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(1500–1660) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-English_Renaissance_(1500–1660)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Elizabethan_period_(1558–1603)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elizabethan_period_(1558–1603)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Elizabethan period (1558–1603) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elizabethan_period_(1558–1603)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Drama </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jacobean_period_(1603–1625)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jacobean_period_(1603–1625)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Jacobean period (1603–1625) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jacobean_period_(1603–1625)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Drama_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drama_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Drama </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drama_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Prose </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Renaissance_(1625–1660)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Renaissance_(1625–1660)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Late Renaissance (1625–1660) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Renaissance_(1625–1660)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poetry_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restoration_Age_(1660–1700)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoration_Age_(1660–1700)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Restoration Age (1660–1700) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Restoration_Age_(1660–1700)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Restoration Age (1660–1700) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Restoration_Age_(1660–1700)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poetry_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prose_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prose_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Prose </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prose_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drama_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drama_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Drama </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drama_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 18th century </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 18th century subsection </button> <ul id="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Augustan_literature_(1700–1745)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Augustan_literature_(1700–1745)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Augustan literature (1700–1745) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Augustan_literature_(1700–1745)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Poetry_5" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_5"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_5-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drama_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drama_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Drama </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drama_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prose,_including_the_novel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prose,_including_the_novel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Prose, including the novel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prose,_including_the_novel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age_of_Sensibility_(1745–1798)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_Sensibility_(1745–1798)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Age of Sensibility (1745–1798) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_of_Sensibility_(1745–1798)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Precursors_of_Romanticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precursors_of_Romanticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Precursors of Romanticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precursors_of_Romanticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_American_Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_American_Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Rise of American Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_American_Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romanticism_(1798–1837)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanticism_(1798–1837)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Romanticism (1798–1837) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Romanticism_(1798–1837)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Romanticism (1798–1837) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Romanticism_(1798–1837)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Romantic_poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romantic_poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Romantic poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romantic_poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Second_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Second generation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_poets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_poets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 Other poets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_poets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romantic_novel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romantic_novel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Romantic novel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romantic_novel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romanticism_in_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanticism_in_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Romanticism in America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romanticism_in_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victorian_literature_(1837–1901)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victorian_literature_(1837–1901)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Victorian literature (1837–1901) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Victorian_literature_(1837–1901)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Victorian literature (1837–1901) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Victorian_literature_(1837–1901)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sage_writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sage_writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Sage writing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sage_writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victorian_novel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victorian_novel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Victorian novel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victorian_novel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-American_novel_(From_Romanticism_to_realism)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_novel_(From_Romanticism_to_realism)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 American novel (From Romanticism to realism) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_novel_(From_Romanticism_to_realism)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genre_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genre_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.2 Genre fiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genre_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Children's_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Children's_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.3 Children's literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Children's_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victorian_poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victorian_poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Victorian poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victorian_poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-American_poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 American poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victorian_drama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victorian_drama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Victorian drama </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victorian_drama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 20th century </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 20th century subsection </button> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modernism:_Beginnings_(c._1901–1923)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernism:_Beginnings_(c._1901–1923)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Modernism: Beginnings (c. 1901–1923) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernism:_Beginnings_(c._1901–1923)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernism_continues_(1923–1939)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernism_continues_(1923–1939)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Modernism continues (1923–1939) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernism_continues_(1923–1939)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_modernism_and_post–modernism_(1940–2000)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_modernism_and_post–modernism_(1940–2000)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Late modernism and post–modernism (1940–2000) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_modernism_and_post–modernism_(1940–2000)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Novel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.1 Novel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drama_5" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drama_5"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.2 Drama </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drama_5-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry_6" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry_6"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.3 Poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry_6-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature_from_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_from_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.4 Literature from the Commonwealth of Nations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_from_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_writers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_writers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.5 American writers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_writers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genre_fiction_in_the_twentieth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genre_fiction_in_the_twentieth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Genre fiction in the twentieth century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genre_fiction_in_the_twentieth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_criticism_in_the_twentieth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_criticism_in_the_twentieth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Literary criticism in the twentieth century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_criticism_in_the_twentieth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nobel_Prizes_in_English_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nobel_Prizes_in_English_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Nobel Prizes in English literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nobel_Prizes_in_English_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">English literature</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 71 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-71" aria-hidden="true" > 71 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelse_letterkunde" title="Engelse letterkunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Engelse letterkunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A" title="أدب إنجليزي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أدب إنجليزي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lliteratura_en_llingua_inglesa" title="Lliteratura en llingua inglesa – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lliteratura en llingua inglesa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ngilis_%C9%99d%C9%99biyyat%C4%B1" title="İngilis ədəbiyyatı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İngilis ədəbiyyatı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="اینگیلیس ادبیاتی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اینگیلیس ادبیاتی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="ইংরেজি সাহিত্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইংরেজি সাহিত্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="अंग्रेजी साहित्य – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="अंग्रेजी साहित्य" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Английска литература – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Английска литература" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engleska_knji%C5%BEevnost" title="Engleska književnost – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Engleska književnost" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_anglesa" title="Literatura anglesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Literatura anglesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglick%C3%A1_literatura" title="Anglická literatura – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Anglická literatura" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelsk_litteratur" title="Engelsk litteratur – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Engelsk litteratur" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englischsprachige_Literatur" title="Englischsprachige Literatur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Englischsprachige Literatur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingliskeelne_kirjandus" title="Ingliskeelne kirjandus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ingliskeelne kirjandus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%87%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Αγγλική λογοτεχνία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αγγλική λογοτεχνία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_en_lengua_inglesa" title="Literatura en lengua inglesa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Literatura en lengua inglesa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglalingva_literaturo" title="Anglalingva literaturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Anglalingva literaturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingelesezko_literatura" title="Ingelesezko literatura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ingelesezko literatura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="ادبیات انگلیسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ادبیات انگلیسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litt%C3%A9rature_de_langue_anglaise" title="Littérature de langue anglaise – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Littérature de langue anglaise" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_en_lingua_inglesa" title="Literatura en lingua inglesa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Literatura en lingua inglesa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%85%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%97%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%80_%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B9%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF" title="અંગ્રેજી સાહિત્ય – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="અંગ્રેજી સાહિત્ય" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%81%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99" title="영문학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="영문학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Անգլիական գրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անգլիական գրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="अंग्रेजी साहित्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अंग्रेजी साहित्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engleska_knji%C5%BEevnost" title="Engleska književnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Engleska književnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesusastraan_bahasa_Inggris" title="Kesusastraan bahasa Inggris – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kesusastraan bahasa Inggris" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letteratura_inglese" title="Letteratura inglese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Letteratura inglese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA" title="ספרות אנגלית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ספרות אנגלית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%A6_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4_%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8" title="ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯದ ಸಂಕ್ಷಿಪ್ತ ಇತಿಹಾಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯದ ಸಂಕ್ಷಿಪ್ತ ಇತಿಹಾಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%93%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D3%99%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96" title="Ағылшын әдебиеті – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ағылшын әдебиеті" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litterae_Anglicae" title="Litterae Anglicae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Litterae Anglicae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literat%C5%ABra_ang%C4%BCu_valod%C4%81" title="Literatūra angļu valodā – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Literatūra angļu valodā" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angl%C5%B3_literat%C5%ABra" title="Anglų literatūra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Anglų literatūra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leteratur_engles" title="Leteratur engles – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Leteratur engles" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angol_irodalom" title="Angol irodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Angol irodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Англиска книжевност – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Англиска книжевност" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%89" title="ادب انجليزى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ادب انجليزى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesusasteraan_Inggeris" title="Kesusasteraan Inggeris – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kesusasteraan Inggeris" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B9%E1%80%82%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%AC%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1" title="အင်္ဂလိပ်စာပေ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အင်္ဂလိပ်စာပေ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelse_literatuur" title="Engelse literatuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Engelse literatuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="英文学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="英文学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelsk_litteratur" title="Engelsk litteratur – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Engelsk litteratur" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelsk_litteratur" title="Engelsk litteratur – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Engelsk litteratur" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A4" title="ਅੰਗਰੇਜ਼ੀ ਸਾਹਿਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅੰਗਰੇਜ਼ੀ ਸਾਹਿਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%81%D8%AA" title="انگریزی ساہت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انگریزی ساہت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_angielska" title="Literatura angielska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Literatura angielska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_inglesa" title="Literatura inglesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Literatura inglesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_englez%C4%83" title="Literatura engleză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Literatura engleză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Английская литература – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Английская литература" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%BA" title="ඉංග්‍රීසි සාහිත්‍යය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඉංග්‍රීසි සාහිත්‍යය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="padding-bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png/175px-Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png" decoding="async" width="175" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png/263px-Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png/350px-Books_and_Scroll_Ornament_with_Open_Book.png 2x" data-file-width="1016" data-file-height="560" /></a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">Oral literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">Folklore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">fable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_tale" title="Fairy tale">fairy tale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_play" title="Folk play">folk play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folksong" class="mw-redirect" title="Folksong">folksong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">heroic epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">proverb</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Oration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance" title="Performance">Performance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audiobook" title="Audiobook">audiobook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoken_word" title="Spoken word">spoken word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saying" title="Saying">Saying</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Major written forms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closet_drama" title="Closet drama">closet drama</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_poetry" title="Narrative poetry">narrative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">Prose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_nonsense" title="Literary nonsense">Nonsense</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonsense_verse" title="Nonsense verse">verse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergodic_literature" title="Ergodic literature">Ergodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_literature" title="Electronic literature">Electronic</a></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Long prose fiction</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthology" title="Anthology">Anthology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_(literature)" title="Serial (literature)">Serial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">Novel</a>/<a href="/wiki/Romance_(prose_fiction)" title="Romance (prose fiction)">romance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Short prose fiction</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">Novella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novelette_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Novelette (literature)">Novelette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">Short story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drabble" title="Drabble">Drabble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sketch_story" title="Sketch story">Sketch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_fiction" title="Flash fiction">Flash fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parable" title="Parable">Parable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_literature" title="Wisdom literature">Wisdom</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Prose genres</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">Fiction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedic_novel" title="Encyclopedic novel">Encyclopedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre_fiction" title="Genre fiction">Genre</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_fiction" title="Action fiction">action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventure_fiction" title="Adventure fiction">adventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coming-of-age_story" title="Coming-of-age story">coming-of-age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_fiction" title="Crime fiction">crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erotic_literature" title="Erotic literature">erotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantasy_literature" title="Fantasy literature">fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_fiction" title="Horror fiction">horror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_fiction" title="Military fiction">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal_fiction" title="Paranormal fiction">paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_novel" title="Romance novel">romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural_fiction" title="Supernatural fiction">supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_(genre)" title="Western (genre)">western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realist_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Realist literature">Realist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_fiction" title="Speculative fiction">Speculative</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Non-fiction" title="Non-fiction">Non-fiction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">Academic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anecdote" title="Anecdote">Anecdote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle" title="Epistle">Epistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essay" title="Essay">Essay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_(message)" title="Letter (message)">Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_writing" title="Life writing">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_writing" title="Nature writing">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasive_writing" title="Persuasive writing">Persuasive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_literature" title="Travel literature">Travelogue</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Poetry genres</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Narrative_poetry" title="Narrative poetry">Narrative</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_poetry" title="Children's poetry">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verse_drama_and_dramatic_verse" title="Verse drama and dramatic verse">Dramatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verse_novel" title="Verse novel">Verse novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_poetry" title="National poetry">National</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">Lyric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballad" title="Ballad">Ballad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegy" title="Elegy">Elegy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">Epigram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazal" title="Ghazal">Ghazal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haiku" title="Haiku">Haiku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">Hymn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limerick_(poetry)" title="Limerick (poetry)">Limerick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ode" title="Ode">Ode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasida" title="Qasida">Qasida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">Sonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanelle" title="Villanelle">Villanelle</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epic_poems" title="List of epic poems">Epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poetry_groups_and_movements" title="List of poetry groups and movements">Groups and movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poets" title="List of poets">Poets</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Dramatic genres</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libretto" title="Libretto">Libretto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">Play</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_(theatrical_genre)" title="History (theatrical genre)">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">moral</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screenplay" title="Screenplay">Script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy" title="Tragicomedy">Tragicomedy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_literature" title="History of literature">History</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_literature" title="Ancient literature">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_modernism" title="Literary modernism">Modernist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_literature" title="Postmodern literature">Postmodern</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Lists and outlines</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_literature" title="Outline of literature">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_literary_terms" title="Glossary of literary terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_books" title="Lists of books">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_writers" title="Lists of writers">Writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_movements" title="List of literary movements">Movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_cycles" class="mw-redirect" title="List of literary cycles">Cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_literary_awards" title="List of literary awards">Literary awards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poetry_awards" title="List of poetry awards">poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_story_collection" title="Short story collection">Short story collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_literary_work" title="Lost literary work">Lost literary work</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lacuna_(manuscripts)" title="Lacuna (manuscripts)">Lacuna</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">Theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">criticism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_magazine" title="Literary magazine">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_(language)" title="Composition (language)">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_feud" title="Literary feud">Feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_estate" title="Literary estate">Estate</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="display:block; margin-top:0.3em; border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top:0.15em; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png/16px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png/24px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Template:Literature" title="Template:Literature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Literature" title="Template talk:Literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> English literature is literature written in the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a> from the <a href="/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a>. The English language has developed over more than 1,400 years.