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<span>Second council and first schism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_council_and_first_schism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Second council and first schism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Second_council_and_first_schism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Second_council" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_council"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Second council</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_council-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Schism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Schism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>First Schism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Schism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vinaya_dispute" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vinaya_dispute"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Vinaya dispute</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vinaya_dispute-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Mahādeva_episode_and_the_"five_points"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Mahādeva_episode_and_the_"five_points""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>The Mahādeva episode and the "five points"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Mahādeva_episode_and_the_"five_points"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theravada_accounts_of_a_third_council" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theravada_accounts_of_a_third_council"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theravada accounts of a third council</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theravada_accounts_of_a_third_council-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theravada accounts of a third council subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theravada_accounts_of_a_third_council-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Ashokan_missions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Ashokan_missions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The Ashokan missions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Ashokan_missions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_two_"fourth_councils"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_two_"fourth_councils""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The two "fourth councils"</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_two_"fourth_councils"-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The two "fourth councils" subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_two_"fourth_councils"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sinhalese_Theravāda_Council_(Fourth_Theravāda_Council)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sinhalese_Theravāda_Council_(Fourth_Theravāda_Council)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Sinhalese Theravāda Council (Fourth Theravāda Council)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sinhalese_Theravāda_Council_(Fourth_Theravāda_Council)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kashmiri_Sarvāstivāda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kashmiri_Sarvāstivāda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Kashmiri Sarvāstivāda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kashmiri_Sarvāstivāda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theravada_Councils_in_Myanmar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theravada_Councils_in_Myanmar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Theravada Councils in Myanmar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theravada_Councils_in_Myanmar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theravada Councils in Myanmar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theravada_Councils_in_Myanmar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fifth_Burmese_Council_(1871)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fifth_Burmese_Council_(1871)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Fifth Burmese Council (1871)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fifth_Burmese_Council_(1871)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sixth_Burmese_Council_(1954)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sixth_Burmese_Council_(1954)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Sixth Burmese Council (1954)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sixth_Burmese_Council_(1954)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theravada_Councils_in_the_Thai_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theravada_Councils_in_the_Thai_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Theravada Councils in the Thai tradition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theravada_Councils_in_the_Thai_tradition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theravada Councils in the Thai tradition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theravada_Councils_in_the_Thai_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Councils_held_in_Thailand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Councils_held_in_Thailand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Councils held in Thailand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Councils_held_in_Thailand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Buddhist councils</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8C%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A6" title="বৌদ্ধপরিষদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৌদ্ধপরিষদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="बौद्ध संगीति – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बौद्ध संगीति" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhistick%C3%A9_koncily" title="Buddhistické koncily – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Buddhistické koncily" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhistische_Konzilien" title="Buddhistische Konzilien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Buddhistische Konzilien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budistlikud_suurkogud" title="Budistlikud suurkogud – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Budistlikud suurkogud" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concilios_budistas" title="Concilios budistas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Concilios budistas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budhismaj_koncilioj" title="Budhismaj koncilioj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Budhismaj koncilioj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conciles_bouddhiques" title="Conciles bouddhiques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Conciles bouddhiques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%B0%EC%A7%91" title="결집 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="결집" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="बौद्ध संगीति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बौद्ध संगीति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidang_Buddhis" title="Sidang Buddhis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sidang Buddhis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concili_buddisti" title="Concili buddisti – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Concili buddisti" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מועצות בודהיסטיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מועצות בודהיסטיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhista_zsinatok" title="Buddhista zsinatok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Buddhista zsinatok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="बौद्ध संगीती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बौद्ध संगीती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B6%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB%E1%80%9A%E1%80%94" title="သံဂါယန – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="သံဂါယန" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ဘာသာမန်</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B9%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB%E1%80%9A%E1%80%94%E1%80%AC" title="သင်္ဂါယနာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သင်္ဂါယနာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="संगायन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="संगायन" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B5%90%E9%9B%86" title="結集 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="結集" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhistiske_konsiler" title="Buddhistiske konsiler – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Buddhistiske konsiler" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B9%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9A%E1%80%94%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F" title="သင်္ဂါႏယနာႏ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="သင်္ဂါႏယနာႏ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B6" title="សង្គាយនា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សង្គាយនា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conc%C3%ADlios_budistas" title="Concílios budistas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Concílios budistas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concilii_budiste" title="Concilii budiste – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Concilii budiste" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Буддийские соборы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Буддийские соборы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-redirect" title="Third Buddhist Council">Third Buddhist Council</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Convention of Buddhist monastic leaders</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:16.0em;border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFD068">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism" title="Category:Buddhism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFD068"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/90px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/135px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/180px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="697" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline in the Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Later Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Concepts</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharma wheel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Five Aggregates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Anicca">Impermanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">Not-self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Dependent Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Emptiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhavacana" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhavacana">Buddhavacana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_Texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Buddhist Texts">Early Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Sanskrit literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-canonical_Buddhist_texts" title="Post-canonical Buddhist texts">Post-canon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Practices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Paths_to_liberation" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist Paths to liberation">Buddhist Paths to liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Perfections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophical reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotional practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Mindfulness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Sublime abidings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Aids to Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Lay life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_chant" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist chant">Buddhist chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nirvāṇa</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four Stages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratyekabuddha">Pratyekabuddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddha</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Traditions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_Buddhism" title="Newar Buddhism">Newar</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD068;padding-bottom:0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Buddhism by country</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0; background-color:#FDE7B9; border: 2px solid #FDE7B9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/16px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg/24px-Dharma_Wheel_%282%29.svg.png 1.5x, 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a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Buddhism" title="Template:Buddhism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Buddhism" title="Template talk:Buddhism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Buddhism" 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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border-collapse:collapse"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#f6d971;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Theravada" title="Category:Theravada">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#f6d971;"><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#cc5500">Theravāda Buddhism</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhism_dham_jak.