CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Political repression in the Soviet Union - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"a2ad6160-312f-4530-bf78-ce7e3615769d","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union","wgTitle":"Political repression in the Soviet Union","wgCurRevisionId":1257940879,"wgRevisionId":1257940879,"wgArticleId":2252692,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2011","CS1 German-language sources (de)","Harv and Sfn no-target errors","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011", "All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from January 2011","Articles containing Russian-language text","CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","CS1 uses Russian-language script (ru)","Commons category link from Wikidata","Political repression in the Soviet Union","Political and cultural purges","Persecution of dissidents in the Soviet Union","Commemoration of communist crimes","Murder in the Soviet Union"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union","wgRelevantArticleId":2252692,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0, "wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":60000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q2991155","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options": "loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.tablesorter.styles":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.tablesorter","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface", "ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cjquery.tablesorter.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Political repression in the Soviet Union - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union rootpage-Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Political+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Political+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Political+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Political+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_and_early_Soviet_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_and_early_Soviet_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Origins and early Soviet times</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_and_early_Soviet_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Red_Terror" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Red_Terror"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Red Terror</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Red_Terror-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collectivization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collectivization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Collectivization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collectivization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Purge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Purge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Great Purge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Purge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-LGBT_persecution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#LGBT_persecution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>LGBT persecution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-LGBT_persecution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_transfers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_transfers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Population transfers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_transfers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gulag" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gulag"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Gulag</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gulag-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Repressions_in_annexed_territories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Repressions_in_annexed_territories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Repressions in annexed territories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Repressions_in_annexed_territories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Repressions in annexed territories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Repressions_in_annexed_territories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Baltic_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baltic_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Baltic States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baltic_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Romania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Stalin_era_(1953–1991)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Stalin_era_(1953–1991)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Post-Stalin era (1953–1991)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Stalin_era_(1953–1991)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Loss of life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remembering_the_victims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remembering_the_victims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Remembering the victims</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remembering_the_victims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Political repression in the Soviet Union</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="القمع السياسي في الاتحاد السوفيتي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="القمع السياسي في الاتحاد السوفيتي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovet_%C4%B0ttifaq%C4%B1nda_siyasi_repressiyalar" title="Sovet İttifaqında siyasi repressiyalar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sovet İttifaqında siyasi repressiyalar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8D%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%81%D1%96%D1%96_%D1%9E_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0" title="Рэпрэсіі ў СССР – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рэпрэсіі ў СССР" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D1%8A%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%8A%D1%8E%D0%B7" title="Политически репресии в Съветския съюз – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Политически репресии в Съветския съюз" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repressi%C3%B3_pol%C3%ADtica_a_la_Uni%C3%B3_Sovi%C3%A8tica" title="Repressió política a la Unió Soviètica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Repressió política a la Unió Soviètica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Represi%C3%B3n_pol%C3%ADtica_en_la_Uni%C3%B3n_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Represión política en la Unión Soviética – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Represión política en la Unión Soviética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9pression_politique_en_Union_sovi%C3%A9tique" title="Répression politique en Union soviétique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Répression politique en Union soviétique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A2%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B3%D5%B6%D5%B7%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80_%D4%BD%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B0%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Քաղաքական բռնաճնշումներ Խորհրդային Միությունում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քաղաքական բռնաճնշումներ Խորհրդային Միությունում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penindasan_politik_di_Uni_Soviet" title="Penindasan politik di Uni Soviet – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penindasan politik di Uni