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<li id="toc-The_Cold_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Cold_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>The Cold War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Cold_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Starfish_Prime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Starfish_Prime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.1</span> <span>Starfish Prime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Starfish_Prime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-USSR/Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a 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vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_satellite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Military satellite</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_satellite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_Positioning_System_(GPS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_Positioning_System_(GPS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Global Positioning System (GPS)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_Positioning_System_(GPS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_communication_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_communication_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Military communication systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_communication_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_spaceplanes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_spaceplanes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.4</span> <span>Military spaceplanes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_spaceplanes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weapons_in_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weapons_in_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Weapons in space</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Weapons_in_space-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Weapons in space subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Weapons_in_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terrestrial-type_weapons_in_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrestrial-type_weapons_in_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Terrestrial-type weapons in space</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrestrial-type_weapons_in_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High-Altitude_Electromagnetic_Pulses_(HEMP)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-Altitude_Electromagnetic_Pulses_(HEMP)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulses (HEMP)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-Altitude_Electromagnetic_Pulses_(HEMP)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Space warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_treaties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_treaties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Space treaties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Space_treaties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Space treaties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Space_treaties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Outer_Space_Treaty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outer_Space_Treaty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Outer Space Treaty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outer_Space_Treaty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moon_Treaty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moon_Treaty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Moon Treaty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moon_Treaty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limited_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limited_Test_Ban_Treaty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Limited Test Ban Treaty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limited_Test_Ban_Treaty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-PAROS_&_PPTW" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#PAROS_&_PPTW"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>PAROS & PPTW</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-PAROS_&_PPTW-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_Missile_Defense_(NMD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_Missile_Defense_(NMD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>National Missile Defense (NMD)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_Missile_Defense_(NMD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militaritzaci%C3%B3_de_l%27espai" title="Militarització de l'espai – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Militarització de l'espai" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militarizaci%C3%B3n_del_espacio" title="Militarización del espacio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Militarización del espacio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militarisation_de_l%27espace" title="Militarisation de l'espace – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Militarisation de l'espace" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="अंतरिक्ष का सैन्यीकरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अंतरिक्ष का सैन्यीकरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militarizarea_spa%C8%9Biului" title="Militarizarea spațiului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Militarizarea spațiului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Военно-космическая деятельность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Военно-космическая деятельность" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotilaallinen_avaruustoiminta" title="Sotilaallinen avaruustoiminta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sotilaallinen avaruustoiminta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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style="display:none">Use of outer space for military aims</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Militarisation_of_space" title="Special:EditPage/Militarisation of space">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Militarisation+of+space%22">"Militarisation of space"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Militarisation+of+space%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Militarisation+of+space%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Militarisation+of+space%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Militarisation+of+space%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Militarisation+of+space%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2007</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Interceptor_Missile.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Interceptor_Missile.jpg/200px-Interceptor_Missile.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Interceptor_Missile.jpg/300px-Interceptor_Missile.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Interceptor_Missile.jpg/400px-Interceptor_Missile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1771" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Ground-Based_Interceptor" title="Ground-Based Interceptor">Ground-Based Interceptor</a>, designed to destroy incoming <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">Intercontinental ballistic missiles</a>, is lowered into its <a href="/wiki/Missile_silo" class="mw-redirect" title="Missile silo">silo</a> at the missile defence complex at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Greely" title="Fort Greely">Fort Greely</a>, Alaska, July 22, 2004.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>militarisation of space</b> involves the placement and development of weaponry and military technology in <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>. The early exploration of space in the mid-20th century had, in part, a military motivation, as the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> used it as an opportunity to demonstrate <a href="/wiki/Ballistic-missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballistic-missile">ballistic-missile</a> technology and other technologies having the potential for military application. Outer space has since been used as an operating location for <a href="/wiki/Military_satellite" title="Military satellite">military spacecraft</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Imaging_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Imaging satellite">imaging</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">communications satellites</a>, and some ballistic missiles pass through outer space during their flight. As of 2018<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, known deployments of weapons stationed in space include only the <a href="/wiki/Almaz#Defense_measures" title="Almaz">Almaz</a> space-station armament and pistols such as the <a href="/wiki/TP-82_Cosmonaut_survival_pistol" class="mw-redirect" title="TP-82 Cosmonaut survival pistol">TP-82 Cosmonaut survival pistol</a> (for post-landing, pre-recovery use). