which are temporarily in progress: <ul><li>ndi-nká-gúlá 'I used to buy', 'I was buying (a long time ago)'</li> <li>ndi-ma-gúla 'I was buying (today)', 'I used to buy (a long time ago)'</li> <li>ndí-zi-dza-gúla 'I will be buying (regularly)'</li></ul> In the present tense only, there is a further distinction between habitual and progressive: <ul><li>ndí-ma-gúla 'I buy (regularly)'</li> <li>ndi-ku-gúla 'I am buying (currently)'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_tenses">Other tenses</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Other tenses">edit</a>]</div> One future tense not found in European languages is the -ká- future, which 'might presuppose an unspoken conditional clause':<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <ul><li>ndí-ká-gula 'I will buy' (if I go there, or when I get there)</li></ul> There are also various <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjunctive">subjunctive</a> and potential mood tenses, such as: <ul><li>ndi-gulé 'I should buy'</li> <li>ndi-zí-gúlá 'I should be buying'</li> <li>ndi-dzá-gúlé 'I should buy (in future)'</li> <li>ndi-nga-gule 'I can buy'</li> <li>ndi-kadá-gula 'I would have bought'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_tenses">Negative tenses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Negative tenses">edit</a>]</div> Negative tenses, if they are main verbs, are made with the prefix sí-. They differ in intonation from the positive tenses.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The negative of the -ná- tense has the ending -e instead of -a: <ul><li>sí-ndí-gula 'I don't buy'</li> <li>sí-ndi-na-gúle 'I didn't buy'</li></ul> Tenses which mean 'will not' or 'have not yet' have a single tone on the penultimate syllable: <ul><li>si-ndi-dza-gúla 'I won't buy'</li> <li>si-ndi-na-gúle 'I haven't bought (it) yet'</li></ul> Infinitives, participial verbs, and the subjunctive make their negative with -sa-, which is added after the subject-prefix instead of before it. They similarly have a single tone on the penultimate syllable: <ul><li>ndi-sa-gúle 'I should not buy'<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></li> <li>ku-sa-gúla 'not to buy'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dependent_clause_tenses">Dependent clause tenses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Dependent clause tenses">edit</a>]</div> The tenses used in certain kinds of dependent clauses (such as relative clauses and some types of temporal clauses) differ from those used in main clauses. Dependent verbs often have a tone on the first syllable. Sometimes this change of tone alone is sufficient to show that the verb is being used in a dependent clause.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stevick_et_al._1965,_p.147-53">[53]</a> Compare for example: <ul><li>a-ku-gúla 'he is buying'</li> <li>á-kú-gúla 'when he is buying' or 'who is buying'</li></ul> Other commonly used dependent tenses are the following: <ul><li>ndí-tá-gúla 'after I bought/buy'</li> <li>ndí-sa-na-gúle 'before I bought/buy'</li></ul> There is also a series of tenses using a toneless -ka- meaning 'when' of 'if', for example:<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <ul><li>ndi-ka-gula 'when/if I buy'</li> <li>ndi-ka-dzá-gula 'if in future I buy'</li> <li>ndi-ka-má-gúlá 'whenever I buy'</li> <li>ndí-ka-da-gúla 'if I had bought'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_extensions">Verb extensions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Verb extensions">edit</a>]</div> After the verb stem one or more extensions may be added. The extensions modify the meaning of the verb, for example: <ul><li>gul-a 'buy'</li> <li>gul-ir-a 'buy for' or 'buy with' (applicative)</li> <li>gul-ir-an-a 'buy for one another' (applicative + reciprocal)</li> <li>gul-ik-á 'get bought', 'be for sale' (stative)</li> <li>gul-its-a 'cause to get bought, i.e. sell' (causative)</li> <li>gul-its-idw-a 'be sold (by someone)' (causative + passive)</li></ul> The extensions -ul-/-ol- and its intransitive form -uk-/-ok- are called 'reversive'. They give meanings such as 'open', 'undo', 'unstick', 'uncover': <ul><li>tseg-ul-a 'open (something)'</li> <li>tseg-uk-á 'become open'</li> <li>thy-ol-a 'break something off'</li> <li>thy-ok-á 'get broken off'</li> <li>mas-ul-a 'undo, loosen'</li> <li>mas-uk-á 'become loose, relaxed'</li></ul> Most extensions, apart from the reciprocal -an- 'one another', have two possible forms, e.g. -ir-/-er-, -idw-/-edw-, -its-/-ets-, -iz-/-ez-, -ul-/-ol-, -uk-/-ok-. The forms with i and u are used when the verb stem has a, i, or u. u can also follow e: <ul><li>kan-ik-á 'fail to happen'</li> <li>phik-ir-a 'cook for someone'</li> <li>gul-its-a 'sell'</li> <li>sungun-ul-a 'melt (transitive)'</li> <li>tseg-ul-a 'open'</li></ul> The forms with e are used if the verb stem is monosyllabic or has an e or o in it:<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <ul><li>dy-er-a 'eat with'</li> <li>bwer-ez-a 'repeat'</li> <li>chok-er-a 'come from'</li></ul> Extensions with o are used only with a monosyllabic stem or one with o: <ul><li>thy-ok-á 'get broken off'</li> <li>ton-ol-a 'remove grains of corn from the cob'</li></ul> The extension -its-, -ets- with a low tone is causative, but when it has a high tone it is intensive. The high tone is heard on the final syllable of the verb: <ul><li>yang'an-its-its-á 'look carefully'</li> <li>yes-ets-á 'try hard'</li></ul> The applicative -ir-, -er- can also sometimes be intensive, in which case it has a high tone: <ul><li>pit-ir-ir-á 'carry on, keep going'</li></ul> Verbs with -ik-, -ek-, -uk-, -ok- when they have a stative or intransitive meaning also usually have a high tone: <ul><li>chit-ik-á 'happen'</li> <li>sungun-uk-á 'melt (intransitive), get melted'</li></ul> However, there are some low-toned exceptions such as on-ek-a 'seem' or nyam-uk-a 'set off'.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oral_literature">Oral literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Oral literature">edit</a>]</div> In 1907, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Sutherland_Rattray" title="Robert Sutherland Rattray">Robert Sutherland Rattray</a>, who learned the Chinyanja language with the help of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hetherwick" title="Alexander Hetherwick">Alexander Hetherwick</a> (author of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/practicalmanualo00heth">A Practical Manual of the Nyanja language</a>), published <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/somefolklorestor00ratt_0/">Some Folklore Stories and Songs in Chinyanja</a>, a collection of texts in the Chinyanja language,<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> accompanied by English translations, reflecting the language heard in what was then Central Angoniland in the <a href="/wiki/British_Central_Africa_Protectorate" title="British Central Africa Protectorate">British Central Africa Protectorate</a>, now <a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a>. The texts include cultural and historical narratives, along with folktales, including several stories about Kamba, the trickster tortoise, and Kalulu, the trickster rabbit (hare). These are some of the riddles:<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <ul><li>"Kantu kosanyamulika 'i? Chitunzilunzi." "A little thing, yet that cannot be lifted. A shadow." (#7)</li> <li>"Ndamanga nyumba ndi mzati umodzi, n'chiani? Boa." "I built a hut with only one post to prop up the roof. What is that? A mushroom." (#11)</li> <li>"Nyumba yopanda komo. Dzira." "A hut without a doorway. An egg." (#19)</li> <li>"Mtengo adula lero, m'mawa mwache yuamba kupuka. Tsitsi." "A tree which you cut down today, and the next it begins to sprout. Hair." (#23)</li> <li>"Kungatarikitsa, lero lomwe ukafika, n'chiani? Mtima." "However far away it be, this very day this thing reaches there. Memories." (#24)</li> <li>"Pita uku, nanenso, ndipite uko, tikomane. Mkuzi." "You go in this direction, I go in that, and we must meet. Belt." (#25)</li></ul> At the end of the riddle section, Rattray includes a version of the conundrum about the man who must cross a river with a goat, a leopard, and some maize, a traditional African form of the <a href="/wiki/River-crossing_puzzle" class="mw-redirect" title="River-crossing puzzle">river-crossing puzzle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chichewa-language_authors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Chichewa-language authors">List of Chichewa-language authors</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Story-writers_and_playwrights">Story-writers and playwrights</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Story-writers and playwrights">edit</a>]</div> The following have written published stories, novels, or plays in the Chewa language: <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Chafulumira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William Chafulumira (page does not exist)">William