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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_battle:_Grendel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_battle:_Grendel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 First battle: Grendel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_battle:_Grendel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_battle:_Grendel's_mother" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_battle:_Grendel's_mother"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Second battle: Grendel's mother </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_battle:_Grendel's_mother-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_battle:_The_dragon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_battle:_The_dragon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Final battle: The dragon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_battle:_The_dragon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digressions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digressions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Digressions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digressions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authorship_and_date" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authorship_and_date"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Authorship and date </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Authorship_and_date-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manuscript" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manuscript"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Manuscript </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Manuscript-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Manuscript subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Manuscript-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Provenance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provenance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Provenance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provenance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Writing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Performance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Performance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debate_over_oral_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debate_over_oral_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Debate over oral tradition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debate_over_oral_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Editions,_translations,_and_adaptations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Editions,_translations,_and_adaptations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Editions, translations, and adaptations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Editions,_translations,_and_adaptations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Editions, translations, and adaptations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Editions,_translations,_and_adaptations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Editions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Editions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Editions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Editions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translations_and_adaptations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translations_and_adaptations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Translations and adaptations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translations_and_adaptations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_and_analogues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_and_analogues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Sources and analogues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources_and_analogues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sources and analogues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sources_and_analogues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scandinavian_parallels_and_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scandinavian_parallels_and_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Scandinavian parallels and sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scandinavian_parallels_and_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_folktale_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_folktale_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 International folktale sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_folktale_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Classical sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biblical_influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Biblical influences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Dialect </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Form_and_metre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form_and_metre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Form and metre </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form_and_metre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interpretation_and_criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretation_and_criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Interpretation and criticism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interpretation_and_criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Interpretation and criticism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Interpretation_and_criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paganism_and_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paganism_and_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Paganism and Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paganism_and_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics_and_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics_and_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Politics and warfare </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics_and_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Beowulf</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 82 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-82" aria-hidden="true" > 82 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%93owulf" title="Bēowulf – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Bēowulf" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81" title="بيوولف – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بيوولف" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beovulf" title="Beovulf – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Beovulf" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AB" title="বেউলফ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বেউলফ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84" title="Беовульф – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Беовульф" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84" title="Беавульф – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Беавульф" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D1%9E%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84" title="Бэўвульф – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бэўвульф" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%84" title="Беоулф – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Беоулф" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beovulfkvadet" title="Beovulfkvadet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Beovulfkvadet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%AD%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BB%CF%86_(%CE%AD%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%82)" title="Μπέογουλφ (έπος) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μπέογουλφ (έπος)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81" title="بیوولف – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بیوولف" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9owulf" title="Béowulf – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Béowulf" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf_(poema)" title="Beowulf (poema) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Beowulf (poema)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%EC%98%A4%EC%9A%B8%ED%94%84" title="베오울프 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="베오울프" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AC%D6%86" title="Բեովուլֆ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բեովուլֆ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC" title="बियोवुल्फ़ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बियोवुल्फ़" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bj%C3%B3lfskvi%C3%B0a" title="Bjólfskviða – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Bjólfskviða" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A3" title="ביאוולף – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ביאוולף" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ბეოვულფი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბეოვულფი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beovulfs" title="Beovulfs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Beovulfs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beovulfas" title="Beovulfas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Beovulfas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%84" title="Беовулф – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Беовулф" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%81%E0%B5%BE%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D" title="ബെയൊവുൾഫ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബെയൊവുൾഫ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ბეოვულფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბეოვულფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf_(gedicht)" title="Beowulf (gedicht) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Beowulf (gedicht)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%BC%E3%82%AA%E3%82%A6%E3%83%AB%E3%83%95" title="ベーオウルフ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベーオウルフ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9owulf" title="Béowulf – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Béowulf" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%93%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%AB" title="ਬਿਓਵੁਲਫ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਿਓਵੁਲਫ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81" title="بیوولف – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="بیوولف" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84" title="Беовульф – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Беовульф" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84" title="Беовульф – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Беовульф" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81" title="بيوولف – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بيوولف" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%84" title="Беовулф – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Беовулф" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D" title="బేవుల్ఫ్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బేవుల్ఫ్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%9F" title="เบวูล์ฟ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เบวูล์ฟ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84" title="Беовульф – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Беовульф" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Beowulf" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B4%9D%E5%A5%A5%E6%AD%A6%E5%A4%AB" title="贝奥武夫 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="贝奥武夫" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%91%E5%A5%A7%E8%83%A1%E5%A4%AB" title="卑奧胡夫 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="卑奧胡夫" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B2%9D%E5%A5%A7%E6%AD%A6%E5%A4%AB" title="貝奧武夫 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="貝奧武夫" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q48328#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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For the character, see <a href="/wiki/Beowulf_(hero)" title="Beowulf (hero)">Beowulf (hero)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Beowulf_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Beowulf (disambiguation)">Beowulf (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard vevent;" style="text-align:left; font-size: 88%;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn summary" style="text-align:center; font-size:125%;">Beowulf</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Bēowulf</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/250px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="419" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/375px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/500px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4098" data-file-height="6868" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">First page of Beowulf in Cotton Vitellius A. xv. Beginning: HWÆT. WE GARDE / na in geardagum, þeodcyninga / þrym gefrunon... (Translation: How much we of Spear-Da/nes, in days gone by, of kings / the glory have heard...)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Author(s)</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left">Unknown</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Language</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon dialect</a> of <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left">Disputed (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 700–1000 AD)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">State of existence</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left">Manuscript suffered damage from fire in 1731</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Manuscript(s)</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Nowell_Codex" title="Nowell Codex">Cotton Vitellius A. xv</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 975–1025 AD)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First printed edition</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%ADmur_J%C3%B3nsson_Thorkelin" title="Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin">Thorkelin</a> (1815)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Genre</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left">Epic heroic writing</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Verse form</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">Alliterative verse</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Length</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3182 lines</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subject</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left">The battles of Beowulf, the Geatish hero, in youth and old age</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Personages</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Beowulf_(hero)" title="Beowulf (hero)">Beowulf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hygelac" title="Hygelac">Hygelac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hrothgar" title="Hrothgar">Hrothgar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wealhtheow" title="Wealhtheow">Wealhtheow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hr%C3%B3lfr_Kraki" title="Hrólfr Kraki">Hrothulf</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%86schere" title="Æschere">Æschere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unfer%C3%B0" title="Unferð">Unferth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grendel" title="Grendel">Grendel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grendel%27s_mother" title="Grendel's mother">Grendel's mother</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wiglaf" title="Wiglaf">Wiglaf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hildeburh" title="Hildeburh">Hildeburh</a>. <a href="/wiki/List_of_Beowulf_characters" title="List of Beowulf characters">Full list of characters</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Text</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:left"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Beowulf" class="extiw" title="s:Beowulf">Beowulf</a> at <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Beowulf (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈbeɪəwʊlf/</a>;<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a>: Bēowulf <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Old_English" title="Help:IPA/Old English">[ˈbeːowuɫf]</a>) is an Old English <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poem</a> in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_heroic_legend" title="Germanic heroic legend">Germanic heroic legend</a> consisting of 3,182 <a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">alliterative lines</a>. It is one of the most important and <a href="/wiki/List_of_translations_of_Beowulf" title="List of translations of Beowulf">most often translated</a> works of <a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Old English literature</a>. The date of composition is a matter of contention among scholars; the only certain dating is for the manuscript, which was produced between 975 and 1025 AD.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley19819–22-2">[2]</a> Scholars call the anonymous author the "Beowulf poet".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2002143-3">[3]</a> The story is set in pagan <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> in the 5th and 6th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Beowulf_(hero)" title="Beowulf (hero)">Beowulf</a>, a hero of the <a href="/wiki/Geats" title="Geats">Geats</a>, comes to the aid of <a href="/wiki/Hrothgar" title="Hrothgar">Hrothgar</a>, the king of the <a href="/wiki/Danes_(Germanic_tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danes (Germanic tribe)">Danes</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Mead_hall" title="Mead hall">mead hall</a> <a href="/wiki/Heorot" title="Heorot">Heorot</a> has been under attack by the monster <a href="/wiki/Grendel" title="Grendel">Grendel</a> for twelve years. After Beowulf slays him, <a href="/wiki/Grendel%27s_mother" title="Grendel's mother">Grendel's mother</a> takes revenge and is in turn defeated. Victorious, Beowulf goes home to Geatland and becomes king of the Geats. Fifty years later, Beowulf defeats a <a href="/wiki/The_Dragon_(Beowulf)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Dragon (Beowulf)">dragon</a>, but is mortally wounded in the battle. After his death, his attendants cremate his body and erect a <a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">barrow</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Headland" title="Headland">headland</a> in his memory. Scholars have debated whether Beowulf was <a href="/wiki/Oral-formulaic_composition" title="Oral-formulaic composition">transmitted orally</a>, affecting its interpretation: if it was composed early, in pagan times, then the paganism is central and the Christian elements were added later, whereas if it was composed later, in writing, by a Christian, then the pagan elements could be decorative archaising; some scholars also hold an intermediate position. Beowulf is written mostly in the Late <a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon dialect</a> of Old English, but many other dialectal forms are present, suggesting that the poem may have had a long and complex transmission throughout the dialect areas of England. There has long been research into similarities with other traditions and accounts, including the Icelandic <a href="/wiki/Grettis_saga" title="Grettis saga">Grettis saga</a>, the Norse story of <a href="/wiki/Hrolf_Kraki" class="mw-redirect" title="Hrolf Kraki">Hrolf Kraki</a> and his bear-<a href="/wiki/Shapeshifting" title="Shapeshifting">shapeshifting</a> servant <a href="/wiki/Bodvar_Bjarki" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodvar Bjarki">Bodvar Bjarki</a>, the international folktale the <a href="/wiki/Bear%27s_Son_Tale" title="Bear's Son Tale">Bear's Son Tale</a>, and the Irish folktale of the Hand and the Child. Persistent attempts have been made to link Beowulf to tales from <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a> or <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>. More definite are biblical parallels, with clear allusions to the books of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Exodus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a>. The poem survives in a single copy in the manuscript known as the <a href="/wiki/Nowell_Codex" title="Nowell Codex">Nowell Codex</a>. It has no title in the original manuscript, but has become known by the name of the story's protagonist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2002143-3">[3]</a> In 1731, the manuscript was damaged by a fire that swept through <a href="/wiki/Ashburnham_House" title="Ashburnham House">Ashburnham House</a> in London, which was housing <a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Cotton,_1st_Baronet,_of_Connington" title="Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington">Sir Robert Cotton</a>'s collection of medieval manuscripts. It survived, but the margins were charred, and some readings were lost.