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The earliest forms of English, a set of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian dialects</a> brought to <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> by <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon">Anglo-Saxon</a> <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">settlers</a> in the fifth century, are called <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>. <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a> is the most famous work in Old English. Despite being set in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, it has achieved national epic status in England. However, following the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest">Norman conquest</a> of England in 1066, the written form of the <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Anglo-Saxon language</a> became less common. Under the influence of the new aristocracy, French became the standard language of courts, parliament, and polite society.<a href="#cite_note-Baugh_2002._pp._79-2">[2]</a> The English spoken after the Normans came is known as <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a>. This form of English lasted until the 1470s, when the <a href="/wiki/Chancery_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancery Standard">Chancery Standard</a> (late Middle English), a <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>-based form of English, became widespread. <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a> (1343–1400), author of <a href="/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales" title="The Canterbury Tales">The Canterbury Tales</a>, was a significant figure developing the legitimacy of <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> Middle English at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were still French and Latin. The <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">invention of the printing press</a> by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a> in 1439 also helped to standardise the language, as did the <a href="/wiki/King_James_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="King James Bible">King James Bible</a> (1611),<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Poet and playwright <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> (1564–1616) is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and one of the world's greatest dramatists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt200511-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBevington20021–3-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1997399-7">[7]</a> His plays have been translated into every primary <a href="/wiki/Modern_language" title="Modern language">living language</a> and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig20033-8">[8]</a> In the nineteenth century, Sir <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott's historical</a> <a href="/wiki/Historical_romance" title="Historical romance">romances</a> inspired a generation of European painters, composers, and writers.<a href="#cite_note-English_Literature_p._890-9">[9]</a> The English language spread throughout the world with the development of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empire in history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson2004b-10">[10]</a> By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the world population at the time,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, these colonies and the <a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">US</a> started to produce their significant literary traditions in English. Cumulatively, from 1907 to the present, numerous writers from <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland</a>, the US, and former British colonies have received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a> for works in English: more than in any other language. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Old_English_literature_(c._450–1066)"> Old English literature (c. 450–1066)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Old English literature (c. 450–1066)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/220px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/330px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/440px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4098" data-file-height="6868" /></a><figcaption>The first page of <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English literature</a>, or Anglo-Saxon literature, encompasses the surviving literature written in <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> in <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a>, in the period after the settlement of the <a href="/wiki/Saxon_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon people">Saxons</a> and other Germanic tribes in England (<a href="/wiki/Jutes" title="Jutes">Jutes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>) c. 450, after the withdrawal of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Romans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Romans">Romans</a>, and "ending soon after the Norman Conquest" in 1066.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabble1996323-12">[12]</a> These works include genres such as <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">sermons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> translations, legal works, <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">chronicles</a> and riddles.<a href="#cite_note-doma-13">[13]</a> In all there are about 400 surviving <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a> from the period.<a href="#cite_note-doma-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Widsith" title="Widsith">Widsith</a>, which appears in the <a href="/wiki/Exeter_Book" title="Exeter Book">Exeter Book</a> of the late 10th century, gives a list of kings of tribes ordered according to their popularity and impact on history, with <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a> King of the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> coming first, followed by <a href="/wiki/Ermanaric" title="Ermanaric">Eormanric</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hedeager-14">[14]</a>: 187  It may also be the oldest extant work that tells the <a href="/wiki/Hl%C3%B6%C3%B0skvi%C3%B0a" title="Hlöðskviða">Battle of the Goths and Huns</a>, which is also told in such later Scandinavian works as <a href="/wiki/Hervarar_saga_ok_Hei%C3%B0reks" title="Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks">Hervarar's saga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gesta_Danorum" title="Gesta Danorum">Gesta Danorum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hedeager-14">[14]</a>: 179  <a href="/wiki/Lotte_Hedeager" title="Lotte Hedeager">Lotte Hedeager</a> argues that the work is far older, however, and that it likely dates back to the late 6th or early 7th century, citing the author's knowledge of historical details and accuracy as proof of its authenticity.<a href="#cite_note-hedeager-14">[14]</a>: 184–86  She does note, however, that some authors, such as <a href="/wiki/John_D._Niles" class="mw-redirect" title="John D. Niles">John Niles</a>, have argued the work was invented in the 10th century.<a href="#cite_note-hedeager-14">[14]</a>: 181–84  The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a> is a collection of <a href="/wiki/Annals" title="Annals">annals</a> in <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>, from the 9th century, that <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">chronicles</a> the history of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The poem <a href="/wiki/The_Battle_of_Maldon_(poem)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Battle of Maldon (poem)">Battle of Maldon</a> also deals with history. This is a work of uncertain date, celebrating the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maldon" title="Battle of Maldon">Battle of Maldon</a> of 991, at which the Anglo-Saxons failed to prevent a <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> invasion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabble1996369-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Orature" class="mw-redirect" title="Orature">Oral tradition</a> was very strong in early <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon England">English culture</a> and most literary works were written to be performed.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic poems</a> were very popular, and some, including <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a>, have survived to the present day. <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a> is the most famous work in Old English, and has achieved <a href="/wiki/National_epic" title="National epic">national epic</a> status in England, despite being set in Scandinavia. The only surviving manuscript is the <a href="/wiki/Nowell_Codex" title="Nowell Codex">Nowell Codex</a>, the precise date of which is debated, but most estimates place it close to the year 1000. <a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a> is the conventional title,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2001-19">[19]</a> and its composition is dated between the 8th<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolkien1958127-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hieatt-21">[21]</a> and the early 11th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan1996xix–xx,_3–4,_23–34,_60,_62,_90,_162,_171,_258,_257,_277–78,_footnote_69-22">[22]</a> Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous: twelve are known by name from medieval sources, but only four of those are known by their vernacular works with any certainty: <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon" title="Cædmon">Cædmon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cynewulf" title="Cynewulf">Cynewulf</a>. Cædmon is the earliest English poet whose name is known,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulkCain2003-23">[23]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">pages needed</a>] and his only known surviving work <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon%27s_Hymn" title="Cædmon's Hymn">Cædmon's Hymn</a> probably dates from the late 7th century. The poem is one of the earliest attested examples of Old English and is, with the <a href="/wiki/Runic" class="mw-redirect" title="Runic">runic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ruthwell_Cross" title="Ruthwell Cross">Ruthwell Cross</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franks_Casket" title="Franks Casket">Franks Casket</a> inscriptions, one of three candidates for the earliest attested example of Old English poetry. It is also one of the earliest recorded examples of sustained poetry in a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic language</a>. The poem, <a href="/wiki/The_Dream_of_the_Rood" title="The Dream of the Rood">The Dream of the Rood</a>, was inscribed upon the <a href="/wiki/Ruthwell_Cross" title="Ruthwell Cross">Ruthwell Cross</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulkCain2003-23">[23]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">pages needed</a>] Two <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> poems from the late 10th century are <a href="/wiki/The_Wanderer_(Old_English_poem)" title="The Wanderer (Old English poem)">The Wanderer</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Seafarer_(poem)" title="The Seafarer (poem)">The Seafarer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabble19961052-24">[24]</a> Both have a religious theme, and Marsden describes The Seafarer as "an exhortatory and didactic poem, in which the miseries of winter seafaring are used as a metaphor for the challenge faced by the committed Christian [...]".<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Classical antiquity was not forgotten in Anglo-Saxon England, and several Old English poems are adaptations of <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">late classical</a> philosophical texts. The longest is <a href="/wiki/King_Alfred" class="mw-redirect" title="King Alfred">King Alfred</a>'s (849–899) 9th-century translation of <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>' <a href="/wiki/Consolation_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolation of Philosophy">Consolation of Philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_English_literature_(1066–1500)">Middle English literature (1066–1500)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Middle English literature (1066–1500)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_literature" title="Middle English literature">Middle English literature</a></div> After the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest">Norman conquest</a> of England in 1066, the written form of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon language">Anglo-Saxon language</a> became less common. Under the influence of the new aristocracy, French became the standard language of courts, parliament, and polite society. As the invaders integrated, their language and literature mingled with that of the natives, and the <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a> dialects of the ruling classes became <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a>. From then until the 12th century, Anglo-Saxon underwent a gradual transition into <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a>. Political power was no longer in English hands, so that the West Saxon literary language had no more influence than any other dialect and Middle English literature was written in many dialects that corresponded to the region, history, culture, and background of individual writers.<a href="#cite_note-Baugh_2002._pp._79-2">[2]</a> In this period religious literature continued to enjoy popularity and <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">Hagiographies</a> were written, adapted and translated: for example, <a href="/wiki/The_Life_of_Saint_Audrey" title="The Life of Saint Audrey">The Life of Saint Audrey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eadmer" title="Eadmer">Eadmer</a>'s (c. 1060 – c. 1126).<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> During the writing of <a href="/wiki/Ormulum" title="Ormulum">Ormulum</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1150 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1180),<a href="#cite_note-Parkes1983-28">[28]</a> the blending of both Old English and Anglo-Norman elements in English are highlighted for the first time, marking the beginning of the Middle English period.<a href="#cite_note-Johannesson2-29">[29]</a> Afterwards, <a href="/wiki/Layamon" title="Layamon">Layamon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Layamon%27s_Brut" title="Layamon's Brut">Brut</a> adapted the <a href="/wiki/Norman-French" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman-French">Norman-French</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wace" title="Wace">Wace</a> to produce the first English-language work to present the legends of <a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">King Arthur</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Knights_of_the_Round_Table" title="Knights of the Round Table">Knights of the Round Table</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabble199644-30">[30]</a> It was also the first historiography written in English since the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Piers_Ploughman._Middle_English_Poetry_(f.169).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Piers_Ploughman._Middle_English_Poetry_%28f.169%29.jpg/220px-Piers_Ploughman._Middle_English_Poetry_%28f.169%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Piers_Ploughman._Middle_English_Poetry_%28f.169%29.jpg/330px-Piers_Ploughman._Middle_English_Poetry_%28f.169%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Piers_Ploughman._Middle_English_Poetry_%28f.169%29.jpg/440px-Piers_Ploughman._Middle_English_Poetry_%28f.169%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="707" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Piers Ploughman from a 14th-century manuscript</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Middle_English_Bible_translations" title="Middle English Bible translations">Middle English Bible translations</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Wycliffe%27s_Bible" title="Wycliffe's Bible">Wycliffe's Bible</a>, helped to establish English as a literary language. <a href="/wiki/Wycliffe%27s_Bible" title="Wycliffe's Bible">Wycliffe's Bible</a> is the name now given to a group of <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations" title="Bible translations">Bible translations</a> into Middle English that were made under the direction of, or at the instigation of, <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a>. They appeared between about 1382 and 1395.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> These Bible translations were the chief inspiration and cause of the <a href="/wiki/Lollard" class="mw-redirect" title="Lollard">Lollard</a> movement, a pre-<a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> movement that rejected many of the teachings of the Roman <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>. Another literary genre, that of <a href="/wiki/Romance_(heroic_literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance (heroic literature)">Romances</a>, appears in English from the 13th century, with <a href="/wiki/King_Horn" title="King Horn">King Horn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Havelock_the_Dane" class="mw-redirect" title="Havelock the Dane">Havelock the Dane</a>, based on Anglo-Norman originals such as the <a href="/wiki/Romance_of_Horn" title="Romance of Horn">Romance of Horn</a> (c. 1170),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabble1996852-32">[32]</a> but it was in the 14th century that major writers in English first appeared. These were <a href="/wiki/William_Langland" title="William Langland">William Langland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a> and the so-called <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Poet" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearl Poet">Pearl Poet</a>, whose most famous work is <a href="/wiki/Sir_Gawain_and_the_Green_Knight" title="Sir Gawain and the Green Knight">Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Langland's <a href="/wiki/Piers_Plowman" title="Piers Plowman">Piers Plowman</a> (written c. 1360–87) or Visio Willelmi de Petro Plowman (William's Vision of Piers Plowman) is a Middle English <a href="/wiki/Allegorical" class="mw-redirect" title="Allegorical">allegorical</a> <a href="/wiki/Narrative_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Narrative poem">narrative poem</a>, written in unrhymed <a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">alliterative verse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sir_Gawain_and_the_Green_Knight" title="Sir Gawain and the Green Knight">Sir Gawain and the Green Knight</a> is a late 14th-century Middle English alliterative <a href="/wiki/Chivalric_romance" title="Chivalric romance">romance</a>. It is one of the better-known Arthurian stories of an established type known as the "beheading game". Developing from Welsh, Irish and English tradition, Sir Gawain highlights the importance of honour and chivalry. Preserved in the same manuscript with Sir Gawayne were three other poems, now generally accepted as the work of the same author, including an intricate elegiac poem, <a href="/wiki/Pearl_(poem)" title="Pearl (poem)">Pearl</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gawayne-35">[35]</a> The English dialect of these poems from the <a href="/wiki/Midlands_(England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Midlands (England)">Midlands</a> is markedly different from that of the <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>-based Chaucer and, though influenced by French in the scenes at court in Sir Gawain, there are in the poems also many dialect words, often of Scandinavian origin, that belonged to northwest England.<a href="#cite_note-Gawayne-35">[35]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geoffrey_Chaucer_(17th_century).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg/170px-Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg/255px-Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg/340px-Geoffrey_Chaucer_%2817th_century%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4511" data-file-height="5743" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a></figcaption></figure> Middle English lasted until the 1470s, when the <a href="/wiki/Chancery_Standard" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancery Standard">Chancery Standard</a>, a London-based form of English, became widespread and the printing press started to standardise the language. Chaucer is best known today for <a href="/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales" title="The Canterbury Tales">The Canterbury Tales</a>. This is a collection of stories written in Middle English (mostly in <a href="/wiki/Verse_(poetry)" title="Verse (poetry)">verse</a> although some are in <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a>), that are presented as part of a story-telling contest by a group of pilgrims as they travel together from <a href="/wiki/Southwark" title="Southwark">Southwark</a> to the shrine of St <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Becket" title="Thomas Becket">Thomas Becket</a> at <a href="/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral" title="Canterbury Cathedral">Canterbury Cathedral</a>. Chaucer is a significant figure in the development of the legitimacy of the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a>, Middle English, at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were still French and Latin. At this time, literature in England was being written in various languages, including Latin, Norman-French, and English: the multilingual nature of the audience for literature in the 14th century is illustrated by the example of <a href="/wiki/John_Gower" title="John Gower">John Gower</a> (c. 1330–1408). A contemporary of <a href="/wiki/William_Langland" title="William Langland">William Langland</a> and a personal friend of Chaucer, Gower is remembered primarily for three major works: the Mirroir de l'Omme, <a href="/wiki/Vox_Clamantis" title="Vox Clamantis">Vox Clamantis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Confessio_Amantis" title="Confessio Amantis">Confessio Amantis</a>, three long poems written in <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a>, Latin and Middle English respectively, which are united by common moral and political themes.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Significant religious works were also created in the 14th century, including those of <a href="/wiki/Julian_of_Norwich" title="Julian of Norwich">Julian of Norwich</a> (c. 1342 – c. 1416) and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rolle" title="Richard Rolle">Richard Rolle</a>. Julian's <a href="/wiki/Revelations_of_Divine_Love" title="Revelations of Divine Love">Revelations of Divine Love</a> (about 1393) is believed to be the first published book written by a woman in the English language.<a href="#cite_note-ec-37">[37]</a> A major work from the 15th century is <a href="/wiki/Le_Morte_d%27Arthur" title="Le Morte d'Arthur">Le Morte d'Arthur</a> by Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malory" title="Thomas Malory">Thomas Malory</a>, which was printed by <a href="/wiki/William_Caxton" title="William Caxton">Caxton</a> in 1485.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated182-38">[38]</a> This is a compilation of some French and English Arthurian romances, and was among the earliest books printed in England. It was popular and influential in the later revival of interest in the Arthurian legends.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_theatre">Medieval theatre</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Medieval theatre">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Medieval theatre</a></div> In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, drama in the vernacular languages of Europe may have emerged from enactments of the <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mystery_play" title="Mystery play">Mystery plays</a> were presented in the porches of cathedrals or by strolling players on <a href="/wiki/Calendar_of_saints" title="Calendar of saints">feast days</a>. <a href="/wiki/Miracle_play" class="mw-redirect" title="Miracle play">Miracle</a> and mystery plays, along with <a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">morality plays</a> (or "interludes"), later evolved into more elaborate forms of drama, such as was seen on the Elizabethan stages. Another form of medieval theatre was the <a href="/wiki/Mummers_Play" class="mw-redirect" title="Mummers Play">mummers' plays</a>, a form of early street theatre associated with the <a href="/wiki/Morris_dance" title="Morris dance">Morris dance</a>, concentrating on themes such as <a href="/wiki/Saint_George" title="Saint George">Saint George</a> and the <a href="/wiki/European_dragon" title="European dragon">Dragon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robin_Hood" title="Robin Hood">Robin Hood</a>. These were <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folk tales</a> re-telling old stories, and the <a href="/wiki/Actor" title="Actor">actors</a> travelled from town to town performing these for their audiences in return for money and hospitality.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Mystery plays and miracle plays are among the earliest formally developed <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">plays</a> in <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. Medieval mystery plays focused on the representation of <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> stories in <a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">churches</a> as <a href="/wiki/Tableau_vivant" title="Tableau vivant">tableaux</a> with accompanying <a href="/wiki/Antiphon" title="Antiphon">antiphonal</a> song. They developed from the 10th to the 16th century, reaching the height of their popularity in the 15th century before being rendered obsolete by the rise of professional theatre.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg/170px-ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg/255px-ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg/340px-ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1178" data-file-height="1338" /></a><figcaption>19th century engraving of a performance from the Chester <a href="/wiki/Mystery_play" title="Mystery play">mystery play</a> <a href="/wiki/Play_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Play cycle">cycle</a>.</figcaption></figure> There are four complete or nearly complete extant English biblical collections of plays from the late medieval period. The most complete is the <a href="/wiki/York_Mystery_Plays" title="York Mystery Plays">York cycle</a> of 48 pageants. They were performed in the city of <a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a>, from the middle of the 14th century until 1569.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Besides the Middle English drama, there are three surviving plays in <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Ordinalia" title="Ordinalia">Ordinalia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Having grown out of the religiously based <a href="/wiki/Mystery_play" title="Mystery play">mystery plays</a> of the Middle Ages, the <a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">morality play</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genre</a> of medieval and <a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">early Tudor</a> theatrical entertainment, which represented a shift towards a more secular base for European theatre.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Morality plays are a type of <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a> in which the <a href="/wiki/Protagonist" title="Protagonist">protagonist</a> is met by <a href="/wiki/Personification" title="Personification">personifications</a> of various <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> attributes who try to prompt him to choose a godly life over one of evil. The plays were most popular in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The Somonyng of Everyman (The Summoning of Everyman) (c. 1509–1519), usually referred to simply as <a href="/wiki/Everyman_(15th-century_play)" title="Everyman (15th-century play)">Everyman</a>, is a late 15th-century English morality play. Like <a href="/wiki/John_Bunyan" title="John Bunyan">John Bunyan</a>'s allegory <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim%27s_Progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim's Progress">Pilgrim's Progress</a> (1678), Everyman examines the question of <a href="/wiki/Christian_salvation" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian salvation">Christian salvation</a> through the use of allegorical characters.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="English_Renaissance_(1500–1660)"> English Renaissance (1500–1660)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: English Renaissance (1500–1660)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern Britain">Early Modern Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_literature" title="Elizabethan literature">Elizabethan literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">English Renaissance theatre</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a> as a part of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_movement" title="Cultural movement">cultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Art_movement" title="Art movement">artistic movement</a> in England dating from the late 15th to the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardWaller1907–1916Vol._3:_Renascence_and_Reformation-48">[48]</a> It is associated with the pan-European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> that is usually regarded as beginning in Italy in the late 14th century. Like most of northern Europe, England saw little of these developments until more than a century later – Renaissance style and ideas were slow in penetrating England. Many scholars see the beginnings of the English Renaissance during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan era</a> in the second half of the 16th century is usually regarded as the height of the English Renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardWaller1907–1916Vol._3:_Renascence_and_Reformation-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The influence of the Italian Renaissance can also be found in the poetry of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Wyatt_(poet)" title="Thomas Wyatt (poet)">Thomas Wyatt</a> (1503–1542), one of the earliest English Renaissance poets. He was responsible for many innovations in English poetry, and alongside <a href="/wiki/Henry_Howard,_Earl_of_Surrey" title="Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey">Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey</a> (1516/1517–1547) introduced the <a href="/wiki/Sonnet" title="Sonnet">sonnet</a> from Italy into England in the early 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETillyard1929-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow2004-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardWallerTrentErskine1907–21'''3'''-53">[53]</a> After <a href="/wiki/William_Caxton" title="William Caxton">William Caxton</a> introduced the printing press in England in 1476, <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_literature" title="Vernacular literature">vernacular literature</a> flourished.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated182-38">[38]</a> The <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Reformation</a> inspired the production of <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a> which led to the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a> (1549), a lasting influence on literary language. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elizabethan_period_(1558–1603)"> Elizabethan period (1558–1603)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Elizabethan period (1558–1603)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_literature" title="Elizabethan literature">Elizabethan literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">English Renaissance theatre</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan theatre">Elizabethan theatre</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry">Poetry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Poetry">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser" title="Edmund Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a> (c. 1552–1599) was one of the most important poets of the Elizabethan period, author of <a href="/wiki/The_Faerie_Queene" title="The Faerie Queene">The Faerie Queene</a> (1590 and 1596), an epic poem and fantastical <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a> celebrating the <a href="/wiki/Tudor_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudor dynasty">Tudor dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a>. Another major figure, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sidney" title="Philip Sidney">Sir Philip Sidney</a> (1554–1586), was an English poet, whose works include <a href="/wiki/Astrophel_and_Stella" title="Astrophel and Stella">Astrophel and Stella</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Defence_of_Poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="The Defence of Poetry">The Defence of Poetry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Countess_of_Pembroke%27s_Arcadia" title="The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia">The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia</a>. Poems intended to be set to music as songs, such as those by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Campion" title="Thomas Campion">Thomas Campion</a> (1567–1620), became popular as printed literature was disseminated more widely in households. <a href="/wiki/John_Donne" title="John Donne">John Donne</a> (1572–1631) was another important figure in Elizabethan poetry (see Jacobean poetry below). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drama">Drama</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Drama">edit</a>]</div> Among the earliest Elizabethan plays are <a href="/wiki/Gorboduc_(play)" title="Gorboduc (play)">Gorboduc</a> (1561) by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sackville,_1st_Earl_of_Dorset" title="Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset">Sackville</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Norton" title="Thomas Norton">Norton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kyd" title="Thomas Kyd">Thomas Kyd</a>'s (1558–1594) <a href="/wiki/The_Spanish_Tragedy" title="The Spanish Tragedy">The Spanish Tragedy</a> (1592). Gorboduc is notable especially as the first <a href="/wiki/Verse_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Verse drama">verse drama</a> in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> to employ <a href="/wiki/Blank_verse" title="Blank verse">blank verse</a>, and for the way it developed elements, from the earlier <a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">morality plays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Senecan_tragedy" title="Senecan tragedy">Senecan tragedy</a>, in the direction which would be followed by later playwrights.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Spanish_Tragedy" title="The Spanish Tragedy">The Spanish Tragedy</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan">Elizabethan</a> <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a> written by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kyd" title="Thomas Kyd">Thomas Kyd</a> between 1582 and 1592, which was popular and influential in its time, and established a new <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genre</a> in English literature theatre, the <a href="/wiki/Revenge_play" title="Revenge play">revenge play</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor,_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/170px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/255px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg/340px-William_Shakespeare_by_John_Taylor%2C_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3059" /></a><figcaption>William Shakespeare</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> (1564–1616) stands out in this period as a <a href="/wiki/Poet" title="Poet">poet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright">playwright</a> as yet unsurpassed. Shakespeare wrote plays in a variety of genres, including <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_history" title="Shakespearean history">histories</a> (such as Richard III and Henry IV), <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy" title="Shakespearean tragedy">tragedies</a> (such as Hamlet, Othello, and Macbeth) <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_comedy" title="Shakespearean comedy">comedies</a> (such as Midsummer Night's Dream, As You Like It, and Twelfth Night) and the late <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare%27s_late_romances" class="mw-redirect" title="William Shakespeare's late romances">romances</a>, or tragicomedies. Shakespeare's career continues in the Jacobean period. Other important figures in <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethan theatre">Elizabethan theatre</a> include <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe" title="Christopher Marlowe">Christopher Marlowe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson">Ben Jonson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dekker_(poet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Dekker (poet)">Thomas Dekker</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Fletcher_(playwright)" title="John Fletcher (playwright)">John Fletcher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Beaumont" title="Francis Beaumont">Francis Beaumont</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jacobean_period_(1603–1625)">Jacobean period (1603–1625)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Jacobean period (1603–1625)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drama_2">Drama</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Drama">edit</a>]</div> In the early 17th century <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a> wrote the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_problem_play" title="Shakespearean problem play">problem plays</a>", as well as a number of his best known <a href="/wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy" title="Shakespearean tragedy">tragedies</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Macbeth" title="Macbeth">Macbeth</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_Lear" title="King Lear">King Lear</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In his final period, Shakespeare turned to <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_late_romances" title="Shakespeare's late romances">romance</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy" title="Tragicomedy">tragicomedy</a> and completed three more major plays, including <a href="/wiki/The_Tempest" title="The Tempest">The Tempest</a>. Less bleak than the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s, but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> After Shakespeare's death, the poet and dramatist <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson">Ben Jonson</a> (1572–1637) was the leading literary figure of the <a href="/wiki/Jacobean_era" title="Jacobean era">Jacobean era</a>. Jonson's aesthetics hark back to the Middle Ages and his characters embody the <a href="/wiki/Humours" class="mw-redirect" title="Humours">theory of humours</a>, which was based on contemporary medical theory.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Jonson's comedies include <a href="/wiki/Volpone" title="Volpone">Volpone</a> (1605 or 1606) and <a href="/wiki/Bartholomew_Fair_(play)" title="Bartholomew Fair (play)">Bartholomew Fair</a> (1614). Others who followed Jonson's style include <a href="/wiki/Beaumont_and_Fletcher" title="Beaumont and Fletcher">Beaumont and Fletcher</a>, who wrote the popular comedy, <a href="/wiki/The_Knight_of_the_Burning_Pestle" title="The Knight of the Burning Pestle">The Knight of the Burning Pestle</a> (probably 1607–1608), a satire of the rising middle class.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Another popular style of theatre during Jacobean times was the <a href="/wiki/Revenge_play" title="Revenge play">revenge play</a>, which was popularized in the Elizabethan era by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kyd" title="Thomas Kyd">Thomas Kyd</a> (1558–1594), and then further developed later by <a href="/wiki/John_Webster" title="John Webster">John Webster</a> (c. 1580 – c. 1632), <a href="/wiki/The_White_Devil" title="The White Devil">The White Devil</a> (1612) and <a href="/wiki/The_Duchess_of_Malfi" title="The Duchess of Malfi">The Duchess of Malfi</a> (1613). Other revenge tragedies include <a href="/wiki/The_Changeling_(play)" title="The Changeling (play)">The Changeling</a> written by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Middleton" title="Thomas Middleton">Thomas Middleton</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Rowley" title="William Rowley">William Rowley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry_2">Poetry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Poetry">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/George_Chapman" title="George Chapman">George Chapman</a> (c. 1559 – c. 1634) is remembered chiefly for his famous translation in 1616 of <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a> into English verse.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> This was the first ever complete translations of either poem into the English language. The translation had a profound influence on English literature and inspired <a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">John Keats</a>'s famous sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" (1816). Shakespeare popularized the <a href="/wiki/English_sonnet" class="mw-redirect" title="English sonnet">English sonnet</a>, which made significant changes to <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a>'s model. A collection of 154 by <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_sonnets" title="Shakespeare's sonnets">sonnets</a>, dealing with themes such as the passage of time, love, beauty and mortality, were first published in a 1609 quarto. Besides Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, the major poets of the early 17th century included the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poet" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical poet">Metaphysical poets</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_Donne" title="John Donne">John Donne</a> (1572–1631), <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert" title="George Herbert">George Herbert</a> (1593–1633), <a href="/wiki/Henry_Vaughan" title="Henry Vaughan">Henry Vaughan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Marvell" title="Andrew Marvell">Andrew Marvell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Crashaw" title="Richard Crashaw">Richard Crashaw</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ODNB-63">[63]</a> Their style was characterized by <a href="/wiki/Wit" title="Wit">wit</a> and metaphysical conceits, that is far-fetched or unusual similes or metaphors.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prose">Prose</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Prose">edit</a>]</div> The most important prose work of the early 17th century was the <a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Bible</a>. This, one of the most massive translation projects in the history of English up to this time, was started in 1604 and completed in 1611. This represents the culmination of a tradition of <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_English" title="Bible translations into English">Bible translation into English</a> that began with the work of <a href="/wiki/William_Tyndale" title="William Tyndale">William Tyndale</a>, and it became the standard <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabble1996100–01-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Renaissance_(1625–1660)"> Late Renaissance (1625–1660)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Late Renaissance (1625–1660)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry_3">Poetry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Poetry">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poets" title="Metaphysical poets">Metaphysical poets</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Donne" title="John Donne">John Donne</a> (1572–1631) and <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert" title="George Herbert">George Herbert</a> (1593–1633) were still alive after 1625, and later in the 17th century a second generation of metaphysical poets were writing, including <a href="/wiki/Richard_Crashaw" title="Richard Crashaw">Richard Crashaw</a> (1613–1649), <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Marvell" title="Andrew Marvell">Andrew Marvell</a> (1621–1678), <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Traherne" title="Thomas Traherne">Thomas Traherne</a> (1636 or 1637–1674) and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Vaughan" title="Henry Vaughan">Henry Vaughan</a> (1622–1695). The Cavalier poets were another important group of 17th-century poets, who came from the classes that supported King Charles I during the English Civil War (1642–1651). (King Charles reigned from 1625 and was executed in 1649). The best known of the <a href="/wiki/Cavalier_poet" title="Cavalier poet">Cavalier poets</a> are <a href="/wiki/Robert_Herrick_(poet)" title="Robert Herrick (poet)">Robert Herrick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lovelace_(poet)" title="Richard Lovelace (poet)">Richard Lovelace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carew" title="Thomas Carew">Thomas Carew</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Suckling_(poet)" title="John Suckling (poet)">Sir John Suckling</a>. They "were not a formal group, but all were influenced by" Ben Jonson. Most of the Cavalier poets were courtiers, with notable exceptions. For example, Robert Herrick was not a courtier, but his style marks him as a Cavalier poet. Cavalier works make use of allegory and classical allusions, and are influenced by Roman authors Horace, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a> (1608–1674) "was the last great poet of the English Renaissance"<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> and published a number of works before 1660, including <a href="/wiki/L%27Allegro" title="L'Allegro">L'Allegro</a> (1631), <a href="/wiki/Il_Penseroso" title="Il Penseroso">Il Penseroso</a> (1634), the masque <a href="/wiki/Comus_(John_Milton)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comus (John Milton)">Comus</a> (1638) and <a href="/wiki/Lycidas" title="Lycidas">Lycidas</a> (1638). However, his major epic works, including <a href="/wiki/Paradise_Lost" title="Paradise Lost">Paradise Lost</a> (1667) were published in the Restoration period. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Restoration_Age_(1660–1700)"> Restoration Age (1660–1700)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Restoration Age (1660–1700)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Restoration_literature" title="Restoration literature">Restoration literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Restoration_Comedy" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration Comedy">Restoration Comedy</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/English_literature" title="Special:EditPage/English literature">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Restoration literature includes both <a href="/wiki/Paradise_Lost" title="Paradise Lost">Paradise Lost</a> and the <a href="/wiki/John_Wilmot,_2nd_Earl_of_Rochester" title="John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester">Earl of Rochester</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sodom,_or_the_Quintessence_of_Debauchery" title="Sodom, or the Quintessence of Debauchery">Sodom</a>, the sexual comedy of <a href="/wiki/The_Country_Wife" title="The Country Wife">The Country Wife</a> and the moral wisdom of <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim%27s_Progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim's Progress">Pilgrim's Progress</a>. It saw Locke's <a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_on_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Two Treatises on Government">Two Treatises on Government</a>, the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>, the experiments and the holy meditations of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Short_View_of_the_Immorality_and_Profaneness_of_the_English_Stage" title="Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage">hysterical attacks on theatres</a> from <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Collier" title="Jeremy Collier">Jeremy Collier</a>, the pioneering of literary criticism from Dryden, and the first newspapers. The official break in literary culture caused by censorship and radically moralist standards under Cromwell's Puritan regime created a gap in literary tradition, allowing a seemingly fresh start for all forms of literature after the Restoration. During the Interregnum, the royalist forces attached to the court of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> went into exile with the twenty-year-old <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a>. The nobility who travelled with Charles II were therefore lodged for over a decade in the midst of the continent's literary scene. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poetry_4">Poetry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Poetry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg/170px-John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg/255px-John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg/340px-John_Milton_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1047" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>, religious <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poem</a> <a href="/wiki/Paradise_Lost" title="Paradise Lost">Paradise Lost</a> published in 1667.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>, one of the greatest English poets, wrote at this time of religious flux and political upheaval. Milton is best known for his epic poem <a href="/wiki/Paradise_Lost" title="Paradise Lost">Paradise Lost</a> (1667). Milton's poetry and prose reflect deep personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self-determination, and the urgent issues and political turbulence of his day. His celebrated <a href="/wiki/Areopagitica" title="Areopagitica">Areopagitica</a>, written in condemnation of pre-publication censorship, is among history's most influential and impassioned defenses of <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press#United_Kingdom" title="Freedom of the press">freedom of the press</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The largest and most important poetic form of the era was satire. In general, publication of satire was done anonymously, as there were great dangers in being associated with a satire. <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a> (1631–1700) was an influential English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright who dominated the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles as the "Age of Dryden". He established the heroic couplet as a standard form of English poetry. Dryden's greatest achievements were in satiric verse in works like the mock-heroic <a href="/wiki/MacFlecknoe" class="mw-redirect" title="MacFlecknoe">MacFlecknoe</a> (1682).<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a> (1688–1744) was heavily influenced by Dryden, and often borrowed from him; other writers in the 18th century were equally influenced by both Dryden and Pope. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prose_2">Prose</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Prose">edit</a>]</div> Prose in the Restoration period is dominated by <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> religious writing, but the Restoration also saw the beginnings of two genres that would dominate later periods, fiction and journalism. Religious writing often strayed into political and economic writing, just as political and economic writing implied or directly addressed religion. The Restoration was also the time when <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> wrote many of his philosophical works. His two Treatises on Government, which later inspired the thinkers in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>. The Restoration moderated most of the more strident sectarian writing, but radicalism persisted after the Restoration. Puritan authors such as <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a> were forced to retire from public life or adapt, and those authors who had preached against monarchy and who had participated directly in the <a href="/wiki/Regicide" title="Regicide">regicide</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> were partially suppressed. Consequently, violent writings were forced underground, and many of those who had served in the Interregnum attenuated their positions in the Restoration. <a href="/wiki/John_Bunyan" title="John Bunyan">John Bunyan</a> stands out beyond other religious authors of the period. Bunyan's <a href="/wiki/The_Pilgrim%27s_Progress" title="The Pilgrim's Progress">The Pilgrim's Progress</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a> of personal salvation and a guide to the Christian life. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pilgrim%27s_Progress_first_edition_1678.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Pilgrim%27s_Progress_first_edition_1678.jpg/170px-Pilgrim%27s_Progress_first_edition_1678.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Pilgrim%27s_Progress_first_edition_1678.jpg/255px-Pilgrim%27s_Progress_first_edition_1678.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Pilgrim%27s_Progress_first_edition_1678.jpg/340px-Pilgrim%27s_Progress_first_edition_1678.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1405" data-file-height="2399" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Bunyan" title="John Bunyan">John Bunyan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Pilgrim%27s_Progress" title="The Pilgrim's Progress">The Pilgrim's Progress</a> (1678)</figcaption></figure> During the Restoration period, the most common manner of getting news would have been a <a href="/wiki/Broadsheet" title="Broadsheet">broadsheet</a> publication. A single, large sheet of paper might have a written, usually partisan, account of an event. It is impossible to satisfactorily date the beginning of the novel in English. However, long fiction and fictional biographies began to distinguish themselves from other forms in England during the Restoration period. An existing tradition of Romance fiction in France and Spain was popular in England. One of the most significant figures in the rise of the novel in the Restoration period is <a href="/wiki/Aphra_Behn" title="Aphra Behn">Aphra Behn</a>, author of <a href="/wiki/Oroonoko" title="Oroonoko">Oroonoko</a> (1688), who was not only the first professional female novelist, but she may be among the first professional novelists of either sex in England. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drama_3">Drama</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Drama">edit</a>]</div> As soon as the previous Puritan regime's ban on public stage representations was lifted, <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> recreated itself quickly and abundantly.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The most famous plays of the early Restoration period are the unsentimental or "hard" comedies of <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Wycherley" title="William Wycherley">William Wycherley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_Etherege" title="George Etherege">George Etherege</a>, which reflect the atmosphere at Court, and celebrate an aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Machismo" title="Machismo">macho</a> lifestyle of unremitting sexual intrigue and conquest. After a sharp drop in both quality and quantity in the 1680s, the mid-1690s saw a brief second flowering of the drama, especially comedy. Comedies like <a href="/wiki/William_Congreve_(playwright)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Congreve (playwright)">William Congreve</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Way_of_the_World" title="The Way of the World">The Way of the World</a> (1700), and <a href="/wiki/John_Vanbrugh" title="John Vanbrugh">John Vanbrugh</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Relapse" title="The Relapse">The Relapse</a> (1696) and <a href="/wiki/The_Provoked_Wife" title="The Provoked Wife">The Provoked Wife</a> (1697) were "softer" and more middle-class in ethos, very different from the aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Extravaganza" title="Extravaganza">extravaganza</a> twenty years earlier, and aimed at a wider audience. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="18th_century">18th century</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 18th century">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Augustan_literature_(1700–1745)"> Augustan literature (1700–1745)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Augustan literature (1700–1745)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/18th-century_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="18th-century literature">18th-century literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustan_literature" title="Augustan literature">Augustan literature</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/English_literature" title="Special:EditPage/English literature">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> During the 18th century literature reflected the worldview of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> (or Age of Reason): a rational and scientific approach to religious, social, political, and economic issues that promoted a secular view of the world and a general sense of progress and perfectibility. Led by the philosophers who were inspired by the discoveries of the previous century by people like <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> and the writings of <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a>. They sought to discover and to act upon universally valid principles governing humanity, nature, and society. They variously attacked spiritual and scientific authority, dogmatism, intolerance, censorship, and economic and social restraints. They considered the state the proper and rational instrument of progress. The extreme rationalism and skepticism of the age led naturally to deism and also played a part in bringing the later reaction of <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">romanticism</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a> of Denis Diderot epitomized the spirit of the age. The term Augustan literature derives from authors of the 1720s and 1730s themselves, who responded to a term that <a href="/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain" title="George I of Great Britain">George I of Great Britain</a> preferred for himself. While George I meant the title to reflect his might, they instead saw in it a reflection of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a>'s transition from rough and ready literature to highly political and highly polished literature. It is an age of exuberance and scandal, of enormous energy and inventiveness and outrage, that reflected an era when English, Welsh, Scottish, and Irish people found themselves in the midst of an expanding economy, lowering barriers to education, and the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry_5">Poetry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Poetry">edit</a>]</div> It was during this time that the poet <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(poet,_born_1700)" title="James Thomson (poet, born 1700)">James Thomson</a> (1700–1748) produced his melancholy <a href="/wiki/The_Seasons_(Thomson_poem)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Seasons (Thomson poem)">The Seasons</a> (1728–30) and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Young" title="Edward Young">Edward Young</a> (1681–1765) wrote his poem <a href="/wiki/Night_Thoughts" class="mw-redirect" title="Night Thoughts">Night Thoughts</a> (1742), though the most outstanding poet of the age is <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Alexander Pope</a> (1688–1744). It is also the era that saw a serious competition over the proper model for the <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral poetry">pastoral</a>. In criticism, poets struggled with a doctrine of decorum, of matching proper words with proper sense and of achieving a diction that matched the gravity of a subject. At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Mock-heroic" title="Mock-heroic">mock-heroic</a> was at its zenith and Pope's <a href="/wiki/Rape_of_the_Lock" class="mw-redirect" title="Rape of the Lock">Rape of the Lock</a> (1712–17) and <a href="/wiki/The_Dunciad" title="The Dunciad">The Dunciad</a> (1728–43) are still considered to be the greatest mock-heroic poems ever written.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Pope also translated the <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a> (1715–20) and the <a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a> (1725–26). Since his death, Pope has been in a constant state of re-evaluation.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drama_4">Drama</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Drama">edit</a>]</div> Drama in the early part of the period featured the last plays of <a href="/wiki/John_Vanbrugh" title="John Vanbrugh">John Vanbrugh</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Congreve_(playwright)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Congreve (playwright)">William Congreve</a>, both of whom carried on the Restoration comedy with some alterations. However, the majority of stagings were of lower <a href="/wiki/Farce" title="Farce">farces</a> and much more serious and domestic tragedies. <a href="/wiki/George_Lillo" title="George Lillo">George Lillo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Steele" title="Richard Steele">Richard Steele</a> both produced highly moral forms of tragedy, where the characters and the concerns of the characters were wholly middle class or working class. This reflected a marked change in the audience for plays, as royal patronage was no longer the important part of theatrical success. Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Colley_Cibber" title="Colley Cibber">Colley Cibber</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Rich_(producer)" title="John Rich (producer)">John Rich</a> began to battle each other for greater and greater spectacles to present on stage. The figure of <a href="/wiki/Harlequin" title="Harlequin">Harlequin</a> was introduced, and <a href="/wiki/Pantomime" title="Pantomime">pantomime</a> theatre began to be staged. This "low" comedy was quite popular, and the plays became tertiary to the staging. <a href="/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">Opera</a> also began to be popular in London, and there was significant literary resistance to this Italian incursion. In 1728 John Gay returned to the playhouse with <a href="/wiki/The_Beggar%27s_Opera" title="The Beggar's Opera">The Beggar's Opera</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Licensing_Act_1737" title="Licensing Act 1737">Licensing Act 1737</a> brought an abrupt halt to much of the period's drama, as the theatres were once again brought under state control. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prose,_including_the_novel">Prose, including the novel</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Prose, including the novel">edit</a>]</div> In prose, the earlier part of the period was overshadowed by the development of the English essay. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Joseph Addison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Steele" title="Richard Steele">Richard Steele</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Spectator_(1711)" title="The Spectator (1711)">The Spectator</a> established the form of the British periodical essay. However, this was also the time when the English <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a> was first emerging. <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Defoe" title="Daniel Defoe">Daniel Defoe</a> turned from <a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">journalism</a> and writing criminal lives for the press to writing fictional criminal lives with <a href="/wiki/Roxana:_The_Fortunate_Mistress" title="Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress">Roxana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moll_Flanders" title="Moll Flanders">Moll Flanders</a>. He also wrote <a href="/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe" title="Robinson Crusoe">Robinson Crusoe</a> (1719). <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jonathan_Swift_by_Charles_Jervas_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Jonathan_Swift_by_Charles_Jervas_detail.jpg/170px-Jonathan_Swift_by_Charles_Jervas_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Jonathan_Swift_by_Charles_Jervas_detail.jpg/255px-Jonathan_Swift_by_Charles_Jervas_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Jonathan_Swift_by_Charles_Jervas_detail.jpg/340px-Jonathan_Swift_by_Charles_Jervas_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1544" data-file-height="1736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a></figcaption></figure> If Addison and Steele were dominant in one type of prose, then <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a> author of the satire <a href="/wiki/Gulliver%27s_Travels" title="Gulliver's Travels">Gulliver's Travels</a> was in another. In <a href="/wiki/A_Modest_Proposal" title="A Modest Proposal">A Modest Proposal</a> and the Drapier Letters, Swift reluctantly defended the Irish people from the predations of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>. This provoked riots and arrests, but Swift, who had no love of Irish <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Catholics</a>, was outraged by the abuses he saw. An effect of the <a href="/wiki/Licensing_Act_1737" title="Licensing Act 1737">Licensing Act 1737</a> was to cause more than one aspiring playwright to switch over to writing novels. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Fielding" title="Henry Fielding">Henry Fielding</a> (1707–1754) began to write prose satire and novels after his plays could not pass the censors. In the interim, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Richardson" title="Samuel Richardson">Samuel Richardson</a> (1689–1761) had produced <a href="/wiki/Pamela,_or_Virtue_Rewarded" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded">Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded</a> (1740), and Henry Fielding attacked, what he saw, as the absurdity of this novel in, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Andrews" title="Joseph Andrews">Joseph Andrews</a> (1742) and <a href="/wiki/Shamela" class="mw-redirect" title="Shamela">Shamela</a> (1741). Subsequently, Fielding satirised Richardson's <a href="/wiki/Clarissa;_or,_The_History_of_a_Young_Lady" title="Clarissa; or, The History of a Young Lady">Clarissa</a> (1748) with <a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Tom_Jones,_a_Foundling" title="The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling">Tom Jones</a> (1749). <a href="/wiki/Tobias_Smollett" title="Tobias Smollett">Tobias Smollett</a> (1721–1771) elevated the <a href="/wiki/Picaresque_novel" title="Picaresque novel">picaresque novel</a> with works such as <a href="/wiki/Roderick_Random" class="mw-redirect" title="Roderick Random">Roderick Random</a> (1748) and <a href="/wiki/Peregrine_Pickle" class="mw-redirect" title="Peregrine Pickle">Peregrine Pickle</a> (1751). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age_of_Sensibility_(1745–1798)"> Age of Sensibility (1745–1798)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Age of Sensibility (1745–1798)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr-Johnson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Dr-Johnson.jpg/170px-Dr-Johnson.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Dr-Johnson.jpg/255px-Dr-Johnson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Dr-Johnson.jpg/340px-Dr-Johnson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2535" data-file-height="3040" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sentimental_novel" title="Sentimental novel">Sentimental novel</a></div> This period is known as the Age of Sensibility, but it is also sometimes described as the "Age of Johnson".<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a> (1709–1784), often referred to as Dr Johnson, was an English author who made lasting contributions to English literature as a poet, essayist, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor and <a href="/wiki/Lexicographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexicographer">lexicographer</a>. Johnson has been described as "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history".<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> After nine years of work, Johnson's <a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="A Dictionary of the English Language">A Dictionary of the English Language</a> was published in 1755, and it had a far-reaching effect on <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> and has been described as "one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship."<a href="#cite_note-Bate240-74">[74]</a> The second half of the 18th century saw the emergence of three major Irish authors: <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Goldsmith" title="Oliver Goldsmith">Oliver Goldsmith</a> (1728–1774), <a href="/wiki/Richard_Brinsley_Sheridan" title="Richard Brinsley Sheridan">Richard Brinsley Sheridan</a> (1751–1816) and <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Sterne" title="Laurence Sterne">Laurence Sterne</a> (1713–1768). Goldsmith is the author of <a href="/wiki/The_Vicar_of_Wakefield" title="The Vicar of Wakefield">The Vicar of Wakefield</a> (1766), a pastoral poem <a href="/wiki/The_Deserted_Village" title="The Deserted Village">The Deserted Village</a> (1770) and two plays, The Good-Natur'd Man (1768) and <a href="/wiki/She_Stoops_to_Conquer" title="She Stoops to Conquer">She Stoops to Conquer</a> (1773). Sheridan's first play, <a href="/wiki/The_Rivals" title="The Rivals">The Rivals</a> (1775), was performed at <a href="/wiki/Covent_Garden" title="Covent Garden">Covent Garden</a> and was an instant success. He went on to become the most significant London playwright of the late 18th century with a play like <a href="/wiki/The_School_for_Scandal" title="The School for Scandal">The School for Scandal</a>. Both Goldsmith and Sheridan reacted against the sentimental comedy of the 18th-century theatre, writing plays closer to the style of <a href="/wiki/Restoration_comedy" title="Restoration comedy">Restoration comedy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Sterne published his famous novel <a href="/wiki/Tristram_Shandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tristram Shandy">Tristram Shandy</a> in parts between 1759 and 1767.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> In 1778, <a href="/wiki/Frances_Burney" title="Frances Burney">Frances Burney</a> (1752–1840) wrote <a href="/wiki/Evelina" title="Evelina">Evelina</a>, one of the first <a href="/wiki/Novel_of_manners" title="Novel of manners">novels of manners</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Fanny Burney's novels "were enjoyed and admired by Jane Austen".<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Precursors_of_Romanticism">Precursors of Romanticism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Precursors of Romanticism">edit</a>]</div> The Romantic movement in English literature of the early 19th century has its roots in 18th-century poetry, the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic novel">Gothic novel</a> and the novel of sensibility.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-80">[80]</a> This includes the <a href="/wiki/Graveyard_poets" title="Graveyard poets">graveyard poets</a>, from the 1740s and later, whose works are characterised by gloomy meditations on mortality. To this was added, by later practitioners, a feeling for the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">'sublime'</a> and uncanny, and an interest in ancient English poetic forms and folk poetry.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> The poets include <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gray" title="Thomas Gray">Thomas Gray</a> (1716–1771), <a href="/wiki/Elegy_Written_in_a_Country_Churchyard" title="Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard">Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard</a> (1751) in<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Young" title="Edward Young">Edward Young</a> (1683–1765), The Complaint, or <a href="/wiki/Night_Thoughts" class="mw-redirect" title="Night Thoughts">Night Thoughts</a> on Life, Death and Immortality (1742–45).<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Other precursors are <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(poet,_born_1700)" title="James Thomson (poet, born 1700)">James Thomson</a> (1700–1748) and <a href="/wiki/James_Macpherson" title="James Macpherson">James Macpherson</a> (1736–1796).<a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-80">[80]</a> James Macpherson was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation, with his claim to have found poetry written by the ancient bard <a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sentimental_novel" title="Sentimental novel">sentimental novel</a> or "novel of sensibility" is a genre which developed during the second half of the 18th century. It celebrates the emotional and intellectual concepts of sentiment, <a href="/wiki/Sentimentalism_(literature)" title="Sentimentalism (literature)">sentimentalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sensibility" title="Sensibility">sensibility</a>. Sentimentalism, which is to be distinguished from sensibility, was a fashion in both poetry and prose fiction which began in the 18th century in reaction to the rationalism of the <a href="/wiki/Augustan_literature" title="Augustan literature">Augustan Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Among the most famous sentimental novels in English are <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Richardson" title="Samuel Richardson">Samuel Richardson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Pamela,_or_Virtue_Rewarded" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded">Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded</a> (1740), <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Goldsmith" title="Oliver Goldsmith">Oliver Goldsmith</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Vicar_of_Wakefield" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicar of Wakefield">Vicar of Wakefield</a> (1766), <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Sterne" title="Laurence Sterne">Laurence Sterne</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Tristram_Shandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tristram Shandy">Tristram Shandy</a> (1759–67), and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Mackenzie" title="Henry Mackenzie">Henry Mackenzie</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Man_of_Feeling" title="The Man of Feeling">The Man of Feeling</a> (1771).<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Significant foreign influences were the Germans <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Schiller">Schiller</a> and <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">August Wilhelm Schlegel</a> and French philosopher and writer <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> (1712–1778).<a href="#cite_note-J._A._Cuddon,_pp._588–9-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>'s <a href="/wiki/A_Philosophical_Enquiry_into_the_Origin_of_Our_Ideas_of_the_Sublime_and_Beautiful" title="A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful">A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</a> (1757) is another important influence.<a href="#cite_note-English_Literature,_pp._957–8-88">[88]</a> The changing landscape, brought about by the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial revolution">industrial</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_agricultural_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="British agricultural revolution">agricultural</a> revolutions, was another influence on the growth of the Romantic movement in Britain. In the late 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Horace_Walpole" title="Horace Walpole">Horace Walpole</a>'s 1764 novel <a href="/wiki/The_Castle_of_Otranto" title="The Castle of Otranto">The Castle of Otranto</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a> genre, that combines elements of <a href="/wiki/Horror_fiction" title="Horror fiction">horror</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romance_(heroic_literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance (heroic literature)">romance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ann_Radcliffe" title="Ann Radcliffe">Ann Radcliffe</a> introduced the brooding figure of the gothic <a href="/wiki/Villain" title="Villain">villain</a> which developed into the <a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic hero</a>. Her <a href="/wiki/The_Mysteries_of_Udolpho" title="The Mysteries of Udolpho">The Mysteries of Udolpho</a> (1795) is frequently cited as the archetypal Gothic novel.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> A later generation of Gothic writing emerged with <a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">Mary Shelley</a> (1797–1851), remembered as the author of <a href="/wiki/Frankenstein" title="Frankenstein">Frankenstein</a> (1818). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_of_American_Literature">Rise of American Literature</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Rise of American Literature">edit</a>]</div> The successful <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">War of Independence</a> led by colonists in British North America from 1775 to 1783, resulted in the formation of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. This consequently led to the divergence of English letters in what became the United States from the mainstream of English literature, resulting in the development of a new American literature that sought to distinguish itself as part of the formation of a new American social and cultural identity. This was the first English-language literature to develop outside of the British Isles. The late colonial period already saw the publication of important prose tracts reflecting the political debates that culminated in the American revolution, written by important luminaries such as <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Quincy_II" title="Josiah Quincy II">Josiah Quincy</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson_(delegate)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Dickinson (delegate)">John Dickinson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Galloway" title="Joseph Galloway">Joseph Galloway</a>, the last being a loyalist to the crown. Two key figures were <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>. Franklin's <a href="/wiki/Poor_Richard%27s_Almanack" title="Poor Richard's Almanack">Poor Richard's Almanack</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Benjamin_Franklin" title="The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin">The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin</a> are esteemed works with their wit and influence toward the formation of a budding American identity. Paine's pamphlet <a href="/wiki/Common_Sense_(Book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Sense (Book)">Common Sense</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_American_Crisis" title="The American Crisis">The American Crisis</a> writings are seen as playing a key role in influencing the political tone of the time. During the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a>, poems and songs such as "<a href="/wiki/Nathan_Hale" title="Nathan Hale">Nathan Hale</a>" were popular. Major satirists included <a href="/wiki/John_Trumbull_(poet)" title="John Trumbull (poet)">John Trumbull</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Hopkinson" title="Francis Hopkinson">Francis Hopkinson</a>. <a href="/wiki/Philip_Morin_Freneau" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Morin Freneau">Philip Morin Freneau</a> also wrote poems about the War. In the post-war period, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> established his place in American literature through his authorship of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, his influence on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a>, his autobiography, his <a href="/wiki/Notes_on_the_State_of_Virginia" title="Notes on the State of Virginia">Notes on the State of Virginia</a>, and his many letters. <a href="/wiki/The_Federalist" class="mw-redirect" title="The Federalist">The Federalist</a> essays by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a> presented a significant historical discussion of American government organization and republican values. <a href="/wiki/Fisher_Ames" title="Fisher Ames">Fisher Ames</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Otis,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="James Otis, Jr.">James Otis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a> are also valued for their political writings and orations. Early American literature struggled to find a unique voice in existing literary genre, and this tendency was reflected in novels. European styles were frequently imitated, but critics usually considered the imitations inferior. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the first American novels were published. These fictions were too lengthy to be printed for public reading. Publishers took a chance on these works in hopes they would become steady sellers and need to be reprinted. This scheme was ultimately successful because male and female literacy rates were increasing at the time. Among the first American novels are <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Attwood_Digges&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Attwood Digges (page does not exist)">Thomas Attwood Digges</a>'s Adventures of Alonso, published in London in 1775 and <a href="/wiki/William_Hill_Brown" title="William Hill Brown">William Hill Brown</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Power_of_Sympathy" title="The Power of Sympathy">The Power of Sympathy</a> published in 1789. Brown's novel depicts a tragic love story between siblings who fell in love without knowing they were related. Also of note were important women writers such as <a href="/wiki/Susanna_Rowson" title="Susanna Rowson">Susanna Rowson</a> who wrote Charlotte: A Tale of Truth (later re-issued as <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Temple" title="Charlotte Temple">Charlotte Temple</a>). Charlotte Temple is a seduction tale influenced by the novels of English writer <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Richardson" title="Samuel Richardson">Samuel Richardson</a>, written in the third person, which warns against listening to the voice of love and counsels resistance. She also wrote nine novels, six theatrical works, two collections of poetry, six textbooks, and countless songs.<a href="#cite_note-Parker,_Patricia_L._1976-91">[91]</a> Reaching more than a million and a half readers over a century and a half, Charlotte Temple was the biggest seller of the 19th century before Stowe's <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a>. Another important writer was <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Webster_Foster" title="Hannah Webster Foster">Hannah Webster Foster</a>, who wrote the popular <a href="/wiki/The_Coquette" title="The Coquette">The Coquette: Or, the History of Eliza Wharton</a>, published in 1797.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> The story about a woman who is seduced and later abandoned, The Coquette has been praised for its demonstration of the era's contradictory ideas of womanhood.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> even as it has been criticized for delegitimizing protest against women's subordination.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Other important early American writers include <a href="/wiki/Charles_Brockden_Brown" title="Charles Brockden Brown">Charles Brockden Brown</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Gilmore_Simms" title="William Gilmore Simms">William Gilmore Simms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lydia_Maria_Child" title="Lydia Maria Child">Lydia Maria Child</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Neal" title="John Neal">John Neal</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Romanticism_(1798–1837)"> Romanticism (1798–1837)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Romanticism (1798–1837)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Romantic literature in English</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Romanticism in Scotland</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Romanticism arrived later in other parts of the English-speaking world. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg/170px-William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg/255px-William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg/340px-William_Blake_by_Thomas_Phillips.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a></figcaption></figure> The Romantic period was one of major social change in England and Wales, because of the depopulation of the countryside and the rapid development of overcrowded industrial cities, that took place in the period roughly between 1750 and 1850. The movement of so many people in England was the result of two forces: the <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a>, that involved the <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a> of the land, drove workers off the land, and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> which provided them employment.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Romanticism may be seen in part as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution,<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> though it was also a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, as well a reaction against the scientific <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)" title="Rationalization (sociology)">rationalization</a> of nature.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> was an especially important influence on the political thinking of many of the Romantic poets.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The landscape is often prominent in the poetry of this period, so much so that the Romantics, especially perhaps Wordsworth, are often described as 'nature poets'. However, the longer Romantic 'nature poems' have a wider concern because they are usually meditations on "an emotional problem or personal crisis".<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romantic_poetry">Romantic poetry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Romantic poetry">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a> (1759–1796) was a pioneer of the Romantic movement, and after his death he became a cultural icon in Scotland. The poet, painter, and printmaker <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a> (1757–1827) was another of the early Romantic poets. Though Blake was generally unrecognised during his lifetime, he is now considered a seminal figure in the history of both the poetry and visual arts of the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic Age</a>. Among his most important works are <a href="/wiki/Songs_of_Innocence" class="mw-redirect" title="Songs of Innocence">Songs of Innocence</a> (1789) and <a href="/wiki/Songs_of_Experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Songs of Experience">Songs of Experience</a> (1794) "and profound and difficult 'prophecies' ", such as "Jerusalem: the Emanation of the Giant Albion" (1804–c.1820).<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> After Blake, among the earliest Romantics were the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a>, including <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a> (1770–1850), <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> (1772–1834), <a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Robert Southey</a> (1774–1843) and journalist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_de_Quincey" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas de Quincey">Thomas de Quincey</a> (1785–1859). However, at the time <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a> (1771–1832) was the most famous poet.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> In 1784, with Elegiac Sonnets, <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Smith_(writer)" title="Charlotte Smith (writer)">Charlotte Smith</a> (1749–1806) reintroduced the sonnet to English literature.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The early <a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic Poets</a> brought a new emotionalism and introspection, and their emergence is marked by the first romantic manifesto in English literature, the "Preface" to <a href="/wiki/Lyrical_Ballads" title="Lyrical Ballads">Lyrical Ballads</a> (1798). The poems in <a href="/wiki/Lyrical_Ballads" title="Lyrical Ballads">Lyrical Ballads</a> were mostly by Wordsworth, though Coleridge contributed "<a href="/wiki/Rime_of_the_Ancient_Mariner" class="mw-redirect" title="Rime of the Ancient Mariner">Rime of the Ancient Mariner</a>".<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Among Wordsworth's most important poems are "<a href="/wiki/Lines_Composed_a_Few_Miles_Above_Tintern_Abbey" class="mw-redirect" title="Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey">Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Resolution_and_Independence" title="Resolution and Independence">Resolution and Independence</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Ode:_Intimations_of_Immortality_from_Recollections_of_Early_Childhood" class="mw-redirect" title="Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood">Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood</a>" and the autobiographical epic <a href="/wiki/The_Prelude" title="The Prelude">The Prelude</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Robert Southey</a> (1774–1843) was another of the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a>", and <a href="/wiki/Poet_Laureate" class="mw-redirect" title="Poet Laureate">Poet Laureate</a> for 30 years, although his fame has been long eclipsed by <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">Thomas De Quincey</a> (1785–1859) is best known for his <a href="/wiki/Confessions_of_an_English_Opium-Eater" title="Confessions of an English Opium-Eater">Confessions of an English Opium-Eater</a> (1821).<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Essayist <a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">William Hazlitt</a> (1778–1830), friend of both Coleridge and Wordsworth, is best known today for his literary criticism, especially Characters of Shakespeare's Plays (1817–1818).<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_generation">Second generation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Second generation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lord_Byron_coloured_drawing.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Lord_Byron_coloured_drawing.png/170px-Lord_Byron_coloured_drawing.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Lord_Byron_coloured_drawing.png/255px-Lord_Byron_coloured_drawing.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Lord_Byron_coloured_drawing.png/340px-Lord_Byron_coloured_drawing.png 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="932" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a></figcaption></figure> The second generation of Romantic poets includes <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a> (1788–1824), <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Percy Bysshe Shelley</a> (1792–1822), <a href="/wiki/Felicia_Hemans" title="Felicia Hemans">Felicia Hemans</a> (1793–1835) and <a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">John Keats</a> (1795–1821). Byron, however, was still influenced by 18th-century satirists and was, perhaps the least 'romantic' of the three, preferring "the brilliant wit of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a> to what he called the 'wrong poetical system' of his Romantic contemporaries".<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Byron achieved enormous fame and influence throughout Europe and <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a> called Byron "undoubtedly the greatest genius of our century".<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Shelley is perhaps best known for <a href="/wiki/Ode_to_the_West_Wind" title="Ode to the West Wind">Ode to the West Wind</a>, <a href="/wiki/To_a_Skylark" title="To a Skylark">To a Skylark</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Adonais" title="Adonais">Adonais</a>, an elegy written on the death of Keats. His close circle of admirers included the most progressive thinkers of the day. A work like Queen Mab (1813) reveals Shelley "as the direct heir to the French and British revolutionary intellectuals of the 1790s".<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Shelley became an idol of the next three or four generations of poets, including important <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Raphaelite">Pre-Raphaelite</a> poets such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_Browning" title="Robert Browning">Robert Browning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dante_Gabriel_Rossetti" title="Dante Gabriel Rossetti">Dante Gabriel Rossetti</a>, as well as later <a href="/wiki/W._B._Yeats" title="W. B. Yeats">W. B. Yeats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Though John Keats shared Byron and Shelley's radical politics, "his best poetry is not political",<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> but is especially noted for its sensuous music and imagery, along with a concern with material beauty and the transience of life.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Among his most famous works are "<a href="/wiki/Ode_to_a_Nightingale" title="Ode to a Nightingale">Ode to a Nightingale</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Ode_on_a_Grecian_Urn" title="Ode on a Grecian Urn">Ode on a Grecian Urn</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/To_Autumn" title="To Autumn">To Autumn</a>". Keats has always been regarded as a major Romantic, "and his stature as a poet has grown steadily through all changes of fashion".<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Although sticking to its forms, <a href="/wiki/Felicia_Hemans" title="Felicia Hemans">Felicia Hemans</a> began a process of undermining the Romantic tradition, a deconstruction that was continued by <a href="/wiki/Letitia_Elizabeth_Landon" title="Letitia Elizabeth Landon">Letitia Elizabeth Landon</a>, as "an urban poet deeply attentive to themes of decay and decomposition".