Chafulumira</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Josia_Ntara" title="Samuel Josia Ntara">Samuel Josia Ntara</a> or Nthala<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Gwengwe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Gwengwe (page does not exist)">John Gwengwe</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E.J._Chadza" class="mw-redirect" title="E.J. Chadza">E.J. Chadza</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lula_Pensulo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lula Pensulo (page does not exist)">Lula Pensulo</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Chimombo" title="Steve Chimombo">Steve Chimombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whyghtone_Kamthunzi" title="Whyghtone Kamthunzi">Whyghtone Kamthunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Moto" title="Francis Moto">Francis Moto</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bonwell_Kadyankena_Rodgers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bonwell Kadyankena Rodgers (page does not exist)">Bonwell Kadyankena Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willie_Zingani" title="Willie Zingani">Willie Zingani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barnaba_Zingani" title="Barnaba Zingani">Barnaba Zingani</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jolly_Maxwell_Ntaba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jolly Maxwell Ntaba (page does not exist)">Jolly Maxwell Ntaba</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poets">Poets</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Poets">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Mapanje" title="Jack Mapanje">Jack Mapanje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E.J._Chadza" class="mw-redirect" title="E.J. Chadza">E.J. Chadza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedicto_Wokomaatani_Malunga" title="Benedicto Wokomaatani Malunga">Benedicto Wokomaatani Malunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocent_Masina_Nkhonyo" title="Innocent Masina Nkhonyo">Innocent Masina Nkhonyo</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Town_Nyanja_(Zambia)">Town Nyanja (Zambia)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Town Nyanja (Zambia)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: tan;">Town Nyanja</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Zambia</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Lusaka" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Nyanja_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyanja language">Nyanja</a>-based</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: tan;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">None (<code>mis</code>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">None</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Guthrie_classification_of_Bantu_languages" title="Guthrie classification of Bantu languages">Guthrie code</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code>none</code><a href="#cite_note-Guthrie-3">[3]</a></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236303919"> An urban variety of Nyanja, sometimes called Town Nyanja, is the lingua franca of the Zambian capital <a href="/wiki/Lusaka" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a> and is widely spoken as a second language throughout Zambia. This is a distinctive Nyanja dialect with some features of <a href="/wiki/Nsenga_language" title="Nsenga language">Nsenga</a>, although the language also incorporates large numbers of English-derived words, as well as showing influence from other Zambian languages such as <a href="/wiki/Bemba_language" title="Bemba language">Bemba</a>. Town Nyanja has no official status, and the presence of large numbers of loanwords and colloquial expressions has given rise to the misconception that it is an unstructured mixture of languages or a form of slang. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm/220px--WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="254" data-mwtitle="WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d0/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Chabota_speaking_Nyanja.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Zambian Town Nyanja.</figcaption></figure> The fact that the standard Nyanja used in schools differs dramatically from the variety actually spoken in Lusaka has been identified as a barrier to the acquisition of literacy among Zambian children.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> The concords in Town Nyanja differ from those in Chichewa described above. For example, classes 5 and 6 both have the concord ya- instead of la- and a-; class 8 has va- instead of za-; and 13 has twa- instead of ta-.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> In addition, the subject and object marker for "I" is ni- rather than ndi-, and that for "they" is βa- (spelled "ba-") rather than a-.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_phrases">Sample phrases</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Sample phrases">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>English</th> <th>Chewa (Malawi and Mashonaland(Zimbabwe))<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></th> <th>Town Nyanja (Lusaka)<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>How are you?</td> <td>Muli bwanji?</td> <td>Muli bwanji? </td></tr> <tr> <td>I'm fine</td> <td>Ndili bwino</td> <td>Nili bwino / Nili mushe </td></tr> <tr> <td>Thank you</td> <td>Zikomo</td> <td>Zikomo </td></tr> <tr> <td>Yes</td> <td>Inde</td> <td>Ee </td></tr> <tr> <td>No</td> <td>Iyayi/Ayi</td> <td>Iyayi </td></tr> <tr> <td>What's your name?</td> <td>Dzina lanu ndani?<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></td> <td>Zina yanu ndimwe bandani? </td></tr> <tr> <td>My name is...</td> <td>Dzina langa ndine...</td> <td>Zina yanga ndine... </td></tr> <tr> <td>How many children do you have?</td> <td>Muli ndi ana angati?</td> <td>Muli na bana bangati? ('b' = [ŵ]) </td></tr> <tr> <td>I have two children</td> <td>Ndili ndi ana awiri</td> <td>Nili na bana babili </td></tr> <tr> <td>I want...</td> <td>Ndikufuna...</td> <td>Nifuna... </td></tr> <tr> <td>Food</td> <td>Chakudya</td> <td>Vakudya </td></tr> <tr> <td>Water</td> <td>Madzi</td> <td>Manzi </td></tr> <tr> <td>How much is it?</td> <td>Ndi zingati?</td> <td>Ni zingati? </td></tr> <tr> <td>See you tomorrow</td> <td>Tionana mawa</td> <td>Tizaonana mailo </td></tr> <tr> <td>I love you</td> <td>Ndimakukonda</td> <td>Nikukonda </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NE100-1"><a href="#cite_ref-NE100_1-0">^</a> Mikael Parkvall, "Världens 100 största språk 2007" (The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007), in <a href="/wiki/Nationalencyklopedin" title="Nationalencyklopedin">Nationalencyklopedin</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-language-2"><a href="#cite_ref-language_2-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131002110534/http://www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/constitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf">"Constitution of Zimbabwe (final draft)"</a> (PDF). Government of Zimbabwe. January 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/constitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2 October 2013 – via Kubatana.net.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constitution+of+Zimbabwe+%28final+draft%29&rft.pub=Government+of+Zimbabwe&rft.date=2013-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kubatana.net%2Fdocs%2Flegisl%2Fconstitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChewa+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guthrie-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guthrie_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guthrie_3-1">b</a> Jouni Filip Maho, 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180203191542/http://goto.glocalnet.net/mahopapers/nuglonline.pdf">New Updated Guthrie List Online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> cf. Kiswahili for the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili language</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Kishindo (2001), p.265. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> For spelling Chinyanja cf. Lehmann (1977). Both spellings are used in Zambia Daily Mail articles. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Kiso (2012), pp.21ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Kamwendo (2004), p.278. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> See Language Mapping Survey for Northern Malawi (2006), pp.38–40 for a list of publications. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Mchombo (2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6PSaBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA143">Malawian Writers and Their Country, edited by Bridgette Kasuka, published on Lulu.com, page 143</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">self-published source</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161025195849/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/greetings.html">"Voyager Greetings"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/greetings.html">the original</a> on 2016-10-25. Retrieved 2016-01-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Voyager+Greetings&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvoyager.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fspacecraft%2Fgreetings.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChewa+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Marwick (1963) </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Newitt (1982). </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Marwick (1964). </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Marwick (1963), p.383. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Goodson (2011). </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Downing & Mtenje (2017), p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Rebman (1877), preface. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Rebmann (1877) s.v. M'ombo. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> The UMCA in Malawi, p 126, James Tengatenga, 2010: "Two important pieces of work have been accomplished during these later years. First, the completion by Archdeacon Johnson of the Bible in Chinyanja, and secondly, the completed Chinyanja prayer book in 1908." </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biblesociety-malawi.org/index.php/2016/02/24/buku-lopatulika-has-been-revised/">Bible Society of Malawi newsletter, 24 February 2016</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200215063607/http://biblesociety-malawi.org/index.php/2016/02/24/buku-lopatulika-has-been-revised/">Archived</a> 15 February 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Watkins (1937), p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Wade-Lewis (2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Batteen (2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Atkins (1950), p.201. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Downing & Mtenje (2017), pp. 228–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Downing & Mtenje (2017), p. 95: "A high vowel is very short and not very vowel-like, so inserting one leads to minimal deviation from the pronunciation of the word in the source language." </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Downing & Mtenje (2017), p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Downing & Mtenje (2017: 93) </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Downing & Mtenje (2017: 42–43) </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Sources are contradictory as to whether ŵ is a fricative or a semivowel. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> See Kishindo (2001), p.267. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Atkins (1950), p.200. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Scotton & Orr (1980), p.15; Atkins (1950), p.208. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Downing & Mtenje (2018), p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Atkins (1950), p.208. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Stevick (1965), p.xii. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Scotton & Orr (1980), p.18. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Atkins (1950), p.207; Stevick et al. (1965), p.xii; Downing & Mtenje (2018), p. 43, quoting Price (1946). </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Kishindo (2001), p.268. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> See also Chirwa (2008). </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Atkins (1950), p.209. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Atkins (1950), p.204. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Downing & Mtenje (2017), p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Atkins (1950), p.205. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Kishindo (2001), p.270. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mwnation.com/section/chichewa/">The Nation online news in Chichewa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124450/https://mwnation.com/section/chichewa/">Archived</a> 2019-02-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zodiakmalawi.com/business-news/content/28-nkhani-m-chichewa">Zodiak Radio online news in Chichewa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190209134318/https://zodiakmalawi.com/business-news/content/28-nkhani-m-chichewa">Archived</a> 2019-02-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Watkins13-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Watkins13_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Watkins13_49-1">b</a> Watkins (1937), p.13. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Mchombo (2004), p.10. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Mtanthauziramawu wa Chinyanja (2002). </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Mtenje (1986), pp.195; 203–4; 244ff; Mtenje (1987), p.173. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stevick_et_al._1965,_p.147-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stevick_et_al._1965,_p.147_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stevick_et_al._1965,_p.147_53-1">b</a> Stevick et al. (1965), p.147. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Mchombo (2004), pp.17–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Kanerva (1990), p.147. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Hullquist (1988), p.145. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Downing & Mtenje (2017), p. 263. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> E.g. Mtanthauziramawu wa Chinyanja. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Paas (2015). </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Kunkeyani (2007), p.154. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Paas (2015) s.v. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Mtanthauziramawu wa Chinyanja. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Corbett & Mtenje (1987), p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Scott & Hetherwick (1929), s.v. Ibsi; Rebmann (1877) s.v. Chiko, Psiwili/Pfiwili; Watkins (1937), p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Rebmann (1877) s.v. Aya, Mame, Mano, Yonse; cf Goodson (2011). </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Rebmann (1877), s.v. Ufa; Watkins (1937), pp. 33–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Maxson (2011), pp.39ff, 77ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> For tones, Mtenje (1986). </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Maxson (2011), p.126. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Maxson (2011), p.115. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Salaun, p.49. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Kiso (2012), p.107. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Maxson (2011), pp.19ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Hyman & Mtenje (1999a). </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Maxson (2011), p.52. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Maxson (2011), p.36. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Salaun, p.16. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Maxson (2011), pp. 21, 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Maxson (2011), pp.26ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Maxson (2011), p.64. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Downing & Mtenje (2017), pp. 143, 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Downing & Mtenje (2017), pp. 142, 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Watkins (1937), pp. 55–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Maxson (2011), p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Kiso (2012), pp. 110–111. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Maxson (2011), p. 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Mtenje (1986), p. 244ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Stevick et al. (1965), p.222. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Mchombo (2004), pp. 17–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Salaun, p.70 </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Kanerva (1990), p.24. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Salaun, p.78. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Hyman & Mtenje (1999b). </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Rattray, R. S. (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/somefolklorestor00ratt_0/page/16/mode/2up?view=theater">Some Folklore Stories and Songs in Chinyanja.</a> The Chinyanja texts begin on p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/somefolklorestor00ratt_0/page/71/mode/1up?view=theater">Rattray 1907</a>, pp. 71-73 (English, pp. 153-156). </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/somefolklorestor00ratt_0/page/73/mode/1up?view=theater">Rattray 1907</a>, p. 73 (English p. 156). </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dacb.org/stories/malawi/chafulumira-william/">"Chafulumira, William"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180731124003/https://dacb.org/stories/malawi/chafulumira-william/">Archived</a> 2018-07-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Dictionary of African Christian Biography. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-no96061711/">"WorldCat list of Ntara's publications"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180731123821/http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-no96061711/">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-07-31. Retrieved 2018-07-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WorldCat+list+of+Ntara%27s+publications&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Fidentities%2Flccn-no96061711%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChewa+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mwnation.com/whither-vernacular-fiction/">"Whither Vernacular Fiction?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180731125433/https://mwnation.com/whither-vernacular-fiction/">Archived</a> 2018-07-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Investigating bilingual literacy: Evidence from Malawi and Zambia (Education Research Paper No. 24). Department for International Development.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Investigating+bilingual+literacy%3A+Evidence+from+Malawi+and+Zambia+%28Education+Research+Paper+No.+24%29&rft.pub=Department+for+International+Development&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChewa+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Gray, Lubasi, & Bwalya (2013), p. 11 </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Gray, Lubasi & Bwalya (2013) p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Paas (2016). </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Phrases from Gray et al. (2013). </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Maxson (2011), p. 112. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Atkins, Guy (1950) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1156786">"Suggestions for an Amended Spelling and Word Division of Nyanja"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043729/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1156786">Archived</a> 2019-03-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 20, No. 3</li> <li>Batteen, C. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vanhise.lss.wisc.edu/ling/files/ling_old_web/lso/wpl/6/batteen.pdf">"Syntactic Constraints in Chichewa/English code-switching."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090819/http://vanhise.lss.wisc.edu/ling/files/ling_old_web/lso/wpl/6/batteen.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-03-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Bickmore, Lee (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lin.ufl.edu/files/ACAL-51-52-ho-Nyanja-Bickmore.pdf">"Town Nyanja Verbal Tonology"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220401024322/https://lin.ufl.edu/files/ACAL-51-52-ho-Nyanja-Bickmore.pdf">Archived</a> 2022-04-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Chirwa, Marion N. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://open.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11427/10191/thesis_hum_2008_chirwa_m.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Trill Maintenance and Replacement in Chichewa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210724183243/https://open.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11427/10191/thesis_hum_2008_chirwa_m.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Archived</a> 2021-07-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (M.A. thesis, University of Cape Town)</li> <li>Corbett, G.G.; Al D. 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Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Goodson, Andrew, (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chichewadictionary.org/media/Goodson-Saliminis_Chichewa_2011-05-11.pdf">Salimini's Chichewa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180809115104/http://www.chichewadictionary.org/media/Goodson-Saliminis_Chichewa_2011-05-11.pdf">Archived</a> 2018-08-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> In Paas, Steven (2011). Johannes Rebmann: A Servant of God in Africa before the Rise of Western Colonialism, pp. 239–50.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrayLubasiBwalya2013" class="citation book cs1">Gray, Andrew; Lubasi, Brighton; Bwalya, Phallen (2013). Town Nyanja: a learner's guide to Zambia's emerging national language.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Town+Nyanja%3A+a+learner%27s+guide+to+Zambia%27s+emerging+national+language&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Lubasi%2C+Brighton&rft.au=Bwalya%2C+Phallen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChewa+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHetherwick1907" class="citation book cs1">Hetherwick, Alexander (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mWsVAAAAYAAJ">A Practical Manual of the Nyanja Language ...</a> Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240521143758/https://books.google.com/books?id=mWsVAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 25 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Practical+Manual+of+the+Nyanja+Language+...&rft.pub=Society+for+Promoting+Christian+Knowledge&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Hetherwick&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmWsVAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChewa+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Henry, George, (1904). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xjY-AAAAYAAJ">A grammar of Chinyanja, a language spoken in British Central Africa, on and near the shores of Lake Nyasa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240521143707/https://books.google.com/books?id=xjY-AAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> 2024-05-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Hullquist, C.G. (1988). Simply Chichewa.</li> <li>Hyman, Larry M. & Sam Mchombo (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/BLS/article/viewFile/1579/1354">"Morphotactic Constraints in the Chichewa Verb Stem"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170805181927/http://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/BLS/article/viewFile/1579/1354">Archived</a> 2017-08-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: General Session and Parasession on The Place of Morphology in a Grammar (1992), pp. 350–364.</li> <li>Hyman, Larry M. & Al D. Mtenje (1999a). "Prosodic Morphology and tone: the case of Chichewa" in René Kager, <a href="/wiki/Harry_van_der_Hulst" title="Harry van der Hulst">Harry van der Hulst</a> and Wim Zonneveld (eds.) The Prosody-Morphology Interface. Cambridge University Press, 90–133.</li> <li>Hyman, Larry M. & Al D. Mtenje (1999b). "Non-Etymological High Tones in the Chichewa Verb", Malilime: The Malawian Journal of Linguistics no.1.</li> <li>Katsonga-Woodward, Heather (2012). Chichewa 101. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1480112056" title="Special:BookSources/978-1480112056">978-1480112056</a>.</li> <li>Kanerva, Jonni M. (1990). Focus and Phrasing in Chichewa Phonology. New York, Garland.</li> <li>Kishindo, Pascal, (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.tufs.ac.jp/bitstream/10108/20144/1/jaas062009.pdf">"Authority in Language"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303173730/http://repository.tufs.ac.jp/bitstream/10108/20144/1/jaas062009.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: The Role of the Chichewa Board (1972–1995) in Prescription and Standardization of Chichewa. Journal of Asian and African Studies, No. 62.</li> <li>Kiso, Andrea (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:546594/FULLTEXT01.pdf">"Tense and Aspect in Chichewa, Citumbuka, and Cisena"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413225410/http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:546594/FULLTEXT01.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-04-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Ph.D. Thesis. Stockholm University.</li> <li>Kunkeyani, Thokozani (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soas.ac.uk/linguistics/research/workingpapers/volume-15/file37805.pdf">"Semantic Classification and Chichewa Derived Nouns"</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]. SOAS Working Papers in Linguistics Vol.15 (2007): 151–157.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaws1894" class="citation book cs1">Laws, Robert (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anenglishnyanja00lawsgoog">An English–Nyanja dictionary of the Nyanja language spoken in British Central Africa</a>. J. Thin. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anenglishnyanja00lawsgoog/page/n1">1</a>–. Retrieved 25 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+English%E2%80%93Nyanja+dictionary+of+the+Nyanja+language+spoken+in+British+Central+Africa&rft.pages=1-&rft.pub=J.+Thin&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Laws&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanenglishnyanja00lawsgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChewa+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lehmann, Dorothea (1977) An outline of Cinyanja Grammar. Zambia <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789982240154" title="Special:BookSources/9789982240154">9789982240154</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Mapanje" title="Jack Mapanje">Mapanje</a>, John Alfred Clement (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1381825/1/388806.pdf">"On the Interpretation of Aspect and Tense in Chiyao, Chichewa, and English"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304190119/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1381825/1/388806.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-03-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. University College London PhD Thesis.</li> <li>Marwick, M.G., (1963). "History and Tradition in East Central Africa Through the Eyes of the Northern Rhodesian Cheŵa", Journal of African History, 4, 3, pp. 375–390.</li> <li>Marwick, M.G., (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1157361">"An Ethnographic Classic Brought to Light"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200225013626/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1157361">Archived</a> 2020-02-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 46–56.</li> <li>Maxson, Nathaniel (2011). Chicheŵa for English Speakers: A New and Simplifed Approach. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-99908-979-0-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-99908-979-0-6">978-99908-979-0-6</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMchombo2004" class="citation cs2">Mchombo, Sam A. (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/core/books/syntax-of-chichewa/64CFE90909DC0CF66FA27F1640A6303A">The Syntax of Chichewa</a>, Cambridge Syntax Guides, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, p. XV + 149, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-57378-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-57378-5"><bdi>0-521-57378-5</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200227204144/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/syntax-of-chichewa/64CFE90909DC0CF66FA27F1640A6303A">archived</a> from the original on February 27, 2020, retrieved June 11, 2019</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Syntax+of+Chichewa&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+Syntax+Guides&rft.pages=XV+%2B+149&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-521-57378-5&rft.aulast=Mchombo&rft.aufirst=Sam+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fsyntax-of-chichewa%2F64CFE90909DC0CF66FA27F1640A6303A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChewa+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Mchombo, S. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&dq=Mchombo+nyanja&pg=PA791">"Nyanja"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240521143725/https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PA791&lpg=PA791&dq=Mchombo+nyanja&source=bl&ots=SRivCbxFVc&sig=A5y7WrpJQN_NA0Vc4IeZrWyZhdI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwignaWd-b3VAhUjB8AKHbIhDw0Q6AEIPjAD#v=onepage&q=Mchombo%20nyanja&f=false#v=onepage&q=Mchombo%20nyanja&f=false">Archived</a> 2024-05-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In The Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World (Elsevier).</li> <li>Missionários da Companhia de Jesus, (1963). Dicionário Cinyanja–Português. Junta de Investigaçôes do Ultramar.</li> <li>Mtanthauziramawu wa Chinyanja/Chichewa: The first Chinyanja/Chichewa monolingual dictionary (c.2000). Blantyre (Malawi): Dzuka Pub. Co. (Also published online at the website of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unima-cls.org/">"Centre for Language Studies of the University of Malawi"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308020136/http://www.unima-cls.org/">Archived</a> 2021-03-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.)</li> <li>Mtenje, Al D. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083351/http://www.caldi.uct.ac.za/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Mtenje_thesis_web_p1-184.pdf">Issues in the Non-Linear Phonology of Chichewa part 1</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092107/http://www.caldi.uct.ac.za/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Mtenje_thesis_web_p184-end.pdf">Issues in the Non-Linear Phonology of Chichewa part 2</a>. PhD Thesis, University College, London.</li> <li>Mtenje, Al D. (1987). "Tone Shift Principles in the Chichewa Verb: A Case for a Tone Lexicon", Lingua 72, 169–207.</li> <li>Newitt, M.D.D. (1982) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/182054">"The Early History of the Maravi"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161101102025/http://www.jstor.org/stable/182054">Archived</a> 2016-11-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The Journal of African History, vol 23, no. 2, pp. 145–162.</li> <li>Paas, Steven, (2016). Oxford Chichewa–English, English–Chichewa Dictionary. Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Rebman, John (= Johannes Rebmann), (1877). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionarykinia02socigoog">A Dictionary of the Kiniassa Language</a>. Church Missionary Society (reprinted Gregg, 1968).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiddel1880" class="citation book cs1">Riddel, Alexander (1880). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h8ExAQAAMAAJ">A Grammar of the Chinyanja Language as Spoken at Lake Nyassa: With Chinyanja–English and English–Chinyanja Vocabularies</a>. J. Maclaren & Son. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240521143752/https://books.google.com/books?id=h8ExAQAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 25 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+the+Chinyanja+Language+as+Spoken+at+Lake+Nyassa%3A+With+Chinyanja%E2%80%93English+and+English%E2%80%93Chinyanja+Vocabularies&rft.pub=J.+Maclaren+%26+Son&rft.date=1880&rft.aulast=Riddel&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh8ExAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChewa+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Salaun, N. (1993) [1978]. Chicheŵa Intensive Course. Likuni Press, Lilongwe.</li> <li>Scott, David Clement & Alexander Hetherwick (1929). Dictionary of the Nyanja Language.</li> <li>Scotton, Carol Myers & Gregory John Orr, (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED206157.pdf">Learning Chichewa, Bk 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305014028/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED206157.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-03-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED206158.pdf">Learning Chichewa, Bk 2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305014306/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED206158.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-03-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Peace Corps Language Handbook Series. Peace Corps, Washington, D.C. (For recordings, see External links below.)</li> <li>Simango, Silvester Ron (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080910035724/http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/021/0487/jmmd0210487.pdf">"'My Madam is Fine': The Adaptation of English loanwords in Chichewa"</a>. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, vol 12, no. 6.</li> <li><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Stevick" class="extiw" title="simple:Earl Stevick">Stevick, Earl</a> et al. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160307012900/https://fsi-languages.yojik.eu/languages/Chinyanja/Fsi-ChinyanjaBasicCourse-StudentText.pdf">Chinyanja Basic Course</a>. Foreign Service Institute, Washington, D.C. (Recordings of this are available on the internet.)</li> <li>Wade-Lewis, Margaret (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/haa/summary/v001/1.wade-lewis.html">"Mark Hanna Watkins"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304220822/http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/haa/summary/v001/1.wade-lewis.html">Archived</a> 2016-03-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Histories of Anthropology Annual, vol 1, pp. 181–218.</li> <li>Watkins, Mark Hanna (1937). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/522167">A Grammar of Chichewa: A Bantu Language of British Central Africa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181210063241/https://www.jstor.org/stable/522167">Archived</a> 2018-12-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Language, Vol. 13, No. 2, Language Dissertation No. 24 (Apr.