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dharmachakra"><img alt="Dharmachakra" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Buddhism_dham_jak.svg/100px-Buddhism_dham_jak.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Buddhism_dham_jak.svg/150px-Buddhism_dham_jak.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Buddhism_dham_jak.svg/200px-Buddhism_dham_jak.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f6d971;;background:#f6d971;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Therav%C4%81da_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Theravāda Buddhism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border: 1px solid #ffd068"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sthaviravada" class="mw-redirect" title="Sthaviravada">Sthaviras</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibhajyav%C4%81da" title="Vibhajyavāda">Vibhajjavāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuradhapura_Maha_Viharaya" title="Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya">Mahāvihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamrashatiya" title="Tamrashatiya">Tambapaṇṇiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABpava%E1%B9%83sa" title="Dīpavaṃsa">Dīpavaṃsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81va%E1%B9%83sa" title="Mahāvaṃsa">Mahāvaṃsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Text_Society" title="Pali Text Society">Pali Text Society</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f6d971;;background:#f6d971;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Key figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border: 1px solid #ffd068"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81%E1%B9%87aka" title="Bhāṇaka">Bhāṇaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moggaliputta-Tissa" title="Moggaliputta-Tissa">Moggaliputta-Tissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahinda_(buddhist_monk)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahinda (buddhist monk)">Mahinda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanghamitta" title="Sanghamitta">Sanghamitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanampiya_Tissa" title="Devanampiya Tissa">Tissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhagho%E1%B9%A3a" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhaghoṣa">Buddhaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhadatta" title="Buddhadatta">Buddhadatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammap%C4%81la" title="Dhammapāla">Dhammapāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parakramabahu_I" title="Parakramabahu I">Parakramabahu I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81kassapa_(12th_century)" title="Mahākassapa (12th century)">Mahākassapa (12th century)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81riputta_(12th_century)" title="Sāriputta (12th century)">Sāriputta (12th century)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anawrahta" title="Anawrahta">Anawrahta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram_Khamhaeng" class="mw-redirect" title="Ram Khamhaeng">Ram Khamhaeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hikkaduwe_Sri_Sumangala_Thera" title="Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera">Sumangala Thera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Dharmapala" title="Anagarika Dharmapala">Anagarika Dharmapala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongkut" title="Mongkut">Mongkut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajirananavarorasa" title="Vajirananavarorasa">Vajirananavarorasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ledi_Sayadaw" title="Ledi Sayadaw">Ledi Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U_Nu" title="U Nu">U Nu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U_N%C4%81rada" title="U Nārada">U Nārada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasi_Sayadaw" title="Mahasi Sayadaw">Mahasi Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U_Ba_Khin" class="mw-redirect" title="U Ba Khin">U Ba Khin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S._N._Goenka" title="S. N. Goenka">S. N. Goenka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_Bhuridatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mun Bhuridatta">Mun Bhuridatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Ghosananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Maha Ghosananda">Maha Ghosananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kripasaran" title="Kripasaran">Kripasaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauddha_Rishi_Mahapragya" title="Bauddha Rishi Mahapragya">Mahapragya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragyananda_Mahasthavir" title="Pragyananda Mahasthavir">Pragyananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._Sri_Dhammananda" title="K. Sri Dhammananda">K. Sri Dhammananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narada_Mahathera" class="mw-redirect" title="Narada Mahathera">Narada Mahathera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoka_Weeraratna" title="Asoka Weeraratna">Asoka Weeraratna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walpola_Rahula_Thero" title="Walpola Rahula Thero">Walpola Rahula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._N._Jayatilleke" title="K. N. Jayatilleke">Jayatilleke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Kalupahana" title="David Kalupahana">Kalupahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U_Dhammaloka" title="U Dhammaloka">U Dhammaloka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyanatiloka" title="Nyanatiloka">Nyanatiloka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanamoli_Bhikkhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanamoli Bhikkhu">Nanamoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyanaponika_Thera" title="Nyanaponika Thera">Nyanaponika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu_Bodhi" title="Bhikkhu Bodhi">Bhikkhu Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Sumedho" title="Ajahn Sumedho">Ajahn Sumedho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Brahm" title="Ajahn Brahm">Ajahn Brahm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analayo" class="mw-redirect" title="Analayo">Analayo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varanggana_Vanavichayen" title="Varanggana Vanavichayen">Varanggana Vanavichayen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammananda_Bhikkhuni" title="Dhammananda Bhikkhuni">Dhammananda Bhikkhuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayya_Tathaaloka" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayya Tathaaloka">Ayya Tathaaloka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayya_Khema" title="Ayya Khema">Ayya Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kee_Nanayon" title="Kee Nanayon">Kee Nanayon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dipa_Ma" title="Dipa Ma">Dipa Ma</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f6d971;;background:#f6d971;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Pali_literature" title="Pali literature">Literature</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border: 1px solid #ffd068"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pāli Tipiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracanonical_texts_(Therav%C4%81da)" title="Paracanonical texts (Theravāda)">Paracanonical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atthakatha" title="Atthakatha">Commentaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-commentaries_(Therav%C4%81da)" title="Sub-commentaries (Theravāda)">Sub-commentaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visuddhimagga" title="Visuddhimagga">Visuddhimagga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidhammattha-sangaha" title="Abhidhammattha-sangaha">Abhidhammattha-saṅgaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vimuttimagga" title="Vimuttimagga">Vimuttimagga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidhamm%C4%81vat%C4%81ra" title="Abhidhammāvatāra">Abhidhammāvatāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yog%C4%81vacara%27s_manual" title="Yogāvacara's manual">Yogāvacara's manual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f6d971;;background:#f6d971;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nik%C4%81ya" title="Nikāya">Orders</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Nikāya)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border: 1px solid #ffd068"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding: 2px 6px;background-color:#fbe8a2;"> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;padding:2px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Nikaya" title="Maha Nikaya">Mahā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammayuttika_Nikaya" title="Dhammayuttika Nikaya">Dhammayuttika</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding: 2px 6px;background-color:#fbe8a2;"> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;padding:2px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thudhamma_Nikaya" title="Thudhamma Nikaya">Thudhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shwegyin_Nikaya" title="Shwegyin Nikaya">Shwegyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81dv%C4%81ra_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Mahādvāra Nikāya">Mahādvāra</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=M%C5%ABladv%C4%81ra_Nik%C4%81ya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mūladvāra Nikāya (page does not exist)">Mūladvāra</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ve%E1%B8%B7uvana_Nik%C4%81ya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Veḷuvana Nikāya (page does not exist)">Veḷuvana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anaukchaung-dv%C4%81ra_Nik%C4%81ya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anaukchaung-dvāra Nikāya (page does not exist)">Anaukchaung-dvāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hngettwin_Nikaya" title="Hngettwin Nikaya">Hngettwin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ga%E1%B9%87avimutti_Nik%C4%81ya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaṇavimutti Nikāya (page does not exist)">Gaṇavimutti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammayuttika_Nikaya" title="Dhammayuttika Nikaya">Dhammayuttika</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding: 2px 6px;background-color:#fbe8a2;"> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;padding:2px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amarapura%E2%80%93R%C4%81ma%C3%B1%C3%B1a_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Amarapura–Rāmañña Nikāya">Amarapura–Rāmañña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siam_Nikaya" title="Siam Nikaya">Siam</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding: 2px 6px;background-color:#fbe8a2;"> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;padding:2px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sangharaj_Nikaya" title="Sangharaj Nikaya">Saṅgharāja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthabir_Nikaya" title="Mahasthabir Nikaya">Mahāsthabir</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f6d971;;background:#f6d971;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Traditions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border: 1px solid #ffd068"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pariyatti,_pa%E1%B9%ADipatti,_pa%E1%B9%ADivedha" title="Pariyatti, paṭipatti, paṭivedha">Pariyatti, paṭipatti, paṭivedha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada_Abhidhamma" title="Theravada Abhidhamma">Abhidhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pav%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Pavāraṇā">Pavāraṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_Forest_Tradition" title="Thai Forest Tradition">Thai Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Forest_Tradition" title="Sri Lankan Forest Tradition">Sri Lankan Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Southern Esoteric Buddhism">Esoteric Theravāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammakaya_tradition" title="Dhammakaya tradition">Dhammakaya</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f6d971;;background:#f6d971;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Festivals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border: 1px solid #ffd068"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesākha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Āsāḷha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%ADhina" title="Kaṭhina">Kaṭhina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma_Day" title="Abhidhamma Day">Abhidhamma Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#f6d971;;background:#f6d971;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Higher education</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border: 1px solid #ffd068"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahamakut_Buddhist_University" title="Mahamakut Buddhist University">MBU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya_University" title="Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University">MCRU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Buddhist_College" title="International Buddhist College">IBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Therav%C4%81da_Buddhist_Missionary_University" title="International Theravāda Buddhist Missionary University">ITBMU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Pariyatti_Sasana_University,_Mandalay" title="State Pariyatti Sasana University, Mandalay">SPSU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_and_Pali_University_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhist and Pali University of Sri Lanka">BPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preah_Sihanouk_Raja_Buddhist_University" title="Preah Sihanouk Raja Buddhist University">Sihanouk</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Preah_Sihamoni_Raja_Buddhist_University&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Preah Sihamoni Raja Buddhist University (page does not exist)">Sihamoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champasak_Sangha_College" title="Champasak Sangha College">CSC</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangha_College&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sangha College (page does not exist)">Sangha College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kertarajasa_Buddhist_College" title="Kertarajasa Buddhist College">Kertarajasa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Syailendra_Buddhist_College&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Syailendra Buddhist College (page does not exist)">Syailendra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalanda_Institute" title="Nalanda Institute">Nalanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_Dipa_International_Buddhist_University" title="Dhamma Dipa International Buddhist University">DDIBU</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Theravada_Buddhism" title="Template:Theravada Buddhism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Theravada_Buddhism" title="Template talk:Theravada Buddhism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theravada_Buddhism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Theravada Buddhism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p> Since the death of the historical <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siddhartha_Gautama" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhartha Gautama">Siddhartha Gautama</a>, Buddhist monastic communities ("<i><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">sangha</a></i>") have periodically convened to settle doctrinal and disciplinary disputes and to revise and correct the contents of the <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Buddhist canons</a>. These gatherings are often termed Buddhist "councils" (Pāli and Sanskrit: <i>saṅgīti</i>, literally meaning "reciting together" or "joint rehearsal").<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accounts of these councils are recorded in <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a> as having begun immediately following the death of the Buddha and have continued into the modern era. The earliest councils are regarded as real events by every Buddhist tradition. However, the historicity and details of these councils remains a matter of dispute in modern <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhist studies</a>. This is because various sources belonging to different <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Buddhist schools</a> contain conflicting accounts of these events and the narratives often serve to bolster the authority and prestige of specific schools.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_Buddhist_council">First Buddhist council</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: First Buddhist council"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_(9241729223).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_%289241729223%29.jpg/250px-Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_%289241729223%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_%289241729223%29.jpg/375px-Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_%289241729223%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_%289241729223%29.jpg/500px-Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_%289241729223%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3399" data-file-height="1977" /></a><figcaption>A mural depicting the first Buddhist Council near <a href="/wiki/Rajgir" title="Rajgir">Rajagaha</a>, Nava. Jetavana temple, <a href="/wiki/Jetavana" title="Jetavana">Nava Jetavana Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shravasti" title="Shravasti">Shravasti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>All six of the surviving <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a> sources of various <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early Buddhist schools</a> contain accounts, in whole or in part, of the first and <a href="/wiki/Second_Buddhist_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Buddhist Council">second</a> councils.<sup id="cite_ref-Frauwallner_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frauwallner-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The story of the First Council seems to be a continuation of the story of the Buddha's final days and death told in the <a href="/wiki/Mahaparinibbana_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahaparinibbana Sutta">Mahaparinibbana Sutta</a> and its equivalents in the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Agamas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Frauwallner2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frauwallner2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on correlations and continuity between these two texts, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Finot_(archaeologist)" title="Louis Finot (archaeologist)">Louis Finot</a> concluded that they had originated from a single narrative that was later split between the <a href="/wiki/Sutta_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutta Pitaka">Sutta Pitaka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vinaya_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinaya Pitaka">Vinaya Pitaka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Frauwallner2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frauwallner2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In most schools, the account of the First Council is located at the end of the <i>Skandhaka</i> section of the Vinaya but before any appendices.<sup id="cite_ref-Frauwallner2_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frauwallner2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/First_Buddhist_council" class="mw-redirect" title="First Buddhist council">first Buddhist council</a> is traditionally said to have been held just after Buddha's <a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">final nirvana</a>, and presided over by <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākāśyapa</a>, one of his most senior disciples, at a cave near Rājagṛha (today's <a href="/wiki/Rajgir" title="Rajgir">Rajgir</a>) with the support of king <a href="/wiki/Ajatashatru" title="Ajatashatru">Ajatashatru</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its objective was to preserve the Buddha's sayings (<a href="/wiki/Sutta_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutta Pitaka">suttas</a>) and the monastic discipline or rules (<a href="/wiki/Vinaya_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinaya Pitaka">Vinaya</a>). The Suttas were recited by <a href="/wiki/Ananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Ananda">Ananda</a>, and the Vinaya was recited by <a href="/wiki/Upali" class="mw-redirect" title="Upali">Upali</a>. Even though the Buddha had said that the Sangha could abolish the minor rules after his passing, the council made the unanimous decision to keep all the rules intact. According to Charles Prebish, almost all scholars have questioned the historicity of this first council.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Numerous Vinayas also depict various disagreements in the first council. Various monks disagreed on whether to keep or get rid of some of the minor rules (since the Buddha had told Ananda that this may be done). Some monks even argued all the minor rules should be abolished.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, numerous early sources state that Mahakasyapa criticized Ananda in various ways. Analayo quotes one passage from a Chinese parallel to the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta (T 1428 at T XXII 966b18), in which Mahākassapa says: "Ānanda is [like] a lay person. I am afraid that, being with covetousness in his mind, he will not recite the discourses completely."<sup id="cite_ref-:8_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analayo writes there may have been "actual conflict between two contending factions in the monastic community after the Buddha’s decease, with the more ascetically inclined faction emerging as the winning party in the accounts of the first saṅgīti".<sup id="cite_ref-:8_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to some traditional accounts, following the Buddha's death, 499 of the Buddha's top arhats were chosen to attend the council. <a href="/wiki/Ananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Ananda">Ananda</a>, then a <a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">sotapanna</a>, trained himself until the dawn of day of the council, at which point he attained arahatship and was allowed to join the council.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201388_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201388-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regarding the <a href="/wiki/Abhidhamma_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidhamma Pitaka">Abhidhamma Pitaka</a>, the third major division of the <a href="/wiki/Tipitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tipitaka">Tipitaka</a>, modern academic scholarship holds that it was likely composed at a later date because of its contents and differences in language and style.