<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-114">[114]</a> Landon's novel forms of metrical romance and <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_monologue" title="Dramatic monologue">dramatic monologue</a> were much copied and contributed to her long-lasting influence on Victorian poetry.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_poets">Other poets</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Other poets">edit</a>]</div> Another important poet in this period was <a href="/wiki/John_Clare" title="John Clare">John Clare</a> (1793–1864), the son of a farm labourer, who came to be known for his celebratory representations of the English countryside and his lamentation for the changes taking place in rural England.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> His poetry has undergone a major re-evaluation and he is often now considered to be among the most important 19th-century poets.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Crabbe" title="George Crabbe">George Crabbe</a> (1754–1832) was an English poet who, during the Romantic period, wrote "closely observed, realistic portraits of rural life [...] in the <a href="/wiki/Heroic_couplet" title="Heroic couplet">heroic couplets</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Augustan_literature#Poetry" title="Augustan literature">Augustan age</a>".<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Modern critic Frank Whitehead has said that "Crabbe, in his verse tales in particular, is an important—indeed, a major—poet whose work has been and still is seriously undervalued."<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romantic_novel">Romantic novel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Romantic novel">edit</a>]</div> One of the most popular novelists of the era was Sir <a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Walter Scott</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Historical_romance" title="Historical romance">historical romances</a> inspired a generation of painters, composers, and writers throughout Europe. Scott's novel-writing career was launched in 1814 with <a href="/wiki/Waverley_(novel)" title="Waverley (novel)">Waverley</a>, often called the first <a href="/wiki/Historical_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical novel">historical novel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-English_Literature_p._890-9">[9]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Last_of_the_Mohicans,_Merrill_bear.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Last_of_the_Mohicans%2C_Merrill_bear.jpg/170px-Last_of_the_Mohicans%2C_Merrill_bear.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Last_of_the_Mohicans%2C_Merrill_bear.jpg/255px-Last_of_the_Mohicans%2C_Merrill_bear.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Last_of_the_Mohicans%2C_Merrill_bear.jpg/340px-Last_of_the_Mohicans%2C_Merrill_bear.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1824" data-file-height="2320" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"> The Last of the Mohicans Illustration from 1896 edition, by J.T. Merrill</div></figcaption></figure> The works of <a href="/wiki/Jane_Austen" title="Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a> (1775–1817) critique the <a href="/wiki/Sentimental_novel" title="Sentimental novel">novels of sensibility</a> of the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century realism.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Her plots in novels such as <a href="/wiki/Pride_and_Prejudice" title="Pride and Prejudice">Pride and Prejudice</a> (1813) and <a href="/wiki/Emma_(novel)" title="Emma (novel)">Emma</a> (1815), though fundamentally comic, highlight the dependence of women on marriage to secure social standing and economic security.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romanticism_in_America">Romanticism in America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Romanticism in America">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">American literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Romantic literature in English</a></div> The European Romantic movement reached America in the early 19th century. American Romanticism was just as multifaceted and individualistic as it was in Europe. Like the Europeans, the American Romantics demonstrated a high level of moral enthusiasm, commitment to individualism and the unfolding of the self, an emphasis on intuitive perception, and the assumption that the natural world was inherently good, while human society was corrupt.<a href="#cite_note-George_L_1997_p_613-121">[121]</a> Romantic <a href="/wiki/Gothic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic literature">Gothic literature</a> made an early appearance with <a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Washington Irving</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Legend_of_Sleepy_Hollow" title="The Legend of Sleepy Hollow">The Legend of Sleepy Hollow</a> (1820) and <a href="/wiki/Rip_Van_Winkle" title="Rip Van Winkle">Rip Van Winkle</a> (1819), There are picturesque "local color" elements in Washington Irving's essays and especially his travel books. From 1823 the prolific and popular novelist <a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">James Fenimore Cooper</a> (1789–1851) began publishing his <a href="/wiki/Historical_romance" title="Historical romance">historical romances</a> of frontier and Indian life. However, <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a>'s tales of the macabre that first appeared in the early 1830s, and his poetry were more influential in France than at home.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Victorian_literature_(1837–1901)"> Victorian literature (1837–1901)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Victorian literature (1837–1901)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Victorian_literature" title="Victorian literature">Victorian literature</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sage_writing">Sage writing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Sage writing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sage_writing" title="Sage writing">Sage writing</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Carlyle_1867.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Thomas_Carlyle_1867.jpg/220px-Thomas_Carlyle_1867.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Thomas_Carlyle_1867.jpg/330px-Thomas_Carlyle_1867.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Thomas_Carlyle_1867.jpg/440px-Thomas_Carlyle_1867.jpg 2x" data-file-width="501" data-file-height="678" /></a><figcaption>Thomas Carlyle by <a href="/wiki/Julia_Margaret_Cameron" title="Julia Margaret Cameron">Julia Margaret Cameron</a>, 1867</figcaption></figure>During these years, sage writing developed as a new literary genre in which the author sought "to express notions about the world, man's situation in it, and how he should live."<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> John Holloway identified <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a> (1804–1881), <a href="/wiki/George_Eliot" title="George Eliot">George Eliot</a> (1819–1880), <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">John Henry Newman</a> (1801–1890), and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hardy" title="Thomas Hardy">Thomas Hardy</a> (1840–1928) as writers of this type. Foremost among them was <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> (1795–1881), a Scottish essayist, historian and philosopher who became "the undoubted head of English letters" in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Known as the Sage of <a href="/wiki/Chelsea,_London" title="Chelsea, London">Chelsea</a>, the highly prolific author <a href="/wiki/Condition_of_England_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Condition of England question">criticized the Industrial Revolution</a>,<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> preached <a href="/wiki/Great_man_theory" title="Great man theory">Hero-worship</a>,<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_dismal_science" title="The dismal science">rebuked political economy</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> in a series of works written in <a href="/wiki/Carlylese" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlylese">Carlylese</a>, the name given to his unique style.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> His influence on Victorian literature was nearly universal; in 1855, Eliot wrote that "there is hardly a superior or active mind of this generation that has not been modified by Carlyle's writings;" with the effect that if his books "were all burnt as the grandest of <a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Suttees</a> on his funeral pile, it would be only like cutting down an oak after its acorns have sown a forest."<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a> (1819–1900) was an Anglo-Scottish art critic and philosopher who wrote in a similar vein, regarding Carlyle as his master.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> The early part of his career was devoted to aesthetics, championing <a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">Turner</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood" title="Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood">Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> He later turned to ethics, expounding his ideas on educational reform and political economy, which were to have great influence on practices in England and throughout the world.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Matthew Arnold</a> (1822–1888) was an English poet and critic who is also regarded as a sage writer, famous for his criticism of <a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">philistinism</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victorian_novel">Victorian novel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Victorian novel">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/English_novel" title="English novel">English novel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">Novel</a></div> It was in the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a> (1837–1901) that the novel became the leading <a href="/wiki/Literary_genre" title="Literary genre">literary genre</a> in English.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Women played an important part in this rising popularity both as authors and as readers,<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> and monthly serialising of fiction also encouraged this surge in popularity, further upheavals which followed the <a href="/wiki/Reform_Act_1832" title="Reform Act 1832">Reform Act 1832</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> This was in many ways a reaction to rapid <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a>, and the social, political, and economic issues associated with it, and was a means of commenting on abuses of government and industry and the suffering of the poor, who were not profiting from England's economic prosperity.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Significant early examples of this genre include <a href="/wiki/Sybil,_or_The_Two_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sybil, or The Two Nations">Sybil, or The Two Nations</a> (1845) by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Kingsley" title="Charles Kingsley">Charles Kingsley</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Alton_Locke" title="Alton Locke">Alton Locke</a> (1849).<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Dickens_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Charles_Dickens_3.jpg/220px-Charles_Dickens_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Charles_Dickens_3.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="299" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a> (1812–1870) emerged on the literary scene in the late 1830s and soon became probably the most famous novelist in the history of English literature. Dickens fiercely satirised various aspects of society, including the <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouse</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Twist" title="Oliver Twist">Oliver Twist</a>, and the failures of the legal system in <a href="/wiki/Bleak_House" title="Bleak House">Bleak House</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> An early rival to Dickens was <a href="/wiki/William_Makepeace_Thackeray" title="William Makepeace Thackeray">William Makepeace Thackeray</a> (1811–1863), who during the Victorian period ranked second only to him, but he is now known almost exclusively for <a href="/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(novel)" title="Vanity Fair (novel)">Vanity Fair</a> (1847). The <a href="/wiki/Bront%C3%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Brontë">Brontë</a> sisters, Emily, Charlotte and Anne, were other significant novelists in the 1840s and 1850s.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jane_Eyre" title="Jane Eyre">Jane Eyre</a> (1847), <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">Charlotte Brontë</a>'s most famous work, was the first of the sisters' novels to achieve success. <a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">Emily Brontë</a>'s (1818–1848) novel was <a href="/wiki/Wuthering_Heights" title="Wuthering Heights">Wuthering Heights</a> and, according to <a href="/wiki/Juliet_Gardiner" title="Juliet Gardiner">Juliet Gardiner</a>, "the vivid sexual passion and power of its language and imagery impressed, bewildered and appalled reviewers,"<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> and led the Victorian public and many early reviewers to think that it had been written by a man.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Tenant_of_Wildfell_Hall" title="The Tenant of Wildfell Hall">The Tenant of Wildfell Hall</a> (1848) by <a href="/wiki/Anne_Bront%C3%AB" title="Anne Brontë">Anne Brontë</a> is now considered to be one of the first <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a> novels.<a href="#cite_note-intro-144">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gaskell" title="Elizabeth Gaskell">Elizabeth Gaskell</a> (1810–1865) was also a successful writer and her <a href="/wiki/North_and_South_(1855_novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="North and South (1855 novel)">North and South</a> contrasts the lifestyle in the industrial north of England with the wealthier south.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Trollope" title="Anthony Trollope">Anthony Trollope</a> (1815–1882) was one of the most successful, prolific and respected English novelists of the Victorian era. Trollope's novels portray the lives of the landowning and professional classes of early Victorian England.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Eliot" title="George Eliot">George Eliot</a>, pen name of Mary Ann Evans, was a major novelist of the mid-Victorian period. Her works, especially <a href="/wiki/Middlemarch" title="Middlemarch">Middlemarch</a> (1871–72), are important examples of <a href="/wiki/Literary_realism" title="Literary realism">literary realism</a>, and are admired for their combination of high <a href="/wiki/Victorian_literature" title="Victorian literature">Victorian literary</a> detail, with an intellectual breadth that removes them from the narrow geographic confines they often depict.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Meredith" title="George Meredith">George Meredith</a> (1828–1909) is best remembered for his novels <a href="/wiki/The_Ordeal_of_Richard_Feverel" title="The Ordeal of Richard Feverel">The Ordeal of Richard Feverel</a> (1859), and The Egoist (1879). "His reputation stood very high well into" the 20th century but then seriously declined.<a href="#cite_note-English_Literature_1996_pp.650-1-148">[148]</a> An interest in rural matters and the changing social and economic situation of the countryside is seen in the novels of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hardy" title="Thomas Hardy">Thomas Hardy</a> (1840–1928), including <a href="/wiki/The_Mayor_of_Casterbridge" title="The Mayor of Casterbridge">The Mayor of Casterbridge</a> (1886), and <a href="/wiki/Tess_of_the_d%27Urbervilles" title="Tess of the d'Urbervilles">Tess of the d'Urbervilles</a> (1891). Hardy is a Victorian realist, in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/George_Eliot" title="George Eliot">George Eliot</a>,<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> and like Charles Dickens he was also highly critical of much in Victorian society. Another significant late-19th-century novelist is <a href="/wiki/George_Gissing" title="George Gissing">George Gissing</a> (1857–1903), who published 23 novels between 1880 and 1903. His best known novel is <a href="/wiki/New_Grub_Street" title="New Grub Street">New Grub Street</a> (1891). Although pre-dated by <a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_King_of_the_Golden_River" title="The King of the Golden River">The King of the Golden River</a> in 1841, the history of the modern <a href="/wiki/Fantasy_literature" title="Fantasy literature">fantasy</a> genre is generally said to begin with <a href="/wiki/George_MacDonald" title="George MacDonald">George MacDonald</a> (1824–1905), the influential author of <a href="/wiki/The_Princess_and_the_Goblin" title="The Princess and the Goblin">The Princess and the Goblin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phantastes" title="Phantastes">Phantastes</a> (1858).<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">William Morris</a> (1834–1896) wrote a series of <a href="/wiki/Chivalric_romance" title="Chivalric romance">romances</a> in the 1880s and 1890s which are regarded as the first works of <a href="/wiki/High_fantasy" title="High fantasy">high fantasy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dg-151">[151]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kiplingcropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kiplingcropped.jpg/170px-Kiplingcropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kiplingcropped.jpg/255px-Kiplingcropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kiplingcropped.jpg/340px-Kiplingcropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="386" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Wilkie_Collins" title="Wilkie Collins">Wilkie Collins</a>' <a href="/wiki/Epistolary_novel" title="Epistolary novel">epistolary novel</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Moonstone" title="The Moonstone">The Moonstone</a> (1868), is generally considered the first <a href="/wiki/Detective_fiction" title="Detective fiction">detective novel</a> in the English language.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson" title="Robert Louis Stevenson">Robert Louis Stevenson</a> (1850–1894) was an important Scottish writer at the end of the nineteenth century, author of <a href="/wiki/Strange_Case_of_Dr_Jekyll_and_Mr_Hyde" title="Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde">Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde</a> (1886), and the <a href="/wiki/Historical_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical novel">historical novel</a> <a href="/wiki/Kidnapped_(novel)" title="Kidnapped (novel)">Kidnapped</a> (1886). <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a> (1865-1936) was a highly versatile writer of novels, short stories and poems who gained popularity at the end of the nineteenth century for his stories and poems about life in British India, published in collections such as <a href="/wiki/Plain_Tales_from_the_Hills" title="Plain Tales from the Hills">Plain Tales from the Hills</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Phantom_%27Rickshaw_and_Other_Tales" title="The Phantom 'Rickshaw and Other Tales">The Phantom 'Rickshaw and Other Tales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soldiers_Three" title="Soldiers Three">Soldiers Three</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Barrack-Room_Ballads" title="Barrack-Room Ballads">Barrack-Room Ballads</a>. <a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a>'s (1866–1946) writing career began in the 1890s with <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> novels like <a href="/wiki/The_Time_Machine" title="The Time Machine">The Time Machine</a> (1895), and <a href="/wiki/The_War_of_the_Worlds" title="The War of the Worlds">The War of the Worlds</a> (1898) which describes an invasion of late Victorian England by <a href="/wiki/Martian" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian">Martians</a>, and Wells is seen, along with Frenchman <a href="/wiki/Jules_Verne" title="Jules Verne">Jules Verne</a> (1828–1905), as a major figure in the development of the science fiction genre. He also wrote realistic fiction about the lower middle class in novels like <a href="/wiki/Kipps" title="Kipps">Kipps</a> (1905). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="American_novel_(From_Romanticism_to_realism)">American novel (From Romanticism to realism)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: American novel (From Romanticism to realism)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">American literature</a></div> (See also the discussion of American literature under Romanticism above). By the mid-19th century, the pre-eminence of literature from the British Isles began to be challenged by writers from the former American colonies. A major influence on American writers at this time was <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, which gave rise to <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> <a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a>, and the publication of <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a>'s 1836 essay <a href="/wiki/Nature_(essay)" title="Nature (essay)">Nature</a> is usually considered the watershed moment at which transcendentalism became a major cultural movement.<a href="#cite_note-George_L_1997_p_613-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Thomas Carlyle had a strong influence on Emerson, transcendentalism,<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> and American writers generally, particularly his novel <a href="/wiki/Sartor_Resartus" title="Sartor Resartus">Sartor Resartus</a>, of which the impact upon American literature has been described as "so vast, so pervasive, that it is difficult to overstate."<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nathaniel_Hawthorne_-_NARA_-_530280cr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Nathaniel_Hawthorne_-_NARA_-_530280cr.jpg/170px-Nathaniel_Hawthorne_-_NARA_-_530280cr.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Nathaniel_Hawthorne_-_NARA_-_530280cr.jpg/255px-Nathaniel_Hawthorne_-_NARA_-_530280cr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Nathaniel_Hawthorne_-_NARA_-_530280cr.jpg/340px-Nathaniel_Hawthorne_-_NARA_-_530280cr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1251" data-file-height="1668" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a>.</figcaption></figure> The romantic American novel developed fully with <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a>'s (1804–1864) <a href="/wiki/The_Scarlet_Letter" title="The Scarlet Letter">The Scarlet Letter</a> (1850), a stark drama of a woman cast out of her community for committing adultery. Hawthorne's fiction had a profound impact on his friend <a href="/wiki/Herman_Melville" title="Herman Melville">Herman Melville</a> (1819–1891). In <a href="/wiki/Moby-Dick" title="Moby-Dick">Moby-Dick</a> (1851), an adventurous whaling voyage becomes the vehicle for examining such themes as obsession, the nature of evil, and human struggle against the elements. By the 1880s, however, psychological and <a href="/wiki/Social_realism" title="Social realism">social realism</a> were competing with Romanticism in the novel. American realist fiction has its beginnings in the 1870s with the works of <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Dean_Howells" title="William Dean Howells">William Dean Howells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Henry_James" title="Henry James">Henry James</a>. Mark Twain (the pen name used by Samuel Langhorne Clemens, 1835–1910) was the first major American writer to be born away from the East Coast—in the border state of <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>. His regional masterpieces were the novels <a href="/wiki/Adventures_of_Tom_Sawyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Adventures of Tom Sawyer">Adventures of Tom Sawyer</a> (1876) and <a href="/wiki/Adventures_of_Huckleberry_Finn" title="Adventures of Huckleberry Finn">Adventures of Huckleberry Finn</a> (1884). Twain's style changed the way Americans write their language. His characters speak like real people and sound distinctively American, using local dialects, newly invented words, and regional accents. <a href="/wiki/Henry_James" title="Henry James">Henry James</a> (1843–1916) was a major American novelist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Although born in New York City, he spent most of his adult years in England. Many of his novels center on Americans who live in or travel to Europe. James confronted the Old World-New World dilemma by writing directly about it. His works include <a href="/wiki/The_Portrait_of_a_Lady" title="The Portrait of a Lady">The Portrait of a Lady</a> (1881), <a href="/wiki/The_Bostonians" title="The Bostonians">The Bostonians</a> (1886), <a href="/wiki/The_Princess_Casamassima" title="The Princess Casamassima">The Princess Casamassima</a> (1886).<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genre_fiction">Genre fiction</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Genre fiction">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PortraitOfACD.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/PortraitOfACD.JPG/170px-PortraitOfACD.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/PortraitOfACD.JPG/255px-PortraitOfACD.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/PortraitOfACD.JPG/340px-PortraitOfACD.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1996" data-file-height="2640" /></a><figcaption>Sir <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle" title="Arthur Conan Doyle">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> wrote 56 short stories and four novels featuring <a href="/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes" title="Sherlock Holmes">Sherlock Holmes</a></figcaption></figure> The premier <a href="/wiki/Ghost_story" title="Ghost story">ghost story</a> writer of the 19th century was <a href="/wiki/Sheridan_Le_Fanu" title="Sheridan Le Fanu">Sheridan Le Fanu</a>. His works include the macabre mystery novel <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Silas" title="Uncle Silas">Uncle Silas</a> (1865), and his Gothic novella <a href="/wiki/Carmilla" title="Carmilla">Carmilla</a> (1872) tells the story of a young woman's susceptibility to the attentions of a female vampire. <a href="/wiki/Bram_Stoker" title="Bram Stoker">Bram Stoker</a>'s horror story <a href="/wiki/Dracula" title="Dracula">Dracula</a> (1897) belongs to a number of <a href="/wiki/Literary_genre" title="Literary genre">literary genres</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Vampire_literature" title="Vampire literature">vampire literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horror_fiction" title="Horror fiction">horror fiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gothic_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic novel">gothic novel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invasion_literature" title="Invasion literature">invasion literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle" title="Arthur Conan Doyle">Arthur Conan Doyle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes" title="Sherlock Holmes">Sherlock Holmes</a> is a brilliant London-based "consulting detective", famous for his intellectual prowess. Conan Doyle wrote four novels and 56 <a href="/wiki/Short_stories" class="mw-redirect" title="Short stories">short stories</a> featuring Holmes, which were published between 1887 and 1927. All but four Holmes stories are narrated by Holmes' friend, assistant, and biographer, <a href="/wiki/Dr._Watson" title="Dr. Watson">Dr. Watson</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Lost_World_(genre)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lost World (genre)">Lost World</a> literary genre was inspired by real stories of archaeological discoveries by imperial adventurers. <a href="/wiki/H._Rider_Haggard" title="H. Rider Haggard">H. Rider Haggard</a> wrote one of the earliest examples, <a href="/wiki/King_Solomon%27s_Mines" title="King Solomon's Mines">King Solomon's Mines</a>, in 1885. Contemporary European politics and diplomatic maneuverings informed <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Hope" title="Anthony Hope">Anthony Hope</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ruritanian_romance" title="Ruritanian romance">Ruritanian adventure novel</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Prisoner_of_Zenda" title="The Prisoner of Zenda">The Prisoner of Zenda</a> (1894). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Children's_literature">Children's literature</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Children's literature">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">Literature for children</a> developed as a separate genre. Some works become internationally known, such as those of <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Carroll" title="Lewis Carroll">Lewis Carroll</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alice%27s_Adventures_in_Wonderland" title="Alice's Adventures in Wonderland">Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</a> (1865) and its sequel <a href="/wiki/Through_the_Looking-Glass" title="Through the Looking-Glass">Through the Looking-Glass</a>. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson" title="Robert Louis Stevenson">Robert Louis Stevenson</a>'s (1850–1894) <a href="/wiki/Treasure_Island" title="Treasure Island">Treasure Island</a> (1883), is the classic <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">pirate</a> adventure. <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a> wrote stories for children inspired by his childhood in India and other topics, including classics like <a href="/wiki/The_Jungle_Book" title="The Jungle Book">The Jungle Book</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Second_Jungle_Book" title="The Second Jungle Book">The Second Jungle Book</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kim_(novel)" title="Kim (novel)">Kim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Captains_Courageous" title="Captains Courageous">Captains Courageous</a>. At the end of the Victorian era and leading into the Edwardian era, <a href="/wiki/Beatrix_Potter" title="Beatrix Potter">Beatrix Potter</a> was an author and illustrator, best known for her children's books, which featured animal characters. In her thirties, Potter published the highly successful children's book <a href="/wiki/The_Tale_of_Peter_Rabbit" title="The Tale of Peter Rabbit">The Tale of Peter Rabbit</a> in 1902. Potter eventually went on to publish 23 children's books and became a wealthy woman. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victorian_poetry">Victorian poetry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Victorian poetry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/English_poetry#Victorian_poetry" title="English poetry">English poetry § Victorian poetry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfred_Tennyson,_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alfred_Tennyson%2C_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg/170px-Alfred_Tennyson%2C_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alfred_Tennyson%2C_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg/255px-Alfred_Tennyson%2C_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Alfred_Tennyson%2C_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg/340px-Alfred_Tennyson%2C_1st_Baron_Tennyson_by_George_Frederic_Watts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2901" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alfred,_Lord_Tennyson" title="Alfred, Lord Tennyson">Alfred, Lord Tennyson</a>, ca 1863</figcaption></figure> The leading poets during the Victorian period were <a href="/wiki/Alfred,_Lord_Tennyson" title="Alfred, Lord Tennyson">Alfred, Lord Tennyson</a> (1809–1892), <a href="/wiki/Robert_Browning" title="Robert Browning">Robert Browning</a> (1812–1889), <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning" title="Elizabeth Barrett Browning">Elizabeth Barrett Browning</a> (1806–61), and <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Matthew Arnold</a> (1822–1888). The poetry of this period was heavily influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Romantics" class="mw-redirect" title="Romantics">Romantics</a>, but also went off in its own directions.