-Jun., 1937), pp. 5–158.</li> <li>Woodward, M.E., (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/avocabularyengl00rgoog">A vocabulary of English–Chinyanja and Chinyanja–English as spoken at Likoma, Lake Nyasa</a>. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chewa_language&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="ny:"> Nyanja edition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Nyanja_phrasebook#Q33273" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Nyanja phrasebook">Nyanja</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7efmEDocov0">President Lazarus Chakwera speaking in Chichewa</a> (1st April 2020).</li> <li>Tola Akindipe, George Kondowe, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chichewa.mofeko.com/">Learn Chichewa on Mofeko</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://translate.chichewadictionary.org/">Online English–Chichewa Dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ny.kasahorow.org/app/d">My First Chewa Dictionary</a> kasahorow</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/chichewa.php">Chichewa at Omniglot</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sasrc.com/chichewa/">English / Chichewa (Nyanja) Online Dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bukulopatulikand00murr">Buku Lopatulika Bible, 1922 version digitalized</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bible.com/bible/1068/gen.1.bl92">Complete Bible (Buku Lopatulika, 1922, revised 1936) in Nyanja, chapter by chapter</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bible.com/versions/1708-blpb2014-chichewa-buku-lopatulika-bible-2014">Buku Lopatulika Bible, 2014 version</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_nya_gen-3">Johnson's 1912 translation of Genesis 1–3 into the Likoma dialect, in various formats</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mammana.org/bcp/chinyanja/">Johnson's translation of the Book of Common Prayer in the Likoma dialect (1909)</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://islamhouse.com/ar/books/727529/">Holy Quran in Chichewa</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iu.edu/~celtie/chichewa_archive.html">Recordings of pages of Scotton & Orr's Learning Chichewa</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011142213/http://www.iu.edu/~celtie/chichewa_archive.html">Archived</a> 2017-10-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Willie T. Zingani, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/557edb36e4b0c3993dee95d1/t/5730f244c2ea515cf2bfdb9b/1462825565916/Zingane,+Idzani+Muone+.pdf">Idzani muone "Come and see"</a> Chichewa book in pdf form.</li> <li>Bonwell Kadyankena Rodgers, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/agoloso-presents-nkhokwe-ya-zininga-za-m-chichewa">[1]</a>. Agoloso Presents – Nkhokwe ya Zining'a za m'Chichewa.pdf.</li> <li>Bonwell Kadyankena Rodgers, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/agoloso-presents-mikuluwiko-ya-patsokwe">[2]</a>. Agoloso Presents – Mikuluwiko ya Patsokwe.pdf.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.language-archives.org/language/nya">OLAC resources in and about the Nyanja language</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://liveonlineradio.net/zodiak-radio">Zodiak Radio live radio in English and Chichewa</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36910998/Chichewa-Chinyanja_Notebook">M.V.B. Mangoche A Visitor's Notebook of Chichewa</a> Elementary phrasebook.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://listen.bible.is/NYJBLV/Matt/1/N">Complete recording of Buku Loyera New Testament</a> (without text)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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id="Languages_of_Malawi" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Malawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Malawi">Languages of Malawi</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malawian_English" title="Malawian English">English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chewa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malawi_Lomwe_language" title="Malawi Lomwe language">Malawi Lomwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndali_language" title="Ndali language">Ndali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonga_(Nyasa)_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonga (Nyasa) language">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_language" title="Tumbuka language">Tumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_language" title="Yao language">Yao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Zambia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Zambia" title="Template:Languages of Zambia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Zambia" title="Template talk:Languages of Zambia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Zambia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Zambia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Zambia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Zambia" title="Languages of Zambia">Languages of Zambia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bemba_language" title="Bemba language">Bemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaonde_language" title="Kaonde language">Kaonde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_language" title="Lozi language">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunda_language" title="Lunda language">Lunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luvale_language" title="Luvale language">Luvale</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nyanja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonga_language_(Zambia_and_Zimbabwe)" title="Tonga language (Zambia and Zimbabwe)">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_language" title="Tumbuka language">Tumbuka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bwile_language" title="Bwile language">Bwile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chokwe_language" title="Chokwe language">Chokwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ila_language" title="Ila language">Ila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuhane_language" title="Kuhane language">Kuhane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunda_language" title="Kunda language">Kunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwangwa_language" title="Kwangwa language">Kwangwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lala-Bisa_language" title="Lala-Bisa language">Lala-Bisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamba_language" title="Lamba language">Lamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenje_language" title="Lenje language">Lenje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luyana_language" title="Luyana language">Luyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mambwe-Lungu_language" title="Mambwe-Lungu language">Mambwe-Lungu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbamba_Bay_language" title="Mbamba Bay language">Mbamba Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbowe_language" title="Mbowe language">Mbowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbukushu_language" title="Mbukushu language">Mbukushu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbunda_language" title="Mbunda language">Mbunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwanga_language" title="Mwanga language">Mwanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkangala_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nkangala dialect">Nkangala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkoya_language" title="Nkoya language">Nkoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nsenga_language" title="Nsenga language">Nsenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanjo_language" title="Shanjo language">Shanjo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shona_language" title="Shona language">Shona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soli_language" title="Soli language">Soli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabwa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tabwa language">Tabwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanda_language" title="Wanda language">Wanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_language" title="Yao language">Yao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zambian_Sign_Language" title="Zambian Sign Language">Zambian Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immigrant languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi language">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Mozambique" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Mozambique" title="Template:Languages of Mozambique"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Mozambique" title="Template talk:Languages of