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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rules_of_evidence_and_code_of_procedure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Rules of evidence and code of procedure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rules_of_evidence_and_code_of_procedure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hearsay_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hearsay_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Hearsay rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hearsay_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chain_of_custody" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chain_of_custody"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Chain of custody</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chain_of_custody-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weight_of_testimony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weight_of_testimony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Weight of testimony</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weight_of_testimony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Testifying_experts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Testifying_experts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Testifying experts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Testifying_experts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Educating_witness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Educating_witness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Educating witness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Educating_witness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reporting_witness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reporting_witness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Reporting witness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reporting_witness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-testifying_experts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-testifying_experts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Non-testifying experts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-testifying_experts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-United_States-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle United States subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scientific_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Scientific evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Frye_test" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frye_test"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span><i>Frye</i> test</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frye_test-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Daubert_standard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Daubert_standard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Daubert standard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Daubert_standard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle United Kingdom subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-England_and_Wales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England_and_Wales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>England and Wales</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England_and_Wales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scotland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scotland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Scotland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scotland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_of_UK_and_US_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_of_UK_and_US_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Comparison of UK and US law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Comparison_of_UK_and_US_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Comparison of UK and US law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Comparison_of_UK_and_US_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Similarities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Similarities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Similarities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Similarities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Purpose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purpose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Purpose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purpose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qualification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qualification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Qualification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qualification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Admissibility_of_Evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Admissibility_of_Evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.3</span> <span>Admissibility of Evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Admissibility_of_Evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conduct" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conduct"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Conduct</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conduct-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Depositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Depositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Depositions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Depositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ultimate_Issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ultimate_Issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.3</span> <span>Ultimate Issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ultimate_Issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Turkey</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Expert witness</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%AF_%D8%AE%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="شاهد خبير – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شاهد خبير" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%BE_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5" title="Вещо лице – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вещо лице" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soudn%C3%AD_znalec" title="Soudní znalec – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Soudní znalec" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachverst%C3%A4ndiger" title="Sachverständiger – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sachverständiger" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perito_judicial" title="Perito judicial – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Perito judicial" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_judiciaire" title="Expert judiciaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Expert judiciaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EB%AC%B8%EA%B0%80_%EC%A6%9D%EC%96%B8" title="전문가 증언 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전문가 증언" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF" title="विशेषज्ञ की राय – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विशेषज्ञ की राय" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksi_ahli" title="Saksi ahli – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Saksi ahli" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulenza_tecnica_(processo_civile)" title="Consulenza tecnica (processo civile) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Consulenza tecnica (processo civile)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%93_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%94" title="עד מומחה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עד מומחה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%85downy_ekspert" title="Sądowny ekspert – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Sądowny ekspert" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igazs%C3%A1g%C3%BCgyi_szak%C3%A9rt%C5%91" title="Igazságügyi szakértő – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Igazságügyi szakértő" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Вештак – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вештак" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerechtsdeskundige" title="Gerechtsdeskundige – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gerechtsdeskundige" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakkunnig_vitne" title="Sakkunnig vitne – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sakkunnig vitne" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%8F" title="ਮਾਹਿਰ ਰਾਏ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਾਹਿਰ ਰਾਏ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bieg%C5%82y_s%C4%85dowy" title="Biegły sądowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Biegły sądowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perito_criminal" title="Perito criminal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Perito criminal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8D%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82" title="Судебный эксперт – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Судебный эксперт" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_witness" title="Expert witness – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Expert witness" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Стручни сведок – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стручни сведок" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilirki%C5%9Fi" title="Bilirkişi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilirkişi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a 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role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Expert_witness" title="Special:EditPage/Expert witness">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Expert_witness" title="Talk:Expert witness">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> Part of the <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> series</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Types of evidence</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testimony" title="Testimony">Testimony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_evidence" title="Documentary evidence">Documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_evidence" title="Real evidence">Real (physical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_evidence" title="Digital evidence">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exculpatory_evidence" title="Exculpatory evidence">Exculpatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inculpatory_evidence" title="Inculpatory evidence">Inculpatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_evidence" title="Demonstrative evidence">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_identification" title="Eyewitness identification">Eyewitness identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_profiling" title="DNA profiling">Genetic (DNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lies_(evidence)" title="Lies (evidence)">Lies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness_of_guilt" title="Consciousness of guilt">Consciousness of guilt</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Relevance_(law)" title="Relevance (law)">Relevance</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burden_of_proof_(law)" title="Burden of proof (law)">Burden of proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_(evidence)" title="Foundation (evidence)">Laying a foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materiality_(law)" title="Materiality (law)">Materiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_doctrines_for_the_exclusion_of_relevant_evidence" title="Public policy doctrines for the exclusion of relevant evidence">Public policy exclusions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoliation_of_evidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Spoliation of evidence">Spoliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_evidence" title="Character evidence">Character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habit_evidence" title="Habit evidence">Habit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Similar_fact_evidence" title="Similar fact evidence">Similar fact</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Authentication_(law)" title="Authentication (law)">Authentication</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chain_of_custody" title="Chain of custody">Chain of custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_notice" title="Judicial notice">Judicial notice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_evidence_rule" title="Best evidence rule">Best evidence rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-authenticating_document" title="Self-authenticating document">Self-authenticating document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_document" title="Ancient document">Ancient document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Evidence_Convention" title="Hague Evidence Convention">Hague Evidence Convention</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Witness" title="Witness">Witnesses</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(law)" title="Competence (law)">Competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privilege_(evidence)" title="Privilege (evidence)">Privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_examination" title="Direct examination">Direct examination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-examination" title="Cross-examination">Cross-examination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redirect_examination" title="Redirect examination">Redirect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witness_impeachment" title="Witness impeachment">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proffer_agreement" title="Proffer agreement">Proffer agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recorded_recollection" title="Recorded recollection">Recorded recollection</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Expert witness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Man%27s_Statute" title="Dead Man's Statute">Dead Man's Statute</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Hearsay" title="Hearsay">Hearsay</a> and exceptions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hearsay_in_English_law" title="Hearsay in English law">in English law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearsay_in_United_States_law" title="Hearsay in United States law">in United States law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confession_(law)" title="Confession (law)">Confessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_records_exception" title="Business records exception">Business records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excited_utterance" title="Excited utterance">Excited utterance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dying_declaration" title="Dying declaration">Dying declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_admission" title="Party admission">Party admission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_document" title="Ancient document">Ancient document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_against_interest" title="Declaration against interest">Declaration against interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_sense_impression" title="Present sense impression">Present sense impression</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Res_gestae" title="Res gestae">Res gestae</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learned_treatise" title="Learned treatise">Learned treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_assertion" title="Implied assertion">Implied assertion</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> areas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Wills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">trusts and estates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evidence_law" title="Template:Evidence law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evidence_law" title="Template talk:Evidence law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evidence_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evidence law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An <b>expert witness</b>, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> countries such as the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, is a person whose opinion by virtue of <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Training" title="Training">training</a>, <a href="/wiki/Certification" title="Certification">certification</a>, skills or <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a>, is accepted by the judge as an <a href="/wiki/Expert" title="Expert">expert</a>. The judge may consider the witness's specialized (scientific, technical or other) opinion about <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> or about <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">facts</a> before the court within the expert's area of expertise, to be referred to as an "expert opinion".