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Particularly notable was the development of the <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_monologue" title="Dramatic monologue">dramatic monologue</a>, a form used by many poets in this period, but perfected by Robert Browning. Literary criticism in the 20th century gradually drew attention to the links between Victorian poetry and modernism.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Tennyson was <a href="/wiki/Poet_Laureate" class="mw-redirect" title="Poet Laureate">Poet Laureate</a> of the United Kingdom during much of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>'s reign. He was described by T.S. Eliot, as "the greatest master of metrics as well as melancholia", and as having "the finest ear of any English poet since Milton".<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Matthew Arnold</a>'s reputation as a poet has "within the past few decades [...] plunged drastically."<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dante_Gabriel_Rossetti" title="Dante Gabriel Rossetti">Dante Gabriel Rossetti</a> (1828–1882) was a poet, illustrator, painter and translator. He founded the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood" title="Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood">Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood</a> in 1848 with <a href="/wiki/William_Holman_Hunt" title="William Holman Hunt">William Holman Hunt</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Everett_Millais" title="John Everett Millais">John Everett Millais</a>.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardWallerTrentErskine1907–21[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(August_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-162">[162]</a> Rossetti's art was characterised by its sensuality and its medieval revivalism.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Clough" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Clough">Arthur Clough</a> (1819–1861) and <a href="/wiki/George_Meredith" title="George Meredith">George Meredith</a> (1828–1909) are two other important minor poets of this era.<a href="#cite_note-English_Literature_1996_pp.650-1-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-victorianweb.org-164">[164]</a> Towards the end of the 19th century, English poets began to take an interest in French <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(movement)" title="Symbolism (movement)">Symbolism</a> and Victorian poetry entered a decadent <a href="/wiki/Fin_de_si%C3%A8cle" title="Fin de siècle">fin-de-siècle</a> phase.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> Two groups of poets emerged in the 1890s, the <a href="/wiki/The_Yellow_Book" title="The Yellow Book">Yellow Book</a> poets who adhered to the tenets of <a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Algernon_Charles_Swinburne" title="Algernon Charles Swinburne">Algernon Charles Swinburne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Symons" title="Arthur Symons">Arthur Symons</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rhymers%27_Club" title="Rhymers' Club">Rhymers' Club</a> group, that included <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Dowson" title="Ernest Dowson">Ernest Dowson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Johnson" title="Lionel Johnson">Lionel Johnson</a> and Irishman <a href="/wiki/William_Butler_Yeats" class="mw-redirect" title="William Butler Yeats">William Butler Yeats</a>. Yeats went on to become an important modernist in the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Also in 1896 <a href="/wiki/A.E._Housman" class="mw-redirect" title="A.E. Housman">A.E. Housman</a> published at his own expense <a href="/wiki/A_Shropshire_Lad" title="A Shropshire Lad">A Shropshire Lad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Writers of comic verse included the dramatist, librettist, poet and illustrator <a href="/wiki/W.S._Gilbert" class="mw-redirect" title="W.S. Gilbert">W.S. Gilbert</a> (1836–1911), who is best known for his fourteen <a href="/wiki/Comic_opera" title="Comic opera">comic operas</a>, produced in <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan" title="Gilbert and Sullivan">collaboration</a> with the composer Sir <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Sullivan" title="Arthur Sullivan">Arthur Sullivan</a>, of which the most famous include <a href="/wiki/H.M.S._Pinafore" title="H.M.S. Pinafore">H.M.S. Pinafore</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Penzance" title="The Pirates of Penzance">The Pirates of Penzance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Novelist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hardy" title="Thomas Hardy">Thomas Hardy</a> (1840–1928) wrote poetry throughout his career, but he did not publish his first collection until 1898, so that he tends to be treated as a 20th-century poet. Now regarded as a major poet, <a href="/wiki/Gerard_Manley_Hopkins" title="Gerard Manley Hopkins">Gerard Manley Hopkins</a>'s (1844–1889) Poems were published posthumously by Robert Bridges in 1918.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="American_poetry">American poetry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: American poetry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/American_poetry" title="American poetry">American poetry</a></div> America also produced major poets in the 19th century, such as <a href="/wiki/Emily_Dickinson" title="Emily Dickinson">Emily Dickinson</a> (1830–1886) and <a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a> (1819–1892). America's two greatest 19th-century poets could hardly have been more different in temperament and style. <a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a> (1819–92) was a working man, a traveler, a self-appointed nurse during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> (1861–65), and a poetic innovator. His major work was <a href="/wiki/Leaves_of_Grass" title="Leaves of Grass">Leaves of Grass</a>, in which he uses a free-flowing verse and lines of irregular length to depict the all-inclusiveness of American democracy. <a href="/wiki/Emily_Dickinson" title="Emily Dickinson">Emily Dickinson</a> (1830–1886), on the other hand, lived the sheltered life of a genteel, unmarried woman in small-town <a href="/wiki/Amherst,_Massachusetts" title="Amherst, Massachusetts">Amherst, Massachusetts</a>. Within its formal structure, her poetry is ingenious, witty, exquisitely wrought, and psychologically penetrating. Her work was unconventional for its day, and little of it was published during her lifetime. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victorian_drama">Victorian drama</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Victorian drama">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg/130px-Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg/195px-Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg/260px-Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan" title="Gilbert and Sullivan">Gilbert and Sullivan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/H.M.S._Pinafore" title="H.M.S. Pinafore">H.M.S. Pinafore</a> </figcaption></figure> A change came in the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a> with a profusion on the London stage of <a href="/wiki/Farce" title="Farce">farces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victorian_burlesque" title="Victorian burlesque">musical burlesques</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extravaganza" title="Extravaganza">extravaganzas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Comic_opera" title="Comic opera">comic operas</a> that competed with productions of <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>'s plays and serious drama by dramatists like <a href="/wiki/James_Planch%C3%A9" title="James Planché">James Planché</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_William_Robertson" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas William Robertson">Thomas William Robertson</a>. In 1855, the <a href="/wiki/German_Reed_Entertainments" title="German Reed Entertainments">German Reed Entertainments</a> began a process of elevating the level of (formerly risqué) musical theatre in Britain that culminated in the famous series of comic operas by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan" title="Gilbert and Sullivan">Gilbert and Sullivan</a> and was followed by the 1890s with the first <a href="/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedies" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwardian musical comedies">Edwardian musical comedies</a>. The length of runs in the theatre changed rapidly during the Victorian period. As transport improved, poverty in London diminished, and street lighting made for safer travel at night, the number of potential patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously. Plays could run longer and still draw in the audiences, leading to better profits and improved production values. The first play to achieve 500 consecutive performances was the London comedy <a href="/wiki/Our_Boys" title="Our Boys">Our Boys</a>, opening in 1875. Its record of 1,362 performances was bested in 1892 by <a href="/wiki/Charley%27s_Aunt" title="Charley's Aunt">Charley's Aunt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Several of <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan" title="Gilbert and Sullivan">Gilbert and Sullivan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Comic_opera" title="Comic opera">comic operas</a> broke the 500-performance barrier, beginning with <a href="/wiki/H.M.S._Pinafore" title="H.M.S. Pinafore">H.M.S. Pinafore</a> in 1878, and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Cellier" title="Alfred Cellier">Alfred Cellier</a> and <a href="/wiki/B.C._Stephenson" class="mw-redirect" title="B.C. Stephenson">B.C. Stephenson</a>'s 1886 hit, <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_(opera)" title="Dorothy (opera)">Dorothy</a>, ran for 931 performances. After <a href="/wiki/W.S._Gilbert" class="mw-redirect" title="W.S. Gilbert">W.S. Gilbert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a> became the leading poet and dramatist of the late Victorian period. Wilde's plays, in particular, stand apart from the many now forgotten plays of Victorian times and have a much closer relationship to those of the <a href="/wiki/Edwardian" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwardian">Edwardian</a> dramatists such as Irish playwright <a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a> (1856–1950), whose career began in the last decade of the 19th century, Wilde's 1895 comic masterpiece, <a href="/wiki/The_Importance_of_Being_Earnest" title="The Importance of Being Earnest">The Importance of Being Earnest</a>, holds an ironic mirror to the aristocracy and displays a mastery of wit and paradoxical wisdom. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Twentieth-century_English_literature" title="Twentieth-century English literature">Twentieth-century English literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">American literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">Welsh literature in English</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernism:_Beginnings_(c._1901–1923)">Modernism: Beginnings (c. 1901–1923)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Modernism: Beginnings (c. 1901–1923)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Literary_modernism" title="Literary modernism">Literary modernism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modernist_poetry" title="Modernist poetry">Modernist poetry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Modernist_poetry_in_English" title="Modernist poetry in English">Modernist poetry in English</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Conrad_author.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Joseph_Conrad_author.jpg/170px-Joseph_Conrad_author.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Joseph_Conrad_author.jpg/255px-Joseph_Conrad_author.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Joseph_Conrad_author.jpg/340px-Joseph_Conrad_author.jpg 2x" data-file-width="547" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption>Joseph Conrad, 1919 or after</figcaption></figure> English literary modernism developed in the early twentieth century out of a general sense of disillusionment with <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian era</a> attitudes of certainty, conservatism, and belief in the idea of objective truth.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> The movement was influenced by the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> (1809–1882), <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a> (1838–1916), <a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a> (1859–1941), <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> (1844–1900), <a href="/wiki/James_G._Frazer" class="mw-redirect" title="James G. Frazer">James G. Frazer</a> (1854–1941), <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> (1818–1883) (<a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a>, 1867), and the psychoanalytic theories of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> (1856–1939), among others.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> The continental art movements of <a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a>, were also important.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Important literary precursors of modernism were: <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Fyodor Fyodor Dostoevsky</a> (1821–1881), <a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a> (1819–1892), <a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Charles Baudelaire</a> (1821–1867), <a href="/wiki/Rimbaud" class="mw-redirect" title="Rimbaud">Arthur Rimbaud</a> (1854–1891) and <a href="/wiki/August_Strindberg" title="August Strindberg">August Strindberg</a> (1849–1912).<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> A major British lyric poet of the first decades of the twentieth century was <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hardy" title="Thomas Hardy">Thomas Hardy</a> (1840–1928). Though not a modernist, Hardy was an important transitional figure between the Victorian era and the twentieth century. A major novelist of the late nineteenth century, Hardy lived well into the third decade of the twentieth century, though he only published poetry in this period. Another significant transitional figure between Victorians and modernists, the late nineteenth-century novelist, <a href="/wiki/Henry_James" title="Henry James">Henry James</a> (1843–1916), continued to publish major novels into the twentieth century, including <a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Bowl" title="The Golden Bowl">The Golden Bowl</a> (1904). Polish-born modernist novelist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Conrad" title="Joseph Conrad">Joseph Conrad</a> (1857–1924) published his first important works, <a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Darkness" title="Heart of Darkness">Heart of Darkness</a>, in 1899 and <a href="/wiki/Lord_Jim" title="Lord Jim">Lord Jim</a> in 1900. However, the Victorian <a href="/wiki/Gerard_Manley_Hopkins" title="Gerard Manley Hopkins">Gerard Manley Hopkins</a>'s (1844–1889) highly original poetry was not published until 1918, long after his death, while the career of another major modernist poet, Irishman <a href="/wiki/W._B._Yeats" title="W. B. Yeats">W. B. Yeats</a> (1865–1939), began late in the Victorian era. Yeats was one of the foremost figures of twentieth-century English literature. But while <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernism</a> was to become an important literary movement in the early decades of the new century, there were also many fine writers who, like Thomas Hardy, were not modernists. During the early decades of the twentieth century, the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_poets" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian poets">Georgian poets</a> like Rupert Brooke (1887–1915), and <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_la_Mare" title="Walter de la Mare">Walter de la Mare</a> (1873–1956), maintained a conservative approach to poetry by combining romanticism, sentimentality and hedonism. Another Georgian poet, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Thomas_(poet)" title="Edward Thomas (poet)">Edward Thomas</a> (1878–1917)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabble1996377,_988-175">[175]</a> is one of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> poets along with <a href="/wiki/Wilfred_Owen" title="Wilfred Owen">Wilfred Owen</a> (1893–1918), <a href="/wiki/Rupert_Brooke" title="Rupert Brooke">Rupert Brooke</a> (1887–1915), <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Rosenberg" title="Isaac Rosenberg">Isaac Rosenberg</a> (1890–1917), and <a href="/wiki/Siegfried_Sassoon" title="Siegfried Sassoon">Siegfried Sassoon</a> (1886–1967). Irish playwrights <a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a> (1856–1950), <a href="/wiki/J.M._Synge" class="mw-redirect" title="J.M. Synge">J.M. Synge</a> (1871–1909) and <a href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_O%27Casey" title="Seán O'Casey">Seán O'Casey</a> were influential in British drama. Shaw's career began in the last decade of the nineteenth century, while Synge's plays belong to the first decade of the twentieth century. Synge's most famous play, <a href="/wiki/The_Playboy_of_the_Western_World" title="The Playboy of the Western World">The Playboy of the Western World</a>, "caused outrage and riots when it was first performed" in Dublin in 1907.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> George Bernard Shaw turned the <a href="/wiki/Edwardian" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwardian">Edwardian</a> theatre into an arena for debate about important political and social issues.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> Novelists who are not considered modernists include <a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">H. G. Wells</a> (1866–1946), <a href="/wiki/John_Galsworthy" title="John Galsworthy">John Galsworthy</a> (1867–1933), (<a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in Literature, 1932) whose works include <a href="/wiki/The_Forsyte_Saga" title="The Forsyte Saga">The Forsyte Saga</a> (1906–21), and <a href="/wiki/E.M._Forster" class="mw-redirect" title="E.M. Forster">E.M. Forster</a>'s (1879–1970), though Forster's work is "frequently regarded as containing both modernist and Victorian elements".<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Forster's most famous work, <a href="/wiki/A_Passage_to_India" title="A Passage to India">A Passage to India</a> 1924, reflected challenges to imperialism, while his earlier novels examined the restrictions and hypocrisy of <a href="/wiki/Edwardian" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwardian">Edwardian</a> society in England. Carrying over from the nineteenth century, <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a> remained arguably the most popular British writer of the early years of the twentieth century. In addition to <a href="/wiki/W._B._Yeats" title="W. B. Yeats">W. B. Yeats</a>, other important early modernist poets were the American-born poet <a href="/wiki/T.S._Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="T.S. Eliot">T.S. Eliot</a> (1888–1965) Eliot became a British citizen in 1927 but was born and educated in America. His most famous works are: "<a href="/wiki/Prufrock" class="mw-redirect" title="Prufrock">Prufrock</a>" (1915), <a href="/wiki/The_Waste_Land" title="The Waste Land">The Waste Land</a> (1922) and <a href="/wiki/Four_Quartets" title="Four Quartets">Four Quartets</a> (1935–42). Amongst the novelists, after <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Conrad" title="Joseph Conrad">Joseph Conrad</a>, other important early modernists include <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Richardson" title="Dorothy Richardson">Dorothy Richardson</a> (1873–1957), whose novel Pointed Roof (1915), is one of the earliest examples of the <a href="/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_(narrative_mode)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stream of consciousness (narrative mode)">stream of consciousness</a> technique, and <a href="/wiki/D.H._Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="D.H. Lawrence">D.H. Lawrence</a> (1885–1930), who published <a href="/wiki/The_Rainbow" title="The Rainbow">The Rainbow</a> in 1915—though it was immediately seized by the police—and <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Love" title="Women in Love">Women in Love</a> in 1920.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Then in 1922 Irishman <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>'s important modernist novel <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_(novel)" title="Ulysses (novel)">Ulysses</a> appeared. Ulysses has been called "a demonstration and summation of the entire movement".<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Revolutionary_Joyce_Better_Contrast.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Revolutionary_Joyce_Better_Contrast.jpg/170px-Revolutionary_Joyce_Better_Contrast.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Revolutionary_Joyce_Better_Contrast.jpg/255px-Revolutionary_Joyce_Better_Contrast.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Revolutionary_Joyce_Better_Contrast.jpg/340px-Revolutionary_Joyce_Better_Contrast.jpg 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="764" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>, 1918</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernism_continues_(1923–1939)">Modernism continues (1923–1939)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Modernism continues (1923–1939)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg/170px-Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg/255px-Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg/340px-Virginia_Woolf_1927.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1263" data-file-height="1843" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Virginia Woolf</a>, 1927</figcaption></figure> Important British writers between the <a href="/wiki/World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="World Wars">World Wars</a>, include the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish poetry">Scottish poet</a> <a href="/wiki/Hugh_MacDiarmid" title="Hugh MacDiarmid">Hugh MacDiarmid</a> (1892–1978), who began publishing in the 1920s, and novelist <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Virginia Woolf</a> (1882–1941), who was an influential <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a>, and a major stylistic innovator associated with the <a href="/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_(narrative_mode)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stream of consciousness (narrative mode)">stream-of-consciousness</a> technique in novels like <a href="/wiki/Mrs_Dalloway" title="Mrs Dalloway">Mrs Dalloway</a> (1925) and <a href="/wiki/To_the_Lighthouse" title="To the Lighthouse">To the Lighthouse</a> (1927). <a href="/wiki/T.S._Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="T.S. Eliot">T.S. Eliot</a> had begun this attempt to revive poetic drama with <a href="/wiki/Sweeney_Agonistes" title="Sweeney Agonistes">Sweeney Agonistes</a> in 1932, and this was followed by others including three further plays after the war. <a href="/wiki/In_Parenthesis" title="In Parenthesis">In Parenthesis</a>, a modernist <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poem</a> based on author <a href="/wiki/David_Jones_(poet)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Jones (poet)">David Jones</a>'s (1895–1974) experience of World War I, was published in 1937. An important development, beginning in the 1930s and 1940s was a tradition of working class novels actually written by working-class background writers. Among these were coal miner <a href="/wiki/Jack_Jones_(novelist)" title="Jack Jones (novelist)">Jack Jones</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Hanley_(novelist)" title="James Hanley (novelist)">James Hanley</a>, whose father was a stoker and who also went to sea as a young man, and coal miners <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Jones_(writer)" title="Lewis Jones (writer)">Lewis Jones</a> from <a href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harold_Heslop" title="Harold Heslop">Harold Heslop</a> from <a href="/wiki/County_Durham" title="County Durham">County Durham</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Aldous Huxley</a> (1894–1963) published his famous <a href="/wiki/Dystopia" title="Dystopia">dystopia</a> <a href="/wiki/Brave_New_World" title="Brave New World">Brave New World</a> in 1932, the same year as <a href="/wiki/John_Cowper_Powys" title="John Cowper Powys">John Cowper Powys</a>'s <a href="/wiki/A_Glastonbury_Romance" title="A Glastonbury Romance">A Glastonbury Romance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabble1996660-182">[182]</a> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a> (1906–1989) published his first major work, the novel Murphy in 1938. This same year <a href="/wiki/Graham_Greene" title="Graham Greene">Graham Greene</a>'s (1904–1991) first major novel <a href="/wiki/Brighton_Rock_(novel)" title="Brighton Rock (novel)">Brighton Rock</a> was published. Then in 1939 <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>'s published <a href="/wiki/Finnegans_Wake" title="Finnegans Wake">Finnegans Wake</a>, in which he creates a special language to express the consciousness of a dreaming character.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1990644-183">[183]</a> It was also in 1939 that another Irish modernist poet, <a href="/wiki/W._B._Yeats" title="W. B. Yeats">W. B. Yeats</a>, died. British poet <a href="/wiki/W.H._Auden" class="mw-redirect" title="W.H. Auden">W.H. Auden</a> (1907–1973) was another significant modernist in the 1930s. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_modernism_and_post–modernism_(1940–2000)">Late modernism and post–modernism (1940–2000)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Late modernism and post–modernism (1940–2000)">edit</a>]</div> See: <a href="/wiki/Late_modernism" title="Late modernism">Late modernism</a> Though some have seen modernism ending by around 1939,<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> with regard to English literature, "When (if) modernism petered out and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a> began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to modernism occurred".<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> In fact a number of modernists were still living and publishing in the 1950s and 1960, including <a href="/wiki/T.S._Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="T.S. Eliot">T.S. Eliot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Richardson" title="Dorothy Richardson">Dorothy Richardson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Pound" title="Ezra Pound">Ezra Pound</a>. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Basil_Bunting" title="Basil Bunting">Basil Bunting</a>, born in 1901, published little until <a href="/wiki/Briggflatts" title="Briggflatts">Briggflatts</a> in 1965 and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>, born in Ireland in 1906, continued to produce significant works until the 1980s, though some view him as a <a href="/wiki/Post-modernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-modernist">post-modernist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Among British writers in the 1940s and 1950s were poet <a href="/wiki/Dylan_Thomas" title="Dylan Thomas">Dylan Thomas</a> and novelist <a href="/wiki/Graham_Greene" title="Graham Greene">Graham Greene</a> whose works span the 1930s to the 1980s, while <a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Waugh" title="Evelyn Waugh">Evelyn Waugh</a>, <a href="/wiki/W.H._Auden" class="mw-redirect" title="W.H. Auden">W.H. Auden</a> continued publishing into the 1960s. <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Powell" title="Anthony Powell">Anthony Powell</a> began his 12 volume cycle <a href="/wiki/A_Dance_to_the_Music_of_Time" title="A Dance to the Music of Time">A Dance to the Music of Time</a> in 1951 and continued writing and publishing it until the final volume appeared in 1975. <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_literature" title="Postmodern literature">Postmodern literature</a> is both a continuation of the experimentation championed by writers of the modernist period (relying heavily, for example, on fragmentation, paradox, questionable narrators, etc.) and a reaction against Enlightenment ideas implicit in Modernist literature. Postmodern literature, like postmodernism as a whole, is difficult to define and there is little agreement on the exact characteristics, scope, and importance of postmodern literature. Among postmodern writers are the Americans <a href="/wiki/Henry_Miller" title="Henry Miller">Henry Miller</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_S._Burroughs" title="William S. Burroughs">William S. Burroughs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Heller" title="Joseph Heller">Joseph Heller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Vonnegut" title="Kurt Vonnegut">Kurt Vonnegut</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Gaddis" title="William Gaddis">William Gaddis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hunter_S._Thompson" title="Hunter S. Thompson">Hunter S. Thompson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Truman_Capote" title="Truman Capote">Truman Capote</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pynchon" title="Thomas Pynchon">Thomas Pynchon</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Novel">Novel</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Novel">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:268px;max-width:268px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg/130px-George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg/195px-George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg/260px-George_Orwell_press_photo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1176" data-file-height="1594" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png/130px-Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png/195px-Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png/260px-Aldous_Huxley_psychical_researcher.png 2x" data-file-width="454" data-file-height="605" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">George Orwell</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Aldous Huxley</a> (right).