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Cold_War">The Cold War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The Cold War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div> <p>During the Cold War, the world's two great superpowers—the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States of America</a>—spent large proportions of their <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> on developing military technologies. The drive to place objects in orbit stimulated space research and started the <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a>. In 1957, the USSR launched the first <a href="/wiki/Artificial_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial satellite">artificial satellite</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a></i>. </p><p>By the end of the 1960s, both countries regularly deployed satellites. <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">Reconnaissance satellites</a> were used by militaries to take accurate pictures of their rivals' military installations. As time passed the resolution and accuracy of orbital reconnaissance alarmed both sides of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a>. Both the United States and the Soviet Union began to develop <a href="/wiki/Anti-satellite_weapon" title="Anti-satellite weapon">anti-satellite weapons</a> to blind or destroy each other's satellites. <a href="/wiki/Directed-energy_weapon" title="Directed-energy weapon">Directed-energy weapons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">kamikaze</a>-style satellites, as well as orbital nuclear explosives were researched with varying levels of success. Spy satellites were, and continue to be, used to monitor the dismantling of military assets in accordance with arms control treaties signed between the two superpowers. To use spy satellites in such a manner is often referred to in treaties as "national technical means of verification". </p><p>The superpowers developed <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_missile" title="Ballistic missile">ballistic missiles</a> to enable them to use <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weaponry</a> across great distances. As rocket science developed, the range of missiles increased and <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">intercontinental ballistic missiles</a> (ICBM) were created, which could strike virtually any target on Earth in a timeframe measured in minutes rather than hours or days. To cover large distances ballistic missiles are usually launched into <a href="/wiki/Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">sub-orbital spaceflight</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peacekeeper-missile-testing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Peacekeeper-missile-testing.jpg/200px-Peacekeeper-missile-testing.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Peacekeeper-missile-testing.jpg/300px-Peacekeeper-missile-testing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Peacekeeper-missile-testing.jpg/400px-Peacekeeper-missile-testing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption>Test of the <a href="/wiki/LG-118A_Peacekeeper" class="mw-redirect" title="LG-118A Peacekeeper">LG-118A Peacekeeper</a> missile, each one of which could carry 10 independently targeted <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warhead" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear warhead">nuclear warheads</a> along trajectories outside of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>As soon as intercontinental missiles were developed, military planners began programmes and strategies to counter their effectiveness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_Nike#Nike_Zeus" title="Project Nike">Project Nike § Nike Zeus</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Project_Defender&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Project Defender (page does not exist)">Project Defender</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sentinel_Program&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sentinel Program (page does not exist)">Sentinel Program</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safeguard_Program" title="Safeguard Program">Safeguard Program</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_A119" title="Project A119">Project A119</a>, <a href="/wiki/Project_Horizon" title="Project Horizon">Project Horizon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lunex_Project" title="Lunex Project">Lunex Project</a></div> <p>Early American efforts included the <a href="/wiki/Project_Nike#Nike_Zeus" title="Project Nike">Nike-Zeus</a> Program, <a href="/wiki/United_States_national_missile_defense#Project_Defender" title="United States national missile defense">Project Defender</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sentinel_program" title="Sentinel program">Sentinel Program</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Safeguard_Program" title="Safeguard Program">Safeguard Program</a>. The late 1950s Nike-Zeus programme involved firing Nike nuclear missiles against oncoming ICBMs, thus exploding nuclear warheads over the North Pole. This idea was soon scrapped and work began on Project Defender in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-NYtimes_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYtimes-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Project Defender attempted to destroy Soviet ICBMs at launch with satellite weapon systems, which orbited over Russia. This programme proved infeasible with the technology from that era.<sup id="cite_ref-NYtimes_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYtimes-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Work then began on the Sentinel Program which used <a href="/wiki/Anti-ballistic_missile" title="Anti-ballistic missile">anti-ballistic missiles</a> (ABM) to shoot down incoming ICBMs. </p><p>In the late 1950s <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> considered detonating an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> to display U.S. superiority to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the rest of the world (<a href="/wiki/Project_A119" title="Project A119">Project A119</a>). In 1959, a feasibility study of a possible military base on the Moon (<a href="/wiki/Project_Horizon" title="Project Horizon">Project Horizon</a>) was conducted. In 1958, a plan for a 21-airman underground Air Force base on the Moon by 1968 was developed (<a href="/wiki/Lunex_Project" title="Lunex Project">Lunex Project</a>). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Safeguard_Program" title="Safeguard Program">Safeguard Program</a> was deployed in the mid-1970s and was based on the Sentinel Program. Since the ABM treaty only allowed for construction of a single ABM facility to protect either the nation's capital city or an ICBM field, the <a href="/wiki/Stanley_R._Mickelsen_Safeguard_Complex" title="Stanley R. Mickelsen Safeguard Complex">Stanley R. Mickelsen Safeguard Complex</a> was constructed near <a href="/wiki/Nekoma,_North_Dakota" title="Nekoma, North Dakota">Nekoma, North Dakota</a> to protect the <a href="/wiki/321st_Missile_Wing_LGM-30_Minuteman_Missile_Launch_Sites" title="321st Missile Wing LGM-30 Minuteman Missile Launch Sites">Grand Forks ICBM facility</a>. Though it was only operational as an ABM facility for less than a year, the Perimeter Acquisition Radar (PAR), one of Safeguard's components, was still operational as of 2005. One major problem with the Safeguard Program, and past ABM systems, was that the interceptor missiles, though state-of-the-art, required nuclear warheads to destroy incoming ICBMs. Future ABMs will likely be more accurate and use <a href="/wiki/Hit-to-kill" class="mw-redirect" title="Hit-to-kill">hit-to-kill</a> or conventional warheads to knock down incoming warheads. The technology involved in such systems was shaky at best, and deployment was limited by the <a href="/wiki/ABM_treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="ABM treaty">ABM treaty</a> of 1972. </p><p>In 1983, American president <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> proposed the <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a> (SDI), a space-based system to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear missiles. The plan was ridiculed by some as unrealistic and expensive, and Dr. Carol Rosin nicknamed the policy "Star Wars", after <a href="/wiki/Star_Wars" title="Star Wars">the popular science-fiction movie franchise</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Astronomer <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> pointed out that in order to defeat SDI, the Soviet Union had only to build more missiles, allowing them to overcome the defence by sheer force of numbers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Proponents of SDI said the <a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategy of technology">strategy of technology</a> would hasten the Soviet Union's downfall. According to this doctrine, Communist leaders were forced to either shift large portions of their GDP to counter SDI, or else watch as their expensive nuclear stockpiles were rendered obsolete. </p><p><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">United States Space Command</a> (USSPACECOM), a <a href="/wiki/Unified_Combatant_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Unified Combatant Command">unified command</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_military" class="mw-redirect" title="United States military">United States military</a>, was created in 1985 to help institutionalise the use of <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a> by the United States Armed Forces. The Commander in Chief of U.S. Space Command (CINCUSSPACECOM), with headquarters at <a href="/wiki/Peterson_Air_Force_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Peterson Air Force Base">Peterson Air Force Base</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a> was also the Commander in Chief of the bi-national U.S.-Canadian <i><a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">North American Aerospace Defense Command</a></i> (CINCNORAD), and for the majority of time during USSPACECOM's existence also the Commander of the U.S. Air Force major command <a href="/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Force Space Command">Air Force Space Command</a>. Military space operations coordinated by USSPACECOM proved to be very valuable for the U.S.