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchellRobinson1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiduujn741w2Y4CpgPA6_6]-4">[4]</a> The Nowell Codex is housed in the <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a>. The poem was first transcribed in 1786; some verses were first translated into modern English in 1805, and nine complete translations were made in the 19th century, including those by <a href="/wiki/John_Mitchell_Kemble" title="John Mitchell Kemble">John Mitchell Kemble</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">William Morris</a>. After 1900, <a href="/wiki/List_of_translations_of_Beowulf" title="List of translations of Beowulf">hundreds of translations</a>, whether into prose, rhyming verse, or alliterative verse were made, some relatively faithful, some archaising, some attempting to domesticate the work. Among the best-known modern translations are those of <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Morgan_(poet)" title="Edwin Morgan (poet)">Edwin Morgan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burton_Raffel" title="Burton Raffel">Burton Raffel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_J._Alexander" title="Michael J. Alexander">Michael J. Alexander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roy_Liuzza" title="Roy Liuzza">Roy Liuzza</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seamus_Heaney" title="Seamus Heaney">Seamus Heaney</a>. The difficulty of <a href="/wiki/Translating_Beowulf" title="Translating Beowulf">translating Beowulf</a> has been explored by scholars including <a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> (in his essay "<a href="/wiki/On_Translating_Beowulf" title="On Translating Beowulf">On Translating Beowulf</a>"), who worked on a verse and <a href="/wiki/Beowulf:_A_Translation_and_Commentary" title="Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary">a prose translation</a> of his own. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical background">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beowulf_Tribes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Beowulf_Tribes.svg/310px-Beowulf_Tribes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Beowulf_Tribes.svg/465px-Beowulf_Tribes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Beowulf_Tribes.svg/620px-Beowulf_Tribes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="392" data-file-height="271" /></a><figcaption>Tribes mentioned in Beowulf, showing Beowulf's voyage to <a href="/wiki/Heorot" title="Heorot">Heorot</a> and a possible site of the poem's composition in <a href="/wiki/Rendlesham" title="Rendlesham">Rendlesham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suffolk" title="Suffolk">Suffolk</a>, settled by <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-newton-5">[5]</a> See <a href="/wiki/Scandza" title="Scandza">Scandza</a> for details of Scandinavia's political fragmentation in the 6th century.</figcaption></figure> The events in the poem take place over the 5th and 6th centuries, and feature predominantly non-English characters. Some suggest that Beowulf was first composed in the 7th century at <a href="/wiki/Rendlesham" title="Rendlesham">Rendlesham</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_Anglia" title="East Anglia">East Anglia</a>, as the <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Hoo" title="Sutton Hoo">Sutton Hoo</a> <a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">ship-burial</a> shows close connections with Scandinavia, and the East Anglian royal dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Wuffingas" title="Wuffingas">Wuffingas</a>, may have been descendants of the Geatish <a href="/wiki/Wulfing" class="mw-redirect" title="Wulfing">Wulfings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-chickering-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-newton-5">[5]</a> Others have associated this poem with the court of King <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a> or with the court of King <a href="/wiki/Cnut_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnut the Great">Cnut the Great</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The poem blends fictional, legendary, mythic and historical elements. Although Beowulf himself is not mentioned in any other Old English manuscript,<a href="#cite_note-Grigsby_2005-8">[8]</a> many of the other figures named in Beowulf appear in <a href="#Sources_and_analogues">Scandinavian sources</a>.<a href="#cite_note-shippey-9">[9]</a> This concerns not only individuals (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Halfdan" class="mw-redirect" title="Halfdan">Healfdene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hrothgar" title="Hrothgar">Hroðgar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halga" title="Halga">Halga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hr%C3%B3lfr_Kraki" title="Hrólfr Kraki">Hroðulf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eadgils" title="Eadgils">Eadgils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ohthere" title="Ohthere">Ohthere</a>), but also <a href="/wiki/Norse_clans" title="Norse clans">clans</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Scylding" title="Scylding">Scyldings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yngling" title="Yngling">Scylfings</a> and Wulfings) and certain events (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Battle_on_the_Ice_of_Lake_V%C3%A4nern" title="Battle on the Ice of Lake Vänern">battle between Eadgils and Onela</a>). The raid by King <a href="/wiki/Hygelac" title="Hygelac">Hygelac</a> into <a href="/wiki/Frisia" title="Frisia">Frisia</a> is mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours" title="Gregory of Tours">Gregory of Tours</a> in his History of the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> and can be dated to around 521.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The majority view appears to be that figures such as King Hrothgar and the Scyldings in Beowulf are based on historical people from 6th-century Scandinavia. Like the <a href="/wiki/Finnesburg_Fragment" title="Finnesburg Fragment">Finnesburg Fragment</a> and several shorter surviving poems, Beowulf has consequently been used as a source of information about Scandinavian figures such as Eadgils and Hygelac, and about continental Germanic figures such as <a href="/wiki/Offa_of_Angel" title="Offa of Angel">Offa</a>, king of the continental Angles.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> However, the scholar <a href="/wiki/Roy_Liuzza" title="Roy Liuzza">Roy Liuzza</a> argues that the poem is "frustratingly ambivalent", neither myth nor folktale, but is set "against a complex background of legendary history ... on a roughly recognizable map of Scandinavia", and comments that the Geats of the poem may correspond with the <a href="/wiki/Gautar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautar">Gautar</a> (of modern <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6taland" title="Götaland">Götaland</a>); or perhaps the legendary Getae.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuzza201314–15-12">[12]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eadgil%27s_barrow.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Eadgil%27s_barrow.PNG/310px-Eadgil%27s_barrow.PNG" decoding="async" width="310" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Eadgil%27s_barrow.PNG/465px-Eadgil%27s_barrow.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Eadgil%27s_barrow.PNG/620px-Eadgil%27s_barrow.PNG 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="212" /></a><figcaption>Finds from <a href="/wiki/Gamla_Uppsala" title="Gamla Uppsala">Gamla Uppsala</a>'s western mound, left, excavated in 1874, support Beowulf and the sagas.<a href="#cite_note-Nerman-13">[13]</a></figcaption></figure> Nineteenth-century archaeological evidence may confirm elements of the Beowulf story. Eadgils was buried at Uppsala (<a href="/wiki/Gamla_Uppsala" title="Gamla Uppsala">Gamla Uppsala</a>, Sweden) according to <a href="/wiki/Snorri_Sturluson" title="Snorri Sturluson">Snorri Sturluson</a>. When the western mound (to the left in the photo) was excavated in 1874, the finds showed that a powerful man was buried in a large barrow, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 575, on a bear skin with two dogs and rich grave offerings. The eastern mound was excavated in 1854, and contained the remains of a woman, or a woman and a young man. The middle barrow has not been excavated.<a href="#cite_note-klingmark-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nerman-13">[13]</a> In Denmark, recent (1986–88, 2004–05)<a href="#cite_note-Niles-15">[15]</a> archaeological excavations at <a href="/wiki/Lejre" title="Lejre">Lejre</a>, where Scandinavian tradition located the seat of the Scyldings, <a href="/wiki/Heorot" title="Heorot">Heorot</a>, have revealed that a hall was built in the mid-6th century, matching the period described in Beowulf, some centuries before the poem was composed.<a href="#cite_note-Niles_HT-16">[16]</a> Three halls, each about 50 metres (160 ft) long, were found during the excavation.<a href="#cite_note-Niles_HT-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Summary">Summary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Summary">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carrigan%27s_model_of_Beowulf%27s_Design.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Carrigan%27s_model_of_Beowulf%27s_Design.svg/330px-Carrigan%27s_model_of_Beowulf%27s_Design.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Carrigan%27s_model_of_Beowulf%27s_Design.svg/495px-Carrigan%27s_model_of_Beowulf%27s_Design.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Carrigan%27s_model_of_Beowulf%27s_Design.svg/660px-Carrigan%27s_model_of_Beowulf%27s_Design.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="739" data-file-height="446" /></a><figcaption>Carrigan's model of Beowulf's design<a href="#cite_note-Carrigan_1967-17">[17]</a> Key: (a) sections 1–2 (b) 3–7 (c) 8–12 (d) 13–18 (e) 19–23 (f) 24–26 (g) 27–31 (h) 32–33 (i) 34–38 (j) 39–43</figcaption></figure> The protagonist <a href="/wiki/Beowulf_(hero)" title="Beowulf (hero)">Beowulf</a>, a hero of the <a href="/wiki/Geats" title="Geats">Geats</a>, comes to the aid of Hrothgar, king of the <a href="/wiki/Danes_(Germanic_tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danes (Germanic tribe)">Danes</a>, whose great hall, <a href="/wiki/Heorot" title="Heorot">Heorot</a>, is plagued by the monster <a href="/wiki/Grendel" title="Grendel">Grendel</a>. Beowulf kills Grendel with his bare hands, then kills Grendel's mother with a giant's sword that he found in her lair. Later in his life, Beowulf becomes king of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorised by a <a href="/wiki/The_Dragon_(Beowulf)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Dragon (Beowulf)">dragon</a>, some of whose treasure had been stolen from his hoard in a burial mound. He attacks the dragon with the help of his <a href="/wiki/Thegn" title="Thegn">thegns</a> or servants, but they do not succeed. Beowulf decides to follow the dragon to its lair at <a href="/wiki/Earnaness" title="Earnaness">Earnanæs</a>, but only his young Swedish relative <a href="/wiki/Wiglaf" title="Wiglaf">Wiglaf</a>, whose name means "remnant of valour",<a href="#cite_note-20">[a]</a> dares to join him. Beowulf finally slays the dragon, but is mortally wounded in the struggle. He is cremated and a burial mound by the sea is erected in his honour. Beowulf is considered an epic poem in that the main character is a hero who travels great distances to prove his strength at impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts. The poem begins <a href="/wiki/In_medias_res" title="In medias res">in medias res</a> or simply, "in the middle of things", a characteristic of the epics of antiquity. Although the poem begins with Beowulf's arrival, Grendel's attacks have been ongoing. An elaborate history of characters and their lineages is spoken of, as well as their interactions with each other, debts owed and repaid, and deeds of valour. The warriors form a brotherhood linked by loyalty to their lord. The poem begins and ends with funerals: at the beginning of the poem for <a href="/wiki/Scyld_Scefing" class="mw-redirect" title="Scyld Scefing">Scyld Scefing</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> and at the end for Beowulf.<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> The poem is tightly structured. E. Carrigan shows the symmetry of its design in a model of its major components, with for instance the account of the killing of Grendel matching that of the killing of the dragon, the glory of the Danes matching the accounts of the Danish and Geatish courts.<a href="#cite_note-Carrigan_1967-17">[17]</a> Other analyses are possible as well; <a href="/wiki/Gale_Owen-Crocker" title="Gale Owen-Crocker">Gale Owen-Crocker</a>, for instance, sees the poem as structured by the four funerals it describes.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> For <a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a>, the primary division in the poem was between young and old Beowulf.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolkien199720-24">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_battle:_Grendel">First battle: Grendel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: First battle: Grendel">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Grendel" title="Grendel">Grendel</a></div> Beowulf begins with the story of <a href="/wiki/Hrothgar" title="Hrothgar">Hrothgar</a>, who constructed the great hall, Heorot, for himself and his warriors. In it, he, his wife <a href="/wiki/Wealhtheow" title="Wealhtheow">Wealhtheow</a>, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating. Grendel, a <a href="/wiki/Troll" title="Troll">troll</a>-like monster said to be descended from the biblical <a href="/wiki/Cain" title="Cain">Cain</a>, is pained by the sounds of joy.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> Grendel attacks the hall and devours many of Hrothgar's warriors while they sleep. Hrothgar and his people, helpless against Grendel, abandon Heorot. Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hrothgar's troubles and with his king's permission leaves his homeland to assist Hrothgar.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. Beowulf refuses to use any weapon because he holds himself to be Grendel's equal.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> When Grendel enters the hall and kills one of Beowulf's men, Beowulf, who has been feigning sleep, leaps up to clench Grendel's hand.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> Grendel and Beowulf battle each other violently.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> Beowulf's retainers draw their swords and rush to his aid, but their blades cannot pierce Grendel's skin.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body at the shoulder. Fatally hurt, Grendel flees to his home in the marshes, where he dies.<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> Beowulf displays "the whole of Grendel's shoulder and arm, his awesome grasp" for all to see at Heorot. This display would fuel Grendel's mother's anger in revenge.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_battle:_Grendel's_mother">Second battle: Grendel's mother</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Second battle: Grendel's mother">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Grendel%27s_mother" title="Grendel's mother">Grendel's mother</a></div> The next night, after celebrating Grendel's defeat, Hrothgar and his men sleep in Heorot. Grendel's mother, angry that her son has been killed, sets out to get revenge. "Beowulf was elsewhere. Earlier, after the award of treasure, The Geat had been given another lodging"; his assistance would be absent in this attack.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> Grendel's mother violently kills <a href="/wiki/%C3%86schere" title="Æschere">Æschere</a>, who is Hrothgar's most loyal advisor, and escapes, later putting his head outside her lair. Hrothgar, Beowulf, and their men track Grendel's mother to her lair under a lake. <a href="/wiki/Unfer%C3%B0" title="Unferð"> Unferth</a>, a warrior who had earlier challenged him, presents Beowulf with his sword <a href="/wiki/Hrunting" title="Hrunting">Hrunting</a>. After stipulating a number of conditions to Hrothgar in case of his death (including the taking in of his kinsmen and the inheritance by Unferth of Beowulf's estate), Beowulf jumps into the lake and, while harassed by water monsters, gets to the bottom, where he finds a cavern. Grendel's mother pulls him in, and she and Beowulf engage in fierce combat. At first, Grendel's mother prevails, and Hrunting proves incapable of hurting her; she throws Beowulf to the ground and, sitting astride him, tries to kill him with a short sword, but Beowulf is saved by his armour. Beowulf spots another sword, hanging on the wall and apparently made for giants, and cuts her head off with it. Travelling further into Grendel's mother's lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse and severs his head with the sword. Its blade melts because of the monster's "hot blood", leaving only the hilt. Beowulf swims back up to the edge of the lake where his men wait. Carrying the hilt of the sword and Grendel's head, he presents them to Hrothgar upon his return to Heorot. Hrothgar gives Beowulf many gifts, including the sword <a href="/wiki/N%C3%A6gling" title="Nægling">Nægling</a>, his family's heirloom. The events prompt a long reflection by the king, sometimes referred to as "Hrothgar's sermon", in which he urges Beowulf to be wary of pride and to reward his thegns.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_battle:_The_dragon">Final battle: The dragon</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Final battle: The dragon">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_dragon_(Beowulf)" title="The dragon (Beowulf)">The dragon (Beowulf)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beowulf_death.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Beowulf_death.png/170px-Beowulf_death.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Beowulf_death.png/255px-Beowulf_death.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Beowulf_death.png/340px-Beowulf_death.png 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wiglaf" title="Wiglaf">Wiglaf</a> is the single warrior to return and witness Beowulf's death. Illustration by <a href="/wiki/J._R._Skelton" class="mw-redirect" title="J. R. Skelton">J. R. Skelton</a>, 1908</figcaption></figure> Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people. One day, fifty years after Beowulf's battle with Grendel's mother, a <a href="/wiki/Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave">slave</a> steals a golden cup from the lair of a dragon at Earnanæs. When the dragon sees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning everything in sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but Beowulf tells his men that he will fight the dragon alone and that they should wait on the barrow. Beowulf descends to do battle with the dragon, but finds himself outmatched. His men, upon seeing this and fearing for their lives, retreat into the woods. However, one of his men, Wiglaf, in great distress at Beowulf's plight, comes to his aid. The two slay the dragon, but Beowulf is mortally wounded. After Beowulf dies, Wiglaf remains by his side, grief-stricken. When the rest of the men finally return, Wiglaf bitterly admonishes them, blaming their cowardice for Beowulf's death. Beowulf is ritually burned on a great pyre in Geatland while his people wail and mourn him, fearing that without him, the Geats are defenceless against attacks from surrounding tribes. Afterwards, a barrow, visible from the sea, is built in his memory.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digressions">Digressions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Digressions">edit</a>]</div> The poem contains many apparent digressions from the main story. These were found troublesome by early Beowulf scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Klaeber" title="Frederick Klaeber">Frederick Klaeber</a>, who wrote that they "interrupt the story",<a href="#cite_note-Brady_1955-37">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/W._W._Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="W. W. Lawrence">W. W. Lawrence</a>, who stated that they "clog the action and distract attention from it",<a href="#cite_note-Brady_1955-37">[36]</a> and <a href="/wiki/W._P._Ker" title="W. P. Ker">W. P. Ker</a> who found some "irrelevant ... possibly ... interpolations".<a href="#cite_note-Brady_1955-37">[36]</a> More recent scholars from Adrien Bonjour onwards note that the digressions can all be explained as introductions or comparisons with elements of the main story;<a href="#cite_note-Bonjour_1950-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Urbanowicz_2013-39">[38]</a> for instance, Beowulf's swimming home across the sea from Frisia carrying thirty sets of armour<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> emphasises his heroic strength.<a href="#cite_note-Urbanowicz_2013-39">[38]</a> The digressions can be divided into four groups, namely the Scyld narrative at the start;<a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> many descriptions of the Geats, including the <a href="/wiki/Swedish%E2%80%93Geatish_wars" title="Swedish–Geatish wars">Swedish–Geatish wars</a>,<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> the "Lay of the Last Survivor"<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> in the style of another Old English poem, "<a href="/wiki/The_Wanderer_(Old_English_poem)" title="The Wanderer (Old English poem)">The Wanderer</a>", and Beowulf's dealings with the Geats such as his verbal contest with Unferth and his swimming duel with Breca,<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a> and the tale of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund" title="Sigmund">Sigemund</a> and the dragon;<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> history and legend, including <a href="/wiki/The_fight_at_Finnsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="The fight at Finnsburg">the fight at Finnsburg</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a> and the tale of Freawaru and Ingeld;<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> and biblical tales such as the <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation myth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cain" title="Cain">Cain</a> as ancestor of all monsters.