</div></div></div></div> In 1947 <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Lowry" title="Malcolm Lowry">Malcolm Lowry</a> published <a href="/wiki/Under_the_Volcano" title="Under the Volcano">Under the Volcano</a>, while <a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">George Orwell</a>'s satire of totalitarianism, <a href="/wiki/Nineteen_Eighty-Four" title="Nineteen Eighty-Four">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a>, was published in 1949. Other novelists writing in the 1950s and later were: <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Powell" title="Anthony Powell">Anthony Powell</a> whose twelve-volume cycle of novels <a href="/wiki/A_Dance_to_the_Music_of_Time" title="A Dance to the Music of Time">A Dance to the Music of Time</a>, is a comic examination of movements and manners, power and passivity in English political, cultural and military life in the mid-20th century; <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize</a> laureate <a href="/wiki/William_Golding" title="William Golding">William Golding</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegorical</a> novel <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_Flies" title="Lord of the Flies">Lord of the Flies</a> 1954, explores how culture created by man fails, using as an example a group of British schoolboys marooned on a deserted island; <a href="/wiki/Graham_Greene" title="Graham Greene">Graham Greene</a>'s novels <a href="/wiki/The_Heart_of_the_Matter" title="The Heart of the Matter">The Heart of the Matter</a> (1948) and <a href="/wiki/The_End_of_the_Affair" title="The End of the Affair">The End of the Affair</a> (1951), used Catholicism to explore moral dilemmas in human relationships, continuing themes found in his earlier novels. Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Iris_Murdoch" title="Iris Murdoch">Iris Murdoch</a> was a prolific writer of novels throughout the second half of the 20th century, that deal especially with sexual relationships, morality, and the power of the unconscious. Scottish writer <a href="/wiki/Muriel_Spark" title="Muriel Spark">Muriel Spark</a> pushed the boundaries of realism in her novels. <a href="/wiki/The_Prime_of_Miss_Jean_Brodie_(novel)" title="The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (novel)">The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie</a> (1961), at times takes the reader briefly into the distant future, to see the various fates that befall its characters. <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Burgess" title="Anthony Burgess">Anthony Burgess</a> is especially remembered for his <a href="/wiki/Utopian_and_dystopian_fiction" title="Utopian and dystopian fiction">dystopian novel</a> <a href="/wiki/A_Clockwork_Orange_(novel)" title="A Clockwork Orange (novel)">A Clockwork Orange</a> (1962), set in the not-too-distant future. During the 1960s and 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Scott_(novelist)" title="Paul Scott (novelist)">Paul Scott</a> wrote his monumental series on the last decade of British rule in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Raj_Quartet" title="The Raj Quartet">The Raj Quartet</a> (1966–1975). Scotland has in the late 20th century produced several important novelists, including the writer of <a href="/wiki/How_Late_it_Was,_How_Late" class="mw-redirect" title="How Late it Was, How Late">How Late it Was, How Late</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Kelman" title="James Kelman">James Kelman</a>, who like Samuel Beckett can create humour out of the most grim situations and <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_Gray" title="Alasdair Gray">Alasdair Gray</a> whose <a href="/wiki/Lanark:_A_Life_in_Four_Books" title="Lanark: A Life in Four Books">Lanark: A Life in Four Books</a> (1981) is a <a href="/wiki/Dystopia" title="Dystopia">dystopian</a> fantasy set in a surreal version of <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a> called Unthank.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> Two significant Irish novelists are <a href="/wiki/John_Banville" title="John Banville">John Banville</a> (born 1945) and <a href="/wiki/Colm_T%C3%B3ib%C3%ADn" title="Colm Tóibín">Colm Tóibín</a> (born 1955). <a href="/wiki/Martin_Amis" title="Martin Amis">Martin Amis</a> (1949-2023), <a href="/wiki/Pat_Barker" title="Pat Barker">Pat Barker</a> (born 1943), <a href="/wiki/Ian_McEwan" title="Ian McEwan">Ian McEwan</a> (born 1948) and <a href="/wiki/Julian_Barnes" title="Julian Barnes">Julian Barnes</a> (born 1946) are other prominent late twentieth-century British novelists. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drama_5">Drama</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Drama">edit</a>]</div> An important cultural movement in the British theatre which developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s was <a href="/wiki/Kitchen_sink_realism" title="Kitchen sink realism">Kitchen sink realism</a> (or "kitchen sink drama"), a term coined to describe art, novels, film and <a href="/wiki/Television_play" title="Television play">television plays</a>. The term <a href="/wiki/Angry_young_men" title="Angry young men">angry young men</a> was often applied to members of this artistic movement. It used a style of <a href="/wiki/Social_realism" title="Social realism">social realism</a> which depicts the domestic lives of the working class, to explore social issues and political issues. The <a href="/wiki/Drawing_room_play" title="Drawing room play">drawing room plays</a> of the post war period, typical of dramatists like <a href="/wiki/Terence_Rattigan" title="Terence Rattigan">Terence Rattigan</a> and <a href="/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Coward" title="Noël Coward">Noël Coward</a> were challenged in the 1950s by these <a href="/wiki/Angry_Young_Men" class="mw-redirect" title="Angry Young Men">Angry Young Men</a>, in plays like <a href="/wiki/John_Osborne" title="John Osborne">John Osborne</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Look_Back_in_Anger" title="Look Back in Anger">Look Back in Anger</a> (1956). Again in the 1950s, the <a href="/wiki/Absurdism" title="Absurdism">absurdist</a> play <a href="/wiki/Waiting_for_Godot" title="Waiting for Godot">Waiting for Godot</a> (1955), by Irish writer <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a> profoundly affected British drama. The <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Absurd" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre of the Absurd">Theatre of the Absurd</a> influenced <a href="/wiki/Harold_Pinter" title="Harold Pinter">Harold Pinter</a> (born 1930), (<a href="/wiki/The_Birthday_Party_(play)" title="The Birthday Party (play)">The Birthday Party</a>, 1958), whose works are often characterised by menace or claustrophobia. Beckett also influenced <a href="/wiki/Tom_Stoppard" title="Tom Stoppard">Tom Stoppard</a> (born 1937) (<a href="/wiki/Rosencrantz_and_Guildenstern_are_Dead" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead">Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead</a>, 1966). Stoppard's works are however also notable for their high-spirited wit and the great range of intellectual issues which he tackles in different plays. An important new element in the world of British drama, from the beginnings of radio in the 1920s, was the commissioning of plays, or the adaption of existing plays, by <a href="/wiki/Radio_drama" title="Radio drama">BBC radio</a>. This was especially important in the 1950s and 1960s (and from the 1960s for television). Many major British playwrights in fact, either effectively began their careers with the BBC, or had works adapted for radio, including <a href="/wiki/Caryl_Churchill" title="Caryl Churchill">Caryl Churchill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tom_Stoppard" title="Tom Stoppard">Tom Stoppard</a> whose "first professional production was in the fifteen-minute Just Before Midnight programme on BBC Radio, which showcased new dramatists".<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-188">[188]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Mortimer" title="John Mortimer">John Mortimer</a> made his radio debut as a dramatist in 1955, with his adaptation of his own novel Like Men Betrayed for the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> <a href="/wiki/Light_Programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Light Programme">Light Programme</a>. Other notable radio dramatists included <a href="/wiki/Brendan_Behan" title="Brendan Behan">Brendan Behan</a> and novelist <a href="/wiki/Angela_Carter" title="Angela Carter">Angela Carter</a>. Among the most famous works created for radio are <a href="/wiki/Dylan_Thomas" title="Dylan Thomas">Dylan Thomas</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Under_Milk_Wood" title="Under Milk Wood">Under Milk Wood</a> (1954), <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>'s <a href="/wiki/All_That_Fall" title="All That Fall">All That Fall</a> (1957), <a href="/wiki/Harold_Pinter" title="Harold Pinter">Harold Pinter</a>'s <a href="/wiki/A_Slight_Ache" title="A Slight Ache">A Slight Ache</a> (1959) and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bolt" title="Robert Bolt">Robert Bolt</a>'s <a href="/wiki/A_Man_for_All_Seasons_(play)" title="A Man for All Seasons (play)">A Man for All Seasons</a> (1954).<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry_6">Poetry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Poetry">edit</a>]</div> Major poets like T.S. Eliot, W.H. Auden and Dylan Thomas were still publishing in this period. Though <a href="/wiki/W.H._Auden" class="mw-redirect" title="W.H. Auden">W.H. Auden</a>'s (1907–1973) career began in the 1930s and 1940s he published several volumes in the 1950s and 1960s. His stature in modern literature has been contested, but probably the most common critical view from the 1930s onward ranked him as one of the three major twentieth-century British poets, and heir to Yeats and Eliot.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> New poets starting their careers in the 1950s and 1960s include <a href="/wiki/Philip_Larkin" title="Philip Larkin">Philip Larkin</a> (1922–1985) (<a href="/wiki/The_Whitsun_Weddings" title="The Whitsun Weddings">The Whitsun Weddings</a>, 1964), <a href="/wiki/Ted_Hughes" title="Ted Hughes">Ted Hughes</a> (1930–1998) (<a href="/wiki/The_Hawk_in_the_Rain" title="The Hawk in the Rain">The Hawk in the Rain</a>, 1957), <a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Plath" title="Sylvia Plath">Sylvia Plath</a> (1932–1962) (<a href="/wiki/The_Colossus_and_Other_Poems" title="The Colossus and Other Poems">The Colossus</a>, 1960) and Irishman (born Northern Ireland) <a href="/wiki/Seamus_Heaney" title="Seamus Heaney">Seamus Heaney</a> (1939–2013) (<a href="/wiki/Death_of_a_Naturalist" title="Death of a Naturalist">Death of a Naturalist</a>, 1966). Northern Ireland has also produced a number of other significant poets, including <a href="/wiki/Derek_Mahon" title="Derek Mahon">Derek Mahon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Muldoon" title="Paul Muldoon">Paul Muldoon</a>. In the 1960s and 1970s <a href="/wiki/Martian_poetry" title="Martian poetry">Martian poetry</a> aimed to break the grip of 'the familiar', by describing ordinary things in unfamiliar ways, as though, for example, through the eyes of a <a href="/wiki/Martian" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian">Martian</a>. Poets most closely associated with it are <a href="/wiki/Craig_Raine" title="Craig Raine">Craig Raine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Reid_(writer)" title="Christopher Reid (writer)">Christopher Reid</a>. Another literary movement in this period was the <a href="/wiki/British_Poetry_Revival" title="British Poetry Revival">British Poetry Revival</a> was a wide-reaching collection of groupings and subgroupings that embraces <a href="/wiki/Performance_poetry" title="Performance poetry">performance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sound_poetry" title="Sound poetry">sound</a> and <a href="/wiki/Concrete_poetry" title="Concrete poetry">concrete poetry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene2012426-191">[191]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_poets" title="Liverpool poets">Mersey Beat poets</a> were <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Henri" title="Adrian Henri">Adrian Henri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brian_Patten" title="Brian Patten">Brian Patten</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roger_McGough" title="Roger McGough">Roger McGough</a>. Their work was a self-conscious attempt at creating an English equivalent to the <a href="/wiki/Beat_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Beat generation">American Beats</a>. Other noteworthy later twentieth-century poets are Welshman <a href="/wiki/R.S._Thomas" class="mw-redirect" title="R.S. Thomas">R.S. Thomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hill" title="Geoffrey Hill">Geoffrey Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Tomlinson" title="Charles Tomlinson">Charles Tomlinson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carol_Ann_Duffy" title="Carol Ann Duffy">Carol Ann Duffy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hill" title="Geoffrey Hill">Geoffrey Hill</a> (born 1932) is considered one of the most distinguished English poets of his generation,<a href="#cite_note-Harold_Bloom_1986-192">[192]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Tomlinson" title="Charles Tomlinson">Charles Tomlinson</a> (born 1927) is another important English poet of an older generation, though "since his first publication in 1951, has built a career that has seen more notice in the international scene than in his native England.<a href="#cite_note-carcanet.co.uk-193">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Literature_from_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations">Literature from the Commonwealth of Nations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Literature from the Commonwealth of Nations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_literature" title="Postcolonial literature">Postcolonial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_literature" title="Australian literature">Australian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadian_literature" title="Canadian literature">Canadian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_literature" title="Caribbean literature">Caribbean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_English_literature" title="Indian English literature">Indian</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_literature" title="New Zealand literature">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistani_English_literature" title="Pakistani English literature">Pakistani</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_literature" title="African literature">African</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_African_literature" title="South African literature">South African</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Migrant_literature" title="Migrant literature">Migrant literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg/220px-Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg/330px-Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg/440px-Doris_lessing_20060312.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Doris_Lessing" title="Doris Lessing">Doris Lessing</a>, Cologne, 2006.</figcaption></figure> From 1950 on a significant number of major writers came from countries that had over the centuries been settled by the British, other than America which had been producing significant writers from at least the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Victorian period">Victorian period</a>. There had of course been a few important works in English prior to 1950 from the then <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. The <a href="/wiki/South_African_literature" title="South African literature">South African writer</a> <a href="/wiki/Olive_Schreiner" title="Olive Schreiner">Olive Schreiner</a>'s famous novel <a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_an_African_Farm" title="The Story of an African Farm">The Story of an African Farm</a> was published in 1883 and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_literature" title="New Zealand literature">New Zealander</a> <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Mansfield" title="Katherine Mansfield">Katherine Mansfield</a> published her first collection of short stories, In a German Pension, in 1911. The first major novelist, writing in English, from the <a href="/wiki/Indian_English_literature" title="Indian English literature">Indian sub-continent</a>, <a href="/wiki/R._K._Narayan" title="R. K. Narayan">R. K. Narayan</a>, began publishing in England in the 1930s, thanks to the encouragement of English novelist <a href="/wiki/Graham_Greene" title="Graham Greene">Graham Greene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabble1996697-194">[194]</a> <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_literature" title="Caribbean literature">Caribbean writer</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean_Rhys" title="Jean Rhys">Jean Rhys</a>'s writing career began as early as 1928, though her most famous work, <a href="/wiki/Wide_Sargasso_Sea" title="Wide Sargasso Sea">Wide Sargasso Sea</a>, was not published until 1966. South Africa's <a href="/wiki/Alan_Paton" title="Alan Paton">Alan Paton</a>'s famous <a href="/wiki/Cry,_the_Beloved_Country" title="Cry, the Beloved Country">Cry, the Beloved Country</a> dates from 1948. <a href="/wiki/Doris_Lessing" title="Doris Lessing">Doris Lessing</a> from <a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</a>, now <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, was a dominant presence in the English literary scene, frequently publishing from 1950 on throughout the 20th century, and she won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2007. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hayfestival-2016-Salman-Rushdie-1-cu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Hayfestival-2016-Salman-Rushdie-1-cu.jpg/170px-Hayfestival-2016-Salman-Rushdie-1-cu.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Hayfestival-2016-Salman-Rushdie-1-cu.jpg/255px-Hayfestival-2016-Salman-Rushdie-1-cu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Hayfestival-2016-Salman-Rushdie-1-cu.jpg/340px-Hayfestival-2016-Salman-Rushdie-1-cu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2861" data-file-height="4292" /></a><figcaption>Sir <a href="/wiki/Salman_Rushdie" title="Salman Rushdie">Salman Rushdie</a> at the 2016 <a href="/wiki/Hay_Festival" title="Hay Festival">Hay Festival</a>, the UK's largest annual literary festival</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Salman_Rushdie" title="Salman Rushdie">Salman Rushdie</a> is another post Second World War writers from the former British colonies who <a href="/wiki/Migrant_literature" title="Migrant literature">permanently settled in Britain</a>. Rushdie achieved fame with <a href="/wiki/Midnight%27s_Children" title="Midnight's Children">Midnight's Children</a> 1981. His most controversial novel <a href="/wiki/The_Satanic_Verses" title="The Satanic Verses">The Satanic Verses</a> 1989, was inspired in part by the life of Muhammad. <a href="/wiki/V._S._Naipaul" title="V. S. Naipaul">V. S. Naipaul</a> (born 1932), born in <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a>, was another immigrant, who wrote among other things <a href="/wiki/A_Bend_in_the_River" title="A Bend in the River">A Bend in the River</a> (1979). Naipaul won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nobelweb-195">[195]</a> From <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_literature" title="Nigerian literature">Nigeria</a> a number of writers have achieved an international reputation for works in English, including novelist <a href="/wiki/Chinua_Achebe" title="Chinua Achebe">Chinua Achebe</a>, as well as playwright <a href="/wiki/Wole_Soyinka" title="Wole Soyinka">Wole Soyinka</a>. Soyinka won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> for literature in 1986, as did <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South African</a> novelist <a href="/wiki/Nadine_Gordimer" title="Nadine Gordimer">Nadine Gordimer</a> in 1995. Other South African writers in English are novelist <a href="/wiki/J.M._Coetzee" class="mw-redirect" title="J.M. Coetzee">J.M. Coetzee</a> (Nobel Prize 2003) and playwright <a href="/wiki/Athol_Fugard" title="Athol Fugard">Athol Fugard</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kenyan_literature" title="Kenyan literature">Kenya</a>'s most internationally renowned author is <a href="/wiki/Ng%C5%A9g%C4%A9_wa_Thiong%27o" title="Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o">Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o</a> who has written novels, plays and short stories in English. Poet <a href="/wiki/Derek_Walcott" title="Derek Walcott">Derek Walcott</a>, from <a href="/wiki/St_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="St Lucia">St Lucia</a> in the Caribbean, was another Nobel Prize winner in 1992. An <a href="/wiki/Australian_literature" title="Australian literature">Australian</a> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_White" title="Patrick White">Patrick White</a>, a major novelist in this period, whose first work was published in 1939, won in (1973). Other noteworthy Australian writers at the end of this period are poet <a href="/wiki/Les_Murray_(poet)" title="Les Murray (poet)">Les Murray</a> (1938–2019), and novelist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Carey_(novelist)" title="Peter Carey (novelist)">Peter Carey</a> (born 1943), who is one of only four writers to have won the <a href="/wiki/Man_Booker_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Man Booker Prize">Booker Prize</a> twice.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Major Canadian novelists include <a href="/wiki/Carol_Shields" title="Carol Shields">Carol Shields</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Hill" title="Lawrence Hill">Lawrence Hill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Atwood" title="Margaret Atwood">Margaret Atwood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alice_Munro" title="Alice Munro">Alice Munro</a>. <a href="/wiki/Carol_Shields" title="Carol Shields">Carol Shields</a> novel The Stone Diaries won the 1995 <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Fiction" title="Pulitzer Prize for Fiction">Pulitzer Prize for Fiction</a>, and another novel, <a href="/wiki/Larry%27s_Party" title="Larry's Party">Larry's Party</a>, won the <a href="/wiki/Orange_Prize_for_Fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Orange Prize for Fiction">Orange Prize</a> in 1998. <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Hill" title="Lawrence Hill">Lawrence Hill</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Negroes" title="Book of Negroes">Book of Negroes</a> won the 2008 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Writers%27_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Commonwealth Writers' Prize">Commonwealth Writers' Prize</a> Overall Best Book Award, while <a href="/wiki/Alice_Munro" title="Alice Munro">Alice Munro</a> became the first Canadian to win the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a> in 2013.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> Munro also received the <a href="/wiki/Man_Booker_International_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Man Booker International Prize">Man Booker International Prize</a> in 2009. Amongst internationally known poets are <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Cohen" title="Leonard Cohen">Leonard Cohen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anne_Carson" title="Anne Carson">Anne Carson</a>. Carson in 1996 won the <a href="/wiki/Lannan_Literary_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Lannan Literary Award">Lannan Literary Award</a> for poetry. The foundation's awards in 2006 for poetry, fiction and nonfiction each came with $US 150,000. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="American_writers">American writers</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: American writers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">American literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_poetry" title="American poetry">American poetry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theater_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Theater of the United States">Theater of the United States</a></div> From 1940 into the 21st century, American playwrights, poets and novelists have continued to be internationally prominent. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genre_fiction_in_the_twentieth_century"> Genre fiction in the twentieth century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Genre fiction in the twentieth century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genre_fiction" title="Genre fiction">Genre fiction</a></div> Many works published in the twentieth century were examples of <a href="/wiki/Genre_fiction" title="Genre fiction">genre fiction</a>. This designation includes the <a href="/wiki/Crime_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime novel">crime novels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spy_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Spy novel">spy novel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historical_romance" title="Historical romance">historical romance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fantasy" title="Fantasy">fantasy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graphic_novel" title="Graphic novel">graphic novel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J._R._R._Tolkien,_ca._1925.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/J._R._R._Tolkien%2C_ca._1925.jpg/170px-J._R._R._Tolkien%2C_ca._1925.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/J._R._R._Tolkien%2C_ca._1925.jpg/255px-J._R._R._Tolkien%2C_ca._1925.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/J._R._R._Tolkien%2C_ca._1925.jpg/340px-J._R._R._Tolkien%2C_ca._1925.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a>, 1940s</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Agatha_Christie" title="Agatha Christie">Agatha Christie</a> (1890–1976) was an important, and hugely successful, crime fiction writer who is best remembered for her 66 <a href="/wiki/Detective_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Detective novel">detective novels</a> as well as her many short stories and successful plays for the <a href="/wiki/West_End_theatre" title="West End theatre">West End theatre</a>. Along with <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_L._Sayers" title="Dorothy L. Sayers">Dorothy L. Sayers</a> (1893–1957), <a href="/wiki/Ngaio_Marsh" title="Ngaio Marsh">Ngaio Marsh</a> (1895–1982), and <a href="/wiki/Margery_Allingham" title="Margery Allingham">Margery Allingham</a> (1904–1966), Christie dominated the mystery novel in the 1920s and 1930s, often called "The Golden Age of Detective Fiction." Together, these four women writers were honored as "The Queens of Crime."<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> Other recent noteworthy writers in this genre are <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Rendell" title="Ruth Rendell">Ruth Rendell</a>, <a href="/wiki/P.D._James" class="mw-redirect" title="P.D. James">P.D. James</a> and the Scot, <a href="/wiki/Ian_Rankin" title="Ian Rankin">Ian Rankin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Erskine_Childers" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Erskine Childers">Erskine Childers</a>' <a href="/wiki/The_Riddle_of_the_Sands" title="The Riddle of the Sands">The Riddle of the Sands</a> (1903), is an early example of <a href="/wiki/Spy_fiction" title="Spy fiction">spy fiction</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Buchan" title="John Buchan">John Buchan</a> (1875–1940), a Scottish diplomat, and later the Governor General of Canada, is sometimes considered the inventor of the <a href="/wiki/Thriller_(genre)" title="Thriller (genre)">thriller genre</a>. His five novels featuring the heroic, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hannay" title="Richard Hannay">Richard Hannay</a>, are among the earliest in the genre. The first Hannay novel, <a href="/wiki/The_Thirty-Nine_Steps" title="The Thirty-Nine Steps">The Thirty-Nine Steps</a>, was made into a famous thriller movie by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock" title="Alfred Hitchcock">Alfred Hitchcock</a>. Hannay was the prototype for the even more famous fictional character, <a href="/wiki/James_Bond_007" class="mw-redirect" title="James Bond 007">James Bond 007</a>, created by <a href="/wiki/Ian_Fleming" title="Ian Fleming">Ian Fleming</a>, and the protagonist in a long line of films. Another noted writer in the <a href="/wiki/Spy_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Spy novel">spy novel</a> genre was <a href="/wiki/John_le_Carr%C3%A9" title="John le Carré">John le Carré</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jk-rowling-crop.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Jk-rowling-crop.JPG/170px-Jk-rowling-crop.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Jk-rowling-crop.JPG/255px-Jk-rowling-crop.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Jk-rowling-crop.JPG 2x" data-file-width="297" data-file-height="446" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J._K._Rowling" title="J. K. Rowling">J. K. Rowling</a>, 2006</figcaption></figure> The novelist <a href="/wiki/Georgette_Heyer" title="Georgette Heyer">Georgette Heyer</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Historical_romance" title="Historical romance">historical romance</a> genre. <a href="/wiki/Emma_Orczy" class="mw-redirect" title="Emma Orczy">Emma Orczy</a>'s original play, <a href="/wiki/The_Scarlet_Pimpernel" title="The Scarlet Pimpernel">The Scarlet Pimpernel</a> (1905), a "hero with a <a href="/wiki/Secret_identity" title="Secret identity">secret identity</a>", became a favourite of London audiences, playing more than 2,000 performances and becoming one of the most popular shows staged in England to that date.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> Among significant writers in the fantasy genre were <a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a>, author of <a href="/wiki/The_Hobbit" title="The Hobbit">The Hobbit</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a>. <a href="/wiki/C._S._Lewis" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a> author of <a href="/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Narnia" title="The Chronicles of Narnia">The Chronicles of Narnia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/J._K._Rowling" title="J. K. Rowling">J. K. Rowling</a> who wrote the highly successful <a href="/wiki/Harry_Potter" title="Harry Potter">Harry Potter</a> series. <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Alexander" title="Lloyd Alexander">Lloyd Alexander</a> winner of the <a href="/wiki/Newbery_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Newbery Honor">Newbery Honor</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Newbery_Medal" title="Newbery Medal">Newbery Medal</a> for his <a href="/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Prydain" title="The Chronicles of Prydain">The Chronicles of Prydain</a> <a href="/wiki/Pentalogy" title="Pentalogy">pentalogy</a> is another significant author of <a href="/wiki/Fantasy_novels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fantasy novels">fantasy novels</a> for younger readers. Like fantasy in the later decades of the 20th century, the genre of <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> began to be taken more seriously, and this was because of the work of writers such as <a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a> (<a href="/wiki/2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(novel)" title="2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)">2001: A Space Odyssey</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Moorcock" title="Michael Moorcock">Michael Moorcock</a>. Another prominent writer in this genre, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Adams" title="Douglas Adams">Douglas Adams</a>, is particularly associated with the comic science fiction work, <a href="/wiki/The_Hitchhiker%27s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy" title="The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>. Mainstream novelists such <a href="/wiki/Doris_Lessing" title="Doris Lessing">Doris Lessing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Atwood" title="Margaret Atwood">Margaret Atwood</a> also wrote works in this genre. Known for his macabre, darkly comic fantasy works for children, <a href="/wiki/Roald_Dahl" title="Roald Dahl">Roald Dahl</a> became one of the best selling authors of the 20th century, and his best-loved children's novels include <a href="/wiki/Charlie_and_the_Chocolate_Factory" title="Charlie and the Chocolate Factory">Charlie and the Chocolate Factory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matilda_(novel)" title="Matilda (novel)">Matilda</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_and_the_Giant_Peach" title="James and the Giant Peach">James and the Giant Peach</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Witches_(novel)" title="The Witches (novel)">The Witches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fantastic_Mr_Fox" title="Fantastic Mr Fox">Fantastic Mr Fox</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_BFG" title="The BFG">The BFG</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Noted writers in the field of <a href="/wiki/Comic_book" title="Comic book">comic books</a> are <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gaiman" title="Neil Gaiman">Neil Gaiman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alan_Moore" title="Alan Moore">Alan Moore</a>, while Gaiman also produces <a href="/wiki/Graphic_novel" title="Graphic novel">graphic novels</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literary_criticism_in_the_twentieth_century">Literary criticism in the twentieth century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Literary criticism in the twentieth century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Literary_Criticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary Criticism">Literary Criticism</a></div> Literary criticism gathered momentum in the twentieth century. In this era prominent academic journals were established to address specific aspects of English literature. Most of these academic journals gained widespread credibility because of being published by university presses. The growth of universities thus contributed to a stronger connection between English literature and literary criticism in the twentieth century. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st_century">21st century</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/21st_century_in_literature" title="21st century in literature">21st century in literature</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs expansion. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. (December 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_literature#21st-century_literature" title="British literature">21st century British literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_novel#Contemporary_novelists" title="English novel">Contemporary English novelists</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nobel_Prizes_in_English_literature">Nobel Prizes in English literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Nobel Prizes in English literature">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a> (1907): UK (born in <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a> (1913): India</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._B._Yeats" title="W. B. Yeats">W. B. Yeats</a> (1923): Ireland</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a> (1925): Ireland</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Lewis" title="Sinclair Lewis">Sinclair Lewis</a> (1930): US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Galsworthy" title="John Galsworthy">John Galsworthy</a> (1932): UK</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill" title="Eugene O'Neill">Eugene O'Neill</a> (1936): US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_S._Buck" title="Pearl S. Buck">Pearl S. Buck</a> (1938): US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/T.S._Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="T.S. Eliot">T.S. Eliot</a> (1948): UK (born in the US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">William Faulkner</a> (1949): US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> (1950): UK</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1953): UK</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a> (1954): US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Steinbeck" title="John Steinbeck">John Steinbeck</a> (1962): US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a> (1969): Ireland (lived in France much of his life)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_White" title="Patrick White">Patrick White</a> (1973): Australia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Bellow" title="Saul Bellow">Saul Bellow</a> (1976): US (born in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">Isaac Bashevis Singer</a> (1978): US (born in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Golding" title="William Golding">William Golding</a> (1983): UK</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wole_Soyinka" title="Wole Soyinka">Wole Soyinka</a> (1986): Nigeria</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Brodsky" title="Joseph Brodsky">Joseph Brodsky</a> (1987): US (born in Russia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadine_Gordimer" title="Nadine Gordimer">Nadine Gordimer</a> (1991): South Africa</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Walcott" title="Derek Walcott">Derek Walcott</a> (1992): St Lucia, West Indies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a> (1993): US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamus_Heaney" title="Seamus Heaney">Seamus Heaney</a> (1995): Ireland</li> <li><a href="/wiki/V.S._Naipaul" class="mw-redirect" title="V.S. Naipaul">V.S. Naipaul</a> (2001): UK (born in <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J.M._Coetzee" class="mw-redirect" title="J.M. Coetzee">J.M. Coetzee</a> (2003): South Africa</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Pinter" title="Harold Pinter">Harold Pinter</a> (2005): UK</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doris_Lessing" title="Doris Lessing">Doris Lessing</a> (2007): UK (grew-up in <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Munro" title="Alice Munro">Alice Munro</a> (2013): Canada</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a> (2016): US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazuo_Ishiguro" title="Kazuo Ishiguro">Kazuo Ishiguro</a> (2017): UK (born in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Gl%C3%BCck" title="Louise Glück">Louise Glück</a> (2020): US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdulrazak_Gurnah" title="Abdulrazak Gurnah">Abdulrazak Gurnah</a> (2021): UK (born in the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar" title="Sultanate of Zanzibar">Sultanate of Zanzibar</a>, now Tanzania)</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_literature" title="British literature">British literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Theatre of the United Kingdom">Theatre of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Birmingham" title="Literature of Birmingham">Literature of Birmingham</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_novel" title="English novel">English novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_poetry" title="English poetry">English poetry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English-language_poets" title="List of English-language poets">List of English-language poets</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_theatre" title="Irish theatre">Irish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Northern_Ireland" title="Literature of Northern Ireland">Literature of Northern Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_in_the_other_languages_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature in the other languages of Britain">Literature in the other languages of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre in Scotland">Theatre in Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">Welsh literature in English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Wales" title="Theatre of Wales">Theatre of Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_writing_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's writing in English">Women's writing in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Commonwealth_Writers_prizes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Commonwealth Writers prizes">List of Commonwealth Writers prizes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations#Literature" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations § Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_literature" title="Postcolonial literature">Postcolonial literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_literature" title="Australian literature">Australian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">American literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_literature_in_English" title="Philippine literature in English">Philippine literature in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_English_literature" title="Bangladeshi English literature">Bangladeshi English literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_literature" title="Canadian literature">Canadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_literature" title="Caribbean literature">Caribbean literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_literature" title="Ghanaian literature">Ghanaian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyanese_literature" title="Guyanese literature">Guyanese literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_literature#Hong_Kong_literature_in_English" title="Hong Kong literature">Hong Kong literature § Hong Kong literature in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_English_literature" title="Indian English literature">Indian English literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenyan_literature" title="Kenyan literature">Kenyan literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_literature" title="Malaysian literature">Malaysian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_literature#Nigerian_literature_in_English" title="Nigerian literature">Nigerian literature § Nigerian literature in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_literature" title="New Zealand literature">New Zealand literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_English_literature" title="Pakistani English literature">Pakistani English literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_literature#Literature_in_English" title="Singaporean literature">Singaporean literature § Literature in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_literature" title="South African literature">South African literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_literature#Sri_Lankan_and_Sri_Lankan_diaspora_authors_who_write_in_English" title="Sri Lankan literature">Sri Lankan literature in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanian_literature#Literature_in_English" title="Tanzanian literature">Tanzanian literature § Literature in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_English-speaking_population" title="List of countries by English-speaking population">List of countries by English-speaking population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_English_is_an_official_language" title="List of countries and territories where English is an official language">List of countries and territories where English is an official language</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.childrensuniversity.manchester.ac.uk/interactives/languages/words/timeline/">"How the English Language has evolved through history"</a>. childrensuniversity.manchester.ac.uk/. Manchester University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010183031/http://www.childrensuniversity.manchester.ac.uk/interactives/languages/words/timeline/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=childrensuniversity.manchester.ac.uk%2F&rft.atitle=How+the+English+Language+has+evolved+through+history&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.childrensuniversity.manchester.ac.uk%2Finteractives%2Flanguages%2Fwords%2Ftimeline%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baugh_2002._pp._79-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baugh_2002._pp._79_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baugh_2002._pp._79_2-1">b</a> Baugh, Albert and Cable, Thomas. 2002. The History of the English Language. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. 79–81. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> "And now at last, ... it being brought unto such a conclusion, as that we have great hope that the Church of England (sic) shall reape good fruit thereby ..." <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James_Version,_1611)/Epistle_Dedicatorie">Bible (King James Version, 1611)/Epistle Dedicatorie</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200131195513/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James_Version,_1611)/Epistle_Dedicatorie">Archived</a> 31 January 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753">"How English evolved into a global language"</a>. BBC News. 20 December 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925173407/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 9 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+English+evolved+into+a+global+language&rft.date=2010-12-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-12017753&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt200511-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenblatt200511_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreenblatt2005">Greenblatt 2005</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBevington20021–3-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBevington20021–3_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBevington2002">Bevington 2002</a>, pp. 1–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1997399-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1997399_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1997">Wells 1997</a>, p. 399. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig20033-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig20033_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCraig2003">Craig 2003</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-English_Literature_p._890-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-English_Literature_p._890_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-English_Literature_p._890_9-1">b</a> The Oxford Companion to English Literature, p. 890. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson2004b-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerguson2004b_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFerguson2004b">Ferguson 2004b</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="#refMaddison2001">Maddison 2001</a>, p. 97: "The total population of the Empire was 412 million [in 1913]"; <a href="#refMaddison2001">Maddison 2001</a>, pp. 241: "[World population in 1913 (in thousands):] 1 791 020". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrabble1996323-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDrabble1996323_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrabble1996">Drabble 1996</a>, p. 323. </li> <li id="cite_note-doma-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-doma_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-doma_13-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Angus_Cameron_(academic)" title="Angus Cameron (academic)">Angus Cameron</a> (1983). 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T.; Wedderburn, Alexander (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/media/lancaster-university/content-assets/documents/ruskin/17Untothislast.pdf">Unto This Last. Munera Pulveris. Time and Tide. With Other Writings on Political Economy 1860–1873</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211129045417/https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/media/lancaster-university/content-assets/documents/ruskin/17Untothislast.pdf">Archived</a> 29 November 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The Works of John Ruskin. Vol. XVII. London: George Allen, 156, Charing Cross Road. New York: Longmans, Green, and Co. p. xxxix. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Ruskin, John (1903–1905). Cook, E. 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Appleton & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8164385">8164385</a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6461529M">6461529M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakspere&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+%26+Company&rft.date=1881&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8164385&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL6461529M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Dowden&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshakspere01dowdgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrabble1996" class="citation cs2">Drabble, Margaret, ed. (1996), The Oxford Companion to English Literature, Oxford: Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+English+Literature&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2004b" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Niall_Ferguson" title="Niall Ferguson">Ferguson, Niall</a> (2004b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/empire00nial">Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power</a>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02329-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02329-5"><bdi>978-0-465-02329-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire%3A+The+Rise+and+Demise+of+the+British+World+Order+and+the+Lessons+for+Global+Power&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02329-5&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Niall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fempire00nial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulkCain2003" class="citation cs2">Fulk, RD; Cain, Christopher M (2003), A History of Old English Literature, Malden: Blackwell</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Old+English+Literature&rft.place=Malden&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Fulk&rft.aufirst=RD&rft.au=Cain%2C+Christopher+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenblatt2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Greenblatt" title="Stephen Greenblatt">Greenblatt, Stephen</a> (2005). Will in the World: How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare. London: <a href="/wiki/Pimlico_(publishing_imprint)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pimlico (publishing imprint)">Pimlico</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-0098-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-0098-9"><bdi>978-0-7126-0098-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Will+in+the+World%3A+How+Shakespeare+Became+Shakespeare&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7126-0098-9&rft.aulast=Greenblatt&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roland_Greene" title="Roland Greene">Greene, Roland</a>; et al., eds. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uKiC6IeFR2UC&pg=PA425">"Poetry of England"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uKiC6IeFR2UC">The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics</a> (4th rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 420–428. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15491-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15491-6"><bdi>978-0-691-15491-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poetry+of+England&rft.btitle=The+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+Poetry+and+Poetics&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E420-%3C%2Fspan%3E428&rft.edition=4th+rev.&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-691-15491-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuKiC6IeFR2UC%26pg%3DPA425&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiernan1996" class="citation cs2">Kiernan, Kevin (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yv8cnwEACAAJ">Beowulf and the Beowulf Manuscript</a>, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08412-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08412-8"><bdi>978-0-472-08412-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf+and+the+Beowulf+Manuscript&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+MI&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-472-08412-8&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYv8cnwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuir2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Muir_(scholar)" title="Kenneth Muir (scholar)">Muir, Kenneth</a> (2005). Shakespeare's Tragic Sequence. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35325-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35325-0"><bdi>978-0-415-35325-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakespeare%27s+Tragic+Sequence&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35325-0&rft.aulast=Muir&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2001" class="citation cs2">Robinson, Fred C (2001), The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 143</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Old+English+Literature&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Fred+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTillyard1929" class="citation cs2">Tillyard, E M W (1929), The Poetry of Sir Thomas Wyatt, A Selection and a Study, London: The Scholartis Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-403-08614-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-403-08614-6"><bdi>978-0-403-08614-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Poetry+of+Sir+Thomas+Wyatt%2C+A+Selection+and+a+Study&rft.place=London&rft.pub=The+Scholartis+Press&rft.date=1929&rft.isbn=978-0-403-08614-6&rft.aulast=Tillyard&rft.aufirst=E+M+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolkien1958" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel</a> (1958), <a href="/wiki/Beowulf:_The_Monsters_and_the_Critics" title="Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics">Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics</a>, London: Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf%3A+The+Monsters+and+the+Critics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Tolkien&rft.aufirst=John+Ronald+Reuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_George_Tucker" title="Thomas George Tucker">Tucker, T. G.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73805">The foreign debt of English literature</a> (1907) London: George Bell and Sons</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWardWaller1907–1916" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adolphus_William_Ward" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolphus William Ward">Ward, A. W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rayney_Waller" title="Alfred Rayney Waller">Waller, A. R.</a>, eds. (1907–1916). <a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_English_and_American_Literature" title="The Cambridge History of English and American Literature">The Cambridge History of English Literature</a>. Vol. 1–14. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+English+Literature&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1907%2F1916&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWardWallerTrentErskine1907–21" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated">Ward, AW; Waller, AR; Trent, WP; Erskine, J; Sherman, SP; Van Doren, C, eds. (1907–21), History of English and American literature, New York: GP Putnam's Sons University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+English+and+American+literature&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=GP+Putnam%27s+Sons+University+Press&rft.date=1907%2F1921&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Wells" title="Stanley Wells">Wells, Stanley</a> (1997). Shakespeare: A Life in Drama. New York: <a href="/wiki/W.W._Norton" class="mw-redirect" title="W.W. Norton">W.W. Norton</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31562-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31562-2"><bdi>978-0-393-31562-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shakespeare%3A+A+Life+in+Drama&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31562-2&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=English_literature&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=English+literature">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/cambridge/">The Cambridge History of English and American Literature: an Encyclopedia in Eighteen Volumes</a> (Online Version of 1907–1921 print) – via <a href="/wiki/Bartleby.com" title="Bartleby.com">Bartleby.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+English+and+American+Literature%3A+an+Encyclopedia+in+Eighteen+Volumes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2Fcambridge%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+literature" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/theenglishliterarycanon/">The English Literary Canon</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.librarything.com/tag/british%20literature&more=1">British literature – Books tagged British literature</a> <a href="/wiki/LibraryThing" title="LibraryThing">LibraryThing</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160617173843/http://www.bl.uk/shakespeare">Discovering Literature: Shakespeare</a> at the British Library</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians">Discovering Literature: Romantics and Victorians</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160701124614/http://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/">Archived</a> 1 July 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at the British Library</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/20th-century-literature">Discovering Literature: 20th century</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160701132340/http://www.bl.uk/20th-century-literature">Archived</a> 1 July 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at the British Library</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.luminarium.org/medlit/">Luminarium: Anthology of Middle English Literature (1350–1485)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/">Luminarium: 16th Century Renaissance English Literature (1485–1603)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/">Luminarium: Seventeenth Century English Literature (1603–1660)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.luminarium.org/eightlit/">Luminarium: Eighteenth Century English Literature (1660–1785)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eighteenthcenturypoetry.org/">Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://personal.unizar.es/garciala/bibliography.html">A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology</a> Ed. José Ángel García Landa, (University of Zaragoza, Spain)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_literature" title="Celtic literature">Celtic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_drama" title="English drama">English drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_poetry" title="English poetry">English poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_studies" title="English studies">English studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">European literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_American_Novel" title="Great American Novel">Great American Novel</a></li> <li>Indigenous literatures <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_literature" title="Native American literature">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_literatures_in_Canada" title="Indigenous literatures in Canada">Canadian Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_literature" title="Indigenous Australian literature">Australian 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_literature" title="Abkhaz literature">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_literature" title="Albanian literature">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_literature" title="Aragonese literature">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_literature" title="Armenian literature">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_literature" title="Aromanian literature">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asturian_literature" title="Asturian literature">Asturian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_literature" title="Austrian literature">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_literature" title="Basque literature">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_literature" title="Belarusian literature">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_literature" title="Belgian literature">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosnian literature">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_literature" title="Breton literature">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_literature" title="British literature">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_literature" title="Bulgarian literature">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_literature" title="Catalan literature">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuvash_literature" title="Chuvash literature">Chuvash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_literature" title="Cornish literature">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_literature" title="Crimean Tatar literature">Crimean Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_literature" title="Croatian literature">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_literature" title="Cypriot literature">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_literature" title="Czech literature">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_literature" title="Danish literature">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch-language_literature" title="Dutch-language literature">Dutch</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English (Anglo-Saxon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English_literature" title="Middle English literature">Middle English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_literature" title="Estonian literature">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_literature" title="Faroese literature">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_literature" title="Finnish literature">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_literature" title="Flemish literature">Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_literature" title="French literature">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_literature" title="Frisian literature">Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friulian_literature" title="Friulian 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href="/w/index.php?title=Silesian_literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silesian literature (page does not exist)">Silesian</a> [<a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slezsk%C3%A1_literatura" class="extiw" title="cs:Slezská literatura">cs</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_literature" title="Slovak literature">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_literature" title="Slovene literature">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_literature" title="Spanish literature">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_literature" title="Swedish literature">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_literature" title="Swiss literature">Swiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_literature" title="Turkish literature">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Northern_Cyprus#Literature" title="Culture of Northern Cyprus">Turkish Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_literature" title="Ukrainian literature">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_literature" 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