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich20064_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich20064-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keown2004p22_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keown2004p22-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Theravada tradition, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, and the ancient <a href="/wiki/Atthakatha" title="Atthakatha">Atthakathā</a> (commentary) were also included at the first Buddhist council in the Sutta category, but its literature is different from Sutta because the Abhidhamma Pitaka was authored by <a href="/wiki/Sariputta" class="mw-redirect" title="Sariputta">Sāriputta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_groups">Alternative groups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Alternative groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The various Vinayas also recount another curious event during this time. The <i>Cullavagga</i> mentions there was an arhat named Purāṇa who stated that he and his followers preferred to remember the Buddha's teachings in the manner he had heard it and so did not rely on the textual collections of the council. This figure is also found in the <i>Aśokāvadāna</i> and the <i>Tibetan Dulvā Vinaya</i>, which depict Purāṇa and another monk, Gavampati which were not present at the council and who worry about what will happen to the Dharma after the death of the Buddha. This account is described in the Chinese versions of the Dharmagupta and Mahīsāsaka Vinayas and in the <i>Vinayamātrika Sūtra</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:9_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gavampati is said to have also maintained a set of eight rules regarding food which are retained by the Mahīsāsaka Vinaya.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar event is described by Chinese sources like the writings of the Indian scholar <a href="/wiki/Paramartha" title="Paramartha">Paramartha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jizang" title="Jizang">Jizang</a>, and the pilgrim <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to these sources, an alternative canon named the <i>Mahasamghikanikaya</i> (Collection of the Great Assembly) was compiled by an Arhat named Baspa and his followers. Xuanzang reports visiting a stupa near Rajgir which marked the site of this alternate council.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historicity">Historicity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Historicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several modern scholars doubt whether the entire canon was really recited during the First Council,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey201388_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey201388-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because the early texts contain different accounts on important subjects such as meditation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich200696–7_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich200696–7-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may be, though, that early versions were recited of what is now known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Vinaya-pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinaya-pitaka">Vinaya-piṭaka</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Sutta_Pitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutta Pitaka">Sutta-piṭaka</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirakawa199369_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa199369-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, many scholars, from the late 19th century onward, have considered the historicity of the First Council improbable. Some scholars, such as orientalists <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_La_Vall%C3%A9e-Poussin" title="Louis de La Vallée-Poussin">Louis de La Vallée-Poussin</a> and D.P. Minayeff, thought there must have been assemblies after the Buddha's death, but considered only the main characters and some events before or after the First Council historical.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrebish2005226_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrebish2005226-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukherjee1994453_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee1994453-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other scholars, such as Buddhologist <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Bareau" title="André Bareau">André Bareau</a> and Indologist <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Oldenberg" title="Hermann Oldenberg">Hermann Oldenberg</a>, considered it likely that the account of the First Council was written after the <a href="/wiki/Second_Buddhist_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Buddhist Council">Second Council</a>, and based on that of the second, since there were not any major problems to solve after the <a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Buddha's death</a>, or any other need to organize the First Council.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrebish2005231_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrebish2005231-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukherjee1994454–6_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee1994454–6-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Finot_(archaeologist)" title="Louis Finot (archaeologist)">Louis Finot</a>, Indologist E. E. Obermiller and to some extent Indologist Nalinaksha Dutt thought the account of the First Council was authentic, because of the correspondences between the Pāli texts and the <a href="/wiki/Agama_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agama (Buddhism)">Sanskrit traditions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukherjee1994457_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee1994457-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indologist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Gombrich" title="Richard Gombrich">Richard Gombrich</a> meanwhile holds that "large parts of the Pali Canon" do date back to the first council.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGombrich201873_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGombrich201873-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_council_and_first_schism">Second council and first schism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Second council and first schism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_council">Second council</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Second council"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The historical records for the Second Buddhist Council derive primarily from the canonical Vinayas of various schools. It was held 100 years after the <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha#Last_days_and_parinirvana" title="The Buddha">parinirvana of Buddha</a> in the Valukarama of <a href="/wiki/Vaishali_district" title="Vaishali district">Vaiśālī</a> and was patronised by the king <a href="/wiki/Kalashoka" title="Kalashoka">Kalashoka</a>. While inevitably disagreeing on points of details, these schools nevertheless agree that the bhikkhus at Vaisali were accepting monetary donations and following other lax practices (which led to a controversy when other monks discovered this).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lax practices are often described as "ten points".<sup id="cite_ref-rec700_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rec700-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main issue though was accepting money from laypersons.<sup id="cite_ref-rec700_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rec700-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These practices were first noticed by a monk named Yasa Kākandakaputta, who alerted other elders and called out the monks.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, both the monks of Vaiśālī and Yasa gathered senior members of the Sangha from the region to consult in order to fully settle the issue.<sup id="cite_ref-rec700_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rec700-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This dispute about <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">vinaya</a>, according to traditional sources, resulted in the first <a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">schism</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Sangha_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangha (Buddhism)">Sangha</a>. But some scholars think that a schism did not occur at this time and instead happened at a later date.<sup id="cite_ref-Harvey,_Peter_2013_p._89_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harvey,_Peter_2013_p._89-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:11_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Schism">First Schism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: First Schism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vinaya_dispute">Vinaya dispute</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vinaya dispute"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Cullavagga of the Pali Canon of Theravāda Buddhism holds that the Vaiśālī (Vajjiputtakā) monks practiced ten points (dasa vatthūni) which were against the Vinaya rules.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Storing salt in a horn (singilonakappa).</li> <li>Eating food when the shadow of the sun had passed two fingers' breadth beyond noon (duvangulakappa).</li> <li>Eat once and then go again to the village for alms (gāmantarakappa).</li> <li>Holding of the uposatha separately by monks dwelling in the same district (āvāsakappa).</li> <li>Carrying out an official act when the assembly is incomplete (anumatikappa).</li> <li>Following a practice because it is so done by one's tutor or teacher (ācinnakappa).</li> <li>Eating of sour milk by one who has already had his midday meal (amathitakappa).</li> <li>Use of the strong drink before it has fermented (jalogikappa).</li> <li>Use of blankets which have unstitched hem (nisīdanakappa).</li> <li>Accepting of gold and silver (jātarūparajatakappa).<sup id="cite_ref-rec700_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rec700-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:10_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The orthodox monks refused to agree to these points, and one of their leaders, Yasa Kākandakaputta, publicly condemned the action of the Vajjiputtakas. Yasa then left Kosambī, and, having summoned monks from Pāvā in the west and Avanti in the south, sought Sambhūta Sānavāsi in Ahoganga. On his advice they sought Soreyya-Revata, and together they consulted Sabbakāmi at Vālikārāma. In the Council that followed the Ten Points were declared invalid, and this decision was conveyed to the monks. Soon after was held a recital of the Doctrine in which seven hundred monks took part under the leadership of Soreyya-Revata. The recital lasted eight months. The Vajjiputtakas refused to accept the finding of Revata's Council and formed a separate sect, the Mahāsanghikas, numbering ten thousand monks, who held a recital of their own.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, Theravāda Buddhism suggests that Mahāsāṃghikas tried to change the traditional Vinaya by adding the above ten points to it. </p><p>However, Mahāsāṃghikas hold that the <a href="/wiki/Sthaviravada" class="mw-redirect" title="Sthaviravada">Sthaviras</a> ("Elders") wanted to 'add' more rules to the Vinaya.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vinaya texts associated with the Sthaviras do contain more rules than those of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mahāsāṃghika <a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Prātimokṣa</a> (list of rules) has 67 rules in the <i>śaikṣa-dharma</i> section, while the Theravāda version has 75 rules.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya discusses how the Mahāsāṃghika disagree with the Sthavira 'additions' to the Vinaya (<i>Mahāsāṃghikavinaya,</i> T.1425, p. 493a28-c22.).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mahāsāṃghika <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C5%9A%C4%81riputraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Śāriputraparipṛcchā (page does not exist)">Śāriputraparipṛcchā</a></i> contains an account in which an old monk rearranges and augments the traditional Vinaya.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As stated in the <i>Śāriputraparipṛcchā</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>He copied and rearranged our Vinaya, developing and augmenting what <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Kāśyapa</a> had codified and which was called "Vinaya of the Great Assembly" (<i>Mahāsāṃghavinaya</i>). [...] The king considered that [the doctrines of the two parties represented] were both the work of the Buddha, and since their preferences were not the same, [the monks of the two camps] should not live together. As those who studied the old Vinaya were in the majority, they were called the Mahāsāṃghika; those who studied the new [Vinaya] were in the minority, but they were all Sthaviras; thus they were named Sthavira.