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Urbanowicz_2013-39">[38]</a> The digressions provide a powerful <a href="/wiki/Impression_of_depth_in_The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="Impression of depth in The Lord of the Rings">impression of historical depth, imitated by Tolkien</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a>, a work that <a href="/wiki/Beowulf_in_Middle-earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Beowulf in Middle-earth">embodies many other elements</a> from the poem.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Authorship_and_date">Authorship and date</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Authorship and date">edit</a>]</div> The dating of Beowulf has attracted considerable scholarly attention; opinion differs as to whether it was first written in the 8th century, whether it was nearly contemporary with its 11th-century manuscript, and whether a proto-version (possibly a version of the "<a href="/wiki/Bear%27s_Son_Tale" title="Bear's Son Tale">Bear's Son Tale</a>") was orally transmitted before being transcribed in its present form.<a href="#cite_note-Frank_2007-50">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Lord" title="Albert Lord">Albert Lord</a> felt strongly that the manuscript represents the transcription of a performance, though likely taken at more than one sitting.<a href="#cite_note-Lord|1960-51">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> believed that the poem retains too genuine a memory of <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon paganism</a> to have been composed more than a few generations after the completion of the <a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianisation of England">Christianisation of England</a> around AD 700,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolkien1997-52">[51]</a> and Tolkien's conviction that the poem dates to the 8th century has been defended by scholars including <a href="/wiki/Tom_Shippey" title="Tom Shippey">Tom Shippey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Neidorf" title="Leonard Neidorf">Leonard Neidorf</a>, Rafael J. Pascual, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Fulk" title="Robert D. Fulk">Robert D. Fulk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-link.springer.com-54">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fulk_2007_304–324-55">[54]</a> An analysis of several Old English poems by a team including Neidorf suggests that Beowulf is the work of a single author, though other scholars disagree.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian_2019-56">[55]</a> The claim to an early 11th-century date depends in part on scholars who argue that, rather than the transcription of a tale from the oral tradition by an earlier literate monk, Beowulf reflects an original interpretation of an earlier version of the story by the manuscript's two scribes. On the other hand, some scholars argue that linguistic, <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">palaeographical</a> (handwriting), <a href="/wiki/Metre_(poetry)" title="Metre (poetry)">metrical</a> (poetic structure), and <a href="/wiki/Onomastics" title="Onomastics">onomastic</a> (naming) considerations align to support a date of composition in the first half of the 8th century;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeidorf2014-57">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> in particular, the poem's apparent observation of etymological vowel-length distinctions in unstressed syllables (described by <a href="/wiki/Kaluza%27s_law" title="Kaluza's law">Kaluza's law</a>) has been thought to demonstrate a date of composition prior to the earlier ninth century.<a href="#cite_note-link.springer.com-54">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fulk_2007_304–324-55">[54]</a> However, scholars disagree about whether the metrical phenomena described by Kaluza's law prove an early date of composition or are evidence of a longer prehistory of the Beowulf metre;<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> B.R. Hutcheson, for instance, does not believe Kaluza's law can be used to date the poem, while claiming that "the weight of all the evidence Fulk presents in his book<a href="#cite_note-61">[b]</a> tells strongly in favour of an eighth-century date."<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> From an analysis of creative genealogy and ethnicity, Craig R. Davis suggests a composition date in the AD 890s, when King Alfred of England had secured the submission of <a href="/wiki/Guthrum" title="Guthrum">Guthrum</a>, leader of a division of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Summer_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Summer Army">Great Heathen Army</a> of the Danes, and of <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelred,_Lord_of_the_Mercians" title="Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians">Aethelred</a>, ealdorman of Mercia. In this thesis, the trend of appropriating Gothic royal ancestry, established in <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a> during <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>'s reign, influenced the Anglian kingdoms of Britain to attribute to themselves a <a href="/wiki/Geats" title="Geats">Geatish</a> descent. The composition of Beowulf was the fruit of the later adaptation of this trend in Alfred's policy of asserting authority over the <a href="/wiki/Angelcynn" class="mw-redirect" title="Angelcynn">Angelcynn</a>, in which Scyldic descent was attributed to the West-Saxon royal pedigree. This date of composition largely agrees with Lapidge's positing of a West-Saxon exemplar <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 900.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> The location of the poem's composition is intensely disputed. In 1914, <a href="/wiki/F.W._Moorman" class="mw-redirect" title="F.W. Moorman">F.W. Moorman</a>, the first professor of English Language at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leeds" title="University of Leeds">University of Leeds</a>, claimed that Beowulf was composed in Yorkshire,<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> but E. Talbot Donaldson claims that it was probably composed during the first half of the eighth century, and that the writer was a native of what was then called West Mercia, located in the Western Midlands of England. However, the late tenth-century manuscript "which alone preserves the poem" originated in the kingdom of the <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">West Saxons</a> – as it is more commonly known.<a href="#cite_note-Tuso_1975-65">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manuscript">Manuscript</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Manuscript">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nowell_Codex" title="Nowell Codex">Nowell Codex</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BLBeowulf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/BLBeowulf.jpg/170px-BLBeowulf.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/BLBeowulf.jpg/255px-BLBeowulf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/BLBeowulf.jpg/340px-BLBeowulf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="785" /></a><figcaption>Remounted page, <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a> Cotton Vitellius A.XV</figcaption></figure> Beowulf survived to modern times in a single manuscript, written in ink on <a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a>, later damaged by fire. The manuscript measures 245 × 185 mm.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provenance">Provenance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Provenance">edit</a>]</div> The poem is known only from a single manuscript, estimated to date from around 975–1025, in which it appears with other works.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley19819–22-2">[2]</a> The manuscript therefore dates either to the reign of <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready" title="Æthelred the Unready">Æthelred the Unready</a>, characterised by strife with the Danish king <a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeard" title="Sweyn Forkbeard">Sweyn Forkbeard</a>, or to the beginning of the reign of Sweyn's son <a href="/wiki/Cnut" title="Cnut">Cnut the Great</a> from 1016. The Beowulf manuscript is known as the Nowell Codex, gaining its name from 16th-century scholar <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Nowell" title="Laurence Nowell">Laurence Nowell</a>. The official designation is "<a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a>, Cotton Vitellius A.XV" because it was one of <a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Cotton,_1st_Baronet,_of_Connington" title="Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington">Sir Robert Bruce Cotton</a>'s holdings in the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_library" title="Cotton library">Cotton library</a> in the middle of the 17th century. Many private antiquarians and book collectors, such as Sir Robert Cotton, used their own <a href="/wiki/Library_classification" title="Library classification">library classification</a> systems. "Cotton Vitellius A.XV" translates as: the 15th book from the left on shelf A (the top shelf) of the bookcase with the bust of Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a> standing on top of it, in Cotton's collection. <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Kiernan_(scholar)" title="Kevin Kiernan (scholar)">Kevin Kiernan</a> argues that Nowell most likely acquired it through <a href="/wiki/William_Cecil,_1st_Baron_Burghley" title="William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley">William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley</a>, in 1563, when Nowell entered Cecil's household as a <a href="/wiki/Tutor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutor">tutor</a> to his ward, <a href="/wiki/Edward_de_Vere,_17th_Earl_of_Oxford" title="Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford">Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> The earliest extant reference to the first foliation of the Nowell Codex was made sometime between 1628 and 1650 by <a href="/wiki/Franciscus_Junius_(the_younger)" title="Franciscus Junius (the younger)">Franciscus Junius (the younger)</a>. The ownership of the codex before Nowell remains a mystery.<a href="#cite_note-Beowulf_and_the_Beowulf_Manuscript-68">[66]</a> The Reverend <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Smith_(scholar)" title="Thomas Smith (scholar)">Thomas Smith</a> (1638–1710) and <a href="/wiki/Humfrey_Wanley" title="Humfrey Wanley">Humfrey Wanley</a> (1672–1726) both catalogued the Cotton library (in which the Nowell Codex was held). Smith's catalogue appeared in 1696, and Wanley's in 1705.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoy20052-69">[67]</a> The Beowulf manuscript itself is identified by name for the first time in an exchange of letters in 1700 between George Hickes, Wanley's assistant, and Wanley. In the letter to Wanley, Hickes responds to an apparent charge against Smith, made by Wanley, that Smith had failed to mention the Beowulf script when cataloguing Cotton MS. Vitellius A. XV. Hickes replies to Wanley "I can find nothing yet of Beowulph."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoy200524-70">[68]</a> Kiernan theorised that Smith failed to mention the Beowulf manuscript because of his reliance on previous catalogues or because either he had no idea how to describe it or because it was temporarily out of the codex.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiernan199673–74-71">[69]</a> The manuscript passed to Crown ownership in 1702, on the death of its then owner, Sir John Cotton, who had inherited it from his grandfather, Robert Cotton. It suffered damage in a fire at <a href="/wiki/Ashburnham_House" title="Ashburnham House">Ashburnham House</a> in 1731, in which around a quarter of the manuscripts bequeathed by Cotton were destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-British_Library_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_2021-72">[70]</a> Since then, parts of the manuscript have crumbled along with many of the letters. Rebinding efforts, though saving the manuscript from much degeneration, have nonetheless covered up other letters of the poem, causing further loss. Kiernan, in preparing his electronic edition of the manuscript, used fibre-optic backlighting and ultraviolet lighting to reveal letters in the manuscript lost from binding, erasure, or ink blotting.<a href="#cite_note-KiernanE-73">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writing">Writing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Writing">edit</a>]</div> The Beowulf manuscript was transcribed from an original by two scribes, one of whom wrote the prose at the beginning of the manuscript and the first 1939 lines, before breaking off in mid-sentence. The first scribe made a point of carefully regularizing the spelling of the original document into the common West Saxon, removing any archaic or dialectical features. The second scribe, who wrote the remainder, with a difference in handwriting noticeable after line 1939, seems to have written more vigorously and with less interest. As a result, the second scribe's script retains more archaic dialectic features, which allow modern scholars to ascribe the poem a cultural context.<a href="#cite_note-Beowulf:_Revised_Edition-74">[72]</a> While both scribes appear to have proofread their work, there are nevertheless many errors.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> The second scribe was ultimately the more conservative copyist as he did not modify the spelling of the text as he wrote, but copied what he saw in front of him. In the way that it is currently bound, the Beowulf manuscript is followed by the Old English poem <a href="/wiki/Judith_(poem)" title="Judith (poem)">Judith</a>. Judith was written by the same scribe that completed Beowulf, as evidenced by similar writing style. Wormholes found in the last leaves of the Beowulf manuscript that are absent in the Judith manuscript suggest that at one point Beowulf ended the volume. The rubbed appearance of some leaves suggests that the manuscript stood on a shelf unbound, as was the case with other Old English manuscripts.<a href="#cite_note-Beowulf:_Revised_Edition-74">[72]</a> Knowledge of books held in the library at <a href="/wiki/Malmesbury_Abbey" title="Malmesbury Abbey">Malmesbury Abbey</a> and available as source works, as well as the identification of certain words particular to the local dialect found in the text, suggest that the transcription may have taken place there.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Performance">Performance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Performance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_minstrel_sings_of_famous_deeds_by_J._R._Skelton_c_1910.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/A_minstrel_sings_of_famous_deeds_by_J._R._Skelton_c_1910.jpg/170px-A_minstrel_sings_of_famous_deeds_by_J._R._Skelton_c_1910.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/A_minstrel_sings_of_famous_deeds_by_J._R._Skelton_c_1910.jpg/255px-A_minstrel_sings_of_famous_deeds_by_J._R._Skelton_c_1910.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/A_minstrel_sings_of_famous_deeds_by_J._R._Skelton_c_1910.jpg/340px-A_minstrel_sings_of_famous_deeds_by_J._R._Skelton_c_1910.jpg 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>The traditional view is that Beowulf was composed for performance, chanted by a <a href="/wiki/Scop" title="Scop">scop</a> (left) to string accompaniment,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuzza201318–20-77">[75]</a> but modern scholars have suggested its origin as a piece of written literature borrowed from oral traditions. Illustration by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ratcliffe_Skelton" title="Joseph Ratcliffe Skelton">J. R. Skelton</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1910</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Oral-formulaic_composition" title="Oral-formulaic composition">Oral-formulaic composition</a></div> The scholar <a href="/wiki/Roy_Liuzza" title="Roy Liuzza">Roy Liuzza</a> notes that the practice of oral poetry is by its nature invisible to history as evidence is in writing. Comparison with other bodies of verse such as Homer's, coupled with ethnographic observation of early 20th century performers, has provided a vision of how an Anglo-Saxon singer-poet or <a href="/wiki/Scop" title="Scop">scop</a> may have practised. The resulting model is that performance was based on traditional stories and a repertoire of word formulae that fitted the traditional metre. The scop moved through the scenes, such as putting on armour or crossing the sea, each one improvised at each telling with differing combinations of the stock phrases, while the basic story and style remained the same.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuzza201318–20-77">[75]</a> Liuzza notes that Beowulf itself describes the technique of a court poet in assembling materials, in lines 867–874 in his translation, "full of grand stories, mindful of songs ... found other words truly bound together; ... to recite with skill the adventure of Beowulf, adeptly tell a tall tale, and (wordum wrixlan) weave his words."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuzza201336-78">[76]</a> The poem further mentions (lines 1065–1068) that "the harp was touched, tales often told, when Hrothgar's scop was set to recite among the mead tables his hall-entertainment".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuzza2013119:_"gomenwudu_grēted,_gid_oft_wrecen,_ðonne_healgamen_Hrōþgāres_scop_æfter_medobence_mǣnan_scolde,"-79">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debate_over_oral_tradition">Debate over oral tradition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Debate over oral tradition">edit</a>]</div> The question of whether Beowulf was passed down through <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> prior to its present <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a> form has been the subject of much debate, and involves more than simply the issue of its composition. Rather, given the implications of the theory of <a href="/wiki/Oral-formulaic_composition" title="Oral-formulaic composition">oral-formulaic composition</a> and oral tradition, the question concerns how the poem is to be understood, and what sorts of interpretations are legitimate.<a href="#cite_note-COLORING210-217-80">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-BENSON193-213-81">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord1960198-82">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crowne_1960-83">[81]</a> In his landmark 1960 work, <a href="/wiki/The_Singer_of_Tales" title="The Singer of Tales">The Singer of Tales</a>, Albert Lord, citing the work of <a href="/wiki/Francis_Peabody_Magoun" title="Francis Peabody Magoun">Francis Peabody Magoun</a> and others, considered it proven that Beowulf was composed orally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord1960198-82">[80]</a> Later scholars have not all been convinced; they agree that "themes" like "arming the hero"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumthor198467–92-84">[82]</a> or the "hero on the beach"<a href="#cite_note-Crowne_1960-83">[81]</a> do exist across Germanic works. Some scholars conclude that Anglo-Saxon poetry is a mix of oral-formulaic and literate patterns.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> Larry Benson proposed that Germanic literature contains "kernels of tradition" which Beowulf expands upon.<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Foley-87">[85]</a> Ann Watts argued against the imperfect application of one theory to two different traditions: traditional, Homeric, oral-formulaic poetry and Anglo-Saxon poetry.<a href="#cite_note-Foley-87">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> Thomas Gardner agreed with Watts, arguing that the Beowulf text is too varied to be completely constructed from set formulae and themes.<a href="#cite_note-Foley-87">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Miles_Foley" title="John Miles Foley">John Miles Foley</a> wrote that comparative work must observe the particularities of a given tradition; in his view, there was a fluid continuum from traditionality to textuality.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Editions,_translations,_and_adaptations">Editions, translations, and adaptations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Editions, translations, and adaptations">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Editions">Editions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Editions">edit</a>]</div> Many editions of the Old English text of Beowulf have been published; this section lists the most influential. The Icelandic scholar <a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%ADmur_J%C3%B3nsson_Thorkelin" title="Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin">Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin</a> made the first transcriptions of the Beowulf-manuscript in 1786, working as part of a Danish government historical research commission. He had a copy made by a professional copyist who knew no Old English (and was therefore in some ways more likely to make transcription errors, but in other ways more likely to copy exactly what he saw), and then made a copy himself. Since that time, the manuscript has crumbled further, making these transcripts prized witnesses to the text. While the recovery of at least 2000 letters can be attributed to them, their accuracy has been called into question,<a href="#cite_note-92">[c]</a> and the extent to which the manuscript was actually more readable in Thorkelin's time is uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> Thorkelin used these transcriptions as the basis for the first complete edition of Beowulf, in Latin.