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<li id="toc-Vowels_and_syllabic_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels_and_syllabic_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Vowels and syllabic consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels_and_syllabic_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Grammar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noun_Pluralisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_Pluralisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Noun Pluralisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_Pluralisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interrogatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interrogatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Interrogatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interrogatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_features_and_variants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_features_and_variants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Language features and variants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_features_and_variants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanagalo" title="Fanagalo – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Fanagalo" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanagalo" title="Fanagalo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fanagalo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanagalo" title="Fanagalo – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Fanagalo" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiTumbuka</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanakalo" title="Fanakalo – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Fanakalo" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanagalo" title="Fanagalo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fanagalo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanagalo" title="Fanagalo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fanagalo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanagalo_jezik" title="Fanagalo jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fanagalo jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanagalo" title="Fanagalo – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Fanagalo" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_fanagalo" title="Lingua fanagalo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua fanagalo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%95" title="פאנאגלו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פאנאגלו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanagalo" title="Fanagalo – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Fanagalo" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_fanagalo" title="Lenga fanagalo – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga fanagalo" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_fanagalo" title="Língua fanagalo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua fanagalo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Фанагало – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фанагало" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanagalo_jezik" title="Fanagalo jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Fanagalo jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanagalo" title="Fanagalo – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fanagalo" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanakalo" title="Fanakalo – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Fanakalo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%87%A1%E9%82%A3%E4%BC%BD%E7%BD%97" title="凡那伽罗 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="凡那伽罗" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q35727#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Zulu-based pidgin of South Africa</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output 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print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Fanagalo%22">"Fanagalo"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Fanagalo%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Fanagalo%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Fanagalo%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Fanagalo%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Fanagalo%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: tan;">Fanagalo</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: tan;">Pidgin Zulu</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Southern Africa-All mining regions of South Africa</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Speakers</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">L1: none (2022)<sup id="cite_ref-e25_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e25-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/L2_speakers" class="mw-redirect" title="L2 speakers">L2 speakers</a>: 5,000<sup id="cite_ref-e25_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e25-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidginisation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a></div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li>Chilapalapa</li> <li>Zulu</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: tan;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/fng" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:fng">fng</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/fana1235">fana1235</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Guthrie_classification_of_Bantu_languages" title="Guthrie classification of Bantu languages">Guthrie code</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code>S40A</code><sup id="cite_ref-Guthrie_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guthrie-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=99-AUT-fh">99-AUT-fh</a></code></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Fanagalo</b>, or <b>Fanakalo</b>, is a vernacular or pidgin based primarily on <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a> with input from English and a small amount of <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is used as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>, mainly in the gold, diamond, coal and copper mining industries in South Africa and to a lesser extent in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>. Although it is used as a second language only, the number of speakers was estimated as "several hundred thousand" in 1975. By the time independence came–or in the case of South Africa, <a href="/wiki/1994_South_African_general_election" title="1994 South African general election">universal suffrage</a>–English had become sufficiently widely spoken and understood that it became the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>, enabling different <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups">ethnic groups</a> in the same country to communicate with each other, and Fanagalo use declined. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The name "Fanagalo" comes from strung-together <a href="/wiki/Nguni_languages" title="Nguni languages">Nguni</a> forms <span title="Bantu languages collective text"><i lang="bnt">fana-ga-lo</i></span> meaning "like + of + that" and has the meaning "do it like this", reflecting its use as a language of instruction. Other spellings of the name include <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Fanagalo</i></span> and <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Fanekolo</i></span>. It is also known as <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Isikula, Lololo</i></span> or <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Isilololo, Piki</i></span> or <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Isipiki</i></span>, and <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Silunguboi</i></span>. </p><p>Like Turkish, Fanagalo is characterised by a certain amount of vowel harmony, wherein a vowel in a prefix is changed according to the subsequent vowel. In the Nguni tongues, the <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefix</a> <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Mu-</i></span> or <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Ma-</i></span> denotes the singular, while <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Bu-</i></span> or <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Ba-</i></span> signifies the plural – hence <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Muntu</i></span> = a man; <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Bantu</i></span> = men, particularly when applied to tribes, e.g. <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Ma-tabele</i></span>. Similarly, the prefix <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Chi-</i></span> or <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Si-</i></span> indicates the language spoke by that tribe. e.g. men of the <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Lozi</i></span> tribe are called <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Ba-rotse</i></span> (spelling is not standardised), and they speak <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Si-lozi</i></span>; Bembas speak <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Chiwemba</i></span>; Tswanas live in <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, formerly called <a href="/wiki/Bechuanaland" class="mw-redirect" title="Bechuanaland">Bechuanaland</a>. </p><p><span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Chi-lapa-lapa</i></span> thus is the "language" derived from <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">lapa</i></span> = "there", with reduplication for emphasis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_usage">History and usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History and usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fanagalo is one of a number of <a href="/wiki/African_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="African languages">African</a> <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a> languages that developed during the colonial period to promote ease of communication in South Africa. It originated as a mining language spoken by <a href="/wiki/Miner" title="Miner">miners</a> from different linguistic backgrounds. However, it is uncertain as to how this pidgin language was developed in the first place, as there are multiple competing <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theories</a>. </p><p>The most common theory is that Fanagalo was created as a result of men speaking different languages (coming from different cultural backgrounds throughout South Africa and its neighbouring states) that went to work in the mines during the late 19th century. Eventually, these languages combined and a new dialect was formed to break the language barrier among <a href="/wiki/Miners" class="mw-redirect" title="Miners">miners</a>. Fanagalo had spread across the country and throughout Southern Africa. Therefore, Fanagalo was spoken as a "contact language" in the mines between people originating from different tribes in South Africa and from different countries in Southern Africa, and between foremen and workers. In addition to <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Africa" title="Indigenous peoples of Africa">Indigenous Africans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> and English-speaking settlers and European immigrants (such as those of Portuguese, Polish and German descent) contributed to the developed of Fanagalo for communication on the mines. However, some researchers disagree with this theory because Fanagalo is predominately derived from <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a> (as borrowed words from other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Africa" title="Languages of South Africa">South African languages</a> and languages of neighbouring states such as <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> are not common.) However, the pidgin language was and still is mostly spoken by <a href="/wiki/Miner" title="Miner">miners</a> from different tribes in South Africa and neighbouring states, which gives support to this theory. </p><p>Another theory (suggested by Adendorff and other researchers) is that Fanagalo came from the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Natal" title="Colony of Natal">Colony of Natal</a> as a way of communication between Black people who spoke <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a> and white people who spoke English and <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a>. This theory explains why the <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin language</a> is composed mostly of <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> and English. This would be the result of the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/1820_Settlers" title="1820 Settlers">British settlers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afrikaners" title="Afrikaners">Afrikaners</a> in <a href="/wiki/Natal_(province)" title="Natal (province)">Natal</a> in the early 19th century; during the late <a href="/wiki/1830s" title="1830s">1830s</a>, Cape Afrikaners travelled to <a href="/wiki/Natal_(province)" title="Natal (province)">Natal</a> (and subsequently founded the Boer republic of Natalia (1840–1843)) and immigrants from England landed a decade later. The development of the pidgin language in Natal is attributed to "the acute difficulties of communication". Fanagalo was also spoken with <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> <a href="/wiki/Laborer" title="Laborer">labourers</a> that were imported to <a href="/wiki/Natal_(province)" title="Natal (province)">Natal</a> by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> rulers and it eventually became a way of communication between the <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indians</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Zulu_people" title="Zulu people">Zulus</a> as well. It is worth noting, however, that it is not influenced by Indian dialects. Indeed, the Indian languages had no economic value for interactions with the English and the Zulus. Fanagalo was then taught in the gold mines when Zulu men migrated from <a href="/wiki/Natal_(province)" title="Natal (province)">Natal</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Witwatersrand" title="Witwatersrand">Witwatersrand</a> to work in the mines and this became the predominant pidgin language throughout South Africa. Some researchers also disagree with this theory as well because it is difficult to explain how a pidgin language from <a href="/wiki/Natal_(province)" title="Natal (province)">Natal</a> could suddenly transfer to the <a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">gold mines</a> in <a href="/wiki/Witwatersrand" title="Witwatersrand">Witwatersrand</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Diamond_mines" class="mw-redirect" title="Diamond mines">diamond mines</a> in Kimberly. However, a large increasing migration of Zulu people from <a href="/wiki/Natal_(province)" title="Natal (province)">Natal</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Transvaal_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Transvaal province">Transvaal province</a>, Cape province, and the <a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a> to work in the mines validates this theory because most mines in South Africa are located in areas dominated by the native <a href="/wiki/Sotho_people" title="Sotho people">Sotho</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tswana_people" title="Tswana people">Tswana</a> peoples, yet there are few <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a> in Fanagalo derived from these two <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a> and from other Bantu languages from South Africa and its neighboring states. </p><p>Adendorff describes two variants of the language, <b>Mine Fanagalo</b> and <b>Garden Fanagalo</b>. The latter name refers to its use with servants in households. It was previously known as <b>Kitchen Kaffir</b>. Both Fanagalo and Kitchen Kaffir contributed to linguistic colonisation as Kitchen Kaffir was created to segregate the colonizers from the local communities and was used as a means to exercise control.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <a href="/wiki/Kaffir_(racial_term)" title="Kaffir (racial term)">kaffir</a> was used as a derogatory term for <a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">Black people</a> in South Africa and is now considered extremely offensive. It is derived from the Arab word <a href="/wiki/Kafir" title="Kafir">kafir</a>, meaning unbeliever.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two factors kept Fanagalo from achieving status as a primary language: the segregation of Fanagalo to work-related domains of use and an absence of leisure uses. Secondly, women and children were not permitted to speak Fanagalo, meaning that family communication did not exist and there were little ways to expand the uses of the pidgin.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the mid-20th century in South Africa there were government-led efforts to promote and standardise Fanagalo as a universal second language, under the name of "Basic Bantu".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Mining_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining companies">mining companies</a> in the early 21st century have attempted to phase out Fanagalo in favour of the pre-existing local <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a>. In addition, there was a conscious effort to promote the use of English in domains where Fanagalo was predominantly used as a means of control.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ravyse (2018) discusses Fanagalo's apparent resistance to opposing official policy in spite of its ongoing stigma as a language for the <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">illiterate</a>. Fanagalo has become intertwined with the culture of the mining industry, and its continuation seems to hinge on the ongoing favour of its speaking community rather than industry policy. Despite this decline in use, Fanagalo is still accepted as a part of mining culture and identity and is seen as a de facto policy and maintains its significance in its domain of use.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The strong identity Fangalo speakers shared enabled homogeneity and therefore they were resistant to the inclusion of English and likely explains why the <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a> is still used today.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aside from mining, Adendorff also suggests that Fanagalo has unfavourable and negative connotations for many South Africans. However, he raises the point that Fanagalo is sometimes used between white South Africans, particularly <a href="/wiki/Expatriate" title="Expatriate">expatriates</a>, as a signal of <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South African</a> origin and a way of conveying solidarity in an informal manner. That role has of late largely been taken over by Afrikaans; even among English speaking South African <a href="/wiki/Expatriate" title="Expatriate">expatriates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the latter half of the 20th century, holiday makers from the <a href="/wiki/Rhodesia_(region)" title="Rhodesia (region)">Rhodesias</a> frequently went on holiday to Lourenço Marques in Mozambique (now <a href="/wiki/Maputo" title="Maputo">Maputo</a>), where many people speak Portuguese – but most also spoke a form of Fanagalo.