-led coalition in the 1991 <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Persian Gulf War</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The U.S. military has relied on communications, intelligence, navigation, missile warning and weather satellite systems in areas of conflict since the early 1990s, including the Balkans, Southwest Asia and Afghanistan. Space systems are considered indispensable providers of tactical information to U.S. war-fighters. </p><p>As part of the ongoing initiative to transform the U.S. military, on 26 June 2002, Secretary of Defense <a href="/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld" title="Donald Rumsfeld">Donald Rumsfeld</a> announced that U.S. Space Command would merge with <a href="/wiki/USSTRATCOM" class="mw-redirect" title="USSTRATCOM">USSTRATCOM</a>. The UCP directed that <a href="/wiki/Unified_Combatant_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Unified Combatant Command">Unified Combatant Commands</a> be capped at ten, and with the formation of the new <a href="/wiki/United_States_Northern_Command" title="United States Northern Command">United States Northern Command</a>, one would have to be deactivated in order to maintain that level. Thus the USSPACECOM merger into USSTRATCOM. </p><p>On December 10, 2019, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">United States Space Force</a> was formed as the world's only independent space force, with 8600 military personnel<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 77 spacecraft.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Operation Hardtack I</b> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Operation_Hardtack_I" title="Operation Hardtack I">Operation Hardtack I</a> was a series of nuclear tests carried out by the United States Government in 1958. A major facet of these tests was three high-altitude nuclear tests: YUCCA, ORANGE, and TEAK. YUCCA was detonated April 28 at an altitude of 86,000 feet and had a comparatively small yield of 1.7 kilotons. YUCCA is notable as the first nuclear test carried via balloon. Following tests ORANGE and TEAK were carried out July 31 and August 11 at altitudes of 252,000 feet and 141,000 feet, respectively. The bombs were delivered via rocket and their yields were in the megaton range.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Starfish_Prime">Starfish Prime</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Starfish Prime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Operation_Dominic_Starfish-Prime_nuclear_test_from_plane.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Operation_Dominic_Starfish-Prime_nuclear_test_from_plane.jpg/220px-Operation_Dominic_Starfish-Prime_nuclear_test_from_plane.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Operation_Dominic_Starfish-Prime_nuclear_test_from_plane.jpg/330px-Operation_Dominic_Starfish-Prime_nuclear_test_from_plane.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Operation_Dominic_Starfish-Prime_nuclear_test_from_plane.jpg/440px-Operation_Dominic_Starfish-Prime_nuclear_test_from_plane.jpg 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>Image of <a href="/wiki/Starfish_Prime" title="Starfish Prime">Starfish Prime</a> nuclear test in space (1962). Such tests in space and <a href="/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion" title="High-altitude nuclear explosion">high-altitudes</a> stopped completely with the <a href="/wiki/Partial_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial Test Ban Treaty">Partial Test Ban Treaty</a> (1963).</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Starfish_Prime" title="Starfish Prime">Starfish Prime</a> was a nuclear test carried out in 1962 over Johnston Atoll by the United States as part of Operation Fishbowl. The 1.4 megaton bomb was detonated at an altitude of 400 km (250 miles), in the ionosphere and was the highest altitude nuclear test ever demonstrated. The test is notable for its Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) effect, which was felt as far as 1400 km (800 miles) away in Hawaii.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="USSR/Russia"><span id="USSR.2FRussia"></span>USSR/Russia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: USSR/Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fractional_Orbital_Bombardment_System" title="Fractional Orbital Bombardment System">Fractional Orbital Bombardment System</a> and <a href="/wiki/Almaz" title="Almaz">Almaz</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polo_(Polyus).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Polo_%28Polyus%29.png/315px-Polo_%28Polyus%29.png" decoding="async" width="315" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Polo_%28Polyus%29.png/472px-Polo_%28Polyus%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Polo_%28Polyus%29.png/629px-Polo_%28Polyus%29.png 2x" data-file-width="852" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Polyus_(spacecraft)" title="Polyus (spacecraft)">Polyus</a> (1987).</div></figcaption></figure> <p>The Soviet Union was also researching innovative ways of gaining space supremacy. Two of their most notable efforts were the <a href="/wiki/R-36_(missile)#R-36ORB" title="R-36 (missile)">R-36ORB</a> <a href="/wiki/Fractional_Orbital_Bombardment_System" title="Fractional Orbital Bombardment System">Fractional Orbital Bombardment System</a> (FOBS) and <a href="/wiki/Polyus_(spacecraft)" title="Polyus (spacecraft)">Polyus</a> orbital weapons system. </p><p>The R-36ORB was a <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">ICBM</a> in the 1960s that, once launched, would go into a <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a> whereupon it would de-orbit for an attack. This system would approach North America over the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>, thereby striking targets from the opposite direction from that to which <a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">NORAD</a> early warning systems are oriented. The missile was phased out in January 1983 in compliance with the <a href="/wiki/SALT_II" class="mw-redirect" title="SALT II">SALT II</a> treaty. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/SALT_II" class="mw-redirect" title="SALT II">SALT II</a> treaty (1979) prohibited the deployment of FOBS systems: </p> <dl><dd><i> Each Party undertakes not to develop, test, or deploy: </i></dd> <dd><i>(...)</i></dd> <dd><i>(c) systems for placing into Earth orbit <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> or any other kind of <a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_mass_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons of mass destruction">weapons of mass destruction</a>, including fractional orbital missiles;</i></dd></dl> <p>On May 15, 1987, an <a href="/wiki/Energia_(rocket)" title="Energia (rocket)">Energia rocket</a> flew for the first time. The payload was a prototype orbital weapons platform <a href="/wiki/Polyus_(spacecraft)" title="Polyus (spacecraft)">Polyus</a> (also known as Polus, Skif-DM or 17F19DM), the final version of which according to some reports could be armed with nuclear space mines and defensive cannon. The Polyus weapons platform was designed to defend itself against anti-satellite weapons with recoilless cannon. It was also equipped with a sensor blinding laser to confuse approaching weapons and could launch test targets to validate the fire control system. The attempt to place the satellite into orbit failed. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Space_Forces" title="Russian Space Forces">Russian Space Forces</a> was the first independent space force, formed in 1992, independent from 1992 to 1997 and 2001 to 2011, however it currently now part of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Aerospace_Forces" title="Russian Aerospace Forces">Russian Aerospace Forces</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Soviet_high-altitude_nuclear_tests">Soviet high-altitude nuclear tests</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Soviet high-altitude nuclear tests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Soviet Union executed their own high-altitude tests for the purpose of studying and developing High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse (HEMP) weapons. The most notable of these is the 1962 Nuclear Test 184 in which a nuclear bomb was detonated at an altitude of 290 km.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ensuing HEMP damaged a 1000 km long line in Kazakhstan which was designed to be protected from such damage. The electrical damage is comparable to the strongest naturally occurring geomagnetic disturbances recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Cold_War">Post-Cold War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Post-Cold War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Navy_Theater_Ballistic_Missile_Defense.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Navy_Theater_Ballistic_Missile_Defense.JPG/230px-Navy_Theater_Ballistic_Missile_Defense.JPG" decoding="async" width="230" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Navy_Theater_Ballistic_Missile_Defense.