Soviet" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%AD%E1%83%9D%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98" title="პოლიტიკური რეპრესიები საბჭოთა კავშირში – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პოლიტიკური რეპრესიები საბჭოთა კავშირში" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repress%C3%A3o_pol%C3%ADtica_na_Uni%C3%A3o_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Repressão política na União Soviética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Repressão política na União Soviética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Represiunea_politic%C4%83_%C3%AEn_Uniunea_Sovietic%C4%83" title="Represiunea politică în Uniunea Sovietică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Represiunea politică în Uniunea Sovietică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%B2_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0" title="Политические репрессии в СССР – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Политические репрессии в СССР" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politi%C4%8Dna_represija_v_Sovjetski_zvezi" title="Politična represija v Sovjetski zvezi – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Politična represija v Sovjetski zvezi" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%98%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D1%83" title="Политичка репресија у Совјетском Савезу – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Политичка репресија у Совјетском Савезу" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovyetler_Birli%C4%9Fi%27nde_siyasi_bask%C4%B1lar" title="Sovyetler Birliği'nde siyasi baskılar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sovyetler Birliği'nde siyasi baskılar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2991155#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&oldid=1257940879" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&id=1257940879&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPolitical_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPolitical_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2991155" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border-collapse: collapse;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Mass repression<br />in the Soviet Union</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#E9E9E9;padding:0.1em 0;;font-size:95%;"> Economic repression</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">War communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">Dekulakization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Kazakh famine of 1930–1933">Kazakhstan</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#E9E9E9;padding:0.1em 0;;font-size:95%;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political repression</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purges_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Purges of the Communist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Punitive psychiatry</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#E9E9E9;padding:0.1em 0;;font-size:95%;"> <a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-religious_campaign_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Anti-religious campaign during the Russian Civil War">1917–1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1921%E2%80%931928)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)">1921–1928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1928%E2%80%931941)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)">1928–1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1958%E2%80%931964)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964)">1958–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1970s%E2%80%931987)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1970s–1987)">1975–1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Islam in the Soviet Union">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-religious_legislation" title="Soviet anti-religious legislation">Legislation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Repression of science in the Soviet Union">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Images</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhdanov_Doctrine" title="Zhdanov Doctrine">Art</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#E9E9E9;padding:0.1em 0;;font-size:95%;"> Ethnic repression</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De-Cossackization" title="De-Cossackization">De-Cossackization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_operations_of_the_NKVD" title="Mass operations of the NKVD">National operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_repressions_of_Polish_citizens_(1939%E2%80%931946)" title="Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)">Repressions of Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Ukrainian_language_suppression" title="Chronology of Ukrainian language suppression">Ukrainian language suppression</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding:0 0.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template:Repression in the Soviet Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template talk:Repression in the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Repression in the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Throughout the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">history of the Soviet Union</a>, tens of millions of people suffered <a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">political repression</a>, which was an instrument of the state since the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>. It culminated during the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">Stalin era</a>, then declined, but it continued to exist during the "<a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a>", followed by increased persecution of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissidents</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Brezhnev era</a>, and it did not cease to exist until late in <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev's</a> rule when it was ended in keeping with his policies of <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_and_early_Soviet_times">Origins and early Soviet times</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins and early Soviet times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics of the Soviet Union</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1956%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/120px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/240px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="605" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">  </td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Leadership</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice President of the Soviet Union">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Council of the Soviet Union">State Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Council_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Presidential Council of the Soviet Union">Presidential Council</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">History</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgburo" title="Orgburo">Orgburo</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Legislature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Executive_Committee_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union">Central Executive Committee</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_of_the_Union" title="Soviet of the Union">Soviet of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_of_Nationalities" title="Soviet of Nationalities">Soviet of Nationalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidium_of_the_Supreme_Soviet" title="Presidium of the Supreme