<a href="#cite_note-translationhistory-94">[91]</a> In 1922, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Klaeber" title="Frederick Klaeber">Frederick Klaeber</a>, a German philologist who worked at the University of Minnesota, published his edition of the poem, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Klaeber#Beowulf_and_The_Fight_at_Finnsburg" title="Frederick Klaeber">Beowulf and The Fight at Finnsburg</a>;<a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a> it became the "central source used by graduate students for the study of the poem and by scholars and teachers as the basis of their translations."<a href="#cite_note-Bloomfield_1999-96">[93]</a> The edition included an extensive glossary of Old English terms.<a href="#cite_note-Bloomfield_1999-96">[93]</a> His third edition was published in 1936, with the last version in his lifetime being a revised reprint in 1950.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> Klaeber's text was re-presented with new introductory material, notes, and glosses, in a fourth edition in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> Another widely used edition is <a href="/wiki/Elliott_Van_Kirk_Dobbie" title="Elliott Van Kirk Dobbie">Elliott Van Kirk Dobbie</a>'s, published in 1953 in the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Poetic_Records" title="Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records">Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records</a> series.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> The British Library, meanwhile, took a prominent role in supporting <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Kiernan_(scholar)" title="Kevin Kiernan (scholar)">Kevin Kiernan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Kiernan_(scholar)#Electronic_Beowulf" title="Kevin Kiernan (scholar)">Electronic Beowulf</a>; the first edition appeared in 1999, and the fourth in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-KiernanE-73">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translations_and_adaptations">Translations and adaptations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Translations and adaptations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Translating_Beowulf" title="Translating Beowulf">Translating Beowulf</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_translations_of_Beowulf" title="List of translations of Beowulf">List of translations of Beowulf</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_adaptations_of_Beowulf" title="List of adaptations of Beowulf">List of adaptations of Beowulf</a></div> The tightly interwoven structure of Old English poetry makes <a href="/wiki/Translating_Beowulf" title="Translating Beowulf">translating Beowulf</a> a severe technical challenge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagennis20111–25-100">[97]</a> Despite this, a great number of translations and adaptations are available, in poetry and prose. Andy Orchard, in A Critical Companion to Beowulf, lists 33 "representative" translations in his bibliography,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrchard2003a4,_329–30-101">[98]</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Arizona_Center_for_Medieval_and_Renaissance_Studies" title="Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies">Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies</a> published <a href="/wiki/Marijane_Osborn" title="Marijane Osborn">Marijane Osborn</a>'s annotated list of over 300 translations and adaptations in 2003.<a href="#cite_note-translationhistory-94">[91]</a> Beowulf has been translated many times in verse and in prose, and adapted for stage and screen. By 2020, the Beowulf's Afterlives Bibliographic Database listed some 688 translations and other versions of the poem.<a href="#cite_note-BABD-102">[99]</a> Beowulf has been translated into at least 38 other languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchulmanSzarmach20124-103">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-BABD-102">[99]</a> In 1805, the historian <a href="/wiki/Sharon_Turner" title="Sharon Turner">Sharon Turner</a> translated selected verses into <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">modern English</a>.<a href="#cite_note-translationhistory-94">[91]</a> This was followed in 1814 by <a href="/wiki/John_Josias_Conybeare" title="John Josias Conybeare">John Josias Conybeare</a> who published an edition "in English paraphrase and Latin verse translation."<a href="#cite_note-translationhistory-94">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/N._F._S._Grundtvig" title="N. F. S. Grundtvig">N. F. S. Grundtvig</a> reviewed Thorkelin's edition in 1815 and created the first complete verse translation in Danish in 1820.<a href="#cite_note-translationhistory-94">[91]</a> In 1837, <a href="/wiki/John_Mitchell_Kemble" title="John Mitchell Kemble">John Mitchell Kemble</a> created an important literal translation in English.<a href="#cite_note-translationhistory-94">[91]</a> In 1895, <a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">William Morris</a> and A. J. Wyatt published the ninth English translation.<a href="#cite_note-translationhistory-94">[91]</a> In 1909, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Barton_Gummere" title="Francis Barton Gummere">Francis Barton Gummere</a>'s full translation in "English imitative metre" was published,<a href="#cite_note-translationhistory-94">[91]</a> and was used as the text of Gareth Hinds's 2007 graphic novel based on Beowulf. In 1975, John Porter published the first complete verse translation of the poem entirely accompanied by facing-page Old English.<a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a> <a href="/wiki/Seamus_Heaney" title="Seamus Heaney">Seamus Heaney</a>'s 1999 translation of the poem (<a href="/wiki/Beowulf:_A_New_Verse_Translation" title="Beowulf: A New Verse Translation">Beowulf: A New Verse Translation</a>, called "Heaneywulf" by the Beowulf translator Howell Chickering and many others<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChickering2002-105">[102]</a>) was both praised and criticised. The US publication was commissioned by <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton & Company">W. W. Norton & Company</a>, and was included in the Norton Anthology of English Literature. Many retellings of Beowulf for children appeared in the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-McGrath_NYT_2007-106">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a> In 2000 (2nd edition 2013), Liuzza published his own version of Beowulf in a parallel text with the Old English,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuzza201351–245-108">[105]</a> with his analysis of the poem's historical, oral, religious and linguistic contexts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuzza20131–43-109">[106]</a> R. D. Fulk, of <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>, published a facing-page edition and translation of the entire <a href="/wiki/Nowell_Codex" title="Nowell Codex">Nowell Codex</a> manuscript in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Magennis_(scholar)" title="Hugh Magennis (scholar)">Hugh Magennis</a>'s 2011 Translating Beowulf: Modern Versions in English Verse discusses the challenges and history of translating the poem,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagennis20111–25-100">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagennis201141ff-111">[108]</a> as well as the question of how to approach its poetry,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagennis201127ff-112">[109]</a> and discusses several post-1950 verse translations,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagennis2011191ff-113">[110]</a> paying special attention to those of <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Morgan_(poet)" title="Edwin Morgan (poet)">Edwin Morgan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagennis201181ff-114">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Burton_Raffel" title="Burton Raffel">Burton Raffel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagennis2011109ff-115">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_J._Alexander" title="Michael J. Alexander">Michael J. Alexander</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagennis2011135ff-116">[113]</a> and Seamus Heaney.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagennis2011161ff-117">[114]</a> Translating Beowulf is one of the subjects of the 2012 publication Beowulf at Kalamazoo, containing a section with 10 essays on translation, and a section with 22 reviews of Heaney's translation, some of which compare Heaney's work with Liuzza's.<a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a> Tolkien's long-awaited prose translation (edited by his son <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Tolkien" title="Christopher Tolkien">Christopher</a>) was published in 2014 as <a href="/wiki/Beowulf:_A_Translation_and_Commentary" title="Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary">Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary</a>. The book includes Tolkien's own retelling of the story of Beowulf in his tale Sellic Spell, but not his incomplete and unpublished verse translation.<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Mere_Wife" title="The Mere Wife">The Mere Wife</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Maria_Dahvana_Headley" title="Maria Dahvana Headley">Maria Dahvana Headley</a>, was published in 2018. It relocates the action to a wealthy community in 20th-century America and is told primarily from the point of view of Grendel's mother.<a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a> In 2020, Headley published a translation in which the opening "Hwæt!" is rendered "Bro!";<a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a> this translation subsequently won the <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Award_for_Best_Related_Work" title="Hugo Award for Best Related Work">Hugo Award for Best Related Work</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hugo21-123">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_and_analogues">Sources and analogues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sources and analogues">edit</a>]</div> Neither identified sources nor <a href="/wiki/Analogue_(literature)" title="Analogue (literature)">analogues</a> for Beowulf can be definitively proven, but many conjectures have been made. These are important in helping historians understand the Beowulf manuscript, as possible source-texts or influences would suggest time-frames of composition, geographic boundaries within which it could be composed, or range (both spatial and temporal) of influence (i.e. when it was "popular" and where its "popularity" took it). The poem has been related to Scandinavian, Celtic, and international folkloric sources.<a href="#cite_note-124">[d]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998125,_129-125">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scandinavian_parallels_and_sources">Scandinavian parallels and sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Scandinavian parallels and sources">edit</a>]</div> 19th-century studies proposed that Beowulf was translated from a lost original Scandinavian work; surviving Scandinavian works have continued to be studied as possible sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998130–131-126">[122]</a> In 1886 Gregor Sarrazin suggested that an <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> original version of Beowulf must have existed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998130-127">[123]</a> but in 1914 Carl Wilhelm von Sydow claimed that Beowulf is fundamentally <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> and was written at a time when any Norse tale would have most likely been <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998135-128">[124]</a> Another proposal was a parallel with the <a href="/wiki/Grettis_Saga" class="mw-redirect" title="Grettis Saga">Grettis Saga</a>, but in 1998, Magnús Fjalldal challenged that, stating that tangential similarities were being overemphasised as analogies.<a href="#cite_note-129">[125]</a> The story of <a href="/wiki/Hr%C3%B3lfr_Kraki" title="Hrólfr Kraki">Hrolf Kraki</a> and his servant, the legendary bear-<a href="/wiki/Shapeshifter" class="mw-redirect" title="Shapeshifter">shapeshifter</a> <a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6%C3%B0varr_Bjarki" class="mw-redirect" title="Böðvarr Bjarki">Bodvar Bjarki</a>, has also been suggested as a possible parallel; he survives in <a href="/wiki/Hr%C3%B3lfs_saga_kraka" title="Hrólfs saga kraka">Hrólfs saga kraka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saxo_Grammaticus" title="Saxo Grammaticus">Saxo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Gesta_Danorum" title="Gesta Danorum">Gesta Danorum</a>, while Hrolf Kraki, one of the <a href="/wiki/Scylding" title="Scylding">Scyldings</a>, appears as "Hrothulf" in Beowulf.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanzer1910364–386-130">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers192155-131">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[128]</a> New Scandinavian analogues to Beowulf continue to be proposed regularly, with <a href="/wiki/Hr%C3%B3lfs_saga_Gautrekssonar" title="Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar">Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar</a> being the most recently adduced text.<a href="#cite_note-133">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_folktale_sources">International folktale sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: International folktale sources">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Panzer_(Germanist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich Panzer (Germanist) (page does not exist)">Friedrich Panzer</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Panzer_(Germanist)" class="extiw" title="de:Friedrich Panzer (Germanist)">de</a>] (1910) wrote a thesis that the first part of Beowulf (the Grendel Story) incorporated preexisting folktale material, and that the folktale in question was of the <a href="/wiki/Bear%27s_Son_Tale" title="Bear's Son Tale">Bear's Son Tale</a> (Bärensohnmärchen) type, which has surviving examples all over the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPanzer1910-134">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998130-127">[123]</a> This tale type was later catalogued as international <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folktale</a> type 301 in the <a href="/wiki/Aarne%E2%80%93Thompson%E2%80%93Uther_Index" title="Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index">ATU Index</a>, now formally entitled "The Three Stolen Princesses" type in Hans Uther's catalogue, although the "Bear's Son" is still used in Beowulf criticism, if not so much in folkloristic circles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998130-127">[123]</a> However, although this <a href="/wiki/Folkloristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Folkloristics">folkloristic</a> approach was seen as a step in the right direction, "The Bear's Son" tale has later been regarded by many as not a close enough parallel to be a viable choice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998137,_146-135">[131]</a> Later, Peter A. Jorgensen, looking for a more concise frame of reference, coined a "two-troll tradition" that covers both Beowulf and Grettis saga: "a <a href="/wiki/Viking_art" title="Viking art">Norse</a> '<a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">ecotype</a>' in which a hero enters a cave and kills two giants, usually of different sexes";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998134-136">[132]</a> this has emerged as a more attractive folk tale parallel, according to a 1998 assessment by Andersson.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998146-137">[133]</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVickrey2009p._209:_"I_shall_continue_to_use_the_term_''Bear's_Son''_for_the_folktale_in_question;_it_is_established_in_Beowulf_criticism_and_certainly_Stitt_has_justified_its_retention"._138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVickrey2009p._209:_"I_shall_continue_to_use_the_term_''Bear's_Son''_for_the_folktale_in_question;_it_is_established_in_Beowulf_criticism_and_certainly_Stitt_has_justified_its_retention".-138">[134]</a> The epic's similarity to the Irish folktale "The Hand and the Child" was noted in 1899 by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Stanburrough_Cook" title="Albert Stanburrough Cook">Albert S. Cook</a>, and others even earlier.<a href="#cite_note-139">[e]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel19792–3-140">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998135-128">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[f]</a> In 1914, the Swedish folklorist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wilhelm_von_Sydow" title="Carl Wilhelm von Sydow">Carl Wilhelm von Sydow</a> made a strong argument for parallelism with "The Hand and the Child", because the <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folktale</a> type demonstrated a "monstrous arm" <a href="/wiki/Motif_(narrative)" title="Motif (narrative)">motif</a> that corresponded with Beowulf's wrenching off Grendel's arm. No such correspondence could be perceived in the Bear's Son Tale or in the Grettis saga.<a href="#cite_note-143">[g]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998136-142">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuhvel19792–3-140">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Carney_(scholar)" title="James Carney (scholar)">James Carney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Puhvel" title="Martin Puhvel">Martin Puhvel</a> agree with this "Hand and the Child" contextualisation.<a href="#cite_note-144">[h]</a> Puhvel supported the "Hand and the Child" theory through such motifs as (in Andersson's words) "the more powerful giant mother, the mysterious light in the cave, the melting of the sword in blood, the phenomenon of battle rage, swimming prowess, combat with water monsters, underwater adventures, and the bear-hug style of wrestling."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998137-145">[137]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Mabinogion" title="Mabinogion">Mabinogion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teyrnon" title="Teyrnon">Teyrnon</a> discovers the otherworldly boy child <a href="/wiki/Pryderi" title="Pryderi">Pryderi</a>, the principal character of the cycle, after cutting off the arm of a monstrous beast which is stealing foals from his stables.<a href="#cite_note-146">[138]</a> The medievalist R. Mark Scowcroft notes that the tearing off of the monster's arm without a weapon is found only in Beowulf and fifteen of the Irish variants of the tale; he identifies twelve parallels between the tale and Beowulf.<a href="#cite_note-Scowcroft_1999-147">[139]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Scowcroft's "Hand and Child" parallels in Beowulf<a href="#cite_note-Scowcroft_1999-147">[139]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>"Hand and Child" Irish tale</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Grendel" title="Grendel">Grendel</a>  </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Grendel%27s_mother" title="Grendel's mother">Grendel's Mother</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 Monster is attacking King each night</td> <td>86 ff</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 Hero brings help from afar</td> <td>194 ff</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 At night, when all but hero are asleep</td> <td>701–705</td> <td>1251 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 Monster attacks the hall</td> <td>702 ff</td> <td>1255 ff </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 Hero pulls off monster's arm</td> <td>748 ff</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 Monster escapes</td> <td>819 ff</td> <td>1294 ff </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 Hero tracks monster to its lair</td> <td>839–849</td> <td>1402 ff </td></tr> <tr> <td>8 Monster has female companion</td> <td>1345 ff</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>9 Hero kills the monster</td> <td>—</td> <td>1492 ff </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 Hero returns to King</td> <td>853 ff</td> <td>1623 ff </td></tr> <tr> <td>11 Hero is rewarded with gifts</td> <td>1020 ff</td> <td>1866 ff </td></tr> <tr> <td>12 Hero returns home</td> <td>—</td> <td>1888 ff </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_sources">Classical sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Classical sources">edit</a>]</div> Attempts to find <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classical</a> or <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a> influence or analogue in Beowulf are almost exclusively linked with <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a> or <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>. In 1926, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Stanburrough_Cook" title="Albert Stanburrough Cook">Albert S. Cook</a> suggested a Homeric connection due to equivalent formulas, <a href="/wiki/Metonymy" title="Metonymy">metonymies</a>, and analogous voyages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1926-148">[140]</a> In 1930, James A. Work supported the Homeric influence, stating that the encounter between Beowulf and <a href="/wiki/Unfer%C3%B0" title="Unferð">Unferth</a> was parallel to the encounter between Odysseus and <a href="/wiki/Euryalus_(Phaeacian)" title="Euryalus (Phaeacian)">Euryalus</a> in Books 7–8 of the Odyssey, even to the point of both characters giving the hero the same gift of a sword upon being proven wrong in their initial assessment of the hero's prowess. This theory of Homer's influence on Beowulf remained very prevalent in the 1920s, but started to die out in the following decade when a handful of critics stated that the two works were merely "comparative literature",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998138-149">[141]</a> although Greek was known in late 7th century England: <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> states that <a href="/wiki/Theodore_of_Tarsus" title="Theodore of Tarsus">Theodore of Tarsus</a>, a Greek, was appointed <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a> in 668, and he taught Greek. Several English scholars and churchmen are described by Bede as being fluent in Greek due to being taught by him; Bede claims to be fluent in Greek himself.