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There have been some small <a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">books</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionaries</a> published about Fanagalo.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Presumably, these were used more by white <a href="/wiki/Supervisor" title="Supervisor">supervisors</a> than by Bantu-speaking workers as most Black workers learned the language naturally at work and many were <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">illiterate</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the Dictionary and Phrase-Book of Fanagalo (Kitchen Kafir) by J.D. Bold,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fanagalo (as spoken in the early 1950s) had the following consonants. He remarks that there did not appear to be a consistent set of allophones (the allophones used varied according to the speaker's native language) and that some Zulu speakers substituted /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span>/ for /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span>/ and /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span>/ for /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span>/. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>/<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Post-alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr class="small"> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_consonant" title="Central consonant">central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">lateral</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_consonant" title="Central consonant">central</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Click_consonant" title="Click consonant">Click</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Tenuis_consonant" title="Tenuis consonant">tenuis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejective</a></small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Pre-stopped_consonant" title="Pre-stopped consonant">ᵏǀʼ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Pre-stopped_consonant" title="Pre-stopped consonant">ᵏǁʼ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨x⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Pre-stopped_consonant" title="Pre-stopped consonant">ᵏǃʼ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨q⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced">voiced</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejective</a></small> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">kʼ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨kh⟩</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨tsh⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨j⟩</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨hl⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨sh⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨gh⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨h⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ng⟩</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Semivowel</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨y⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels_and_syllabic_consonants">Vowels and syllabic consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vowels and syllabic consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bold remarks that Fanagalo had five monophthongs, five diphthongs, and two syllabic consonants with no tone or length contrast: /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span>/, /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span>/, /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span>/, /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span>/, /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span>/, /ai/, /ei/, /au/, /oi/, /ou/, /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">m̩</a></span>/, and /<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">n̩</a></span>/. The syllabic consonants occurred only at the beginning of words such as <i>mlungu</i> and <i>nkosi</i> which are derived from the <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a> words <i>umlungu</i> and <i>inkosi</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like English, <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Nguni_languages" title="Nguni languages">Nguni</a> languages, Fanagalo uses a <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object_word_order" title="Subject–verb–object word order">subject-verb-object</a> word order. The language possesses a highly regular and analytical <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> with only a few inflectional <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> and a few grammatical exceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most present tense (which double as infinitive) verbs in Fanagalo end in <i>-a</i>; other tenses are formed by removing <i>-a</i> and adding other affixes or words. The following table shows the inflection of the regular verb <i>hamba</i>, meaning "to go."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><b>Grammatical Tense</b> </th> <th><b>English</b> </th> <th><b>Fanagalo</b> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Present </td> <td>I arrive. </td> <td>Mina fika. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Past </td> <td>I arrived. </td> <td>Mina fikile. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Future </td> <td>I will arrive. </td> <td>Mina zo fika. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Present Progressive </td> <td>I am arriving. </td> <td>Mina fikwa. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Present Perfect </td> <td>I have arrived. </td> <td>Mina fikiwe. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Causative </td> <td>I make others arrive. </td> <td>Mina fikisa. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Future Perfect </td> <td>I will have arrived. </td> <td>Mina zo fikile. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Present Modal </td> <td>I can arrive. </td> <td>Mina yazi fika. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Past Modal </td> <td>I could have arrived. </td> <td>Mina yazi fikile. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Present Permissive </td> <td>I may arrive. </td> <td>Mina wena fika. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Possibility </td> <td>I might arrive. </td> <td>Mhlaumbe mina zo fika. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Desire </td> <td>I want to arrive. </td> <td>Mina funa fika. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Wish </td> <td>I like to arrive. </td> <td>Mina tanda fika. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Desire (Formal) </td> <td>I would like to arrive. </td> <td>Mina zo tanda fika. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Expectation </td> <td>I should arrive. </td> <td>Muhle mina fika. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Irrealis </td> <td>I am about to arrive. </td> <td>Mina zo fika konamanje. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Several irregular verbs, some of which end in <i>-a</i> and some of which do not, also exist in the language and do not follow these basic rules for conjugation. For example, the following verbs <i>hamba</i> (to go) and <i>azi</i> (to know) are conjugated in the following way. The remote past tense prefix <i>nga-</i> and the recent past tense prefix <i>be-</i> can be used only with verbs that do not end in <i>-a</i> along with some other verbs such as <i>dula</i> (to stay), <i>cula</i> (to sing), and <i>lala</i> (to sleep).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><b>Grammatical Tense</b> </th> <th><b>English</b> </th> <th><b>Fanagalo</b> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Present </td> <td>I go. </td> <td>Mina hamba. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Past </td> <td>I went. </td> <td>Mina hambile. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Remote Past </td> <td>I went a long time ago. </td> <td>Mina ngahamba. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Recent Past </td> <td>I just went. </td> <td>Mina behamba. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Future </td> <td>I will go. </td> <td>Mina zo hamba. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Present Progressive </td> <td>I am going. </td> <td>Mina hambwa. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Present Perfect </td> <td>I have gone. </td> <td>Mina hambiwe. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Causative </td> <td>I drive away (cause to go). </td> <td>Mina hambisa. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Future Perfect </td> <td>I will have gone. </td> <td>Mina zo hambile. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Present Modal </td> <td>I can go. </td> <td>Mina yazi hamba. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Past Modal </td> <td>I could have gone. </td> <td>Mina yazi hambile. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Present Permissive </td> <td>I may go. </td> <td>Mina wena hamba. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Possibility </td> <td>I might go. </td> <td>Mhlaumbe mina zo hamba. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Desire </td> <td>I want to go. </td> <td>Mina funa hamba. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Wish </td> <td>I like to go. </td> <td>Mina tanda hamba. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Desire (Formal) </td> <td>I would like to go. </td> <td>Mina zo tanda hamba. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Expectation </td> <td>I should go. </td> <td>Muhle mina hamba. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Irrealis </td> <td>I am about to go. </td> <td>Mina zo hamba konamanje. </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><b>Grammatical Tense</b> </th> <th><b>English</b> </th> <th><b>Fanagalo</b> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Present </td> <td>I know. </td> <td>Mina azi. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Past </td> <td>I knew. </td> <td>Mina aziile. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Remote Past </td> <td>I knew a long time ago. </td> <td>Mina ngaazi. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Recent Past </td> <td>I just knew. </td> <td>Mina beazi. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Future </td> <td>I will know. </td> <td>Mina zo azi. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Present Progressive </td> <td>I am knowing. </td> <td>Mina aziwa. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Present Perfect </td> <td>I have known. </td> <td>Mina aziiwe. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Causative </td> <td>I teach (cause to know). </td> <td>Mina aziisa. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Future Perfect </td> <td>I will have known. </td> <td>Mina zo aziile. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Present Modal </td> <td>I can know. </td> <td>Mina yazi azi. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Past Modal </td> <td>I could have known. </td> <td>Mina yazi aziile. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Present Permissive </td> <td>I may know. </td> <td>Mina wena azi. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Possibility </td> <td>I might know. </td> <td>Mhlaumbe mina zo azi. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Desire </td> <td>I want to know. </td> <td>Mina funa azi. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Wish </td> <td>I like to know. </td> <td>Mina tanda azi. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Desire (Formal) </td> <td>I would like to know. </td> <td>Mina zo tanda azi. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Expectation </td> <td>I should know. </td> <td>Muhle mina azi. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Irrealis </td> <td>I am about to know. </td> <td>Mina zo azi konamanje. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noun_Pluralisation">Noun Pluralisation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Noun Pluralisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most inanimate nouns in Fanagalo are pluralised by adding <i>ma-</i> to the base form of the word, but words starting with <i>i</i> are pluralised by adding <i>z-</i> and words beginning with <i>n</i> are pluralised with <i>zi-</i>. For example, the plural of <i>foshol</i> (shovel) is <i>mafoshol</i> (shovels); the plural form of <i>inyoni</i> (bird) is <i>zinyoni</i> (birds) and the plural form of <i>nkomo</i> (cow) is <i>zinkomo</i> (cattle). Regular proper nouns referring to people and categories of people are pluralised by adding <i>ba-</i> to the base form of the word. For example, the plural form of the proper name Judah (spelled <i>Juda)</i> in Fanagalo would be <i>BaJuda</i> (Judahs).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bold documents several irregular plurals in his guidebook to the language: <i>Abelungu</i> (white people) as the plural of <i>Mlungu</i> (white person), <i>mehlo</i> (eyes) as the plural form of <i>iliso</i> (eye), and <i>befazi</i> (women) as the plural form of <i>mfazi</i> (woman). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interrogatives">Interrogatives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Interrogatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Yes%E2%80%93no_question" title="Yes–no question">Yes–no questions</a> are formed by raising the tone in a <a href="/wiki/Declarative_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarative sentence">declarative sentence</a> with the same meaning similarly to Spanish or by adding the grammatical particle <i>na</i> at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Declarative_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarative sentence">declarative sentence</a>. Other questions are formed by adding <a href="/wiki/Wh_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh words">wh-words</a> to the beginning of sentences.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_features_and_variants">Language features and variants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Language features and variants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mine Fanagalo in South Africa and Zimbabwe is based mostly on <a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu</a> vocabulary (about 70%), with English (about 25%) and some words from <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (5%). It does not have the range of Zulu inflections, and it tends to follow English word order. </p><p>Adendorff describes Mine Fanagalo and Garden Fanagalo as being basically the same pidgin. He suggests that Garden Fanagalo should be seen as lying towards the English end of a continuum, and Mine Fanagalo closer to the Zulu end. </p><p>The variety in <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rhodesia" title="Rhodesia">Rhodesia</a>) is known as <b><span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng-ZW">Chilapalapa</i></span></b> and is influenced by <a href="/wiki/Shona_language" title="Shona language">Shona</a>, while the variety in <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia" title="Northern Rhodesia">Northern Rhodesia</a>), called <b><span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng-ZM">Cikabanga</i></span></b><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (pronounced, and sometimes spelt, <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng-ZM">Chikabanga</i></span>), is influenced by <a href="/wiki/Bemba_language" title="Bemba language">Bemba</a>. </p><p>Several key features differentiate Fanagalo from the Nguni languages (such as Zulu and Xhosa). <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Lo</i></span> functions as both an article and a demonstrative, while only a demonstrative in Zulu. <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Lapha</i></span> is used to mean "here", also meaning "there" when the first syllable is stressed, and is also used as a general preposition for location. (It works for anything such as "on", or "near", etc.) Zulu, on the other hand, uses only <span title="Zulu-language text"><i lang="zu">lapha</i></span> to mean "here". Additionally, Fanagalo uses only free pronouns: <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">mina</i></span>, <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">thina</i></span>, <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">wena</i></span>, <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">ena</i></span>, meaning "I, we, you, he/she/it/they". Zulu uses only pronouns for emphasis, relying instead on verb agreement markers, much like Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Here are two examples (all letters are pronounced):- </p><p><span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Koki Lobin</i></span><br /> Cock Robin </p><p><span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Zonke nyoni lapa moyo ena kala, ena kala</i></span><br /> All birds of air, they cried, they cried<br /> <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Ena izwile ena file lo nyoni Koki Lobin</i></span><br /> They heard the death the bird Cock Robin<br /> <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Ena izwile, ena file, ena izwile ena file Cocky Lobin.</i></span> </p><p><span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Kubani ena bulalile Koki Lobin?</i></span><br /> Who they killed Cock Robin<br /> <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Mina kruma lo Sparrow</i></span><br /> Me, said the sparrow<br /> <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Na lo picannin bow and arrow kamina</i></span><br /> With the little bow & arrow of mine<br /> <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Mina bulalile Koki Lobin.</i></span><br /> I killed Cock Robin </p><p><span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">TANDAZO'</i></span><br /> (The Lord's Prayer) </p> <div class="poem"> <p><span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Baba ga tina, Wena kona pezulu,</i></span><br /> Father of ours, You are above<br /> <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Tina bonga lo Gama ga wena;</i></span><br /> We thank (for) the name of you<br /><br /> <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Tina vuma lo mteto ga wena Lapa mhlaba, fana na pezulu.<br /> Niga tina namuhla lo zinkwa yena izwasisa;</i></span><br /> Give us today etc., etc... <br /> <span title="Fanagalo-language text"><i lang="fng">Futi, yekelela masono gatina,<br /> Loskati tina yekelela masono ga lomunye.<br /> Hayi letisa tina lapa lo cala; Kodwa, sindisa tina ku lo bubi,<br /> Ndaba Wena kona lo-mteto, lo mandla, na lo dumela, Zonkeskat. Amen.</i></span> </p> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsotsitaal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsotsitaal">Tsotsitaal</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e25-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/fng">Fanagalo</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (25th ed., 2022) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guthrie-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Guthrie_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jouni Filip Maho, 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180203191542/http://goto.glocalnet.net/mahopapers/nuglonline.pdf">New Updated Guthrie List Online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMesthrie2007" class="citation journal cs1">Mesthrie, Rajend (2007). "Differentiating Pidgin from Early Interlanguage – A Comparison of Pidgin Nguni (Fanakalo) and Interlanguage Varieties of Xhosa and Zulu". <i>Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies</i>. <b>25</b>: 75–89. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2989%2F16073610709486447">10.2989/16073610709486447</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144973893">144973893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+African+Linguistics+and+Applied+Language+Studies&rft.atitle=Differentiating+Pidgin+from+Early+Interlanguage+%E2%80%93+A+Comparison+of+Pidgin+Nguni+%28Fanakalo%29+and+Interlanguage+Varieties+of+Xhosa+and+Zulu&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=75-89&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2989%2F16073610709486447&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144973893%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mesthrie&rft.aufirst=Rajend&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFanagalo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLunga2004" class="citation journal cs1">Lunga, Violet Bridget (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1569150042442502">"Mapping African Postcoloniality: Linguistic and Cultural Spaces of Hybridity"</a>. <i>Perspectives on Global Development and Technology</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 291–326. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1569150042442502">10.1163/1569150042442502</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1569-1500">1569-1500</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Global+Development+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Mapping+African+Postcoloniality%3A+Linguistic+and+Cultural+Spaces+of+Hybridity&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=291-326&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1569150042442502&rft.issn=1569-1500&rft.aulast=Lunga&rft.aufirst=Violet+Bridget&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1163%2F1569150042442502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFanagalo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrissne2017" class="citation web cs1">Drissne, Gerald (11 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.arabic-for-nerds.com/2017/02/11/what-is-a-kafir/">"What is a Kafir?"</a>. <i>Arabic For Nerds</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181015194108/https://www.arabic-for-nerds.com/2017/02/11/what-is-a-kafir/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Arabic+For+Nerds&rft.atitle=What+is+a+Kafir%3F&rft.date=2017-02-11&rft.aulast=Drissne&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.arabic-for-nerds.com%2F2017%2F02%2F11%2Fwhat-is-a-kafir%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFanagalo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRavyse2018" class="citation journal cs1">Ravyse, Natasha (2018). "Against All Odds: The Survival of Fanagalo in South African Mines". <i>Language Matters</i>. <b>49</b>: 3–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10228195.2018.1440319">10.1080/10228195.2018.1440319</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150025140">150025140</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Matters&rft.atitle=Against+All+Odds%3A+The+Survival+of+Fanagalo+in+South+African+Mines&rft.volume=49&rft.pages=3-24&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10228195.2018.1440319&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150025140%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ravyse&rft.aufirst=Natasha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFanagalo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cole, Desmond T. "Fanagalo and the Bantu languages in South Africa." <i>African Studies</i> 12, no. 1 (1953): 1–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bold, J. D. <i>Fanagalo: Phrase-book Grammar Dictionary</i>. JL van Schaik, 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuzman" class="citation book cs1">Suzman, S. <i>In Step with Fanagalo: Fanakalo Made Easy</i>. Astoria, South Africa: Quoin Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Step+with+Fanagalo%3A+Fanakalo+Made+Easy.&rft.place=Astoria%2C+South+Africa&rft.pub=Quoin+Institute&rft.aulast=Suzman&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFanagalo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140108192128/http://www.greatnorthroad.org/boma/Image:Chikabanga_p01.jpg">"Image:Chikabanga p01.jpg"</a>. <i>The Great North Road</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greatnorthroad.org/boma/Image:Chikabanga_p01.jpg">the original</a> on 8 January 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Great+North+Road&rft.atitle=Image%3AChikabanga+p01.jpg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greatnorthroad.org%2Fboma%2FImage%3AChikabanga_p01.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFanagalo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdendorff2002" class="citation book cs1">Adendorff, Ralph (2002). "Fanakalo – a Pidgin in South Africa". <i>Language in South Africa</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79105-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79105-2"><bdi>978-0-521-79105-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fanakalo+%E2%80%93+a+Pidgin+in+South+Africa&rft.btitle=Language+in+South+Africa&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79105-2&rft.aulast=Adendorff&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFanagalo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lunga, Violet Bridget (2004). "Mapping African Postcoloniality: Linguistic and Cultural Spaces of Hybridity". <i>Perspectives on Global Development and Technology</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 291–326. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:10.1163/1569150042442502. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> 1569-1500</li> <li>Mesthrie, Rajend (2019-08-27). "Fanakalo as a mining language in South Africa: A new overview". <i>International Journal of the Sociology of Language</i>. <b>2019</b> (258): 13–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:10.1515/ijsl-2019-2027. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> 0165-2516.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllen_Hurst2017" class="citation book cs1">Ellen Hurst (24 November 2017). "Fanakalo". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-01593-8_6"><i>The Social and Political History of Southern Africa's Languages</i></a>. pp. 93–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F978-1-137-01593-8_6">10.1057/978-1-137-01593-8_6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-01593-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-01593-8"><bdi>978-1-137-01593-8</bdi></a>. Wikidata <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">QID</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/QQ124302868" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/QQ124302868">Q124302868</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fanakalo&rft.btitle=The+Social+and+Political+History+of+Southern+Africa%27s+Languages&rft.pages=93-99&rft.date=2017-11-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F978-1-137-01593-8_6&rft.isbn=978-1-137-01593-8&rft.au=Ellen+Hurst&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1057%2F978-1-137-01593-8_6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFanagalo" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fanagalo&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/fanakalo-language-mining-culture">Fanakalo: the language of mining culture</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://salanguages.com/fanagalo/">South African Language: Fanagalo</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kunda_language" title="Kunda language">Kunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tswa_language" title="Tswa language">Tswa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_language" title="Lozi language"> Lozi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immigrant languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi language">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_South_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_South_Africa" title="Template:Languages of South Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_South_Africa" title="Template talk:Languages of South Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_South_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of South Africa"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_South_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Africa" title="Languages of South Africa">Languages of South Africa</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan_South_African_Language_Board" title="Pan South African Language Board">Pan South African Language Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_for_the_Promotion_and_Protection_of_the_Rights_of_Cultural,_Religious_and_Linguistic_Communities" title="Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities">Commission for Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Community Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Arts_and_Culture_(South_Africa)" title="Department of Arts and Culture (South Africa)">Department of Arts and Culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_English" title="South African English">English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bantu_languages" title="Southern Bantu languages">Southern Bantu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sotho%E2%80%93Tswana_languages" title="Sotho–Tswana languages">Sotho–Tswana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Sotho_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Sotho language">Northern Sotho <i>(Sesotho sa Leboa)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotho_language" title="Sotho language">Southern Sotho <i>(Sesotho)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tswana_language" title="Tswana language">Tswana <i>(Setswana)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nguni_languages" title="Nguni languages">Nguni</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ndebele_language" title="Southern Ndebele language">Southern Ndebele <i>(isiNdebele)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swazi_language" title="Swazi language">Swazi <i>(siSwati)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xhosa_language" title="Xhosa language">Xhosa <i>(isiXhosa)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_language" title="Zulu language">Zulu <i>(isiZulu)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tswa%E2%80%93Ronga_languages" title="Tswa–Ronga languages">Tswa–Ronga</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsonga_language" title="Tsonga language">Tsonga <i>(Xitsonga)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Venda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venda_language" title="Venda language">Venda <i>(Tshivenḓa)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recognised<br />unofficial languages<br />mentioned in the<br /><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Africa" title="Constitution of South Africa">1996 constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhaca_language" title="Bhaca language">Bhaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoe_languages" title="Khoe languages">Khoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lala_language_(South_Africa)" title="Lala language (South Africa)">Lala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_language" title="Lozi language">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe_language" title="Khoekhoe language">Nama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nhlangwini_language" title="Nhlangwini language">Nhlangwini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ndebele_language" title="Northern Ndebele language">Northern Ndebele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phuthi_language" title="Phuthi language">Phuthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foreign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> (historical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_language" title="Telugu language">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_slang" title="LGBTQ slang">LGBTQ slang</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gayle_language" title="Gayle language">Gayle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/IsiNgqumo" title="IsiNgqumo">IsiNgqumo</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsotsitaal_and_Camtho" title="Tsotsitaal and Camtho">Tsotsitaal and Camtho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oorlams_Creole" title="Oorlams Creole">Oorlams Creole</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fanagalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretoria_Sotho" title="Pretoria Sotho">Pretoria Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scamto" title="Scamto">Scamto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Sign_Language" title="South African Sign Language">SA Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angloromani_language" title="Angloromani language">Angloromani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" 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