Soviet">Presidium</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union#Chairmen_of_the_Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1989–1990)" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Speaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Soviet_Union_legislative_election" title="1989 Soviet Union legislative election">1989 Legislative election</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Governance</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Official_names_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Official names of the Soviet Union">Official names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1924 Soviet Constitution">1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Soviet Constitution">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Soviet_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="1977 Soviet Constitution">1977</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministries_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ministries of the Soviet Union">Ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Committee_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Committee of the Soviet Union">State Committees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of governments of the Soviet Union">Cabinets</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premiership</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">Deputy Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrator_of_Affairs_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Administrator of Affairs of the Soviet Union">Administrator of Affairs</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Judiciary</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Military Collegium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Court_(Soviet_Union)" title="People's Court (Soviet Union)">People's Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procurator_General_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Procurator General of the Soviet Union">Procurator General</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Ideology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_democracy" title="Soviet democracy">Soviet democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchevism" class="mw-redirect" title="Khrushchevism">Khrushchevism</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Stalinization" title="De-Stalinization">De-Stalinization</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Society</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_goods_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Consumer goods in the Soviet Union">Consumer goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union">Five-Year Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">Kosygin reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_balance_planning" title="Material balance planning">Material balance planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_communism" title="War communism">War communism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Education in the Soviet Union">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Family in the Soviet Union">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_phraseology" title="Soviet phraseology">Phraseology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Repression</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a> <div class="hlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template:Politics of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Template talk:Politics of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of the Soviet Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Secret police had a long history in Tsarist Russia. <a href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan the Terrible</a> used the <a href="/wiki/Oprichnina" title="Oprichnina">Oprichina</a>, while more recently the <a href="/wiki/Third_Section_of_His_Imperial_Majesty%27s_Own_Chancellery" title="Third Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery">Third Section</a> and <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">Okhrana</a> existed. </p><p>Early on, the <a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninist</a> view of the <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class conflict</a> and the resulting notion of the <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat" title="Dictatorship of the proletariat">dictatorship of the proletariat</a> provided the theoretical basis of the repressions. Its legal basis was formalized into the <a href="/wiki/Article_58_(RSFSR_Penal_Code)" title="Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)">Article 58</a> in the code of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a> and similar articles for other <a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Soviet republics</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>According to the Marxist historian <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Liebman" title="Marcel Liebman">Marcel Liebman</a>, Lenin's wartime measures such as banning opposition parties was prompted by the fact that several political parties either <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_uprisings_against_the_Bolsheviks" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks">took up arms</a> against the new <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Soviet government</a>, or participated in sabotage, <a href="/wiki/Collaborationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborationism">collaborated</a> with the deposed <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Tsarists</a>, or made <a href="/wiki/Assassination_attempts_on_Vladimir_Lenin" title="Assassination attempts on Vladimir Lenin">assassination attempts against Lenin</a> and other Bolshevik leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-Leninism_Under_Lenin_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leninism_Under_Lenin-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Liebman noted that opposition parties such as the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Democratic_Party" title="Constitutional Democratic Party">Cadets</a> who were democratically elected to the Soviets in some areas, then proceeded to use their mandate to welcome in Tsarist and <a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">foreign capitalist military forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leninism_Under_Lenin_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leninism_Under_Lenin-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/26_Baku_Commissars" title="26 Baku Commissars">In one incident in Baku</a>, the British military, once invited in, proceeded to execute members of the Bolshevik Party who had peacefully stood down from the Soviet when they failed to win the elections. As a result, the Bolsheviks banned each opposition party when it turned against the Soviet government. In some cases, bans were lifted. This banning of parties did not have the same repressive character as later bans enforced under the <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinist</a> regime.<sup id="cite_ref-Leninism_Under_Lenin_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leninism_Under_Lenin-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trotsky also argued that he and Lenin had intended to lift the ban on the <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of political parties in the Soviet Union">opposition parties</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Mensheviks" title="Mensheviks">Mensheviks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist Revolutionaries">Socialist Revolutionaries</a> as soon as the economic and social conditions of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Russia">Soviet Russia</a> had improved.