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="225" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Lightweight_Exo-Atmospheric_Projectile" title="Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile">Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile</a> (LEAP), which attaches to a modified SM-2 Block IV missile used by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As the Cold War ended with the implosion of the Soviet Union the space race between the two superpowers ended. The United States of America was left as the only superpower on Earth with a large concentration of the world's wealth and technological advancement. Despite the United States' new status in the world, the monopoly of space militarisation is in no way certain. Countries such as <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> have begun their own space programmes, while the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> collectively works to create satellite systems to rival those of the United States. </p><p>The USSR Space Forces were established as the Ministry of Defense Space Units in 1982. In 1991, the Soviet Union disintegrated. The <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed Forces of the Russian Federation">Russian Armed Forces</a> were established on 7 May 1992, enabling the creation of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Space_Forces" title="Russian Space Forces">Russian Space Forces</a> later that year on 10 August. In July 1997, the Space Force was dissolved as a separate service arm and incorporated to the <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Rocket_Forces" title="Strategic Rocket Forces">Strategic Rocket Forces</a> along with the Space Missile Defense Forces, which previously were part of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Defense_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Air Defense Forces">Troops of Air Defense</a>. The Russian Space Forces were officially reborn on June 1, 2001, as an independent section of the Russian military. </p><p>Post Cold War space militarisation seems to revolve around three types of applications. (The word "seems" is used because much of this subject matter is inconclusively verifiable, due to the high level of secrecy that exists among the <a href="/wiki/Great_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Great powers">great powers</a> with regard to the details of space sensing systems.) The first application is the continuing development of "spy" or reconnaissance satellites which began in the Cold War era, but has progressed significantly since that time. Spy satellites perform a variety of missions such as high-resolution photography (<a href="/wiki/IMINT" class="mw-redirect" title="IMINT">IMINT</a>) and communications eavesdropping (<a href="/wiki/SIGINT" class="mw-redirect" title="SIGINT">SIGINT</a>). These tasks are performed on a regular basis both during peacetime and war operations. Satellites are also used by the nuclear states to provide early warning of missile launches, locate nuclear detonations, and detect preparations for otherwise clandestine or surprise nuclear tests (at least those tests or preparations carried out above-ground); this was the case when, in 1998, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> both conducted a series of nuclear tests; in addition, a nuclear-detection satellite of the <a href="/wiki/Vela_(satellite)" title="Vela (satellite)">Vela</a> type was also reported to have detected a nuclear detonation in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> in 1978 that was believed to be a <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South African</a> nuclear test in what was famously called the <a href="/wiki/Vela_incident" title="Vela incident">Vela incident</a>. Early-warning satellites can also be used to detect tactical missile launches; this capability was used during <a href="/wiki/Desert_Storm" class="mw-redirect" title="Desert Storm">Desert Storm</a>, when America was able to provide advance warning to <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> of Iraqi <a href="/wiki/SS-1_SCUD" class="mw-redirect" title="SS-1 SCUD">SS-1 SCUD</a> missile launches. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Military_satellite">Military satellite</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Military satellite"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_satellite" title="Military satellite">Military satellite</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Delta-M_with_Skynet-1A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Delta-M_with_Skynet-1A.jpg/250px-Delta-M_with_Skynet-1A.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Delta-M_with_Skynet-1A.jpg/375px-Delta-M_with_Skynet-1A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Delta-M_with_Skynet-1A.jpg/500px-Delta-M_with_Skynet-1A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1789" data-file-height="2279" /></a><figcaption>Launch of the first <a href="/wiki/Skynet_(satellite)" title="Skynet (satellite)">Skynet satellite</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Types of <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">Reconnaissance satellites</a> </p> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lacrosse_(satellite)" title="Lacrosse (satellite)">Lacrosse/Onyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misty_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Misty (satellite)">Misty</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zirconic" title="Zirconic">Sirconic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samos_(satellite)" title="Samos (satellite)">Samos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasar_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quasar (satellite)">Quasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vela_(satellite)" title="Vela (satellite)">Vela</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"><img alt="Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmos (satellite)">Cosmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almaz" title="Almaz">Almaz</a> (crewed)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yantar_(satellite)" title="Yantar (satellite)">Yantar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenit_spy_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Zenit spy satellite">Zenit</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zircon_(satellite)" title="Zircon (satellite)">Sircon</a> (project cancelled)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skynet_(satellites)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skynet (satellites)">Skynet</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helios_1B" class="mw-redirect" title="Helios 1B">Helios 1B</a> (destroyed)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helios_2A" class="mw-redirect" title="Helios 2A">Helios 2A</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SAR_Lupe" class="mw-redirect" title="SAR Lupe">SAR-Lupe 1–5</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COSMO-SkyMed" title="COSMO-SkyMed">COSMO-SkyMed</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Gathering_Satellite" title="Information Gathering Satellite">Information Gathering Satellites</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fanhui_Shi_Weixing" title="Fanhui Shi Weixing">Fanhui Shi Weixing</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RISAT-1" title="RISAT-1">RISAT-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RISAT-2" title="RISAT-2">RISAT-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication-Centric_Intelligence_Satellite" title="Communication-Centric Intelligence Satellite">CCI-Sat</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel"><img alt="Israel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/21px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/41px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ofeq" title="Ofeq">Ofeq</a> series of photo reconnaissance and radar satellites</li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paz_(satellite)" title="Paz (satellite)">Paz</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey"><img alt="Turkey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk-1" title="Göktürk-1">Göktürk-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk-2" title="Göktürk-2">Göktürk-2</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Global_Positioning_System_(GPS)"><span id="Global_Positioning_System_.28GPS.29"></span>Global Positioning System (GPS)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Global Positioning System (GPS)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a>, <a href="/wiki/GLONASS" title="GLONASS">GLONASS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_(satellite_navigation)" title="Galileo (satellite navigation)">Galileo (satellite navigation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/BeiDou_Navigation_Satellite_System" class="mw-redirect" title="BeiDou Navigation Satellite System">BeiDou Navigation Satellite System</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Regional_Navigation_Satellite_System" title="Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System">Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg/220px-GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg/330px-GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg/440px-GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1006" data-file-height="806" /></a><figcaption>Artist's conception of a <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> satellite in Earth orbit.</figcaption></figure> <p>The second application of space militarisation currently in use is GPS or <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite navigation system">satellite navigation system</a> is used for determining one's precise location and providing a highly accurate <a href="/wiki/Time_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Time transfer">time reference</a> almost anywhere on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Earth orbit</a>. It uses an <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_circular_orbit" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermediate circular orbit">intermediate circular orbit</a> (ICO) <a href="/wiki/Satellite_constellation" title="Satellite constellation">satellite constellation</a> of at least 24 satellites. The GPS system was designed by and is controlled by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a> and can be used by anyone, free of charge. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$400 million per year, including the replacement of ageing satellites. The first of 24 satellites that form the current GPS constellation (Block II) was placed into orbit on February 14, 1989. The 52nd GPS satellite since the beginning in 1978 was launched November 6, 2004 aboard a <a href="/wiki/Delta_II" title="Delta II">Delta II</a> rocket. The primary military purposes are to allow improved command and control of forces through improved location awareness, and to facilitate accurate targeting of <a href="/wiki/Smart_bombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Smart bombs">smart bombs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cruise_missiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruise missiles">cruise missiles</a>, or other munitions, and spoofing or jamming location data to civilian navigation receivers during wartime. The satellites also carry nuclear detonation detectors, which form a major portion of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Nuclear_Detonation_Detection_System" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System">United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System</a>. <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> concern about the level of control over the GPS network and commercial issues has resulted in the planned <a href="/wiki/Galileo_positioning_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo positioning system">Galileo positioning system</a>. Russia already operates an independent system called <a href="/wiki/GLONASS" title="GLONASS">GLONASS</a> (global navigation system); the system operates with 24 satellites that are deployed in 3 orbital planes as opposed to the 4 in which GPS is deployed.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese "Beidou" system provides China a similar regional (not global) navigation capability. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Military_communication_systems">Military communication systems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Military communication systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The third current application of militarisation of space can be demonstrated by the emerging military doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Network-centric_warfare" title="Network-centric warfare">network-centric warfare</a>. Network-centric warfare relies heavily on the use of high-speed communications, which allows all soldiers and branches of the military to view the battlefield in real-time. Real-time technology improves the <a href="/wiki/Situational_awareness" class="mw-redirect" title="Situational awareness">situational awareness</a> of all of the military's assets and commanders in a given theatre. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">soldier</a> in the battle zone can access satellite imagery of enemy positions two blocks away, and if necessary <a href="/wiki/E-mail" class="mw-redirect" title="E-mail">e-mail</a> the coordinates to a bomber or <a href="/wiki/Weapon_platform" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapon platform">weapon platform</a> hovering overhead while the commander, hundreds of miles away, watches as the events unfold on a monitor. This high-speed communication is facilitated by a separate <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> created by the military for the military.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Communication satellites hold this system together by creating an informational grid over the given theatre of operations. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a> is currently working to establish a <a href="/wiki/Global_Information_Grid" title="Global Information Grid">Global Information Grid</a> to connect all military units and branches into a computerised network in order to share information and create a more efficient military.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Military_spaceplanes">Military spaceplanes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Military spaceplanes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplane</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2010</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>It was revealed<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (January 2015)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Please clarify the preceding statement or statements with a good explanation from a reliable source. (January 2015)">how?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (January 2015)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> that Soviet officials were concerned that the US <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a> had such military objectives such as to make a sudden dive into the atmosphere to drop bombs on Moscow.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it is a popular myth that these concerns were part of the motivation behind pursuing their own <a href="/wiki/Buran_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Buran program">Buran programme</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_Buran_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC_Buran-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the actual study concerning the potential for US Space Shuttles to launch nuclear munitions into Soviet territory was released after the Buran program had already been approved.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The NASA uncrewed <a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">spaceplane</a> project <a href="/wiki/Boeing_X-37" title="Boeing X-37">X-37</a> was transferred to the US Department of Defense in 2004. It is unclear what its military mission is, although speculation ranges from the testing of experimental <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">reconnaissance</a> and spy sensors and how they hold up against <a href="/wiki/Space_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Space radiation">radiation</a> and other hazards of orbit. <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">The Pentagon</a> has denied claims that the X-37 has been, or will be, used in the development or testing of space-based weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The USAF has confirmed that Hall thruster electric propulsion tests have been carried out using the X-37, utilizing Aerojet Rocketdyne's AEHF satellites' Hall thrusters.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These thrusters are 4.5 kilowatt units that utilize electricity and xenon to produce thrust by ionizing and accelerating xenon gas particles. The X-37 is akin to a space version of <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">Unmanned aerial vehicle</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weapons_in_space">Weapons in space</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Weapons in space"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Space_weapon" title="Space weapon">Space weapon</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TP-82.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/TP-82.jpg/220px-TP-82.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/TP-82.jpg/330px-TP-82.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/TP-82.jpg/440px-TP-82.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Triple-barreled <a href="/wiki/TP-82_Cosmonaut_survival_pistol" class="mw-redirect" title="TP-82 Cosmonaut survival pistol">TP-82 Cosmonaut survival pistol</a> in Saint-Petersburg Artillery museum</figcaption></figure> <p>Space weapons are <a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">weapons</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">space warfare</a>. They include weapons that can attack space systems in orbit (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Anti-satellite_weapon" title="Anti-satellite weapon">anti-satellite weapons</a>), attack targets on the earth from space or disable missiles travelling through space. In the course of the militarisation of space, such weapons were developed mainly by the contesting <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpowers</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, and some remain under development today. Space weapons are also a central theme in <a href="/wiki/Military_science_fiction" title="Military science fiction">military science fiction</a> and sci-fi <a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">video games</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrestrial-type_weapons_in_space">Terrestrial-type weapons in space</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Terrestrial-type weapons in space"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Soviet space station <a href="/wiki/Salyut_3" title="Salyut 3">Salyut 3</a> was fitted with a 23mm cannon, which was successfully test fired at target satellites, at ranges from 500 to 3,000 metres (1,600 to 9,800 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-RSW_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RSW-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Olberg_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olberg-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2008, it was reported that Russian cosmonauts have regularly carried the <a href="/wiki/TP-82_Cosmonaut_survival_pistol" class="mw-redirect" title="TP-82 Cosmonaut survival pistol">TP-82 Cosmonaut survival pistol</a> on Soyuz spacecraft, as part of the emergency landing survival kit. The intent of the weapon is to protect cosmonauts from wild animals in the event of an off-course wilderness landing. The specially designed gun is capable of firing bullets, shotgun shells, or flares.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High-Altitude_Electromagnetic_Pulses_(HEMP)"><span id="High-Altitude_Electromagnetic_Pulses_.28HEMP.29"></span>High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulses (HEMP)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulses (HEMP)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A high-altitude electromagnetic pulse is a result of an atmospheric nuclear explosion, as demonstrated by the United States' Starfish Prime and the Soviet Union's Nuclear Test 184. Though such explosions lack the usual damage caused by nuclear explosions such as physical damage and radioactive fallout, ensuing HEMPs have far-reaching effects on unprotected electronics. </p><p>The 1962 Starfish Prime test produced an HEMP which caused electronics to fail 1400 km (800) away in Hawaii where about 300 streetlights immediately failed. Soviet tests with HEMPs were executed above land, where a 1000 km power line was shut down, and all telephone lines within 500 km were damaged.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>HEMPs cause banana-shaped areas of effect, due to the pulse's interaction with the Earth's magnetic field.