</p></blockquote> <p>Due to the conflicting claims from both sects, a clear conclusion cannot be reached on whether the Sthaviras' or the Mahāsāṃghikas' Vinaya was the original Vinaya. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Mahādeva_episode_and_the_"five_points""><span id="The_Mah.C4.81deva_episode_and_the_.22five_points.22"></span>The Mahādeva episode and the "five points"</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Mahādeva episode and the "five points""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The alternative view of what caused the first schism is found in several Sthavira sources including the Theravada <i><a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABpava%E1%B9%83sa" title="Dīpavaṃsa">Dipavamsa</a></i>. According to these sources, some 35 years after the second council, there was another meeting in <a href="/wiki/Pataliputra" title="Pataliputra">Pāṭaliputra</a>. This was called to dispute five points held by a figure named Mahādeva. The five points generally see <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhats</a> as imperfect and fallible. Sthavira sources claim the schism was caused by Mahādeva, who often depicted as an evil figure (who killed his parents). The "five points" describe an arhat as one still characterized by impurity due to being affected by <a href="/wiki/Nocturnal_emission" title="Nocturnal emission">nocturnal emissions</a> (<i>asucisukhavisaṭṭhi</i>), <a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">ignorance</a> (<i>aññāṇa</i>), doubt (<i>kaṅkhā</i>), reaching enlightenment through the guidance of others (<i>paravitāraṇa</i>), and speaking of suffering while in samādhi (<i>vacibheda</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-:5_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the Sthavira accounts, the majority (Mahāsaṃgha) sided with Mahādeva, and a minority of righteous elders (Sthaviras) were opposed to it, thus causing the first schism in the Buddhist community. According to this account, Mahadeva was criticized and opposed by Sthavira elders, and he eventually went on to become the founder of the Mahāsāṃghika school. Mahasamghika sources do not claim Mahadeva as a founder and do not agree with this account. As such, most scholars think that the Mahādeva incident was a later event and that it was not the root cause of the first schism.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vasumitra's <i>Samayabhedoparacanacakra</i> (a <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> source) claims the dispute in <a href="/wiki/Patna" title="Patna">Pātaliputra</a> that led to the first schism was over the five heretical points of Mahādeva which degrades the attainment of arhats.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These same points are discussed and condemned in the Theravadin <i><a href="/wiki/Kathavatthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kathavatthu">Kathavatthu</a></i>. The later <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivāda</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Mahavibhasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavibhasa">Mahavibhasa</a></i> develops this story into against the Mahasanghika founder, <a href="/wiki/Mahadeva_(Buddhism)" title="Mahadeva (Buddhism)">Mahādeva</a>. According to this version of events, the king ends up supporting the Mahasanghikas. This version of events emphasizes the purity of the <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kasmiri</a> Sarvastivadins, who are portrayed as descended from the arahants who fled the persecution of Mahādeva and, led by <a href="/wiki/Upagupta" title="Upagupta">Upagupta</a>, established themselves in <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Samayabhedoparacanacakra</i> also records a 'Mahādeva' who seems to be a completely different figure who was the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Caitika" title="Caitika">Caitika</a> sect over 200 years later.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars have concluded that an association of "Mahādeva" with the first schism was a later sectarian interpolation based on much later events.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jan Nattier and Charles Prebish argue that the five points of Mahadeva are unlikely to have been the cause of the first schism and see this event as "emerging in a historical period considerably later than previously supposed and taking his place in the sectarian movement by instigating an internal schism within the already existing Mahāsāṃghika school."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theravada_accounts_of_a_third_council">Theravada accounts of a third council</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Theravada accounts of a third council"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_(9241725897).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_%289241725897%29.jpg/220px-Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_%289241725897%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_%289241725897%29.jpg/330px-Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_%289241725897%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_%289241725897%29.jpg/440px-Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_014_King_Asoka_at_the_Third_Council_%289241725897%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3021" data-file-height="1811" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Asoka" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Asoka">Emperor Asoka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moggaliputta-Tissa" title="Moggaliputta-Tissa">Moggaliputta-Tissa</a> at the Third Buddhist Council, at the Nava Jetavana, Shravasti</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brahmi_script_on_Ashoka_Pillar,_Sarnath.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Brahmi_script_on_Ashoka_Pillar%2C_Sarnath.jpg/220px-Brahmi_script_on_Ashoka_Pillar%2C_Sarnath.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Brahmi_script_on_Ashoka_Pillar%2C_Sarnath.jpg/330px-Brahmi_script_on_Ashoka_Pillar%2C_Sarnath.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Brahmi_script_on_Ashoka_Pillar%2C_Sarnath.jpg/440px-Brahmi_script_on_Ashoka_Pillar%2C_Sarnath.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3039" data-file-height="2014" /></a><figcaption>The minor pillar edict of <a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a> discusses divisions in the sangha and how the sangha was unified through the aid of the emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>. Three ‘Minor Pillar Edicts’ (at Sarnath, Sāñchī, and Kosambi) discuss the divisions and unification.</figcaption></figure> <p>Theravada sources contain narratives of a Third council of the Theravara school which occurred during the reign of Ashoka at <a href="/wiki/Pataliputra" title="Pataliputra">Pataliputra</a>, emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka's</a> capital.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the Theravāda commentaries and chronicles, the Third Buddhist Council was convened by the <a href="/wiki/Mauryan_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauryan Empire">Mauryan</a> king <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> at Pātaliputra (today's <a href="/wiki/Patna,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Patna, India">Patna</a>), under the leadership of the elder <a href="/wiki/Moggaliputta_Tissa" class="mw-redirect" title="Moggaliputta Tissa">Moggaliputta Tissa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its objective was to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions and heretical non-buddhists (<a href="/wiki/Tirthika" title="Tirthika">tirthikas</a>) which had only joined because they were attracted by the royal patronage of the sangha. Due to the increased royal support of the sangha, large numbers of faithless, greedy men espousing wrong views tried to join the order improperly and caused many divisions in the sangha. Because of this the third council of one thousand monks were convened, led by Moggaliputtatissa. The emperor himself was in attendance and asked the suspect monks what the Buddha taught. They claimed he taught wrong views such as eternalism, etc., which are condemned in the canonical <i><a href="/wiki/Brahmaj%C4%81la_Sutta" title="Brahmajāla Sutta">Brahmajala Sutta.</a></i> He asked the virtuous monks, and they replied that the Buddha was a "Teacher of Analysis" (<i>Vibhajjavādin</i>), an answer that was confirmed by Moggaliputta Tissa.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Theravadins say that council proceeded to recite the scriptures, adding to the canon Moggaliputta Tissa's own book, the <i><a href="/wiki/Kathavatthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kathavatthu">Kathavatthu</a>,</i> a discussion of various dissenting Buddhist views and the <i><a href="/wiki/Vibhajyav%C4%81da" title="Vibhajyavāda">Vibhajjavādin</a></i> responses to them. Only Theravadin sources mention this text. According to this account, this third council also seems to have led to the split between the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vibhajjav%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibhajjavāda">Vibhajjavāda</a> schools on the issue of the existence of the three times (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)" title="Eternalism (philosophy of time)">temporal eternalism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:3_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This doctrine seems to have been defended by a certain Katyayaniputra, who is seen as the founder of Sarvastivada.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But according to <a href="/wiki/K._L._Dhammajoti" title="K. L. Dhammajoti">K.L. Dhammajoti</a>, the Sarvastivada lineage and the <a href="/wiki/Vibhajyav%C4%81da" title="Vibhajyavāda">Vibhajyavāda</a> lineage of Moggaliputta were already present during the time of Emperor Aśoka.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Ashokan_missions">The Ashokan missions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Ashokan missions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png/220px-Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png/330px-Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png/440px-Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_Missions.png 2x" data-file-width="1252" data-file-height="1284" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Buddhist missions during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Theravada sources mention that another function of this council was to send Buddhist missionaries to various countries in order to spread Buddhism. These reached as far as the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Hellenistic kingdoms</a> in the West (in particular the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a>, and possibly even farther according to the inscriptions left on stone pillars by Ashoka).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Missionaries were also sent to <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> (possibly to neighboring <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a>). The fact that the Buddhist sangha was heavily involved in missionary activities across Asia at the time of Ashoka is well supported by the archeological sources, including numerous Indian inscriptions that match the claims of the Theravada sources.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Mahavamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahavamsa">Mahavamsa</a></i> (XII, 1st paragraph),<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the council and Ashoka sent the following missionaries to various regions:<sup id="cite_ref-PJ_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PJ-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Elder Majjhantika (Sanskrit: Mahyantika) led the mission to <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a></li> <li>Elder Mahadeva led the mission to Mahisamandala (<a href="/wiki/Mysore" title="Mysore">Mysore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>)</li> <li>Elder Rakkhita led the mission to Vanavasi (<a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Yona" title="Yona">Yona</a> (Greek) elder <a href="/wiki/Dharmaraksita" title="Dharmaraksita">Dharmaraksita</a> led the mission to <a href="/wiki/Aparanta" title="Aparanta">Aparantaka</a> ("Western border", consisting of Northern <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kathiawar" title="Kathiawar">Kathiawar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kachch" class="mw-redirect" title="Kachch">Kachch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>).