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At times, the repressed were called the <a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">enemies of the people</a>. Punishments by the state included <a href="/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary executions</a>, sending innocent people to <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forced_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced settlements in the Soviet Union">forced resettlement</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lishenets" title="Lishenets">stripping of citizen's rights</a>. Repression was conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a> secret police and <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">its successors</a>, and other state organs. Periods of increased repression include the <a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a>, <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purges</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_Plot" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctors' Plot">Doctors' Plot</a>, and others. The <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a> forces conducted <a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres" title="NKVD prisoner massacres">massacres of prisoners</a> on numerous occasions. Repression took place in the Soviet republics and in the territories occupied by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a> during and following <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_states" title="Baltic states">Baltic states</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (January 2011)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>State repression led to incidents of popular resistance, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tambov_Rebellion" title="Tambov Rebellion">Tambov peasant rebellion</a> (1920–1921), the <a href="/wiki/Kronstadt_rebellion" title="Kronstadt rebellion">Kronstadt rebellion</a> (1921), and the <a href="/wiki/Vorkuta_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Vorkuta Uprising">Vorkuta Uprising</a> (1953); the Soviet authorities suppressed such resistance with overwhelming military force and brutality. During the Tambov rebellion, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Tukhachevsky" title="Mikhail Tukhachevsky">Mikhail Tukhachevsky</a> (chief <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> commander in the area) authorized <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolshevik</a> military forces to use <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weapons">chemical weapons</a> against villages with civilian population and rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayer2002395Werth1999117_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayer2002395Werth1999117-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Publications in local Communist newspapers openly glorified liquidations of "bandits" with the poison gas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiges1997768Pipes2011387–401_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiges1997768Pipes2011387–401-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Internal_Troops" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal Troops">Internal Troops</a> of the Cheka and the Red Army practiced the <a href="/wiki/Tactics_of_terrorism" title="Tactics of terrorism">terror tactics</a> of taking and executing numerous hostages, often in connection with desertions of forcefully mobilized peasants. According to <a href="/wiki/Orlando_Figes" title="Orlando Figes">Orlando Figes</a>, more than 1 million people deserted from the Red Army in 1918, around 2 million people deserted in 1919, and almost 4 million deserters escaped from the Red Army in 1921.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiges1997Chapter_13_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiges1997Chapter_13-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1919, 612 "hardcore" deserters of the total 837,000 draft dodgers and <a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">deserters</a> were executed following Trotsky's dracionan measures.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Figes, "a majority of deserters (most registered as "weak-willed") were handed back to the military authorities, and formed into units for transfer to one of the rear armies or directly to the front". Even those registered as "malicious" deserters were returned to the ranks when the demand for reinforcements became desperate". Forges also noted that the Red Army instituted <a href="/wiki/Amnesty" title="Amnesty">amnesty</a> weeks to prohibit punitive measures against desertion which encouraged the voluntary return of 98,000-132,000 deserters to the army.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For a long time historians assumed that the destruction of the officer cadre of the Red Army happened during Stalin's <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a>. However new data that emerged on the break of the 21st century radically changed this perception, <sup id="cite_ref-zs-vesna_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zs-vesna-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the information was uncovered about the so-called <a href="/wiki/Vesna_Case" title="Vesna Case">Vesna Case</a>, a massive series of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_political_repressions" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet political repressions">Soviet repressions</a> targeting <a href="/wiki/Tsarist_officers_in_the_Red_Army" title="Tsarist officers in the Red Army">former officers and generals of the Russian Imperial Army</a> who had served in the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a>, a major <a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">purge</a> of the Red Army during 1930-1931. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Red_Terror">Red Terror</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Red Terror"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_terror_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Red_terror_001.jpg/220px-Red_terror_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Red_terror_001.jpg/330px-Red_terror_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Red_terror_001.jpg/440px-Red_terror_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="351" /></a><figcaption>Corpses of hostages executed by <a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a> in 1918 in the basement of Tulpanov's house in <a href="/wiki/Kherson" title="Kherson">Kherson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Communism" title="The Black Book of Communism">The Black Book of Communism</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_terror_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Red_terror_002.jpg/220px-Red_terror_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Red_terror_002.jpg/330px-Red_terror_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Red_terror_002.jpg/440px-Red_terror_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="356" /></a><figcaption>Corpses of people executed by Cheka in 1918 at a yard in <a href="/wiki/Kharkiv" title="Kharkiv">Kharkiv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrainian SSR">Ukrainian SSR</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Communism" title="The Black Book of Communism">The Black Book of Communism</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In his book, <i><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_Communism:_A_Reply_to_Karl_Kautsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorism and Communism: A Reply to Karl Kautsky">Terrorism and Communism: A Reply to Karl Kautsky</a>,</i> Trotsky also argued that the reign of terror began with the White Terror under the White Guard forces and the Bolsheviks responded with the Red Terror.