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A nuclear weapon detonated at 400 km creates an EMP 2,200 km in radius, large enough to cover the continental United States. However, any nuclear device detonated above 30 km will create an EMP of at least 600 km in radius.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Space_warfare">Space warfare</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Space warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space warfare</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ASAT_missile_launch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/ASAT_missile_launch.jpg/220px-ASAT_missile_launch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/ASAT_missile_launch.jpg/330px-ASAT_missile_launch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/ASAT_missile_launch.jpg/440px-ASAT_missile_launch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="1050" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/USAF" class="mw-redirect" title="USAF">USAF</a> <a href="/wiki/F-15_Eagle" class="mw-redirect" title="F-15 Eagle">F-15 Eagle</a> launching an <a href="/wiki/ASM-135_ASAT" title="ASM-135 ASAT">ASM-135 ASAT</a> <a href="/wiki/Anti-satellite_missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-satellite missile">anti-satellite missile</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Space warfare is combat that takes place in <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>, i.e. outside the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>. Technically, it refers to <a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">battles</a> where the targets themselves are in space. Space warfare therefore includes <i>ground-to-space warfare</i>, such as attacking <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a> from the Earth, as well as <i>space-to-space warfare</i>, such as satellites attacking satellites.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A film was produced by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Military" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Military">U.S. Military</a> in the early 1960s called <i>Space and National Security</i> which depicted space warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1985 to 2002 there was a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">United States Space Command</a>, which in 2002 merged with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Strategic_Command" title="United States Strategic Command">United States Strategic Command</a>. There is a <a href="/wiki/Russian_Space_Forces_(VKS)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Space Forces (VKS)">Russian Space Force</a>, which was established on August 10, 1992 and was the first independent space force in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-nwcr_flightops_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nwcr_flightops-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only a few incidents of space warfare have occurred in world history, and all were training missions, as opposed to actions against real opposing forces. In the mid-1980s a <a href="/wiki/USAF" class="mw-redirect" title="USAF">USAF</a> pilot in an <a href="/wiki/F-15_Eagle" class="mw-redirect" title="F-15 Eagle">F-15</a> successfully shot down the <a href="/wiki/P78-1" class="mw-redirect" title="P78-1">P78-1</a>, a communications satellite in a 345-mile (555 km) orbit. </p><p>In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> used a missile system to destroy one of its obsolete satellites (see <a href="/wiki/2007_Chinese_anti-satellite_missile_test" title="2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test">2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test</a>), in 2008 the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> similarly destroyed its malfunctioning satellite <a href="/wiki/USA_193" class="mw-redirect" title="USA 193">USA 193</a>. In 2019, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> destroyed a live satellite.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and on 15 November 2021, <a href="/wiki/Kosmos_1408" title="Kosmos 1408">Kosmos 1408</a>, an old Soviet satellite was destroyed by the Russian military using a ground based missile. To date, there have been no human casualties resulting from conflict in space, nor has any ground target been successfully neutralised from orbit. </p><p>International treaties governing space limit or regulate conflicts in space and limit the installation of weapon systems, especially <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Space_treaties">Space treaties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Space treaties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Treaties are agreed to when all parties perceive a benefit from becoming a signatory participant in the treaty. As <a href="/wiki/Mutually_assured_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually assured destruction">mutually assured destruction</a> (MAD) became the deterrent strategy between the two superpowers in the Cold War, many countries worked together to avoid extending the threat of nuclear weapons to space based launchers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outer_Space_Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Outer Space Treaty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a></div> <p>The Outer Space Treaty was considered by the Legal Subcommittee of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Committee_on_the_Peaceful_Uses_of_Outer_Space" title="United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space">United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space</a> in 1966. Later that year, agreement was reached in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a>. The treaty included the following principles: </p> <ul><li>the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind;</li> <li>outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all States;</li> <li>outer space is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means;</li> <li>States shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner;</li> <li>the Moon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes;</li> <li>Astronauts shall be regarded as the envoys of mankind;</li> <li>States shall be responsible for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental activities;</li> <li>States shall be liable for damage caused by their space objects; and</li> <li>States shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies.</li></ul> <p>In summary, the treaty initiated the banning of signatories' placing of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> or any other <a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_mass_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons of mass destruction">weapons of mass destruction</a> in orbit of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, installing them on the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> or any other <a href="/wiki/Celestial_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial body">celestial body</a>, or to otherwise station them in <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>. The United States, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, and the Soviet Union signed the treaty and it entered into effect on October 10, 1967. As of January 1, 2005, 98 States have ratified, and an additional 27 have signed the Outer Space Treaty. </p><p>Note that this treaty does not ban the placement of weapons in space in general, only nuclear weapons and WMD. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moon_Treaty">Moon Treaty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Moon Treaty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Moon_Treaty" title="Moon Treaty">Moon Treaty</a></div> <p>The Moon Treaty (not ratified by any space capable state, though signed by some) bans any military use of celestial bodies, including weapon testing, nuclear weapons in orbit, or military bases. The use of military personnel for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes shall not be prohibited. (Article 3.4) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limited_Test_Ban_Treaty">Limited Test Ban Treaty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Limited Test Ban Treaty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1963 the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union. The treaty was a response to growing concerns over the rapidly increasing power of nuclear weapons as well as damage from radioactive fallout. The treaty banned underwater tests and atmospheric tests, and effectively banned underground nuclear tests. The treaty put an end to further testing of high-altitude nuclear tests, and by extension HEMPs.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="PAROS_&_PPTW"><span id="PAROS_.26_PPTW"></span>PAROS & PPTW</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: PAROS & PPTW"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="PPTW"></span> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Conference_on_Disarmament" title="Conference on Disarmament">Conference on Disarmament</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Prevention_of_an_Arms_Race_in_Outer_Space" title="Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space">Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space</a> (PAROS) is a committee subsidiary to the <a href="/wiki/Conference_on_Disarmament" title="Conference on Disarmament">Conference on Disarmament</a>. The PAROS Cttee, which meets at the <a href="/wiki/Palais_des_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Palais des Nations">Palais des Nations</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, has been the forum for discussion of these issues since 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-NTI_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NTI-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 2008, China and Russia together submitted a draft to the UN known as the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_Prevention_of_the_Placement_of_Weapons_in_Outer_Space_and_of_the_Threat_or_Use_of_Force_against_Outer_Space_Objects" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space and of the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects">Treaty on Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space and of the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects</a> (PPWT).