<sup id="cite_ref-FRE702_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FRE702-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Expert witnesses may also deliver "expert evidence" within the area of their expertise.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their testimony may be rebutted by testimony from other experts or by other evidence or facts. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <p>The forensic expert practice is an ancient profession. For example, in ancient <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midwifery" title="Midwifery">midwives</a> were used as experts in determining pregnancy, virginity and female fertility. Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> recognized midwives, handwriting experts and land surveyors as legal experts.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The codified use of expert witnesses and the admissibility of their testimony and scientific evidence has developed significantly in the Western court system over the last 250 years. The concept of allowing an expert witness to testify in a court setting and provide opinionated evidence on the facts of other witnesses was first introduced by <a href="/wiki/William_Murray,_1st_Earl_of_Mansfield" title="William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield">Lord Mansfield</a> in the case of <i>Folkes v. Chadd</i> in 1782. In this particular case, the court was hearing litigation regarding the silting of Wells Harbor in Norfolk and allowed leading civil engineer, <a href="/wiki/John_Smeaton" title="John Smeaton">John Smeaton</a>, to provide scientific rationale behind the proposed legislation. The decision by the English Court to allow for an expert to provide contextual background and detail on a case is often cited as the root of modern rules on expert testimony.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role">Role</h2></div> <p>Expert witnesses are called upon in the court system to serve as an objective party to the lawsuit and never function as an advocate for one side or the other. Expert witnesses are present in litigation to explain complicated scientific issues, not to influence the jury or judge with fervor. The main responsibilities of expert witnesses are to evaluate potential problems, defects, deficiencies, or errors only when able to fully appreciate a process or system.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Expert witnesses are obligated to study the processes prior to making a survey or postpone the assignment prior to potentially missing the target due to lack of specific condition understanding. They are called to testify under the assumption that all the preparation required for a competent evaluation of the process has been made. </p><p>Typically, <a href="/wiki/Expert" title="Expert">experts</a> are relied on for opinions on severity of <a href="/wiki/Injury" title="Injury">injury</a>, degree of <a href="/wiki/Sanity" title="Sanity">sanity</a>, cause of failure in a machine or other device, <a href="/wiki/Wrongful_dismissal_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Wrongful dismissal in the United Kingdom">loss of earnings and associated benefits</a>, care costs, and the like. In an <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> case an expert may be shown two music scores, book texts, or circuit boards and asked to ascertain their degree of similarity. In the majority of cases, the expert's personal relation to the defendant is considered and usually adjudged to be irrelevant. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">tribunal</a> itself, or the <a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">judge</a>, can in some systems call upon experts to technically evaluate a certain <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">fact</a> or <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of action">action</a>, in order to provide the court with a complete knowledge on the fact/action it is judging. The expertise has the legal value of an acquisition of data. The results of these experts are then compared to those by the experts of the parties. </p><p>The expert has a great responsibility, and especially in <a href="/wiki/Penal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal law">penal trials</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">perjury</a> by an expert is a severely punished <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a> in most countries. The use of expert witnesses is sometimes criticized in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> because in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(common_law)" title="Civil law (common law)">civil trials</a>, they are often used by both sides to advocate differing positions, and it is left up to a <a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">jury</a> to decide which expert witness to believe. Although experts are legally prohibited from expressing their opinion of submitted evidence until after they are hired, sometimes a party can surmise beforehand, because of reputation or prior cases, that the testimony will be favorable regardless of any basis in the submitted data; such experts are commonly disparaged as "hired guns."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qualifications">Qualifications</h3></div> <p>An expert witness at the time of trial is qualified by the court and must be re-qualified each time that person comes to trial for the offering of opinions. The qualification is given by each trial judge and takes place regardless of prior appearances by a particular expert witness. Expert witnesses are those whom the court has deemed qualified to speak on a topic to provide background to anyone on a lay jury.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duties_in_United_States_courts">Duties in United States courts</h3></div> <p>In high stakes cases multiple experts, in multiple topics, are often retained by each party. Although it is still relatively rare, the court itself may also retain its own independent expert. In all cases, fees paid to an expert may not be contingent on the outcome of the case. </p><p>Expert evidence is often the most important component of many civil and criminal cases today. <a href="/wiki/Fingerprint" title="Fingerprint">Fingerprint</a> examination, <a href="/wiki/Blood_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood analysis">blood analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_fingerprinting" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA fingerprinting">DNA fingerprinting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Forensic_firearm_examination" title="Forensic firearm examination">forensic firearm examination</a> are common kinds of expert evidence heard in serious criminal cases. In civil cases, the work of <a href="/wiki/Accident_analysis" title="Accident analysis">accident analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering#Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">forensic engineers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Forensic_accounting" title="Forensic accounting">forensic accountants</a> is usually important, the latter to assess <a href="/wiki/Damages" title="Damages">damages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Costs_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Costs (law)">costs</a> in long and complex cases. <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_negligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical negligence">medical negligence</a> cases are typical examples. </p><p>Electronic evidence has also entered the courtroom as critical forensic evidence. Audio and video evidence must be authenticated by both parties in any litigation by a forensic expert who is also an expert witness who assists the court in understanding details about that electronic evidence. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Voice-mail" class="mw-redirect" title="Voice-mail">Voice-mail</a> recordings and closed-circuit television systems produce electronic evidence often used in litigation, more so today than in the past. Video recordings of bank robberies and audio recordings of life threats are presented in court rooms by electronic expert witnesses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rules_of_evidence_and_code_of_procedure">Rules of evidence and code of procedure</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hearsay_rule">Hearsay rule</h4></div> <p>One important rule that applies to the expert witness but not the percipient witness is the exception to the hearsay rule. A percipient witness tells only what he/she actually knows about a case and nothing more. Percipient witnesses cannot give opinions nor conjecture regarding a hypothetical set of conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, the court does allow an expert to testify about issues that may not be personally known by them. This allows the expert to rely upon scientific articles, discussions with colleagues on the subject, testimony read in preparation for testimony in the case and similar pieces of information not personally known to the expert. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chain_of_custody">Chain of custody</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chain_of_custody" title="Chain of custody">Chain of custody</a></div> <p>It is important that expert witnesses who handle evidence maintain a proper <a href="/wiki/Chain_of_custody" title="Chain of custody">chain of custody</a> such that they are able to authenticate the evidence, prove that it is what they represent it to be, when testifying at trial. Most notably in the context of a criminal prosecution, an expert witness who evaluates or examines an item pertinent to an investigation or case evaluation may add an entry to a "chain of custody" document,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a form that contains the item's description, the time and date of release for all prior custodians of the item, and the time and date of release to the witness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Weight_of_testimony">Weight of testimony</h4></div> <p>In the case of an expert witness, the weight of his/her evidence depends heavily on the foundation support established prior to an opinion being given. Examples include educational background, review of scholarly works, field studies and trainings which all lead up to developing a foundation of knowledge for credibility of a testimony. Before trial, all experts must prepare a report summarizing their analysis and conclusions and share the report with all other parties.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows other parties to effectively cross-examine the expert. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Testifying_experts">Testifying experts</h3></div> <p>If the witness needs to testify in court, the privilege is no longer protected. The expert witness's identity and nearly all documents used to prepare the testimony will become discoverable. Usually an experienced lawyer will advise the expert not to take notes on documents because all of the notes will be available to the other party. </p><p>An expert testifying in a United States federal court must satisfy the requirements of Fed. R. Evid. 702.<sup id="cite_ref-FRE702_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FRE702-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, under Rule 702, an expert is a person with "scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge" who can "assist the trier of fact," which is typically a jury. A witness who is being offered as an expert must first establish his or her competency in the relevant field through an examination of his or her credentials. The opposing attorney is permitted to conduct a <a href="/wiki/Voir_dire" title="Voir dire">voir dire</a> of the witness in order to challenge that witness' qualifications. If qualified by the court, then the expert may testify "in the form of an opinion or otherwise" so long as: "(1) the testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data, (2) the testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) the witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case." </p><p>Although experts can testify in any case in which their expertise is relevant, criminal cases are more likely to use <a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensic scientists</a> or <a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">forensic psychologists</a>, whereas civil cases, such as <a href="/wiki/Personal_injury" title="Personal injury">personal injury</a>, may use <a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering#Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">forensic engineers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accountant#Forensic_accounting" title="Accountant">forensic accountants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Employment_consultant" title="Employment consultant">employment consultants</a> or <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">care</a> experts. Senior <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a> – UK, Ireland, and Commonwealth <a href="/wiki/Consultant_(medicine)" title="Consultant (medicine)">consultants</a>, U.S. <a href="/wiki/Attending_physician" title="Attending physician">attending physicians</a> – are frequently used in both the civil and criminal courts. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Australia" title="Federal Court of Australia">Federal Court of Australia</a> has issued guidelines for experts appearing in Australian courts.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This covers the format of the expert's written testimony as well as their behaviour in court. Similar procedures apply in non-court forums, such as the Australian <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_and_Equal_Opportunity_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission">Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Educating_witness">Educating witness</h4></div> <p>The educating witness teaches the fact-finder (jury or, in a bench trial, judge) about the underlying scientific theory and instrument implementing theory. This witness is an expert witness, called to elicit opinions that a theory is valid and the instruments involved are reliable. The witness must be qualified as an expert witness, which may require academic qualifications or specific training. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reporting_witness">Reporting witness</h4></div> <p>Called after teaching witness leaves stand. Usually the laboratory technician who personally conducted the test. Witness will describe both the test and the results. When describing test, will venture opinions that proper test procedures were used and that equipment was in good working order.<sup id="cite_ref-EvidenceNineties_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EvidenceNineties-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-testifying_experts">Non-testifying experts</h3></div> <p>In the U.S., a party may hire experts to help them evaluate a given case. For example, a car maker may hire an experienced mechanic to decide if its cars were built to specification. This kind of expert opinion will be protected from <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(law)" title="Discovery (law)">discovery</a> by the opposing party. In other words, if the expert finds evidence against their client, the opposite party will not automatically gain access to it. This privilege is similar to the <a href="/wiki/Work-product_doctrine" title="Work-product doctrine">work-product doctrine</a> (not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Attorney%E2%80%93client_privilege" title="Attorney–client privilege">attorney–client privilege</a>). </p><p>The non-testifying expert can be present at the trial or hearing to aid the attorney in asking questions of other expert witnesses. Unlike a testifying expert, a non-testifying expert can be easily withdrawn from a case. It is also possible to change a non-testifying expert to a testifying expert before the expert disclosure date.