</li> <li>Elder <a href="/wiki/Mahadharmaraksita" title="Mahadharmaraksita">Mahadharmaraksita</a> led the mission to Maharattha (<a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>)</li> <li>Maharakkhita (Maharaksita Thera) led the mission to the country of the <a href="/wiki/Yona" title="Yona">Yona</a> (<a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>), which likely refers to <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactria</a> and maybe the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid realm</a></li> <li>Majjhima Thera led the mission to the Himavant area (northern <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, the foothills of the <a href="/wiki/Himalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Himalaya">Himalayas</a>)</li> <li>Sona Thera and Uttara Thera led missions to <a href="/wiki/Suwannaphum" class="mw-redirect" title="Suwannaphum">Suvannabhumi</a> (somewhere in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, possibly <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>)</li> <li>The elder <a href="/wiki/Mahinda_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Mahinda (Buddhist monk)">Mahinda</a>, along with Utthiya, Ittiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala his disciples went to Lankadipa (<a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>)</li></ul> <p>Some of these missions were very successful, such as the ones which established Buddhism in <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sinhalese Buddhism</a> would continue to be major influential traditions for generations after. Regarding the missions to the Mediterranean <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Hellenistic kingdoms</a>, they seemed to have been less successful. However, some scholars hold that it is possible some Buddhist communities were established for a limited time in Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, and this may have been the origin of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Therapeutae" title="Therapeutae">Therapeutae</a> sect mentioned by some ancient sources like <a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Philo of Alexandria">Philo of Alexandria</a> (c. 20 BCE – 50 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Religious scholar Ullrich R. Kleinhempel argues that the most likely candidate for the religion of the Therapeutae is indeed <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_two_"fourth_councils""><span id="The_two_.22fourth_councils.22"></span>The two "fourth councils"</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The two "fourth councils""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the time of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Buddhist_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Buddhist Council">Fourth Buddhist Councils</a>, Buddhism had splintered into different schools in different regions of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. Scholars have also questioned the historicity of these councils. <a href="/wiki/David_Snellgrove" title="David Snellgrove">David Snellgrove</a> considers the Theravada account of the Third Council and the Sarvastivada account of the Fourth Council "equally tendentious," illustrating the uncertain veracity of much of these histories.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Milindapanho, a non-canonical Pali Buddhist text, is a dialogue between King <a href="/wiki/Milinda" class="mw-redirect" title="Milinda">Milinda</a> and Venerable <a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a> from the 2nd century B.C. It remains widely read in Buddhist regions. The Fourth Buddhist Council was held around 100 A.C. in <a href="/wiki/Jalandhara" title="Jalandhara">Jalandhara</a>, Punjab. Notable Buddhist philosophers from Punjab include <a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a>, who wrote many Sanskrit works in the 4th century A.C. Other significant Buddhist teachers from <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a> include <a href="/wiki/Katyayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyayana">Katyayana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parsva" class="mw-redirect" title="Parsva">Parsva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasumitra" title="Vasumitra">Vasumitra</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Manortha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Manortha (page does not exist)">Manortha</a> (1st century A.C.), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kumarlata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kumarlata (page does not exist)">Kumarlata</a> (3rd century A.C.), and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vinitiprabha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vinitiprabha (page does not exist)">Vinitiprabha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chandravarma" class="mw-redirect" title="Chandravarma">Chandravarma</a> (7th century A.C.).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sinhalese_Theravāda_Council_(Fourth_Theravāda_Council)"><span id="Sinhalese_Therav.C4.81da_Council_.28Fourth_Therav.C4.81da_Council.29"></span>Sinhalese Theravāda Council (Fourth Theravāda Council)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sinhalese Theravāda Council (Fourth Theravāda Council)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The Southern <a href="/wiki/Therav%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravāda">Theravāda</a> school had a Fourth Buddhist Council in the first century BCE in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> at <a href="/wiki/Aluvihare_Rock_Temple" title="Aluvihare Rock Temple">Alu Vihāra</a> (Aloka Leṇa) during the time of King <a href="/w/index.php?title=Va%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADagamin%C4%AB_Abhaya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vaṭṭagaminī Abhaya (page does not exist)">Vattagamani-Abhaya</a> also known as <a href="/wiki/Valagamba_of_Anuradhapura" class="mw-redirect" title="Valagamba of Anuradhapura">Valagamba</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-el_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-el-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/K._R._Norman" title="K. R. Norman">K. R. Norman</a> there is a major discrepancy between the sources which cite the death of Valagamba of Anuradhapura as occurring in 77 BCE and his supposed patronization of the effort to commit the Buddhist oral traditions to writing in the period 29 to 17 BCE. Norman writes:</p><blockquote><p>The Dipavamsa states that during the reign of Valagamba (Vattagamani Abhaya) (29–17 BCE) the monks who had previously remembered the Tipitaka and its commentary orally, wrote them down in books, because of the threat posed by famine and war.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mahavamsa also refers briefly to the writing down of the canon and the commentaries at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Valagamba is also associated with patronizing the site of <a href="/wiki/Abhayagiri_Vih%C4%81ra" title="Abhayagiri Vihāra">Abhayagiri</a>, building the stupa there and offering it to Kuppikala Mahatissa thero.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sw_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sw-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This seems to have caused a dispute between Abhayagiri and the monks of the <a href="/wiki/Anuradhapura_Maha_Viharaya" title="Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya">Mahavihara monastery</a> (the ancient Theravada lineage).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whatever the case, the sources state that a council was held at <a href="/wiki/Aluvihare_Rock_Temple" title="Aluvihare Rock Temple">the cave temple of Alu Vihāra</a> in response to <a href="/wiki/Beminitiya_Seya" title="Beminitiya Seya">Beminitiya Seya</a>. Because at this time the Pali texts were strictly an <a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">oral literature</a> maintained in several <a href="/wiki/Recension" title="Recension">recensions</a> by <i>dhammabhāṇaka</i>s (<a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a> reciters), the surviving monks recognized the danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the monks whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the Canon for later generations died, the teachings would not be lost.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kashmiri_Sarvāstivāda"><span id="Kashmiri_Sarv.C4.81stiv.C4.81da"></span>Kashmiri Sarvāstivāda</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Kashmiri Sarvāstivāda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kanishka-Inaugurates-Mahyana-Buddhism.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Kanishka-Inaugurates-Mahyana-Buddhism.jpg/220px-Kanishka-Inaugurates-Mahyana-Buddhism.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Kanishka-Inaugurates-Mahyana-Buddhism.jpg/330px-Kanishka-Inaugurates-Mahyana-Buddhism.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Kanishka-Inaugurates-Mahyana-Buddhism.jpg/440px-Kanishka-Inaugurates-Mahyana-Buddhism.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1876" data-file-height="2531" /></a><figcaption>Emperor Kanishka I</figcaption></figure> <p>Another Fourth Buddhist Council was held by the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a> tradition in the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan empire</a>, and is said to have been convened by the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka I</a> (c. 158–176), in 78 AD at Kundalvana <a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">vihara</a> (Kundalban) in <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exact location of the vihara is presumed to be around Harwan, near <a href="/wiki/Srinagar" title="Srinagar">Srinagar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An alternate theory places its location in the Kuvana monastery in <a href="/wiki/Jalandhar" title="Jalandhar">Jalandhar</a>, though this is improbable.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 4th Buddhist Council was convened by <a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a>, troubled by conflicting doctrines among various sects. He advised with the venerable Pársva, who organized a general assembly of theologians in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kundalabana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kundalabana (page does not exist)">Kundalabana</a> near <a href="/wiki/Srinagar" title="Srinagar">Srinagar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All 500 members were from the Hináyana School. <a href="/wiki/Vasumitra" title="Vasumitra">Vasumitra</a> was elected president, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Asvagho%E1%B9%A3a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asvaghoṣa (page does not exist)">Asvaghoṣa</a> vice-president. They examined ancient theological literature and created detailed commentaries on the Canon's three main divisions. After the council, these commentaries were inscribed on copper sheets and stored in a <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupa</a> built by Kanishka. <a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a> then renewed Asoka's donation of <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> to the church before returning home via the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Baramula_Pass&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baramula Pass (page does not exist)">Baramula Pass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Fourth Council of Kashmir is not recognized as authoritative for the Theravadins. Reports of this council can be found in scriptures which were kept in the <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> tradition. It is said that emperor Kanishka gathered five hundred <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhus</a> in Kashmir, headed by Vasumitra, to systematize the Sarvastivadin canon, which were translated from earlier <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> vernacular languages (such as <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gandhari</a>) into <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>. It is said that during the council three hundred thousand verses and over nine million statements were compiled, a process which took twelve years to complete. <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a> sources also claim that the encyclopedic <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma_Mah%C4%81vibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3a_%C5%9A%C4%81stra" title="Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra">Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra</a> ("Great Abhidharma Commentary")</i> dates to the time of Kanishka. This massive text became the central text of the <a href="/wiki/Vaibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ika" title="Vaibhāṣika">Vaibhāṣika</a> tradition in Kashmir.