<a href="#cite_note-150">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Klaeber" title="Frederick Klaeber">Frederick Klaeber</a>, among others, argued for a connection between Beowulf and <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a> near the start of the 20th century, claiming that the very act of writing a secular epic in a Germanic world represents Virgilian influence. Virgil was seen as the pinnacle of Latin literature, and Latin was the dominant literary language of England at the time, therefore making Virgilian influence highly likely.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-151">[143]</a> Similarly, in 1971, <a href="/wiki/Alistair_Campbell_(academic)" title="Alistair Campbell (academic)">Alistair Campbell</a> stated that the <a href="/wiki/Apologue" title="Apologue">apologue</a> technique used in Beowulf is so rare in epic poetry aside from Virgil that the poet who composed Beowulf could not have written the poem in such a manner without first coming across <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>'s writings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998140–41-152">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biblical_influences">Biblical influences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Biblical influences">edit</a>]</div> It cannot be denied that Biblical parallels occur in the text, whether seen as a pagan work with "Christian colouring" added by scribes or as a "Christian historical novel, with selected bits of paganism deliberately laid on as 'local colour'", as Margaret E. Goldsmith did in "The Christian Theme of Beowulf".<a href="#cite_note-Irving-153">[145]</a> Beowulf channels the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Book of Daniel</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998142–43-154">[146]</a> in its inclusion of references to the <a href="/wiki/Genesis_creation_narrative" title="Genesis creation narrative">Genesis creation narrative</a>, the story of <a href="/wiki/Cain_and_Abel" title="Cain and Abel">Cain and Abel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative" title="Genesis flood narrative">flood</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Devil_in_Christianity" title="Devil in Christianity">Devil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">Hell</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Irving-153">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialect">Dialect</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Dialect">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:18.0em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image" style="padding:0.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Beowulf_cropped.png/150px-Beowulf_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Beowulf_cropped.png/225px-Beowulf_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Beowulf_cropped.png/300px-Beowulf_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="342" data-file-height="76" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Old_English" title="Category:Old English">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kentish_dialect_(Old_English)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kentish dialect (Old English)">Kentish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Old_English" title="Northumbrian Old English">Northumbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Use</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English#Orthography" title="Old English">Orthography</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Runic alphabet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_English_Latin_alphabet" title="Old English Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_phonology" title="Old English phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_Old_English" title="Phonological history of Old English">Phonological history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature" title="Old English literature">Literature</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist" style="font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Beowulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon%27s_Hymn" title="Cædmon's Hymn">Cædmon's Hymn</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the English language">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_language#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Development of Old English</a></li></ul> <dl><dd>Influences</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brittonicisms_in_English" title="Brittonicisms in English">Brittonic</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Legacy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Old_English_topics" title="Template:Old English topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Old_English_topics" title="Template talk:Old English topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Old_English_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Old English topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Beowulf predominantly uses the <a href="/wiki/West_Saxon_dialect" title="West Saxon dialect">West Saxon dialect</a> of Old English, like other Old English poems copied at the time. However, it also uses many other linguistic forms; this leads some scholars to believe that it has endured a long and complicated transmission through all the main dialect areas. It retains a complicated mix of <a href="/wiki/Mercian_dialect" title="Mercian dialect">Mercian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_dialect" title="Northumbrian dialect">Northumbrian</a>, Early West Saxon, Anglian, Kentish and Late West Saxon dialectical forms.<a href="#cite_note-155">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beowulf_and_the_Beowulf_Manuscript-68">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Form_and_metre">Form and metre</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Form and metre">edit</a>]</div> Old English poets typically used <a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">alliterative verse</a>, a form of <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">verse</a> in which the first half of the line (the a-verse) is linked to the second half (the b-verse) through <a href="/wiki/Alliteration" title="Alliteration">similarity in initial sound</a>. That the line consists of two halves is clearly indicated by the <a href="/wiki/Caesura" title="Caesura">caesura</a>: Oft Scyld Scefing \\ sceaþena þreatum (l. 4). This verse form maps stressed and unstressed syllables onto abstract entities known as metrical positions. There is no fixed number of beats per line: the first one cited has three (Oft SCYLD SCEF-ING) whereas the second has two (SCEAþena ÞREATum).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolkien199761–71-157">[149]</a> The poet had a choice of formulae to assist in fulfilling the alliteration scheme. These were memorised phrases that conveyed a general and commonly-occurring meaning that fitted neatly into a half-line of the chanted poem. Examples are line 8's weox under wolcnum ("waxed under welkin", i.e. "he grew up under the heavens"), line 11's gomban gyldan ("pay tribute"), line 13's geong in geardum ("young in the yards", i.e. "young in the courts"), and line 14's folce to frofre ("as a comfort to his people").<a href="#cite_note-Bolton_1985-158">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fox2020-160">[152]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kenning" title="Kenning">Kennings</a> are a significant technique in Beowulf. They are evocative poetic descriptions of everyday things, often created to fill the alliterative requirements of the metre. For example, a poet might call the sea the "swan's riding"; a king might be called a "ring-giver". The poem contains many kennings, and the device is typical of much of classic poetry in Old English, which is heavily formulaic. The poem, too, makes extensive use of <a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">elided</a> <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interpretation_and_criticism">Interpretation and criticism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Interpretation and criticism">edit</a>]</div> The history of modern Beowulf criticism is often said to begin with Tolkien,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrchard2003a7-162">[154]</a> author and Merton Professor of Anglo-Saxon at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>, who in his 1936 lecture to the <a href="/wiki/British_Academy" title="British Academy">British Academy</a> criticised his contemporaries' excessive interest in its historical implications.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolkien20067-163">[155]</a> He noted in <a href="/wiki/Beowulf:_The_Monsters_and_the_Critics" title="Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics">Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics</a> that as a result the poem's literary value had been largely overlooked, and argued that the poem "is in fact so interesting as poetry, in places poetry so powerful, that this quite overshadows the historical content..."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolkien19587-164">[156]</a> Tolkien argued that the poem is not an epic; that, while no conventional term exactly fits, the nearest would be <a href="/wiki/Elegy" title="Elegy">elegy</a>; and that its focus is the concluding <a href="/wiki/Dirge" title="Dirge">dirge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETolkien199731-165">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paganism_and_Christianity">Paganism and Christianity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Paganism and Christianity">edit</a>]</div> In historical terms, the poem's characters were <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic pagans</a>, yet the poem was recorded by Christian Anglo-Saxons who had mostly converted from their native <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon paganism</a> around the 7th century. Beowulf thus depicts a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic warrior society</a>, in which the relationship between the lord of the region and those who served under him was of paramount importance.<a href="#cite_note-Leyerle-166">[158]</a> In terms of the relationship between characters in Beowulf and God, one might recall the substantial amount of paganism that is present throughout the work. Literary critics such as <a href="/wiki/Fred_C._Robinson" title="Fred C. Robinson">Fred C. Robinson</a> argue that the Beowulf poet tries to send a message to readers during the Anglo-Saxon time period regarding the state of Christianity in their own time. Robinson argues that the intensified religious aspects of the Anglo-Saxon period inherently shape the way in which the poet alludes to paganism as presented in Beowulf. The poet calls on Anglo-Saxon readers to recognize the imperfect aspects of their supposed Christian lifestyles. In other words, the poet is referencing their "Anglo-Saxon Heathenism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2002150–152-167">[159]</a> In terms of the characters of the epic itself, Robinson argues that readers are "impressed" by the courageous acts of Beowulf and the speeches of Hrothgar. But one is ultimately left to feel sorry for both men as they are fully detached from supposed "Christian truth".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2002150–152-167">[159]</a> The relationship between the characters of Beowulf, and the overall message of the poet, regarding their relationship with God is debated among readers and literary critics alike.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuzza201327–36,_"''Beowulf''_between_Court_and_Cloister"-168">[160]</a> Richard North argues that the Beowulf poet interpreted "Danish myths in Christian form" (as the poem would have served as a form of entertainment for a Christian audience), and states: "As yet we are no closer to finding out why the first audience of Beowulf liked to hear stories about people routinely classified as damned. This question is pressing, given... that Anglo-Saxons saw the <a href="/wiki/Danes_(Germanic_tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danes (Germanic tribe)">Danes</a> as '<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heathen" class="extiw" title="wikt:heathen">heathens</a>' rather than as foreigners."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth2006195-169">[161]</a> Donaldson wrote that "the poet who put the materials into their present form was a Christian and ... poem reflects a Christian tradition".<a href="#cite_note-Tuso_1975-65">[63]</a> Other scholars disagree as to whether Beowulf is a Christian work set in a Germanic pagan context. The question suggests that the conversion from the Germanic pagan beliefs to Christian ones was a prolonged and gradual process over several centuries, and the poem's message in respect to religious belief at the time it was written remains unclear. Robert F. Yeager describes the basis for these questions:<a href="#cite_note-nhum-170">[162]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">That the scribes of Cotton Vitellius A.XV were Christian [is] beyond doubt, and it is equally sure that Beowulf was composed in a Christianised England since conversion took place in the sixth and seventh centuries. The only Biblical references in Beowulf are to the Old Testament, and Christ is never mentioned. The poem is set in pagan times, and none of the characters is demonstrably Christian. In fact, when we are told what anyone in the poem believes, we learn that they are pagans. Beowulf's own beliefs are not expressed explicitly. He offers eloquent prayers to a higher power, addressing himself to the "Father Almighty" or the "Wielder of All". Were those the prayers of a pagan who used phrases the Christians subsequently appropriated? Or did the poem's author intend to see Beowulf as a Christian Ur-hero, symbolically refulgent with Christian virtues?<a href="#cite_note-nhum-170">[162]</a></blockquote> Ursula Schaefer's view is that the poem was created, and is interpretable, within both pagan and Christian horizons. Schaefer's concept of "vocality" offers neither a compromise nor a synthesis of views that see the poem as on the one hand Germanic, pagan, and oral and on the other Latin-derived, Christian, and literate, but, as stated by Monika Otter: "a 'tertium quid', a modality that participates in both oral and literate culture yet also has a logic and aesthetic of its own."<a href="#cite_note-Otter_1992-171">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schaefer_1992-172">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics_and_warfare">Politics and warfare</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Politics and warfare">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Greenfield" title="Stanley B. Greenfield">Stanley B. Greenfield</a> has suggested that references to the human body throughout Beowulf emphasise the relative position of <a href="/wiki/Thegn" title="Thegn">thanes</a> to their lord. He argues that the term "shoulder-companion" could refer to both a physical arm as well as a thane (Aeschere) who was very valuable to his lord (Hrothgar). With Aeschere's death, Hrothgar turns to Beowulf as his new "arm".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenfield198959-173">[165]</a> Greenfield argues the foot is used for the opposite effect, only appearing four times in the poem. It is used in conjunction with <a href="/wiki/Unfer%C3%B0" title="Unferð">Unferð</a> (a man described by Beowulf as weak, traitorous, and cowardly). Greenfield notes that Unferð is described as "at the king's feet" (line 499). Unferð is a member of the foot troops, who, throughout the story, do nothing and "generally serve as backdrops for more heroic action."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenfield198961-174">[166]</a> Daniel Podgorski has argued that the work is best understood as an examination of inter-generational vengeance-based conflict, or <a href="/wiki/Feud" title="Feud">feuding</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Podgorski_2015-175">[167]</a> In this context, the poem operates as an indictment of feuding conflicts as a function of its conspicuous, circuitous, and lengthy depiction of the <a href="/wiki/Swedish%E2%80%93Geatish_wars" title="Swedish–Geatish wars">Swedish–Geatish wars</a>—coming into contrast with the poem's depiction of the protagonist Beowulf as being disassociated from the ongoing feuds in every way.<a href="#cite_note-Podgorski_2015-175">[167]</a> Francis Leneghan argues that the poem can be understood as a "dynastic drama" in which the hero's fights with the monsters unfold against a backdrop of the rise and fall of royal houses, while the monsters themselves serve as portents of disasters affecting dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-176">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Peterborough_Chronicle_cropped.jpg/23px-Peterborough_Chronicle_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="23" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Peterborough_Chronicle_cropped.jpg/35px-Peterborough_Chronicle_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Peterborough_Chronicle_cropped.jpg/47px-Peterborough_Chronicle_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="297" data-file-height="355" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Portal:Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Beowulf_characters" title="List of Beowulf characters">List of Beowulf characters</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Translating_Beowulf" title="On Translating Beowulf">On Translating Beowulf</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutton_Hoo_helmet#Beowulf" title="Sutton Hoo helmet">Sutton Hoo helmet § Beowulf</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> "wíg" means "fight, battle, war, conflict"<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> and "láf" means "remnant, left-over"<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> That is, R.D. Fulk's 1992 A History of Old English Meter. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> For instance, by Chauncey Brewster Tinker in The Translations of Beowulf,<a href="#cite_note-chaucey-91">[89]</a> a comprehensive survey of 19th-century translations and editions of Beowulf. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Ecclesiastical or biblical influences are only seen as adding "Christian color", in Andersson's survey. Old English sources hinges on the hypothesis that <a href="/wiki/Genesis_A" title="Genesis A">Genesis A</a> predates Beowulf. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Laistner" title="Ludwig Laistner">Ludwig Laistner</a> (1889), II, p. 25; <a href="/wiki/Stopford_Brooke_(chaplain)" title="Stopford Brooke (chaplain)">Stopford Brooke</a>, I, p. 120; <a href="/wiki/Albert_Stanburrough_Cook" title="Albert Stanburrough Cook">Albert S. Cook</a> (1899) pp. 154–156. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> In the interim, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_Deutschbein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Max Deutschbein (page does not exist)">Max Deutschbein</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Deutschbein" class="extiw" title="de:Max Deutschbein">de</a>] (1909) is credited by Andersson as the first person to present the Irish argument in academic form. He suggested the Irish <a href="/wiki/Bricriu" title="Bricriu">Feast of Bricriu</a> (not a folktale) as a source for Beowulf—a theory soon denied by <a href="/wiki/Oscar_L._Olson" title="Oscar L. Olson">Oscar Olson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998135-128">[124]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> von Sydow was anticipated by Heinz Dehmer in the 1920s, besides the 19th century authors who pointed out "The Hand and the Child" as a parallel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersson1998136-142">[136]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Carney also sees the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A1in_B%C3%B3" title="Táin Bó">Táin Bó</a> <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A1ech" title="Fráech">Fráech</a> story (where a half-fairy hero fights a dragon in the "Black Pool (Dubh linn)"), but this has received little support. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/beowulf">"Beowulf"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. Retrieved 15 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Collins+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Beowulf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fbeowulf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanley19819–22-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStanley19819–22_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStanley19819–22_2-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFStanley1981">Stanley 1981</a>, pp. 9–22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2002143-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2002143_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson2002143_3-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinson2002">Robinson 2002</a>, p. 