<sup id="cite_ref-Eri_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eri-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, under the Federal Rule of Evidence 702 (FRE), an expert witness must be qualified on the topic of testimony. In determining the qualifications of the expert, the FRE requires the expert have had specialized education, training, or practical experience in the subject matter relating to the case.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expert's testimony must be based on facts in evidence, and should offer opinion about the <a href="/wiki/Causation_(law)" title="Causation (law)">causation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> to the evidence in drawing a conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Experts in the U.S. typically are paid on an hourly basis for their services in investigating the facts, preparing a report, and if necessary, <a href="/wiki/Testimony" title="Testimony">testifying</a> during pre-trial discovery, or at trial. Hourly fees range from approximately $200 to $750 or more per hour, varying primarily by the expert's field of expertise, and the individual expert's qualifications and reputation. In several fields, such as <a href="/wiki/Handwriting_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Handwriting analysis">handwriting analysis</a>, where the expert compares signatures to determine the likelihood of a forgery, and medical case reviews by a physician or nurse, in which the expert goes over hospital and medical records to assess the possibility of malpractice, experts often initially charge a <a href="/wiki/Flat_fee" class="mw-redirect" title="Flat fee">flat fixed fee</a> for their initial report. As with the hourly fees discussed previously, the amount of that flat fee varies considerably based on the reviewing expert's field, experience and reputation.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2017 <a href="/wiki/Kootenai_County,_Idaho" title="Kootenai County, Idaho">Kootenai County, Idaho</a> paid nearly $600,000 during the trial over the killing of a <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene,_Idaho" title="Coeur d'Alene, Idaho">Coeur d'Alene</a> police officer, with the public defenders paying approximately $311,000 for seven experts and the prosecutors paying $270,000 for three experts.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2021 survey conducted by SEAK, Inc., a company that helps professionals serve as expert witnesses, revealed a median hourly rate of $500, $400, and $475 for testifying in court, case preparation, and deposition respectively. As for the highest amount ever billed for a single case, the median was $24,000 and the mean was just over $62,000.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The expert's professional fee, plus his or her related expenses, is generally paid by the party retaining the expert. In some circumstance the party who prevails in the litigation may be entitled to recover the amounts paid to its expert from the losing party.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_evidence">Scientific evidence</h3></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <b>scientific evidence</b> is evidence derived from <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a> knowledge or techniques. Most <a href="/wiki/Forensics" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensics">forensic evidence</a>, including <a href="/wiki/DNA_profiling" title="DNA profiling">genetic evidence</a>, is scientific evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Frye_test"><i>Frye</i> test</h4></div> <p>The <i>Frye</i> test, coming from the case <i><a href="/wiki/Frye_v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Frye v. United States">Frye v. United States</a></i> (1923), said that admissible scientific evidence must be a result of a theory that had "general acceptance" in the scientific community. This test results in uniform decisions regarding admissibility. In particular, the judges in <i>Frye</i> ruled that: </p> <dl><dd><i>Just when a scientific principle or discovery crosses the line between experimental and demonstrable stages is difficult to define. Somewhere in this twilight zone the evidential force of the principle must be recognized, and while courts will go a long way in admitting expert testimony deduced from a well-recognized scientific principle or discovery, the thing from which the deduction is made must be sufficiently established to have gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it belongs.</i><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>In 1923, the case of Frye v. United States instituted significant change to both criminal and civil law by addressing the use of expert witness testimony in conjunction with scientific testimony. In Frye v. United States, the defense team attempted to introduce both the results of a polygraph test administered to Frye to determine Frye's innocence as well as the testimony of an expert witness to verify and explain the results. </p><p>However, the court rejected the expert's testimony, ruling that: "While courts will go a long way in admitting expert testimony deduced from a well-recognized scientific principle or discovery, the thing from which the deduction is made must be sufficiently established to have gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it belongs."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through this ruling, the judge's opinion in Frye v. United States set precedent and the standard by which expert witnesses would be utilized in the court system for decades. In the federal courts, between 1948 and 1975, Frye was cited 55 times; however, the use and application was not consistent.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the major struggles that came out of this precedent was the application to both civil and criminal cases. Many of the courts and judges had trouble interpreting the "general acceptance" notion of a particular field in a concise and non-arbitrary manner. In 2012, courts in nine states still used the <i>Frye</i> standard when analyzing state expert witness rules.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>The Federal Rules of Evidence</b> </p><p>In 1975, the United States Congress issued the Federal Rules of Evidence. FRE 702 was issued to provide a standard for expert witness testimony to be upheld by the United States court system. The rule specified that the application of expert witnesses had to be attributed to a person with "scientific or technical knowledge," in conjunction with a list of qualifications that would quality one to be an expert in terms of "knowledge, skill, experience, training or education".<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This rule thus clarified the acceptable use of expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases. </p><p>However, FRE 702 still left some courts in confusion. The courts who would use this new rule were confused as to whether FRE 702 served to bolster the "general acceptance" ruling in Frye or if FRE 702 was the replacement of this rule. For instance, in <i>U.S. v. Williams</i> (1978), the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">Second Circuit</a> responded that "the applicable considerations [for expert witness testimony] are 'probativeness, materiality, and reliability of the evidence on the one side, and any tendency to mislead, prejudice or confuse the jury on the other.'"<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The court appeared to reject the previous precedent set by <i>Frye</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rationale in the Williams case was later adopted by other federal courts, including the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Third_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit">Third Circuit</a> which adopted a "reliability" test in 1984.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, other federal courts stuck to the <i>Frye</i> precedent, causing a <a href="/wiki/Circuit_split" title="Circuit split">circuit split</a> which would not be solved until the Supreme Court set a new expert standard in <a href="/wiki/Daubert_v._Merrell_Dow_Pharmaceuticals,_Inc." title="Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc."><i>Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.</i> (1993)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Daubert_standard">Daubert standard</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Daubert_standard" title="Daubert standard">Daubert standard</a> arose out of the U.S. Supreme Court case <i>Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.