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a> are no longer extant as an independent school, its <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a> tradition were inherited by the <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> tradition. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dharmarajika_stupa,Taxila.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Dharmarajika_stupa%2CTaxila.jpg/220px-Dharmarajika_stupa%2CTaxila.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Dharmarajika_stupa%2CTaxila.jpg/330px-Dharmarajika_stupa%2CTaxila.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Dharmarajika_stupa%2CTaxila.jpg/440px-Dharmarajika_stupa%2CTaxila.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3897" data-file-height="2493" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Dharmarajika_Stupa" title="Dharmarajika Stupa">Dharmarajika Stupa</a> and monastery ruins, a major Buddhist site in <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">Taxila</a>, one of the capitals of the Kushan empire</figcaption></figure> <p>The new Vaibhāṣika texts were not accepted by all Sarvāstivādins. Some "Western masters" from Gandhara and Bactria had divergent views which disagreed with the new orthodoxy. These disagreements from the "<a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrantikas</a>" can be seen in later works, such as the *<a href="/wiki/Tattvasiddhi" title="Tattvasiddhi"><i>Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra</i></a> (成實論), the *<i>Abhidharmahṛday</i>a (T no. 1550), and the <i><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmako%C5%9Bak%C4%81rik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhidharmakośakārikā">Abhidharmakośakārikā</a></i> of Vasubandhu.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theravada_Councils_in_Myanmar">Theravada Councils in Myanmar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Theravada Councils in Myanmar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fifth_Burmese_Council_(1871)"><span id="Fifth_Burmese_Council_.281871.29"></span>Fifth Burmese Council (1871)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fifth Burmese Council (1871)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Buddhist_council" title="Fifth Buddhist council">Fifth Buddhist council</a></div> <p>Another Buddhist Council, this time presided by Theravada monks, took place in Mandalay, <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a>, in 1871 in the reign of King <a href="/wiki/Mindon_Min" title="Mindon Min">Mindon</a>. In the Burmese tradition, it is commonly known as the "Fifth Council". The chief objective of this meeting was to recite all the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a> and examine them in minute detail to see if any of them had been altered, distorted or dropped. </p><p>It was presided over by three Elders, the Venerable Mahathera Jagarabhivamsa, the Venerable Narindabhidhaja, and the Venerable Mahathera Sumangalasami in the company of some two thousand four hundred monks (2,400). Their joint <a href="/wiki/Dhamma" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma">Dhamma</a> recitation lasted for five months. It was also the work of this council to approve the entire <a href="/wiki/Tripitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripitaka">Tripitaka</a> inscribed for posterity on seven hundred and twenty-nine marble slabs in the <a href="/wiki/Burmese_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Burmese script">Burmese script</a> before its recitation.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This monumental task was done by the monks and many skilled craftsmen who upon completion of each slab had them housed in beautiful miniature 'pitaka' pagodas on a special site in the grounds of King Mindon's <a href="/wiki/Kuthodaw_Pagoda" title="Kuthodaw Pagoda">Kuthodaw Pagoda</a> at the foot of Mandalay Hill where it and the so-called <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka_tablets_at_Kuthodaw_Pagoda" title="Tripiṭaka tablets at Kuthodaw Pagoda">'largest book in the world'</a>, stands to this day. This council is not generally recognized outside Burma.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sixth_Burmese_Council_(1954)"><span id="Sixth_Burmese_Council_.281954.29"></span>Sixth Burmese Council (1954)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sixth Burmese Council (1954)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Buddhist_council" title="Sixth Buddhist council">Sixth Buddhist council</a></div> <p>The Sixth Council was called at <a href="/wiki/Kaba_Aye" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaba Aye">Kaba Aye</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yangon" title="Yangon">Yangon</a> (formerly Rangoon) in 1954, 83 years after the fifth one was held in Mandalay. It was sponsored by the Burmese Government led by the then Prime Minister, the Honourable <a href="/wiki/U_Nu" title="U Nu">U Nu</a>. He authorized the construction of the Maha Passana Guha, the "great cave", an artificial cave very much like India's Sattapanni Cave where the first Buddhist Council had been held. Upon its completion The Council met on 17 May 1954. </p><p>As in the case of the preceding councils, its first objective was to affirm and preserve the genuine Dhamma and Vinaya. However it was unique insofar as the monks who took part in it came from eight countries. These two thousand five hundred learned Theravada monks came from <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>. <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> can only be counted as the nationality of the only two western monks in attendance: Venerable <a href="/wiki/Nyanatiloka" title="Nyanatiloka">Nyanatiloka</a> Mahathera and Venerable <a href="/wiki/Nyanaponika_Thera" title="Nyanaponika Thera">Nyanaponika Thera</a>. They both were invited from Sri Lanka. The late Venerable <a href="/wiki/Mahasi_Sayadaw" title="Mahasi Sayadaw">Mahasi Sayadaw</a> was appointed the noble task of asking the required questions about the Dhamma of the Venerable <a href="/wiki/Mingun_Sayadaw" title="Mingun Sayadaw">Bhadanta Vicittasarabhivamsa</a> who answered all of them learnedly and satisfactorily. By the time this council met, all the participating countries had had the Pali Tripiṭaka rendered into their native scripts, with the exception of India.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The traditional recitation of the Buddhist Scriptures took two years, and the <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a> and its allied literature in all the scripts were painstakingly examined and their differences noted down and the necessary corrections made and all the versions were then collated. It was found that there was not much difference in the content of any of the texts. Finally, after the council had officially approved them, all of the books of the Tipitaka and their commentaries were prepared for printing on modern presses and published in the <a href="/wiki/Burmese_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Burmese script">Burmese script</a>. This notable achievement was made possible through the dedicated efforts of the two thousand five hundred monks and numerous lay people. Their work came to an end on the evening of <a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a>, 24 May 1956, exactly two and a half millennia after Buddha's <a href="/wiki/Parinibbana" class="mw-redirect" title="Parinibbana">Parinibbana</a>, according to the traditional Theravada dating. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theravada_Councils_in_the_Thai_tradition">Theravada Councils in the Thai tradition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Theravada Councils in the Thai tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Thai Theravada tradition has a different way of counting the history of Buddhist councils and names many other councils besides the ones listed above. A common Thai historical source for the early councils is the <i>Saṅgītiyavaṁsa</i> (c. 1789) by Somdet Wannarat, abbot of <a href="/wiki/Wat_Pho" title="Wat Pho">Wat Pho</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first three councils are the traditional councils in India (1. Rājagaha, 2. Vesālī, 3. Patāliputta). </p><p>The fourth council is seen by the Thai tradition of Buddhist history as having taken place under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Devanampiya_Tissa_of_Anuradhapura" class="mw-redirect" title="Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura">King Devānampiyatissa</a> (247–207 BCE), when Buddhism was first brought to <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>. It was supposed to have been held under the presidency of the Venerable Ariṭṭha, the first pupil of the Elder <a href="/wiki/Mahinda_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Mahinda (Buddhist monk)">Mahinda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is not usually counted as a council in other traditions, but the <i><a href="/wiki/Samantapasadika" title="Samantapasadika">Samantapāsādikā</a></i> does mention a recital at this time. </p><p>The fifth council is that of King <a href="/wiki/Vattagamani_Abhaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Vattagamani Abhaya">Vattagāmanī Abhaya</a>, when the Pali Canon was first put into writing in Sri Lanka in the first century BCE at <a href="/wiki/Aluvihare_Rock_Temple" title="Aluvihare Rock Temple">Āluvihāra</a> under the presidency of Mahātthera Rakkhita.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sixth council, according to the <i>Saṅgītiyavaṁsa</i>, comprises the activities of the Pāli translation of the Sinhalese commentaries, a project that was led by <a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Ācariya Buddhaghosa</a> and involved numerous bhikkhus of the Sri Lankan <a href="/wiki/Mahaviharavasin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahaviharavasin">Mahavihara</a> tradition. </p><p>The seventh council is believed to have taken place during the time of the Sri Lankan king <a href="/wiki/Parakramabahu_I" title="Parakramabahu I">Parākkamabāhu I</a> and presided over by Kassapa Thera in 1176.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this council the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Atthava%E1%B9%87%C2%AD%E1%B9%87%C2%ADa%C2%ADn%C4%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Atthavaṇṇanā (page does not exist)">Atthavaṇṇanā</a> was written, which explains the Pāli translation by Buddhaghosa of the original Sinhalese commentaries. Parākkamabāhu also unified the Sri Lankan sangha into one single Theravada community.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Councils_held_in_Thailand">Councils held in Thailand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Councils held in Thailand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From this point onwards, the Thai tradition focuses on councils held in Thailand which were patronized by the <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand" title="Monarchy of Thailand">Thai monarchy</a>. </p><p>The first of these was held in the Mahābodhārāma at <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Mai" title="Chiang Mai">Chiang Mai</a>, which was attended by several monks. The Mahāthera Dhammadinnā of Tālavana Mahāvihāra (Wat Pā Tān) presided over the council, which was patronized by the King of <a href="/wiki/Lan_Na" title="Lan Na">Lan Na</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tilokaraj" title="Tilokaraj">Tilokaraj</a> (r. 1441–1487). During this council, the orthography of the Thai Pali Canon was corrected and it was rendered into the <a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Lan Na script</a>. This council was held in 1477 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second Thai council was held in <a href="/wiki/Bangkok" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a> from November 13, 1788, to April 10, 1789, under the aegis of King <a href="/wiki/Rama_I" title="Rama I">Rāma I</a> and his brother. It was attended by 250 monks and scholars. A new edition of the Pali Canon was published, the <i>Tipitaka Chabab Tongyai.