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no consensus among the Western historians on the number of deaths from the Red Terror in <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Soviet Russia</a>. One source gives estimates of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan20122_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan20122-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates for the number of people shot during the initial period of the Red Terror are at least 10,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan2012114_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan2012114-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates for the whole period go for a low of 50,000<sup id="cite_ref-anatomy_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anatomy-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to highs of 140,000<sup id="cite_ref-anatomy_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anatomy-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 200,000 executed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELowe2002151_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELowe2002151-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most estimations for the number of executions in total put the number at about 100,000.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, social scientist Nikolay Zayats from the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_Belarus" title="National Academy of Sciences of Belarus">National Academy of Sciences of Belarus</a> has argued that the figures have been greatly exaggerated due to <a href="/wiki/White_Army" title="White Army">White Army</a> propaganda.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Vadim Erlikhman's investigation, the number of the Red Terror's victims is at least 1,200,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Robert Conquest</a>, a total of 140,000 people were shot in 1917–1922.<sup id="cite_ref-Conquest_2007_in_Preface,_p._xvi:_Exact_numbers_may_never_be_known_with_complete_certainty,_but_the_total_of_deaths_caused_by_the_whole_range_of_Soviet_regime's_terrors_can_hardly_be_lower_than_some_fifteen_million._28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conquest_2007_in_Preface,_p._xvi:_Exact_numbers_may_never_be_known_with_complete_certainty,_but_the_total_of_deaths_caused_by_the_whole_range_of_Soviet_regime's_terrors_can_hardly_be_lower_than_some_fifteen_million.-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Candidate of Historical Sciences Nikolay Zayats states that the number of people shot by the Cheka in 1918–1922 is about 37,300 people, shot in 1918–1921 by the verdicts of the tribunals—14,200, i.e. about 50,000–55,000 people in total, although executions and atrocities were not limited to the Cheka, having been organized by the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> as well.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1924, anti-Bolshevik <a href="/wiki/Popular_Socialists_(Russia)" title="Popular Socialists (Russia)">Popular Socialist</a> <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Melgunov" title="Sergei Melgunov">Sergei Melgunov</a> (1879–1956) published a detailed account on the Red Terror in Russia, where he cited Professor <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sarol%C3%A9a" title="Charles Saroléa">Charles Saroléa</a>'s estimates of 1,766,188 deaths from the Bolshevik policies. He questioned the accuracy of the figures, but endorsed Saroléa's "characterisation of terror in Russia", stating it matches reality.<sup id="cite_ref-lib.ru_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lib.ru-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Перевощиков_А_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Перевощиков_А-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern historian Sergei Volkov, assessing the Red Terror as the entire repressive policy of the Bolsheviks during the years of the Civil War (1917–1922), estimates the direct death toll of the Red Terror at 2 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-Перевощиков_А_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Перевощиков_А-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Volkov's calculations, however, do not appear to have been confirmed by other major scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Collectivization">Collectivization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Collectivization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization in the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_79113_Seizing_grain_from_kulaks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/RIAN_archive_79113_Seizing_grain_from_kulaks.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_79113_Seizing_grain_from_kulaks.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/RIAN_archive_79113_Seizing_grain_from_kulaks.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_79113_Seizing_grain_from_kulaks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/RIAN_archive_79113_Seizing_grain_from_kulaks.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_79113_Seizing_grain_from_kulaks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="687" /></a><figcaption>The contemporary caption says "<a href="/wiki/Komsomol" title="Komsomol">YCLers</a> seizing grain from <a href="/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">kulaks</a> which was hidden in the graveyard, Ukraine, 1930." At the height of collectivization anyone resisting it was declared a "kulak"</figcaption></figure> <p>Collectivization in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> was a policy, pursued between 1928 and 1933, to consolidate individual land and labour into <a href="/wiki/Collective_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective farm">collective farms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">колхо́з</span>, <i><a href="/wiki/Kolkhoz" title="Kolkhoz">kolkhoz</a></i>, plural <i>kolkhozy</i>). The Soviet leaders were confident that the replacement of individual peasant farms by kolkhozy would immediately increase food supplies for the urban population, the supply of raw materials for processing industry, and agricultural exports generally. Collectivization was thus regarded as the solution to the crisis in agricultural distribution (mainly in grain deliveries) that had developed since 1927 and was becoming more acute as the Soviet Union pressed ahead with its ambitious industrialization program.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the peasantry, with the exception of the poorest part, resisted the collectivization policy, the Soviet government resorted to harsh measures to force the farmers to collectivize. In his conversation with <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, Joseph Stalin gave his estimate of the number of "<a href="/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">kulaks</a>" who were repressed for resisting <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Soviet collectivization</a> as 10 million, including those forcibly deported.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent historians have estimated the death toll in the range of six to 13 million.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Great_Purge">Great Purge</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Great Purge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1937_mass_execution_of_Belarusians" title="1937 mass execution of Belarusians">1937 mass execution of Belarusians</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vinnycia16.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Vinnycia16.jpg/220px-Vinnycia16.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Vinnycia16.jpg/330px-Vinnycia16.