</i> It provides four factors that courts ought to consider when determining whether expert testimony is admissible under the Federal Rules of Evidence:<sup id="cite_ref-:4_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>"Whether the expert's theory or technique can be (and has been) tested"</li> <li>"Whether the theory or technique has an acceptable known or potential rate of error"</li> <li>"The existence and maintenance of standards controlling the technique's operation"</li> <li>"Whether the theory or technique has attained 'general acceptance'"</li></ol> <p>In 2012, twenty-two states used the <i>Daubert</i> test when analyzing their own expert witness rules.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="England_and_Wales">England and Wales</h3></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a>, under the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Procedure_Rules" title="Civil Procedure Rules">Civil Procedure Rules</a> (CPR), an expert witness is required to be independent and address his or her <a href="/wiki/Expert_report" title="Expert report">expert report</a> to the court. A witness may be jointly instructed by both sides if the parties agree to this, especially in cases where the liability is relatively small. </p><p>Under the CPR, expert witnesses may be instructed to produce a joint statement detailing points of agreement and disagreement to assist the court or tribunal. The meeting is held quite independently of instructing lawyers, and often assists in resolution of a case, especially if the experts review and modify their opinions. When this happens, substantial trial costs can be saved when the parties to a dispute agree to a settlement. In most systems, the <a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">trial</a> (or the procedure) can be suspended in order to allow the experts to study the case and produce their results. More frequently, meetings of experts occur before trial. Experts charge a professional fee which is paid by the party commissioning the report (both parties for joint instructions) although the report is addressed to the court. The fee must not be contingent on the outcome of the case. Expert witnesses may be <a href="/wiki/Subpoena" title="Subpoena">subpoenaed</a> (issued with a witness summons), although this is normally a formality to avoid court date clashes.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scotland">Scotland</h3></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Scots_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots Law">Scots Law</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Davie_v_Magistrates_of_Edinburgh" title="Davie v Magistrates of Edinburgh">Davie v Magistrates of Edinburgh</a></i> (1953) provides authority that where a witness has particular knowledge or skills in an area being examined by the court, and has been called to court in order to elaborate on that area for the benefit of the court, that witness may give evidence of his/her opinion on that area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison_of_UK_and_US_law">Comparison of UK and US law</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Expert_witness" title="Special:EditPage/Expert witness">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Similarities">Similarities</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Purpose">Purpose</h4></div> <ul><li><i>United Kingdom</i>: Expert evidence is to furnish the Judge or jury with necessary scientific criteria for testing the accuracy of their conclusions</li> <li><i>United States</i>: Expert evidence is admissible on the basis that the knowledge will help the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qualification">Qualification</h4></div> <ul><li><i>United Kingdom</i>: Expert witness is qualified to give evidence, where the court itself cannot form an opinion and special study, skill or experience is required for the purpose</li> <li><i>United States</i>: An expert witness is qualified by knowledge, skill, experience or education</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Admissibility_of_Evidence">Admissibility of Evidence</h4></div> <ul><li><i>United Kingdom</i>: Expert evidence must be provided in as much detail as possible in-order to convince the judge that the expert's opinions are well founded</li> <li><i>United States</i>: Expert testimony to be based on sufficient facts, data or products of a credible source of test and tried principles and methods</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differences">Differences</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conduct">Conduct</h4></div> <ul><li><i>United Kingdom</i>: Expert's "duties to the Court override any obligation to the person from whom they have received instructions or have been paid by"</li> <li><i>United States</i>: Expert's duty is not formally defined under the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure /Evidence</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Depositions">Depositions</h4></div> <ul><li><i>United Kingdom</i>: Expert evidence is examined before the Judge (or Arbitrator)</li> <li><i>United States</i>: Expert evidence can be compelled to deposition</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ultimate_Issues">Ultimate Issues</h4></div> <ul><li><i>United Kingdom</i>: Expert opinion on ultimate issue is not admissible</li> <li><i>United States</i>: Expert opinion on ultimate issue is admissible</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Turkey">Turkey</h2></div> <p>During a <a href="/wiki/Erdo%C4%9Fan-Gollum_comparison_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Erdoğan-Gollum comparison trials">Erdoğan-Gollum comparison trial</a>, a panel of expert witnesses had to decide on the character of <a href="/wiki/Gollum" title="Gollum">Gollum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambush_defence" title="Ambush defence">Ambush defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daubert_standard" title="Daubert standard">Daubert standard</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Daubert_v._Merrell_Dow_Pharmaceuticals,_Inc." title="Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.">Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_an_Expert_Witness" title="Death of an Expert Witness">Death of an Expert Witness</a> - a novel</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_consultant" title="Employment consultant">Employment consultant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expert_shopping" title="Expert shopping">Expert shopping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_accountant" title="Forensic accountant">Forensic accountant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_economics" title="Forensic economics">Forensic economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">Forensic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">Forensic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Forensic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_video_analysis" title="Forensic video analysis">Forensic video analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frye_standard" title="Frye standard">Frye standard</a> of evidence</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibson%27s_law" title="Gibson's law">Gibson's law</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Motion_in_limine" title="Motion in limine">In limine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v_Kaney" title="Jones v Kaney">Jones v Kaney</a></i> — English caselaw abolishing witness immunity from civil action for negligence</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kumho_Tire_Co._v._Carmichael" title="Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael">Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questioned_document_examination" title="Questioned document examination">Questioned document examination</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Mohan" title="R v Mohan">R v Mohan</a></i> — Canadian case law establishing qualifications for expert witnesses</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saisie-contrefa%C3%A7on" title="Saisie-contrefaçon">Saisie-contrefaçon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_collision_reconstruction" title="Traffic collision reconstruction">Traffic collision reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_issue_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultimate issue (law)">Ultimate issue</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FRE702-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FRE702_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FRE702_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/fre/rule_702">"Federal Rules of Evidence, Rule 702. Testimony by Expert Witnesses"</a>. <i>Legal Information Institute</i>. Cornell Law School. 