</i><sup id="cite_ref-:7_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third Thai council was held in 1878 during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Chulalongkorn" title="Chulalongkorn">King Chulalongkorn (Rama V).</a> During this council, the <a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai script</a> was used to make copies of the Pali Canon (instead of a <a href="/wiki/Khom_Thai_script" title="Khom Thai script">modified Khmer script</a>) and the canon was published in modern book form for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next Thai council was held in Bangkok during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Prajadhipok" title="Prajadhipok">Rama VII</a> (1925–1935). This council saw a new edition of the Pali Canon published in the <a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai script</a> which was distributed throughout the country.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/31px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/47px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/62px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Ecumenical council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index of Buddhism-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Fellowship_of_Buddhists" title="World Fellowship of Buddhists">World Fellowship of Buddhists</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://atbu.org/node/24">"The Tradition Of Saṅgīti And Pāḷi Literature | IATBU"</a>. <i>atbu.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=atbu.org&rft.atitle=The+Tradition+Of+Sa%E1%B9%85g%C4%ABti+And+P%C4%81%E1%B8%B7i+Literature+%7C+IATBU&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fatbu.org%2Fnode%2F24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+councils" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLong2021" class="citation book cs1">Long, William J. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PrlxzgEACAAJ"><i>A Buddhist Approach to International Relations: Radical Interdependence</i></a>. Springer International Publishing, Imprint: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-68043-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-68043-5"><bdi>978-3-030-68043-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Buddhist+Approach+to+International+Relations%3A+Radical+Interdependence&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing%2C+Imprint%3A+Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-3-030-68043-5&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPrlxzgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+councils" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frauwallner-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Frauwallner_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrauwallner1956" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Erich_Frauwallner" title="Erich Frauwallner">Frauwallner, Erich</a> (1956). <i>The Earliest Vinaya and the Beginnings of Buddhist Literature</i>. 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Brill, Handbuch Der Orientalistik.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rec700-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rec700_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rec700_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rec700_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rec700_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://suttacentral.net/">"SuttaCentral"</a>. <i>SuttaCentral</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Abhinav Publications</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_councils&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuswellLopez2013" class="citation cs2">Buswell, Robert E. 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Istas</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+conciles+bouddhiques&rft.pub=Louvain%2C+J.B.+Istas&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=de+La+Vall%C3%A9e+Poussin&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+councils" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_La_Vallée_Poussin1976" class="citation cs2">de La Vallée Poussin, Louis (1976), <i>The Buddhist Councils</i>, Calcutt : K.P. Bagchi</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Buddhist+Councils&rft.pub=Calcutt+%3A+K.P.+Bagchi&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=de+La+Vall%C3%A9e+Poussin&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+councils" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaw1940" class="citation cs2">Law, B.C. (1940), <i>The Debates Commentary</i>, Pali Text Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Debates+Commentary&rft.pub=Pali+Text+Society.&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Law&rft.aufirst=B.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+councils" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrebish2005" class="citation cs2">Prebish, Charles S. (2005) [1974], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151020042656/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhism_Critical%20Concepts%20in%20Religious%20Studies_Paul-Williams_Vol_1.pdf">"Review of Scholarship on Buddhist Councils"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, in Williams, Paul (ed.), <i>Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, 1: Early History in South and Southeast Asia</i>, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, pp. 224–43, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-33227-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-33227-3"><bdi>0-415-33227-3</bdi></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Buddhism_Critical%20Concepts%20in%20Religious%20Studies_Paul-Williams_Vol_1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 20 October 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Review+of+Scholarship+on+Buddhist+Councils&rft.btitle=Buddhism%3A+Critical+Concepts+in+Religious+Studies%2C+1%3A+Early+History+in+South+and+Southeast+Asia&rft.pages=224-43&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-415-33227-3&rft.aulast=Prebish&rft.aufirst=Charles+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahandfulofleaves.org%2Fdocuments%2FBuddhism_Critical%2520Concepts%2520in%2520Religious%2520Studies_Paul-Williams_Vol_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+councils" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrebish" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Gombrich" title="Richard Gombrich">Prebish, Charles S.</a>, <i>Mahasamghika Origins History of Religions, pp. 237–272.</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mahasamghika+Origins+History+of+Religions%2C+pp.+237%E2%80%93272.&rft.aulast=Prebish&rft.aufirst=Charles+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABuddhist+councils" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/25px-Buddhism_Symbol.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/38px-Buddhism_Symbol.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/50px-Buddhism_Symbol.png 2x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="278" /></a></span>   Topics in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>   <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/25px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/38px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/50px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna <small>(father)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā <small>(mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī<small> (aunt, adoptive mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā <small>(wife)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula <small>(son)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda <small>(cousin)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta <small>(cousin)</small></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern,_Eastern_and_Northern_Buddhism" title="Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism">Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism" title="Huichang persecution of Buddhism">Huichang persecution of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Texts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">In Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">In Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rim%C3%A9_movement" title="Rimé movement">Rimé movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement" title="Dalit Buddhist movement">Dalit Buddhist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">Chinese invasion of Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">The unanswerable questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">Vihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_hall" title="Ordination hall">Ordination hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">List of Buddhist architecture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture" title="Japanese Buddhist architecture">Japanese Buddhist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Korea" title="Buddhist temples in Korea">Buddhist temples in Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_temple_art_and_architecture" title="Thai temple art and architecture">Thai temple art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_architecture" title="Tibetan Buddhist architecture">Tibetan Buddhist architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhi_Tree" title="Bodhi Tree">Bodhi Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_funeral" title="Buddhist funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Asalha Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi" title="Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(clothing)" title="Kasaya (clothing)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama_yumi" title="Hama yumi">Hama yumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">Prayer wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_symbolism" title="Buddhist symbolism">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharmachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth" title="Temple of the Tooth">Temple of the Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">Abhijñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_talk" title="Dharma talk">Dharma talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhi" title="Iddhi">Iddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(Buddhism)" title="Lineage (Buddhism)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Māra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">Siddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāḷi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Comparative_Buddhism" title="Category:Comparative Buddhism">Comparison</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Buddhism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Buddhism">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Buddhism and Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_influences_on_Christianity" title="Buddhist influences on Christianity">Influences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity">Comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Eastern_religions" title="Buddhism and Eastern religions">East Asian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Gnosticism" title="Buddhism and Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Jainism" title="Buddhism and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Theosophy" title="Buddhism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_violence" title="Buddhism and violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Western_philosophy" title="Buddhism and Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism-related_lists" title="Category:Buddhism-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bodhisattvas" title="List of bodhisattvas">Bodhisattvas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhas">Buddhas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suttas" title="List of suttas">Suttas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_temples" title="List of Buddhist temples">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_festivals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Buddhist festivals">Festivals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td 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