Mozambique"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Mozambique" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Mozambique"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Mozambique" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Mozambique" title="Languages of Mozambique">Languages of Mozambique</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Portuguese" title="Mozambican Portuguese">Portuguese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barwe_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Barwe language">Barwe</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chewa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopi_language" title="Chopi language">Chichopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonga_language_(Zambia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonga language (Zambia)">Chitonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuwabu_language" title="Chuwabu language">Chuwabu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dema_language" title="Dema language">Dema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonga_language_(Mozambique)" title="Tonga language (Mozambique)">Gitonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwani_language" title="Mwani language">Kimwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koti_language" title="Koti language">Koti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunda_language" title="Kunda language">Kunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomwe_language" title="Lomwe language">Lomwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maindo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Maindo language">Maindo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makhuwa_language" title="Makhuwa language">Makhuwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makonde_language" title="Makonde language">Makonde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makwe_language" title="Makwe language">Makwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manyika_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Manyika language">Manyika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathembo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nathembo language">Nathembo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndau_dialect" title="Ndau dialect">Ndau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngoni_language" title="Ngoni language">Ngoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nsenga_language" title="Nsenga language">Nsenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyungwe_language" title="Nyungwe language">Nyungwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phimbi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Phimbi language">Phimbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronga_language" title="Ronga language">Ronga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sena_language" title="Sena language">Sena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shona_language" title="Shona language">Shona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swazi_language" title="Swazi language">Swati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawara_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tawara language">Tawara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manyika_dialect" title="Manyika dialect">Tewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsonga_language" title="Tsonga language">Tsonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tswa_language" title="Tswa language">Tswa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_language" title="Yao language">Yao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immigrant languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi language">Hindi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Sign_Language" title="Mozambican Sign Language">Mozambican Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Zimbabwe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Zimbabwe" title="Template:Languages of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Zimbabwe" title="Template talk:Languages of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Zimbabwe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Zimbabwe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Zimbabwe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Zimbabwe" title="Languages of Zimbabwe">Languages of Zimbabwe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_English" title="Zimbabwean English">Zimbabwean English</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chewa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sena_language" title="Sena language">Chibarwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalanga_language" title="Kalanga language">Kalanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tshwa_language" title="Tshwa language">Koisan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalanga_language" title="Kalanga language">Nambya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndau_dialect" title="Ndau dialect">Ndau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ndebele_language" title="Northern Ndebele language">Ndebele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shona_language" title="Shona language">Shona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotho_language" title="Sotho language">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonga_language_(Zambia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonga language (Zambia)">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsonga_language" title="Tsonga language">Tsonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tswana_language" title="Tswana language">Tswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venda_language" title="Venda language">Venda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xhosa_language" title="Xhosa language">Xhosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_sign_languages" title="Zimbabwean sign languages">Zimbabwe Sign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unofficial languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kunda_language" title="Kunda language">Kunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tswa_language" title="Tswa language">Tswa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_language" title="Lozi language"> Lozi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immigrant languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi language">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_N–S)_(by_Guthrie_classification)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_N%E2%80%93S)" title="Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones N–S)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_N%E2%80%93S)" title="Template talk:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones N–S)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_N%E2%80%93S)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Narrow Bantu languages (Zones N–S)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Narrow_Bantu_languages_(Zones_N–S)_(by_Guthrie_classification)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Narrow <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu languages</a> (Zones N–S) (by <a href="/wiki/Guthrie_classification_of_Bantu_languages" title="Guthrie classification of Bantu languages">Guthrie classification</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Zone N</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">N10</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>N11 <a href="/wiki/Manda-Matumba_language" title="Manda-Matumba language">Manda</a></li> <li>N12 <a href="/wiki/Ngoni_language" title="Ngoni language">Ngoni</a></li> <li>N13 <a href="/wiki/Matengo_language" title="Matengo language">Matengo</a></li> <li>N14 <a href="/wiki/Mpoto_language" title="Mpoto language">Mpoto</a></li> <li>N15 <a href="/wiki/Tonga_language_(Malawi)" title="Tonga language (Malawi)">Tonga</a></li> <li>[N101 <a href="/wiki/Ndendeule_language" title="Ndendeule language">Ndendeule</a></li> <li>N102 <a href="/wiki/Nindi_language" title="Nindi language">Nindi</a></li> <li>N121 <a href="/wiki/Ngoni_language" title="Ngoni language">Ngoni of Malawi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">N20</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>N21 <a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_language" title="Tumbuka language">Tumbuka</a></li> <li>[N201 <a href="/wiki/Mbamba_Bay_language" title="Mbamba Bay language">Mwera of Mbamba Bay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">N30</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>N31a <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nyanja</a></li> <li>N31b <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cewa</a></li> <li>N31c <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Manganja</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">N40</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>N41 <a href="/wiki/Nsenga_language" title="Nsenga language">Nsenga</a></li> <li>N42 <a