30 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=Federal+Rules+of+Evidence%2C+Rule+702.+Testimony+by+Expert+Witnesses&rft.date=2011-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Frules%2Ffre%2Frule_702&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Black%27s_Law_Dictionary" title="Black's Law Dictionary">Black's Law Dictionary</a></i>, articles "Evidence", "Expert", "Witness"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Forensic Ethics and the Expert Witness". 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-35383-8">10.1007/978-0-387-35383-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rosemary J. Erickson, Rita James Simon, <i>The Use of Social Science Data in Supreme Court Decisions</i> (1998), p. 19/</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyskamp2018" class="citation web cs1">Ryskamp, Dani (10 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theexpertinstitute.com/a-brief-history-of-expert-witnesses-in-u-s-courts/">"A Brief History of Expert Witnesses in U.S. Courts"</a>. <i>The Expert Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Expert+Institute&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Expert+Witnesses+in+U.S.+Courts&rft.date=2018-05-10&rft.aulast=Ryskamp&rft.aufirst=Dani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theexpertinstitute.com%2Fa-brief-history-of-expert-witnesses-in-u-s-courts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cohen, Kenneth (2015-08-05). <i>Expert Witnessing and Scientific Testimony : A Guidebook, Second Edition</i>. Chapman and Hall/CRC. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781498721097" title="Special:BookSources/9781498721097">9781498721097</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Snow, J.N., & Weed, R. (1997). Mental health forensic issues in Georgia: The role of the expert witness. Georgia Journal of Professional Counselors, 53-65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Snow, J.N. & Weed, R. (1996). Forensic issues in mental health: The role of the expert witness. Journal of Legal Nurse Consulting, 7(4), 2-13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Forensic Ethics and the Expert Witness". 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-35383-8">10.1007/978-0-387-35383-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guidelines for Expert Witnesses in Proceedings in the Federal Court of Australia, Practice Direction, (Federal Court of Australia, 2007)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The accidental expert witness, Tom Worthington, Information Age (IDG, 2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EvidenceNineties-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EvidenceNineties_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlsonImwinkelriedKionka1991" class="citation book cs1">Carlson, Ronald L.; Imwinkelried, Edward J.; Kionka, Edward J. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HuFFAQAAIAAJ&q=laboratory+technician+reporting+witness+equipment"><i>Evidence in the nineties: cases, materials, and problems for an age of science and statutes</i></a>. Michie Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87473-740-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87473-740-0"><bdi>978-0-87473-740-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evidence+in+the+nineties%3A+cases%2C+materials%2C+and+problems+for+an+age+of+science+and+statutes&rft.pub=Michie+Co&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-87473-740-0&rft.aulast=Carlson&rft.aufirst=Ronald+L.&rft.au=Imwinkelried%2C+Edward+J.&rft.au=Kionka%2C+Edward+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHuFFAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dlaboratory%2Btechnician%2Breporting%2Bwitness%2Bequipment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eri-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eri_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEri_J.D.2013" class="citation web cs1">Eri J.D., Christopher (19 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140123013215/http://www.forensisgroup.com/resources-for-attorneys/what-are-the-differences-between-an-expert-witness-and-a-consultant-non-testifying-expert">"What are the differences between an expert witness and a consultant non testifying expert"</a>. <i>Forensis Group</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forensisgroup.com/resources-for-attorneys/what-are-the-differences-between-an-expert-witness-and-a-consultant-non-testifying-expert/">the original</a> on 23 January 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forensis+Group&rft.atitle=What+are+the+differences+between+an+expert+witness+and+a+consultant+non+testifying+expert&rft.date=2013-11-19&rft.aulast=Eri+J.D.&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forensisgroup.com%2Fresources-for-attorneys%2Fwhat-are-the-differences-between-an-expert-witness-and-a-consultant-non-testifying-expert%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Rule 702. Testimony by Expert Witnesses". <i>Cornell Law School</i>. Retrieved 6 September 2017.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matson, Jack V. (2012). <i>Effective Expert Witnessing, Fifth Edition: Practices for the 21st Century</i>. CRC Press. pp. 107–110. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1466578645" title="Special:BookSources/1466578645">1466578645</a>. Retrieved 12 December 2017.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/c2e65f9d62b9460780f6e56f600a15c0">"County paid nearly $600,000 for expert witnesses at trial"</a>. <i>Coeur d'Alene Press</i>. Associated Press. 28 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Coeur+d%27Alene+Press&rft.atitle=County+paid+nearly+%24600%2C000+for+expert+witnesses+at+trial&rft.date=2017-11-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Fc2e65f9d62b9460780f6e56f600a15c0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMangravitiWilburDonovan2021" class="citation book cs1">Mangraviti, James J.; Wilbur, Kelly J.; Donovan, Nadine Nasser (2021). <i>2021 SEAK, Inc. Survey of Expert Witness Fees</i>. Falmouth, Massachusetts: Seak, Inc. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781892904584" title="Special:BookSources/9781892904584"><bdi>9781892904584</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=2021+SEAK%2C+Inc.+Survey+of+Expert+Witness+Fees&rft.place=Falmouth%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Seak%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781892904584&rft.aulast=Mangraviti&rft.aufirst=James+J.&rft.au=Wilbur%2C+Kelly+J.&rft.au=Donovan%2C+Nadine+Nasser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYellKatsiyannisRyanMcDuffie2008" class="citation journal cs1">Yell, Mitchell L.; Katsiyannis, Antonis; Ryan, Joseph B.; McDuffie, Kimberly (November 2008). "Recovery of Expert Fees in Special Education Due Process Hearings". <i>Intervention in School and Clinic</i>. <b>44</b> (2): 112–115. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053451208321601">10.1177/1053451208321601</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145086428">145086428</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intervention+in+School+and+Clinic&rft.atitle=Recovery+of+Expert+Fees+in+Special+Education+Due+Process+Hearings&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=112-115&rft.date=2008-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1053451208321601&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145086428%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Yell&rft.aufirst=Mitchell+L.&rft.au=Katsiyannis%2C+Antonis&rft.au=Ryan%2C+Joseph+B.&rft.au=McDuffie%2C+Kimberly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVennekotter2019" class="citation journal cs1">Vennekotter, Nicholas (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5584&context=flr">"Full Cost in Translation: Awarding Expert Witness Fees in Copyright Litigation"</a>. <i>Fordham Law Review</i>. <b>87</b> (4): 1721<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fordham+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Full+Cost+in+Translation%3A+Awarding+Expert+Witness+Fees+in+Copyright+Litigation&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1721&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Vennekotter&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fir.lawnet.fordham.