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchellRobinson1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiduujn741w2Y4CpgPA6_6]-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchellRobinson1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiduujn741w2Y4CpgPA6_6]_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitchellRobinson1998">Mitchell & Robinson 1998</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uujn741w2Y4C&pg=PA6">6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-newton-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-newton_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-newton_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton1993" class="citation book cs1">Newton, Sam (1993). The Origins of Beowulf and the Pre-Viking Kingdom of East Anglia. Woodbridge, Suffolk, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>: <a href="/wiki/Boydell_%26_Brewer" title="Boydell & Brewer">Boydell & Brewer</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85991-361-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85991-361-4"><bdi>978-0-85991-361-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Beowulf+and+the+Pre-Viking+Kingdom+of+East+Anglia&rft.place=Woodbridge%2C+Suffolk%2C+England&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-85991-361-4&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Sam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-chickering-6"><a href="#cite_ref-chickering_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChickering1977" class="citation book cs1">Chickering, Howell D. (1977). Beowulf (dual-language ed.). New York: Doubleday.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=dual-language&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Chickering&rft.aufirst=Howell+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaugh1997" class="citation journal cs1">Waugh, Robin (1997). "Literacy, Royal Power, and King-Poet Relations in Old English and Old Norse Compositions". Comparative Literature. 49 (4): 289–315. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1771534">10.2307/1771534</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-4124">0010-4124</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1771534">1771534</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Literature&rft.atitle=Literacy%2C+Royal+Power%2C+and+King-Poet+Relations+in+Old+English+and+Old+Norse+Compositions&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=289-315&rft.date=1997&rft.issn=0010-4124&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1771534%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1771534&rft.aulast=Waugh&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grigsby_2005-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Grigsby_2005_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrigsby2005" class="citation book cs1">Grigsby, John (2005). Beowulf & Grendel : the truth behind England's oldest myth. Watkins. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84293-153-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84293-153-0"><bdi>978-1-84293-153-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61177107">61177107</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf+%26+Grendel+%3A+the+truth+behind+England%27s+oldest+myth&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Watkins&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61177107&rft.isbn=978-1-84293-153-0&rft.aulast=Grigsby&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-shippey-9"><a href="#cite_ref-shippey_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShippey2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tom_Shippey" title="Tom Shippey">Shippey, Tom A.</a> (Summer 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heroicage.org/issues/5/Shippey1.html">"Wicked Queens and Cousin Strategies in Beowulf and Elsewhere, Notes and Bibliography"</a>. The Heroic Age (5).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Heroic+Age&rft.atitle=Wicked+Queens+and+Cousin+Strategies+in+Beowulf+and+Elsewhere%2C+Notes+and+Bibliography&rft.ssn=summer&rft.issue=5&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Shippey&rft.aufirst=Tom+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.heroicage.org%2Fissues%2F5%2FShippey1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarruthers1998" class="citation book cs1">Carruthers, Leo M. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nFYeAQAAIAAJ">Beowulf</a>. Didier Erudition. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2864603474" title="Special:BookSources/978-2864603474"><bdi>978-2864603474</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Didier+Erudition&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-2864603474&rft.aulast=Carruthers&rft.aufirst=Leo+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnFYeAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1999" class="citation web cs1">Anderson, Carl Edlund (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170123194132/https://www.carlaz.com/phd/cea_phd_chap4.pdf">"Formation and Resolution of Ideological Contrast in the Early History of Scandinavia"</a> (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge, Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse & Celtic (Faculty of English). p. 115. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.carlaz.com/phd/cea_phd_chap4.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 23 January 2017. 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Speculum. 73 (3): 879–881. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2887546">10.2307/2887546</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2887546">2887546</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speculum&rft.atitle=Pride+and+Prodigies%3A+Studies+in+the+Monsters+of+the+%22Beowulf%22-Manuscript.Andy+Orchard&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=879-881&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2887546&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2887546%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Kevin+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beowulf_and_the_Beowulf_Manuscript-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beowulf_and_the_Beowulf_Manuscript_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beowulf_and_the_Beowulf_Manuscript_68-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiernan1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Kiernan_(scholar)" title="Kevin Kiernan (scholar)">Kiernan, Kevin</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yv8cnwEACAAJ">Beowulf and the Beowulf Manuscript</a>. 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Anglo-Saxon England. 42: 249–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0263675113000124">10.1017/s0263675113000124</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161079836">161079836</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.atitle=Scribal+errors+of+proper+names+in+the+Beowulf+manuscript&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=249-69&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0263675113000124&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161079836%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Neidorf&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.cambridge.org%2Faction%2FdisplayAbstract%3FfromPage%3Donline%26aid%3D9099642%26fileId%3DS0263675113000124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLapidge1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Lapidge" title="Michael Lapidge">Lapidge, Michael</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anglolatinlitera0000lapi_i2t2">Anglo-Latin literature, 600–899</a>. London: Hambledon Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anglolatinlitera0000lapi_i2t2/page/299">299</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-011-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-011-1"><bdi>978-1-85285-011-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anglo-Latin+literature%2C+600%E2%80%93899&rft.place=London&rft.pages=299&rft.pub=Hambledon+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-85285-011-1&rft.aulast=Lapidge&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanglolatinlitera0000lapi_i2t2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuzza201318–20-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuzza201318–20_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuzza201318–20_77-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiuzza2013">Liuzza 2013</a>, pp. 18–20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuzza201336-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuzza201336_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiuzza2013">Liuzza 2013</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiuzza2013119:_"gomenwudu_grēted,_gid_oft_wrecen,_ðonne_healgamen_Hrōþgāres_scop_æfter_medobence_mǣnan_scolde,"-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiuzza2013119:_"gomenwudu_grēted,_gid_oft_wrecen,_ðonne_healgamen_Hrōþgāres_scop_æfter_medobence_mǣnan_scolde,"_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiuzza2013">Liuzza 2013</a>, p. 119: "gomenwudu grēted, gid oft wrecen, ðonne healgamen Hrōþgāres scop æfter medobence mǣnan scolde,". </li> <li id="cite_note-COLORING210-217-80"><a href="#cite_ref-COLORING210-217_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackburn1897" class="citation journal cs1">Blackburn, F. 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Brewer, 2020) </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersson1998" class="citation book cs1">Andersson, Theodore M. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SaFdpGdjvtoC&pg=PA125">"Sources and Analogues"</a>. In Bjork, Robert E.; Niles, John D. (eds.). A Beowulf Handbook. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 125–148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0803261501" title="Special:BookSources/978-0803261501"><bdi>978-0803261501</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sources+and+Analogues&rft.btitle=A+Beowulf+Handbook&rft.place=Lincoln%2C+Nebraska&rft.pages=125-148&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0803261501&rft.aulast=Andersson&rft.aufirst=Theodore+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSaFdpGdjvtoC%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambers1921" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Wilson_Chambers" title="Raymond Wilson Chambers">Chambers, Raymond Wilson</a> (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PlA5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA374">Beowulf: An Introduction to the Study of the Poem</a>. The University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Study+of+the+Poem&rft.pub=The+University+Press&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=Raymond+Wilson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPlA5AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA374&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChickering2002" class="citation journal cs1">Chickering, Howell D. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.umass.edu/sharris/in/e505s/ChickeringHeaneywulf.pdf">"Beowulf and 'Heaneywulf': review"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/The_Kenyon_Review" title="The Kenyon Review">The Kenyon Review</a>. New. 24 (1): 160–178. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://people.umass.edu/sharris/in/e505s/ChickeringHeaneywulf.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Kenyon+Review&rft.atitle=Beowulf+and+%27Heaneywulf%27%3A+review&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=160-178&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Chickering&rft.aufirst=Howell+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.umass.edu%2Fsharris%2Fin%2Fe505s%2FChickeringHeaneywulf.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook1926" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Stanburrough_Cook" title="Albert Stanburrough Cook">Cook, Albert Stanburrough</a> (1926). Beowulfian and Odyssean Voyages. 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Electronic British Library Journal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.bl.uk/eblj/2005articles/pdf/article1.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+British+Library+Journal&rft.atitle=Thomas+Smith%2C+Humfrey+Wanley%2C+and+the+%27Little-Known+Country%27+of+the+Cotton+Library&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Joy&rft.aufirst=Eileen+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Feblj%2F2005articles%2Fpdf%2Farticle1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heroicage.org/issues/5/toc.html">"Anthropological and Cultural Approaches to Beowulf"</a>. The Heroic Age (5). 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Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08412-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08412-8"><bdi>978-0-472-08412-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf+and+the+Beowulf+Manuscript&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-472-08412-8&rft.aulast=Kiernan&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYv8cnwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Jaillant, Lise. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3765663/A_Fine_Old_Tale_of_Adventure_Beowulf_Told_to_the_Children_of_the_English_Race_1898-1908">"A Fine Old Tale of Adventure: Beowulf Told to the Children of the English Race, 1898–1908." 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Broadview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1554811137" title="Special:BookSources/978-1554811137"><bdi>978-1554811137</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf%3A+facing+page+translation&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Broadview+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1554811137&rft.aulast=Liuzza&rft.aufirst=Roy+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLord1960" class="citation book cs1">Lord, Albert (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JrvQdPMXGmAC">The Singer of Tales</a>. 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Brewer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84384-394-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84384-394-8"><bdi>978-1-84384-394-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Translating+Beowulf+%3A+modern+versions+in+English+verse&rft.pub=D.S.+Brewer&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84384-394-8&rft.aulast=Magennis&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchellRobinson1998" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uujn741w2Y4C">Beowulf: an edition with relevant shorter texts</a>. Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0631172260" title="Special:BookSources/978-0631172260"><bdi>978-0631172260</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf%3A+an+edition+with+relevant+shorter+texts&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0631172260&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft.au=Robinson%2C+Fred+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Duujn741w2Y4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeidorf2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Neidorf" title="Leonard Neidorf">Neidorf, Leonard</a>, ed. 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Wilfrid Laurier University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0889200630" title="Special:BookSources/978-0889200630"><bdi>978-0889200630</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf+and+Celtic+Tradition&rft.pub=Wilfrid+Laurier+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0889200630&rft.aulast=Puhvel&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJMdsC7I4HsAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2002" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Fred C. (2002) [1991]. "Beowulf". In Godden, Malcolm; Lapidge, Michael (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. 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In <a href="/wiki/Colin_Robert_Chase" title="Colin Robert Chase">Chase, Colin</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/datingofbeowulf0000unse">The Dating of Beowulf</a>. Toronto Old English Series. Vol. 6. Toronto: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. pp. 197–212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8020-7879-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8020-7879-6"><bdi>0-8020-7879-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt1287v33.18">10.3138/j.ctt1287v33.18</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+date+of+Beowulf%3A+some+doubts+and+no+conclusions&rft.btitle=The+Dating+of+Beowulf&rft.place=Toronto&rft.series=Toronto+Old+English+Series&rft.pages=197-212&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3138%2Fj.ctt1287v33.18%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=0-8020-7879-6&rft.aulast=Stanley&rft.aufirst=E.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdatingofbeowulf0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolkien2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel</a> (2006). <a href="/wiki/Alan_Bliss" title="Alan Bliss">Bliss, Alan</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Finn_and_Hengest" title="Finn and Hengest">Finn and Hengest</a>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-261-10355-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-261-10355-5"><bdi>0-261-10355-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finn+and+Hengest&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-261-10355-5&rft.aulast=Tolkien&rft.aufirst=John+Ronald+Reuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolkien1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel</a> (1997) [1958]. <a href="/wiki/Beowulf:_The_Monsters_and_the_Critics" title="Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics">Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics and other essays</a>. London: HarperCollins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf%3A+The+Monsters+and+the+Critics+and+other+essays&rft.place=London&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Tolkien&rft.aufirst=John+Ronald+Reuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolkien1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel</a> (1958). <a href="/wiki/Beowulf:_The_Monsters_and_the_Critics" title="Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics">Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics and other essays</a>. London: HarperCollins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf%3A+The+Monsters+and+the+Critics+and+other+essays&rft.place=London&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Tolkien&rft.aufirst=John+Ronald+Reuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVickrey2009" class="citation book cs1">Vickrey, John F. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F02x05e2JGUC&pg=PA17">Beowulf and the Illusion of History</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Delaware_Press" title="University of Delaware Press">University of Delaware Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0980149661" title="Special:BookSources/978-0980149661"><bdi>978-0980149661</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf+and+the+Illusion+of+History&rft.pub=University+of+Delaware+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0980149661&rft.aulast=Vickrey&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF02x05e2JGUC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZumthor1984" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Zumthor" title="Paul Zumthor">Zumthor, Paul</a> (1984). "The Text and the Voice". New Literary History. 16 (1). Englehardt, Marilyn C. (translator): 67–92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F468776">10.2307/468776</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/468776">468776</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Literary+History&rft.atitle=The+Text+and+the+Voice&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=67-92&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F468776&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F468776%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Zumthor&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> The secondary literature on Beowulf is immense. The following is a selection. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Sarah, ed. (2004). Introduction and historical/cultural contexts. Longman Cultural. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-10720-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-10720-6"><bdi>978-0-321-10720-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+and+historical%2Fcultural+contexts&rft.pub=Longman+Cultural&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-321-10720-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Carruthers, Leo (2011). "Rewriting Genres: Beowulf as Epic Romance". In Carruthers, Leo; Chai-Elsholz, Raeleen; Silec, Tatjana (eds.). Palimpsests and the Literary Imagination of Medieval England. Palgrave. pp. 139–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230100268" title="Special:BookSources/9780230100268"><bdi>9780230100268</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rewriting+Genres%3A+Beowulf+as+Epic+Romance&rft.btitle=Palimpsests+and+the+Literary+Imagination+of+Medieval+England&rft.pages=139-55&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780230100268&rft.aulast=Carruthers&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nora_K._Chadwick" title="Nora K. Chadwick">Chadwick, Nora K.</a> (1959). "The Monsters and Beowulf". In Clemoes, Peter (ed.). The Anglo-Saxons: Studies in Some Aspects of Their History. Bowes & Bowes. pp. 171–203. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/213750799">213750799</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Monsters+and+Beowulf&rft.btitle=The+Anglo-Saxons%3A+Studies+in+Some+Aspects+of+Their+History&rft.pages=171-203&rft.pub=Bowes+%26+Bowes&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F213750799&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Nora+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_Chance" title="Jane Chance">Chance, Jane</a> (1990). "The Structural Unity of Beowulf: The Problem of Grendel's Mother". In Damico, Helen; Olsen, Alexandra Hennessey (eds.). New Readings on Women in Old English Literature. Indiana University Press. pp. 248–261.