href="/wiki/Kunda_language" title="Kunda language">Kunda</a></li> <li>N43 <a href="/wiki/Nyungwe_language" title="Nyungwe language">Nyungwe</a></li> <li>N44 <a href="/wiki/Sena_language" title="Sena language">Sena</a></li> <li>N45[44] <a href="/wiki/Sena_language" title="Sena language">Rue</a></li> <li>N46[44] <a href="/wiki/Sena_language" title="Sena language">Podzo</a></li> <li>[N441 <a href="/wiki/Sena_language" title="Sena language">Sena-Malawi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Zone P</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">P10</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>P11 <a href="/wiki/Ndengereko_language" title="Ndengereko language">Ndengereko</a></li> <li>P12 <a href="/wiki/Ndengereko_language" title="Ndengereko language">Ruihi</a></li> <li>P13 <a href="/wiki/Matumbi_language" title="Matumbi language">Matumbi</a></li> <li>P14 <a href="/wiki/Ngindo_language" title="Ngindo language">Ngindo</a></li> <li>P15 <a href="/wiki/Mbunga_language" title="Mbunga language">Mbunga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">P20</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>P21 <a href="/wiki/Yao_language" title="Yao language">Yao</a></li> <li>P22 <a href="/wiki/Mwera_language" title="Mwera language">Mwera</a></li> <li>P23 <a href="/wiki/Makonde_language" title="Makonde language">Makonde</a></li> <li>P24 <a href="/wiki/Makonde_language" title="Makonde language">Ndonde</a></li> <li>P25 <a href="/wiki/Makonde_language" title="Makonde language">Mabiha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">P30</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>P31 <a href="/wiki/Makhuwa_language" title="Makhuwa language">Makua</a></li> <li>P32 <a href="/wiki/Lomwe_language" title="Lomwe language">Lomwe</a></li> <li>P33 <a href="/wiki/Lomwe_language" title="Lomwe language">Ngulu</a></li> <li>P34 <a href="/wiki/Chuwabu_language" title="Chuwabu language">Cuabo</a></li> <li>[P311 <a href="/wiki/Koti_language" title="Koti language">Koti</a></li> <li>P312 <a href="/wiki/Nathembo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nathembo language">Sakati</a></li> <li>P331 <a href="/wiki/Malawi_Lomwe_language" title="Malawi Lomwe language">Lomwe of Malawi</a></li> <li>P341 <a href="/wiki/Moniga_language" title="Moniga language">Moniga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Zone R</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">R10</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>R11 <a href="/wiki/Umbundu" title="Umbundu">Umbundu</a></li> <li>R12 <a href="/wiki/Ndombe_language" title="Ndombe language">Ndombe</a></li> <li>R13 <a href="/wiki/Nyaneka_language" title="Nyaneka language">Nyaneka</a></li> <li>R14 <a href="/wiki/Nkumbi_language" title="Nkumbi language">Khumbi</a></li> <li>[R101 <a href="/wiki/Kuvale_language" title="Kuvale language">Kuvale</a></li> <li>R102 <a href="/wiki/Kwisi_people" title="Kwisi people">Kwisi</a></li> <li>R103 <a href="/wiki/Mbali_language" title="Mbali language">Mbali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">R20</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>R21 <a href="/wiki/Kwanyama_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwanyama dialect">Kwanyama</a></li> <li>R22 <a href="/wiki/Ndonga_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Ndonga dialect">Ndonga</a></li> <li>R23 <a href="/wiki/Kwambi_dialect" title="Kwambi dialect">Kwambi</a></li> <li>R24 <a href="/wiki/Ovambo_language" title="Ovambo language">Ngandyera</a></li> <li>[R211 <a href="/wiki/Ovambo_language" title="Ovambo language">Kafima</a></li> <li>R212 <a href="/wiki/Ovambo_language" title="Ovambo language">Evale</a></li> <li>R213 <a href="/wiki/Mbandja_language" title="Mbandja language">Mbandja</a></li> <li>R214 <a href="/wiki/Ovambo_language" title="Ovambo language">Mbalanhu</a></li> <li>R215 <a href="/wiki/Ovambo_language" title="Ovambo language">Ndongwena</a></li> <li>R216 <a href="/wiki/Ovambo_language" title="Ovambo language">Kwankwa</a></li> <li>R217 <a href="/wiki/Ovambo_language" title="Ovambo language">Dombondola</a></li> <li>R218 <a href="/wiki/Ovambo_language" title="Ovambo language">Esinga</a></li> <li>R241 <a href="/wiki/Ovambo_language" title="Ovambo language">Kwaluudhi</a></li> <li>R242 <a href="/wiki/Ovambo_language" title="Ovambo language">Kolonkadhi-Eunda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">R30</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>R31 <a href="/wiki/Herero_language" title="Herero language">Herero</a></li> <li>[R311 <a href="/wiki/Zemba_language" title="Zemba language">North-West Herero</a></li> <li>R312 <a href="/wiki/Herero_language" title="Herero language">Botswana Herero</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">R40</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>R41 <a href="/wiki/Yeyi_language" title="Yeyi language">Yei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Zone S</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">S10</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>S11 <a href="/wiki/Shona_language" title="Shona language">Korekore</a></li> <li>S12 <a href="/wiki/Shona_language" title="Shona language">Zezuru</a></li> <li>S13a <a href="/wiki/Manyika_dialect" title="Manyika dialect">Manyika</a></li> <li>S13b <a href="/wiki/Manyika_dialect" title="Manyika dialect">Tebe</a></li> <li>S14 <a href="/wiki/Shona_language" title="Shona language">Karanga</a></li> <li>S15 <a href="/wiki/Ndau_dialect" title="Ndau dialect">Ndau</a></li> <li>S16 <a href="/wiki/Kalanga_language" title="Kalanga language">Kalanga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">S20</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>S21 <a href="/wiki/Venda_language" title="Venda language">Venda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">S30</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>S31a <a href="/wiki/Tswana_language" title="Tswana language">Tswana</a></li> <li>S31b <a href="/wiki/Tswana_language" title="Tswana language">Kgatla</a></li> <li>S31c <a href="/wiki/Tswana_language" title="Tswana language">Ngwatu</a></li> <li>S31d[311] <a href="/wiki/Kgalagadi_language" title="Kgalagadi language">Khalaxadi</a></li> <li>S32a <a href="/wiki/Northern_Sotho" title="Northern Sotho">Pedi</a></li> <li>S32b <a href="/wiki/Northern_Sotho" title="Northern Sotho">Lobedu</a></li> <li>S33 <a href="/wiki/Sotho_language" title="Sotho language">Sotho</a></li> <li>[S301 <a href="/wiki/Northern_Sotho#Other_varieties_of_Northern_Sotho" title="Northern Sotho">Phalaborwa</a></li> <li>S302 <a href="/wiki/Northern_Sotho#Other_varieties_of_Northern_Sotho" title="Northern Sotho">Kutswe</a></li> <li>S303 <a href="/wiki/Northern_Sotho#Other_varieties_of_Northern_Sotho" title="Northern Sotho">Pai</a></li> <li>S304 <a href="/wiki/Northern_Sotho#Other_varieties_of_Northern_Sotho" title="Northern Sotho">Pulana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">S40</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>S41 <a href="/wiki/Xhosa_language" title="Xhosa language">Xhosa</a></li> <li>S42 <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a></li> <li>S43 <a href="/wiki/Swazi_language" title="Swazi language">Swati</a></li> <li>S44 <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ndebele_language" title="Northern Ndebele language">(Northern) Ndebele</a></li> <li>[S401 <a href="/wiki/Fengu_people" title="Fengu people">Old Mfengu</a></li> <li>S402 <a href="/wiki/Bhaca_language" title="Bhaca language">Bhaca</a></li> <li>S403 <a href="/wiki/Hlubi_language" title="Hlubi language">Hlubi</a></li> <li>S404 <a href="/wiki/Phuthi_language" title="Phuthi language">Phuthi</a></li> <li>S405 <a href="/wiki/Nhlangwini_language" title="Nhlangwini language">Nhlangwini</a></li> <li>S406 <a href="/wiki/Lala_language_(South_Africa)" title="Lala language (South Africa)">Lala</a></li> <li>S407 <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ndebele_language" title="Southern Ndebele language">South Ndebele</a></li> <li>S408 <a href="/wiki/Sumayela_Ndebele_language" title="Sumayela Ndebele language">Sumayela Ndebele</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">S50</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>S51 <a href="/wiki/Tswa_language" title="Tswa language">Tswa</a></li> <li>S52[53] <a href="/wiki/Tsonga_language" title="Tsonga language">Gwamba</a></li> <li>S53 <a href="/wiki/Tsonga_language" title="Tsonga language">Tsonga</a></li> <li>S54 <a href="/wiki/Ronga_language" title="Ronga language">Ronga</a></li> <li>[S511 <a href="/wiki/Tswa_language" title="Tswa language">Hlengwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">S60</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>S61 <a href="/wiki/Chopi_language" title="Chopi language">Copi</a></li> <li>S62 <a href="/wiki/Tonga_language_(Mozambique)" title="Tonga language (Mozambique)">Tonga</a></li> <li>[S611 <a href="/wiki/Chopi_language" title="Chopi language">Lenge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language 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