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D5584%26context%3Dflr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternCuellarKaye2019" class="citation journal cs1">Stern, Hal S.; Cuellar, Maria; Kaye, David (April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1740-9713.2019.01250.x">"Reliability and validity of forensic science evidence"</a>. <i>Significance</i>. <b>16</b> (2): 21–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1740-9713.2019.01250.x">10.1111/j.1740-9713.2019.01250.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159219970">159219970</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Significance&rft.atitle=Reliability+and+validity+of+forensic+science+evidence&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=21-24&rft.date=2019-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1740-9713.2019.01250.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159219970%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Hal+S.&rft.au=Cuellar%2C+Maria&rft.au=Kaye%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1740-9713.2019.01250.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiannelliMcMunigal2007" class="citation journal cs1">Giannelli, Paul C.; McMunigal, Kevin C. (2007). "Prosecutors, Ethics, and Expert Witnesses". <i>Fordham Law Review</i>: 1509.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fordham+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Prosecutors%2C+Ethics%2C+and+Expert+Witnesses&rft.pages=1509&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Giannelli&rft.aufirst=Paul+C.&rft.au=McMunigal%2C+Kevin+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher2013" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, George (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/823514237"><i>Evidence</i></a> (3 ed.). New York. pp. 807–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60930-060-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60930-060-9"><bdi>978-1-60930-060-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/823514237">823514237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evidence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=807-10&rft.edition=3&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F823514237&rft.isbn=978-1-60930-060-9&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F823514237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyskampJ.D.2018" class="citation web cs1">Ryskamp, Dani Alexis; J.D. (2018-05-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.expertinstitute.com/resources/insights/a-brief-history-of-expert-witnesses-in-u-s-courts/">"A Brief History of Expert Witnesses in U.S. Courts"</a>. <i>Expert Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-11-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Expert+Institute&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Expert+Witnesses+in+U.S.+Courts&rft.date=2018-05-10&rft.aulast=Ryskamp&rft.aufirst=Dani+Alexis&rft.au=J.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.expertinstitute.com%2Fresources%2Finsights%2Fa-brief-history-of-expert-witnesses-in-u-s-courts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 509 U.S. 579 (1993).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davie v Magistrates of Edinburgh 1953 SC 34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://m.bianet.org/bianet/law/178979-gollum-was-a-victim-say-experts-in-erdogan-defamation-case">"Gollum Was a Victim, say Experts in Erdoğan Defamation Case"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Bianet" title="Bianet">Bianet</a></i>. 23 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bianet&rft.atitle=Gollum+Was+a+Victim%2C+say+Experts+in+Erdo%C4%9Fan+Defamation+Case&rft.date=2016-09-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fm.bianet.org%2Fbianet%2Flaw%2F178979-gollum-was-a-victim-say-experts-in-erdogan-defamation-case&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <ul><li>Bronstein, DA, <i>Law for the Expert Witness</i>, CRC Press,2nd Ed (1999).</li> <li>Dwyer, D, <i>The Judicial Assessment of Expert Evidence</i>, Cambridge University Press (2008).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Judicial_CenterNational_Research_Council2011" class="citation book cs1">Federal Judicial Center; National Research Council, eds. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/catalog/13163/reference-manual-on-scientific-evidence-third-edition"><i>Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence</i></a> (3rd. ed.). Washington, DC: National Academies Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F13163">10.17226/13163</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fhvd.32044032506586">2027/hvd.32044032506586</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-21421-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-21421-6"><bdi>978-0-309-21421-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reference+Manual+on+Scientific+Evidence&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.edition=3rd.&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fhvd.32044032506586&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F13163&rft.isbn=978-0-309-21421-6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fcatalog%2F13163%2Freference-manual-on-scientific-evidence-third-edition&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AExpert+witness" class="Z3988"></span><span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></li> <li>Jasanoff, Sheila, <i>Science at the Bar: Law, Science, and Technology in America</i> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997).</li> <li>Reynolds, MP and King, PSD, <i>The Expert Witness and his Evidence</i>, Blackwell (1992).</li> <li>Smith, D, <i>Being an Effective Expert Witness</i>, Thames Publishing (1993).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/ExpTesti.pdf/$file/ExpTesti.pdf">Expert Testimony in Federal Civil Trials: A Preliminary Analysis (pdf)</a> (Federal Judicial Center, 2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_on_Scientific_Knowledge_and_Public_Policy" title="Project on Scientific Knowledge and Public Policy">Project on Scientific Knowledge and Public Policy</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061002054317/http://www.defendingscience.org/upload/Daubert-The-Most-Influential-Supreme-Court-Decision-You-ve-Never-Heard-Of-2003.pdf"><i>Daubert</i>-The Most Influential Supreme Court Ruling You've Never Heard Of (pdf)</a></li> <li>Kenton K. Yee, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1312222">Dueling Experts and Imperfect Verification</a>, 28.4 International Review of Law and Economics, 246-255 (2008)</li> <li>Cole, Simon A. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1151&context=vlr">Where the Rubber Meets the Road: Thinking about Expert Evidence as Expert Testimony</a>" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224149/http://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1151&context=vlr">Archive</a>). <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Villova_Law_Journal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Villova Law Journal (page does not exist)">Villova Law Journal</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Villanova_University_School_of_Law" title="Villanova University School of Law">Villanova University School of Law</a>. Volume 52, Issue 4, Article 4. p. 803-840.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">Public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution and unjust enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drugs law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barristers%27_chambers" title="Barristers' chambers">Barristers' chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(law)" title="Bar (law)">The bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">Court of equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">Law school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Category:Law" title="Category:Law">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_law_articles" title="Index of law articles">Index</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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