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Structural+Unity+of+Beowulf%3A+The+Problem+of+Grendel%27s+Mother&rft.btitle=New+Readings+on+Women+in+Old+English+Literature&rft.pages=248-261&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Chance&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Creed, Robert P. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reconstructingrh00cree">Reconstructing the Rhythm of Beowulf</a>. University of Missouri. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826207227" title="Special:BookSources/9780826207227"><bdi>9780826207227</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstructing+the+Rhythm+of+Beowulf&rft.pub=University+of+Missouri&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780826207227&rft.aulast=Creed&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freconstructingrh00cree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Damico, Helen (1984). Beowulf's Wealhtheow and the Valkyrie Tradition. University of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299095000" title="Special:BookSources/9780299095000"><bdi>9780299095000</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf%27s+Wealhtheow+and+the+Valkyrie+Tradition&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9780299095000&rft.aulast=Damico&rft.aufirst=Helen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Seamus_Heaney" title="Seamus Heaney">Heaney, Seamus</a> (2000). Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. W.W. Norton & Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf%3A+A+New+Verse+Translation&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Heaney&rft.aufirst=Seamus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Seth_Lerer" title="Seth Lerer">Lerer, Seth</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161128084820/http://old.ragazine.cc/2012/01/beowulf-seth-lerer/">"Dragging the Monster from the Closet: Beowulf and the English Literary Tradition"</a>. Ragazine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.ragazine.cc/2012/01/beowulf-seth-lerer/">the original</a> on 28 November 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ragazine&rft.atitle=Dragging+the+Monster+from+the+Closet%3A+Beowulf+and+the+English+Literary+Tradition&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Lerer&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fold.ragazine.cc%2F2012%2F01%2Fbeowulf-seth-lerer%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Nicholson, Lewis E., ed. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anthologyofbeowu0000unse">An Anthology of Beowulf Criticism</a>. University of Notre Dame Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-268-00006-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-268-00006-6"><bdi>978-0-268-00006-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Anthology+of+Beowulf+Criticism&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-268-00006-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanthologyofbeowu0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Orchard, Andy (2003b). Pride and Prodigies: Studies in the Monsters of the Beowulf-Manuscript. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442657090" title="Special:BookSources/978-1442657090"><bdi>978-1442657090</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pride+and+Prodigies%3A+Studies+in+the+Monsters+of+the+Beowulf-Manuscript&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1442657090&rft.aulast=Orchard&rft.aufirst=Andy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Puhvel" title="Martin Puhvel">Puhvel, Martin</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1djfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT11">Beowulf and the Celtic Tradition</a>. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781554587698" title="Special:BookSources/9781554587698"><bdi>9781554587698</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf+and+the+Celtic+Tradition&rft.pub=Wilfrid+Laurier+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781554587698&rft.aulast=Puhvel&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1djfAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fred_C._Robinson" title="Fred C. Robinson">Robinson, Fred C.</a> (2002). "The Tomb of Beowulf". The Norton Critical Edition of Beowulf: A Verse Translation, translated by Seamus Heaney and edited by Daniel Donoghue. W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 181–197.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Tomb+of+Beowulf&rft.btitle=The+Norton+Critical+Edition+of+Beowulf%3A+A+Verse+Translation%2C+translated+by+Seamus+Heaney+and+edited+by+Daniel+Donoghue&rft.pages=181-197&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Fred+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Saltzman, Benjamin A. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/26411075">"Secrecy and the Hermeneutic Potential in Beowulf"</a>. PMLA. 133 (1): 36–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1632%2Fpmla.2018.133.1.36">10.1632/pmla.2018.133.1.36</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165799854">165799854</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PMLA&rft.atitle=Secrecy+and+the+Hermeneutic+Potential+in+Beowulf&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=36-55&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1632%2Fpmla.2018.133.1.36&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165799854%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Saltzman&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F26411075&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Wilhelm_von_Sydow" title="Carl Wilhelm von Sydow">von Sydow, Carl Wilhelm</a> (1923). Beowulf och Bjarke : föredrag (in Swedish). Vol. 14.3. <a href="/wiki/Svenska_litteraturs%C3%A4llskapet_i_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland">Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/604555117">604555117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf+och+Bjarke+%3A+f%C3%B6redrag&rft.pub=Svenska+litteraturs%C3%A4llskapet+i+Finland&rft.date=1923&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F604555117&rft.aulast=von+Sydow&rft.aufirst=Carl+Wilhelm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel</a> (2002). <a href="/wiki/Michael_D._C._Drout" title="Michael D. C. Drout">Drout, Michael D. C.</a> (ed.). Beowulf and the Critics. Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beowulf+and+the+Critics&rft.pub=Arizona+Center+for+Medieval+and+Renaissance+Studies&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Tolkien&rft.aufirst=John+Ronald+Reuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Trask, Richard M. (1998). "Preface to the Poems: Beowulf and Judith: Epic Companions". Beowulf and Judith: Two Heroes. University Press of America. pp. 11–14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface+to+the+Poems%3A+Beowulf+and+Judith%3A+Epic+Companions&rft.btitle=Beowulf+and+Judith%3A+Two+Heroes&rft.pages=11-14&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Trask&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABeowulf" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 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plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/beowulf" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/beowulf">beowulf</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style 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img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Beowulf at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Beowulf" class="extiw" title="wikt:Beowulf">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Beowulf" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Beowulf">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Beowulf" class="extiw" title="q:Beowulf">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Beowulf" class="extiw" title="s:Beowulf">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48328" class="extiw" title="d:Q48328">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=0&ref=Cotton_MS_vitellius_a_xv">Full digital facsimile of the manuscript on the British Library's Digitised Manuscripts website</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebeowulf.uky.edu/ebeo4.0/start.html">Electronic Beowulf</a>, edited by Kevin Kiernan, 4th online edition (University of Kentucky/The British Library, 2015)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/englit/beowulf/">Beowulf manuscript in The British Library's Online Gallery, with short summary and podcast</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100918053838/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/englit/beowulf/">Archived</a> 18 September 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acmrs.org/academic-programs/online-resources/beowulf-list">Annotated List of Beowulf Translations: The List – Arizonal Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130621202148/http://www.acmrs.org/academic-programs/online-resources/beowulf-list">Archived</a> 21 June 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/ascp/a04_01.htm">online text</a> (digitised from Elliott van Kirk Dobbie (ed.), Beowulf and Judith, Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records, 4 (New York, 1953))</li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/search?title=Beowulf&author=UNKNOWN&reader=&keywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced">Beowulf</a> public domain audiobook at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Beowulf" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Beowulf" title="Template:Beowulf"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Beowulf" title="Template talk:Beowulf"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Beowulf" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Beowulf"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Beowulf" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Beowulf</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">Alliterative verse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenning" title="Kenning">Kenning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clans (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Beowulf_characters" title="List of Beowulf characters">characters</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geats" title="Geats">Geats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beowulf_(hero)" title="Beowulf (hero)">Beowulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heardred" title="Heardred">Heardred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygd" title="Hygd">Hygd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygelac" title="Hygelac">Hygelac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundings" title="Hundings">Hundings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scylding" title="Scylding">Scyldings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86schere" title="Æschere">Æschere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healfdene" title="Healfdene">Healfdene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heorogar" title="Heorogar">Heorogar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrothgar" title="Hrothgar">Hroðgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfer%C3%B0" title="Unferð">Unferð</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yngling" title="Yngling">Scylfings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eadgils" title="Eadgils">Eadgils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eanmund" title="Eanmund">Eanmund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohthere" title="Ohthere">Ohthere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onela" title="Onela">Onela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ongentheow" title="Ongentheow">Ongentheow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waegmundings" class="mw-redirect" title="Waegmundings">Waegmundings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecg%C3%BEeow" title="Ecgþeow">Ecgþeow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weohstan" title="Weohstan">Weohstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiglaf" title="Wiglaf">Wiglaf</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wulfings" title="Wulfings">Wulfings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wealhtheow" title="Wealhtheow">Wealhtheow</a></li></ul></li> <li>Monsters <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grendel" title="Grendel">Grendel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grendel%27s_mother" title="Grendel's mother">Grendel's mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_dragon_(Beowulf)" title="The dragon (Beowulf)">The Dragon</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="First page of Beowulf (Anglo-Saxon copy)"><img alt="First page of Beowulf (Anglo-Saxon copy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/75px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/113px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/150px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4098" data-file-height="6868" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Translating_Beowulf" title="Translating Beowulf">Translating Beowulf</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_translations_of_Beowulf" title="List of translations of Beowulf">List of translations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamus_Heaney" title="Seamus Heaney">Seamus Heaney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beowulf:_A_New_Verse_Translation" title="Beowulf: A New Verse Translation">Beowulf: A New Verse Translation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beowulf:_A_Translation_and_Commentary" title="Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary">Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Beowulf:_The_Monsters_and_the_Critics" title="Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics">Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beowulf_and_the_Critics" title="Beowulf and the Critics">Beowulf and the Critics</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Translating_Beowulf" title="On Translating Beowulf">On Translating Beowulf</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Sellic_Spell" title="Sellic Spell">Sellic Spell</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finn_and_Hengest" title="Finn and Hengest">Finn and Hengest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nora_K._Chadwick" title="Nora K. Chadwick">Nora K. Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_D._C._Drout" title="Michael D. C. Drout">Michael D. C. Drout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Fulk" title="Robert D. Fulk">Robert D. Fulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Kiernan_(scholar)" title="Kevin Kiernan (scholar)">Kevin Kiernan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Neidorf" title="Leonard Neidorf">Leonard Neidorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Niles_(scholar)" title="John Niles (scholar)">John D. Niles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Russom" title="Geoffrey Russom">Geoffrey Russom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Shippey" title="Tom Shippey">Tom Shippey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_adaptations_of_Beowulf" title="List of adaptations of Beowulf">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Finnsburg" title="Battle of Finnsburg">Battle of Finnsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beowulf_and_Middle-earth" title="Beowulf and Middle-earth">Beowulf and Middle-Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heorot" title="Heorot">Heorot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrunting" title="Hrunting">Hrunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A6gling" title="Nægling">Nægling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nowell_Codex" title="Nowell Codex">Nowell Codex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Old_English_poetry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Old_English_poetry" title="Template:Old English poetry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Old_English_poetry" title="Template talk:Old English poetry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Old_English_poetry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Old English poetry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Old_English_poetry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Old_English_literature#Poetry" title="Old English literature">Old English poetry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nowell_Codex" title="Nowell Codex">Nowell Codex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Beowulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_(poem)" title="Judith (poem)">Judith</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Junius_manuscript" title="Junius manuscript">Junius MS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_A" title="Genesis A">Genesis A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genesis_B" title="Genesis B">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodus_(poem)" title="Exodus (poem)">Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_(Old_English_poem)" title="Daniel (Old English poem)">Daniel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christ_and_Satan" title="Christ and Satan">Christ and Satan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vercelli_Book" title="Vercelli Book">Vercelli Book</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_(poem)" title="Andreas (poem)">Andreas</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Fates_of_the_Apostles" title="The Fates of the Apostles">The Fates of the Apostles</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Soul_and_Body" title="Soul and Body">Soul and Body I</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dream_of_the_Rood" class="mw-redirect" title="Dream of the Rood">Dream of the Rood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elene_(poem)" class="mw-redirect" title="Elene (poem)">Elene</a></li> <li>"Homiletic Fragment I"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exeter_Book" title="Exeter Book">Exeter Book</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Christ_I" title="Christ I">Christ I</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Christ_II" title="Christ II">Christ II</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Christ_III" title="Christ III">Christ III</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Guthlac_poems_A_and_B" title="Guthlac poems A and B">Guthlac A, B</a>"</li> <li>"Azarias"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Phoenix_(Old_English_poem)" title="The Phoenix (Old English poem)">The Phoenix</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Juliana_(poem)" title="Juliana (poem)">Juliana</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Wanderer_(Old_English_poem)" title="The Wanderer (Old English poem)">The Wanderer</a>"</li> <li>"The Gifts of Men"</li> <li>"Precepts"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Seafarer_(poem)" title="The Seafarer (poem)">The Seafarer</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Vainglory_(Old_English_poem)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vainglory (Old English poem)">Vainglory</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Widsith" title="Widsith">Widsith</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Fortunes_of_Men" title="The Fortunes of Men">The Fortunes of Men</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Maxims_(Old_English_poems)" title="Maxims (Old English poems)">Maxims I</a>"</li> <li>"The Order of the World"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Rhyming_Poem" title="The Rhyming Poem">The Rhyming Poem</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Panther_(Old_English_poem)" title="The Panther (Old English poem)">The Panther</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Aspidochelone#In_The_Whale" title="Aspidochelone">The Whale</a>"</li> <li>"The Partridge"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Soul_and_Body" title="Soul and Body">Soul and Body II</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Deor" title="Deor">Deor</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Wulf_and_Eadwacer" title="Wulf and Eadwacer">Wulf and Eadwacer</a>"</li> <li>Riddles <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_riddles" title="Anglo-Saxon riddles">1–59</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Wife%27s_Lament" title="The Wife's Lament">The Wife's Lament</a>"</li> <li>"The Judgment Day I"</li> <li>"Resignation"</li> <li>"The Descent into Hell"</li> <li>"Alms-Giving"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Pharaoh_(Old_English_poem)" title="Pharaoh (Old English poem)">Pharaoh</a>"</li> <li>"The Lord's Prayer I"</li> <li>"Homiletic Fragment II"</li> <li>Riddle <a href="/wiki/Exeter_Book_Riddle_30" title="Exeter Book Riddle 30">30b</a></li> <li>Riddle <a href="/wiki/Exeter_Book_Riddle_60" title="Exeter Book Riddle 60">60</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Husband%27s_Message" title="The Husband's Message">The Husband's Message</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Ruin" title="The Ruin">The Ruin</a>"</li> <li>Riddles <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_riddles" title="Anglo-Saxon riddles">61–95</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_metrical_charms" title="Anglo-Saxon metrical charms">Metrical charms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/%C3%86cerbot" title="Æcerbot">Æcerbot</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Against_a_dwarf" title="Against a dwarf">Against a dwarf</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Against_a_Wen" title="Against a Wen">Against a Wen</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/A_Journey_Charm" title="A Journey Charm">A Journey Charm</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/For_a_Swarm_of_Bees" title="For a Swarm of Bees">For a Swarm of Bees</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/For_Loss_or_Theft_of_Cattle" title="For Loss or Theft