<sup id="cite_ref-dd14_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dd14-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ntiparos_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ntiparos-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US opposed the draft treaty due to security concerns over its space assets despite the treaty explicitly affirming a State's inherent right of self-defence.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On December 4, 2014, the General Assembly of the UN passed two resolutions on preventing an arms race in outer space:<sup id="cite_ref-un.org_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The first resolution, <i>Prevention of an arms race in outer space</i>, "call[s] on all States, in particular those with major space capabilities, to contribute actively to the peaceful use of outer space, prevent an arms race there, and refrain from actions contrary to that objective."<sup id="cite_ref-un.org_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were 178 countries that voted in favour to none against, with 2 abstentions (Israel, United States).<sup id="cite_ref-un.org_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The second resolution, <i>No first placement of weapons in outer space</i>, emphasises the prevention of an arms race in space and states that "other measures could contribute to ensuring that weapons were not placed in outer space."<sup id="cite_ref-un.org_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 126 countries voted in favour to 4 against (Georgia, Israel, Ukraine, United States), with 46 abstentions (EU member States abstained on the resolution).<sup id="cite_ref-un.org_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="National_Missile_Defense_(NMD)"><span id="National_Missile_Defense_.28NMD.29"></span>National Missile Defense (NMD)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: National Missile Defense (NMD)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_Missile_Defense" class="mw-redirect" title="National Missile Defense">National Missile Defense</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Mdalogo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Mdalogo.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="189" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="189" /></a><figcaption>The logo of the <a href="/wiki/Missile_Defense_Agency" title="Missile Defense Agency">Missile Defense Agency</a></figcaption></figure> <p>With the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War defense spending was reduced and space research was chiefly focused on peaceful research. American military research is focused on a more modest goal of preventing the United States from being subject to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_blackmail" title="Nuclear blackmail">nuclear blackmail</a> or nuclear terrorism by a <a href="/wiki/Rogue_state" title="Rogue state">rogue state</a>. This overlapped with militarization of space in the form of ballistic missile defense. Missile defense does not <i>station</i> weapons in space, but is designed to intercept incoming warheads at a very high altitude, which requires the interceptor to travel into space to achieve the intercept. These missiles can be land-based or sea-based, and most proposed programs use a mix of the two. </p><p>On 16 December 2002, US President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> signed National Security Presidential Directive which outlined a plan to begin deployment of operational ballistic missile defense systems by 2004. The following day, the US formally requested from the UK and <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> use of facilities in <a href="/wiki/RAF_Fylingdales" title="RAF Fylingdales">RAF Fylingdales</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thule_Air_Base" class="mw-redirect" title="Thule Air Base">Thule</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, respectively, as a part of the NMD Program.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The administration continued to push the program, but received pushback from multiple fronts. Firstly, some scientists opposed the program and raised ethical objections. Secondly, some trial-and-error technical failures during development became highly publicized, though from a technical standpoint they were unsurprising and even expected. The projected cost of the program for the years 2004 to 2009 was 53 billion US dollars, making it the largest single line in <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">The Pentagon</a>'s budget. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_A119" title="Project A119">Project A119</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fractional_Orbital_Bombardment" class="mw-redirect" title="Fractional Orbital Bombardment">Fractional Orbital Bombardment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_tractor" title="Gravity tractor">Gravity tractor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_bombardment" title="Kinetic bombardment">Kinetic bombardment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VRYAN" class="mw-redirect" title="VRYAN">VRYAN programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-satellite_weapon" title="Anti-satellite weapon">Anti-satellite weapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Artificial satellites</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spy_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Spy satellite">Spy satellite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballistic_missiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballistic missiles">Ballistic missiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercialization_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercialization of space">Commercialization of space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disclosure_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Disclosure Project">Disclosure Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion" title="High-altitude nuclear explosion">High-altitude nuclear explosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_vehicle" title="Kill vehicle">Kill vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_assured_destruction" title="Mutual assured destruction">Mutual assured destruction (MAD)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_bombardment" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital bombardment">Orbital bombardment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prompt_Global_Strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Prompt Global Strike">Prompt Global Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_geostrategy" class="mw-redirect" title="Space geostrategy">Space geostrategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategy of technology">Strategy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militarisation_of_cyberspace" class="mw-redirect" title="Militarisation of cyberspace">Militarisation of cyberspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kessler_Syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Kessler Syndrome">Kessler Syndrome</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Militarisation_of_space&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NYtimes-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NYtimes_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYtimes_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_J._Broad1986" class="citation news cs1">William J. Broad (28 October 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1986/10/28/science/star-wars-traced-to-eisenhower-era.html">"Star Wars Traced to Eisenhower Era"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140309035528/http://www.nytimes.com/1986/10/28/science/star-wars-traced-to-eisenhower-era.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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May 31, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Threat+Initiative&rft.atitle=Proposed+Prevention+of+an+Arms+Race+in+Space+%28PAROS%29+Treaty&rft.date=2017-05-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nti.org%2Flearn%2Ftreaties-and-regimes%2Fproposed-prevention-arms-race-space-paros-treaty%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitarisation+of+space" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dd14-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dd14_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeFrieze, D. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital-Library/Articles/Detail/?id=182863">"Defining and regulating the weaponization of space".</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150222185304/http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital-Library/Articles/Detail/?id=182863">Archived</a> 2015-02-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The International Relations and Security Network.