of Cattle">For Loss or Theft of Cattle</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/For_Delayed_Birth" title="For Delayed Birth">For Delayed Birth</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/For_Water-Elf_Disease" title="For Water-Elf Disease">For Water-Elf Disease</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Nine_Herbs_Charm" title="Nine Herbs Charm">Nine Herbs Charm</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Wi%C3%B0_f%C3%A6rstice" title="Wið færstice">Wið færstice</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Chronicle</a> poems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brunanburh_(poem)" title="Battle of Brunanburh (poem)">Battle of Brunanburh</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Five_Boroughs" title="Capture of the Five Boroughs">Capture of the Five Boroughs</a>"</li> <li>"The Coronation of Edgar"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_King_Edgar" title="The Death of King Edgar">The Death of King Edgar</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Alfred" title="The Death of Alfred">The Death of Alfred</a>"</li> <li>"The Death of Edward"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Rime_of_King_William" title="The Rime of King William">The Rime of King William</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other poems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Old_English_Boethius" class="mw-redirect" title="The Old English Boethius">Metres of Boethius</a>"</li> <li>"Paris Psalter" (BNF MS 8824)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Finnesburg_Fragment" title="Finnesburg Fragment">Finnsburh Fragment</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Waldere" title="Waldere">Waldere A, B</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Battle_of_Maldon" title="The Battle of Maldon">The Battle of Maldon</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Durham_(poem)" title="Durham (poem)">Durham</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Old_English_rune_poem" title="Old English rune poem">Rune poem</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_and_Saturn" title="Solomon and Saturn">Solomon and Saturn</a></li> <li>"The Menologium"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Maxims_(Old_English_poems)" title="Maxims (Old English poems)">Maxims II</a>"</li> <li>"Proverb from Winfrid's time"</li> <li>"Judgment Day II"</li> <li>"An Exhortation to Christian Living"</li> <li>"A Summons to Prayer"</li> <li>"The Lord's Prayer II"</li> <li>"The Gloria I"</li> <li>"The Lord's Prayer III"</li> <li>"The Creed"</li> <li>"Old English Psalms" (fragments)</li> <li>"The Kentish Hymn"</li> <li>"Psalm 50"</li> <li>"The Gloria II"</li> <li>"A Prayer"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Thureth" title="Thureth">Thureth</a>"</li> <li>"Aldhelm"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Seasons_for_Fasting" class="mw-redirect" title="The Seasons for Fasting">The Seasons for Fasting</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon%27s_Hymn" title="Cædmon's Hymn">Cædmon's "Hymn"</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Bede%27s_Death_Song" title="Bede's Death Song">Bede's Death Song</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Leiden_Riddle" title="Leiden Riddle">Leiden Riddle</a>"</li> <li>"Latin-English Proverbs"</li> <li>Metrical Preface and Epilogue to Alfred's Hierdeboc</li> <li>Metrical Preface to <a href="/wiki/W%C3%A6rferth" class="mw-redirect" title="Wærferth">Wærferth</a>'s translation of the Dialogues</li> <li>Metrical Epilogue to CCCC MS 41</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Cross" title="Brussels Cross">Brussels Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruthwell_Cross" title="Ruthwell Cross">Ruthwell Cross</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aldhelm" title="Aldhelm">Aldhelm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon" title="Cædmon">Cædmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynewulf" title="Cynewulf">Cynewulf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliterative_verse" title="Alliterative verse">Alliterative verse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beasts_of_battle" title="Beasts of battle">Beasts of battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennings" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennings">Kennings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Translating_Beowulf" title="On Translating Beowulf">On Translating Beowulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scop" title="Scop">Scop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anglo-Saxon_paganism_and_mythology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#cc9;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Template:Anglo-Saxon paganism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Template talk:Anglo-Saxon paganism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anglo-Saxon paganism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anglo-Saxon_paganism_and_mythology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon paganism</a> and mythology</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#cc9;;width:1%">Gods and divine figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86sir" title="Æsir">Ēse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beowa" title="Beowa">Beowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%92ostre" title="Ēostre">Ēostre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frigg" title="Frigg">Frige</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gefjon" title="Gefjon">Gefjon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheda_(mythology)" title="Rheda (mythology)">Hretha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yngvi" title="Yngvi">Ing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaxn%C4%93at" title="Seaxnēat">Saxnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Þunor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BDr" title="Týr">Tiw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade_(folklore)" title="Wade (folklore)">Wade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayland_the_Smith" title="Wayland the Smith">Wayland the Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odin" title="Odin">Wōden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#cc9;;width:1%">Heroic figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agilaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Agilaz">Ægil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beowa" title="Beowa">Beowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ermanaric" title="Ermanaric">Eormenric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finn_(Frisian)" title="Finn (Frisian)">Finn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hengist_and_Horsa" title="Hengist and Horsa">Hengist and Horsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sceafa" title="Sceafa">Sceafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldere" title="Waldere">Waldere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#cc9;;width:1%">Other beings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cofgod" title="Cofgod">Cofgod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_dragon" title="Germanic dragon">Dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_(folklore)" title="Dwarf (folklore)">Dwarf (Dweorh)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elf" title="Elf">Elf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idis_(Germanic)" title="Idis (Germanic)">Ides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunn" title="Jötunn">Eoten/Thurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mare_(folklore)" title="Mare (folklore)">Mare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixie_(folklore)" title="Nixie (folklore)">Neck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C3%A6lcyrge" class="mw-redirect" title="Wælcyrge">Wælcyrge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wight" title="Wight">Wight</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#cc9;;width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midgard" title="Midgard">Middangeard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#cc9;;width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86cerbot" title="Æcerbot">Æcerbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rune_poems#Anglo-Saxon_Rune_Poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Rune poems">Anglo-Saxon Rune Poem</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Beowulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_temporum_ratione" class="mw-redirect" title="De temporum ratione">De temporum ratione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deor" title="Deor">Deor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ealuscerwen" title="Ealuscerwen">Ealuscerwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnesburg_Fragment" title="Finnesburg Fragment">Finnesburg Fragment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franks_Casket" title="Franks Casket">Franks Casket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historia_ecclesiastica_gentis_Anglorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum">Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Herbs_Charm" title="Nine Herbs Charm">Nine Herbs Charm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spong_Hill" title="Spong Hill">Spong Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutton_Hoo" title="Sutton Hoo">Sutton Hoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Widsith" title="Widsith">Widsith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wi%C3%B0_f%C3%A6rstice" title="Wið færstice">Wið færstice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#cc9;;width:1%">Society and culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beot" title="Beot">Bēot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bl%C3%B3t" title="Blót">Blōtan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_burial" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Saxon burial">Burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_calendars" title="Early Germanic calendars">Early Germanic calendars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folkmoot" class="mw-redirect" title="Folkmoot">Folkmoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frith" title="Frith">Frith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B6rgr" title="Hörgr">Hearg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_Germanic_paganism" title="Horses in Germanic paganism">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maypole" title="Maypole">Maypole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_metrical_charms" title="Anglo-Saxon metrical charms">Metrical charms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moot_hill" title="Moot hill">Moot hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Runes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_in_Germanic_cultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Rings in Germanic cultures">Rings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scop" title="Scop">Scop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbel" title="Symbel">Symbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thegn" title="Thegn">Thegn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thing_(assembly)" title="Thing (assembly)">Thing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyle" title="Thyle">Thyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weregild" title="Weregild">Weregild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lva" class="mw-redirect" title="Völva">Wicce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetlands_and_islands_in_Germanic_paganism" title="Wetlands and islands in Germanic paganism">Wetlands and islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilweorthunga" title="Wilweorthunga">Wilweorthunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyrd" title="Wyrd">Wyrd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#cc9;;width:1%">Modern pagan revival</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Heathenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seax-Wica" title="Seax-Wica">Seax-Wica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#cc9;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Category:Anglo-Saxon paganism">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48328#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48328#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48328#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/316753795">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1356023/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4128795-2">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79018834">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120083544">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120083544">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00629175">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=unn2011673105&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX4121845">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90059365">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000352047&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/xv8cjtzg3c1k0cs">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007289940605171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058516967706706">Catalonia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028200144">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/work/d8f3bb74-0d05-4073-b330-62ccbe43d23b">MusicBrainz work</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&oldid=1254732928">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beowulf&oldid=1254732928</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" 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Template:Infobox_Medieval_text"," 8.17% 177.197 1 Template:Infobox"," 6.37% 138.101 16 Template:Cite_web"," 5.91% 128.121 9 Template:Lang"," 4.49% 97.274 1 Template:Old_English_topics"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.330","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21098537,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAcocella2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndersson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaudiš1916\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBede\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenson1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenson1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenson1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackburn1897\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloomfield1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBolton1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBonjour1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrady1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrigan1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarruthers1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChambers1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChickering1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChickering2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCook1926\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCronan2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrowne1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobbie1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlood2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoley1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFox2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrank2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFulk2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFulkBjorkNiles2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardner1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeremia2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrady2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenblattAbrams2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenfield1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrigsby2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaber1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutcheson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIrving1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaillant2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoy2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKay2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKears2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiernan1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiernan1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiernan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiernan2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlaeber1922\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlaeber1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlingmark\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLapidge1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLapidge2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeyerle1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiuzza2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLord1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLord2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagennis2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagnús_Fjalldal1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalone1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGrath2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchellRobinson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoorman1914\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeidorf2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeidorf2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeidorfPascual2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNerman1925\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNiles2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorth2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrchard2003a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOsborn\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOtter\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanzer1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPodgorski2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPuhvel1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaefer1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchulmanSzarmach2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScowcroft1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShippey2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShippey2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShippey2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFShippey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSims2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlade2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanley1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwanton1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTinker1903\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTolkien1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTolkien1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTolkien2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuso1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuso1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrbanowicz2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVickrey2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatts1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaugh1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiskott2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYeager\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZumthor1984\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"'s\"] = 1,\n [\"-\\\"\"] = 2,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Anglo-Saxon paganism\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Beowulf\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"C.\"] = 3,\n [\"Circa\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 70,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 38,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 16,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 4,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA-ang\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox Medieval text\"] = 1,\n [\"Interlanguage link\"] = 1,\n [\"Italic title\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 9,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Librivox book\"] = 1,\n [\"Linktext\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Old English poetry\"] = 1,\n [\"Old English topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-pc\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refn\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 68,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","340","25.0"],["?","200","14.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","120","8.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","100","7.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","80","5.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","5.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","40","2.9"],["mw.executeModule \u003Cmw.lua:467\u003E","40","2.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","40","2.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityId","40","2.9"],["[others]","280","20.6"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-xqqpl","timestamp":"20241124053039","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Beowulf","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Beowulf","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q48328","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q48328","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-08T04:05:07Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c1\/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg","headline":"Old English heroic epic poem"}</script> </body> </html>