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ntiparos-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ntiparos_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNuclear_Threat_Initiative2017" class="citation web cs1">Nuclear Threat Initiative (September 29, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/proposed-prevention-arms-race-space-paros-treaty/">"PROPOSED PREVENTION OF AN ARMS RACE IN SPACE (PAROS) TREATY"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191207195420/https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/proposed-prevention-arms-race-space-paros-treaty/">Archived</a> from the original on December 7, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 7,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PROPOSED+PREVENTION+OF+AN+ARMS+RACE+IN+SPACE+%28PAROS%29+TREATY&rft.date=2017-09-29&rft.au=Nuclear+Threat+Initiative&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nti.org%2Flearn%2Ftreaties-and-regimes%2Fproposed-prevention-arms-race-space-paros-treaty%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitarisation+of+space" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Su, J. (2010). The “peaceful purposes” principle in outer space and the Russia–China PPWT Proposal. Space policy, 26(2), 81–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-un.org-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-un.org_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-un.org_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-un.org_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-un.org_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-un.org_29-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170704040738/http://www.un.org/press/en/2014/ga11593.doc.htm">"General Assembly Adopts 63 Drafts on First Committee's Recommendation with Nuclear Disarmament at Core of Several Recorded Votes"</a>. United Nations Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. 2 December 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/press/en/2014/ga11593.doc.htm">the original</a> on 2017-07-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=General+Assembly+Adopts+63+Drafts+on+First+Committee%27s+Recommendation+with+Nuclear+Disarmament+at+Core+of+Several+Recorded+Votes&rft.pub=United+Nations+Meetings+Coverage+and+Press+Releases&rft.date=2014-12-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fpress%2Fen%2F2014%2Fga11593.doc.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitarisation+of+space" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lennon, Alexander T.J. <i>Contemporary Nuclear Debates</i>, (Cambridge:MIT Press), 1999, pp. 101–109.</span> </li> </ol></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Militarisation of space</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Militarisation+of+space">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Militarisation+of+space&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li>For a more complete account on the doctrinal precepts of acquisition of the high ground, ref Squadron Leader KK Nair, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNair2006" class="citation book cs1">Nair, Kiran Krishan (1 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBXL1i-n6UAC"><i>Space: The Frontiers of Modern Defence</i></a>. KnowledgeWorld. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-87966-44-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-87966-44-9"><bdi>978-81-87966-44-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space%3A+The+Frontiers+of+Modern+Defence&rft.pub=KnowledgeWorld&rft.date=2006-01-01&rft.isbn=978-81-87966-44-9&rft.aulast=Nair&rft.aufirst=Kiran+Krishan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZBXL1i-n6UAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitarisation+of+space" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160608020952/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/6975674/">Spy satellites used for arms control monitoring</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagan1999" class="citation book cs1">Sagan, Carl (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DBDoGwAACAAJ"><i>Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium</i></a>. Headline. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7472-5792-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7472-5792-9"><bdi>978-0-7472-5792-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Billions+and+Billions%3A+Thoughts+on+Life+and+Death+at+the+Brink+of+the+Millennium&rft.pub=Headline&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7472-5792-9&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDBDoGwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMilitarisation+of+space" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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access">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">Television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_use_of_space" title="Commercial use of space">Commercial use of space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_launch_market_competition" title="Space launch market competition">Space launch market competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_architecture" title="Space architecture">Space architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_research" title="Space research">Space research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology">Space technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">Astronaut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_astronaut" title="Commercial astronaut">commercial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">Life-support system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioastronautics" title="Bioastronautics">Bioastronautics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_suit" title="Space suit">Space suit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">Extravehicular activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overview_effect" title="Overview effect">Overview effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">Weightlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_toilet" title="Space toilet">Space toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Space tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Space colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_diving" title="Space diving">Space diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Apollo–Soyuz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle–Mir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Manned_Space_Program" title="China Manned Space Program">Shenzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiangong_program" title="Tiangong program">Tiangong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Health issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_adaptation_syndrome" title="Space adaptation syndrome">Space adaptation syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_and_survival" title="Space and survival">Space and survival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_nursing" title="Space nursing">Space nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_sexology" title="Space sexology">Space sexology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">Spacecraft</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">Launch vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">Space capsule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_module" title="Orbital module">Orbital module</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reentry_capsule" title="Reentry capsule">Reentry capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_module" title="Service module">Service module</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">Spaceplane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic spacecraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">Space probe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lander_(spacecraft)" title="Lander (spacecraft)">Lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rover_(space_exploration)" title="Rover (space exploration)">Rover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-replicating_spacecraft" title="Self-replicating spacecraft">Self-replicating spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion" title="Spacecraft propulsion">Spacecraft propulsion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion" title="Spacecraft electric propulsion">Electric propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">Solar sail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_assist" title="Gravity assist">Gravity assist</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Destinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">Sub-orbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">Orbital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Geocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous_orbit" title="Geosynchronous orbit">Geosynchronous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_spaceflight" title="Interplanetary spaceflight">Interplanetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_travel" title="Interstellar travel">Interstellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_travel" title="Intergalactic travel">Intergalactic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_launch" title="Space launch">Space launch</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_ascent" title="Direct ascent">Direct ascent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">Escape velocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expendable_launch_system" title="Expendable launch system">Expendable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reusable_launch_vehicle" title="Reusable launch vehicle">reusable launch systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_pad" title="Launch pad">Launch pad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-rocket_spacelaunch" title="Non-rocket spacelaunch">Non-rocket spacelaunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceport" title="Spaceport">Spaceport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ground_segment" title="Ground segment">Ground segment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flight_controller" title="Flight controller">Flight controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_station" title="Ground station">Ground station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_pass" title="Orbital pass">Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_control_center" title="Mission control center">Mission control center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Spaceflight" title="Category:Spaceflight">Category</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" 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