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Vinnycia16.jpg/440px-Vinnycia16.jpg 2x" data-file-width="916" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption>People of <a href="/wiki/Vinnytsia" title="Vinnytsia">Vinnytsia</a> searching through the exhumed victims of the <a href="/wiki/Vinnytsia_massacre" title="Vinnytsia massacre">Vinnytsia massacre</a>, 1943</figcaption></figure> <p>The Great Purge (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Большой террор</span>, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">transliterated</a> <i>Bolshoy terror</i>, <i>The Great Terror</i>) was a series of campaigns of <a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">political repression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">persecution</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> orchestrated by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> in 1937–1938.<sup id="cite_ref-Figes_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Figes-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Social_Catastrophe_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Social_Catastrophe-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It involved the <a href="/wiki/Purge_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Purge of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">purge of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>, repression of <a href="/wiki/Kulaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulaks">peasants</a>, deportations of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic minorities">ethnic minorities</a>, and the persecution of unaffiliated persons, characterized by widespread police surveillance, widespread suspicion of "saboteurs", imprisonment, and killings.<sup id="cite_ref-Figes_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Figes-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of the number of deaths associated with the Great Purge run from the official figure of 681,692 to nearly 1,2 million.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="LGBT_persecution">LGBT persecution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: LGBT persecution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On September 15, 1933, the deputy head of the <a href="/wiki/Joint_State_Political_Directorate" title="Joint State Political Directorate">OGPU</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genrikh_Yagoda" title="Genrikh Yagoda">Genrikh Yagoda</a> reported to <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> about the disclosure of the "conspiracy of the homosexual community" in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leningrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad">Leningrad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kharkiv" title="Kharkiv">Kharkiv</a>. As Yagoda pointed out in the explanatory note, "the conspirators were engaged in the creation of a network of salons and other organized formations, with the subsequent transformation of these associations into direct spy cells".<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stalin ordered "to punish the scumbags" in a demonstrative way, and to introduce a corresponding directive into the legislation. At the first stage, about 130 people were arrested who gave the necessary confessions under torture, and on December 17, 1933, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR decided to extend criminal liability to "unnatural relationship". The article was added to the Criminal Code of the RSFSR on April 1, 1934 in the section "sexual crimes" under number 154-a. "Voluntary" sexual intercourse between two men was sentenced to three to five years in the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">camps</a>, and for "cohabitation" with the use of violence - from five to eight.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nikolay_Klyuev_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nikolay_Klyuev_2.jpg/220px-Nikolay_Klyuev_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nikolay_Klyuev_2.jpg/330px-Nikolay_Klyuev_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nikolay_Klyuev_2.jpg/440px-Nikolay_Klyuev_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1410" data-file-height="937" /></a><figcaption>Klyuev after the arrest</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Klyuev" title="Nikolai Klyuev">Nikolai Klyuev</a> was the first known homosexual to suffer from Soviet repressions. The poet was accused of writing love lyrics that "were written from a male person to a male person." In February 1934, Klyuyev was arrested in his apartment on charges of "composing and distributing counter-revolutionary literary works", and in 1937 he was shot <sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> .<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In later times, the most famous victim of the Soviet repression against the LGBT was a film director <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Parajanov" title="Sergei Parajanov">Sergei Parajanov</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population_transfers">Population transfers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Population transfers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer in the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karte_Entkulakisierung.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Karte_Entkulakisierung.png/220px-Karte_Entkulakisierung.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Karte_Entkulakisierung.png/330px-Karte_Entkulakisierung.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Karte_Entkulakisierung.png/440px-Karte_Entkulakisierung.png 2x" data-file-width="1287" data-file-height="804" /></a><figcaption>General routes of deportation during the <a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">Dekulakization</a> across the Soviet Union in 1930–1931</figcaption></figure> <p>Population transfer in the Soviet Union may be divided into the following broad categories: deportations of "<a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">anti-Soviet</a>" categories within the population, who were often classified as "<a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">enemies of the workers</a>"; deportations of nationalities; labor force transfer; and organised migrations in opposite directions in order to fill the <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnically cleansed</a> territories. In most cases their destinations were underpopulated and remote areas (see <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union">Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union</a>). </p><p>Entire nations and ethnic groups were collectively punished by the Soviet government for their <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_in_the_German-occupied_Soviet_Union" title="Collaboration in the German-occupied Soviet Union">alleged collaboration with the enemy</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. At least nine distinct ethnic-linguistic groups, including <a href="/wiki/History_of_Germans_in_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Germans in Russia and the Soviet Union">ethnic Germans</a>, ethnic <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_minority_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish minority in the Soviet Union">ethnic Poles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Crimean_Tatars" title="Deportation of the Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a> (recognized as genocide), <a href="/wiki/Balkars" title="Balkars">Balkars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chechen_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Chechen people">Chechens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_deportations_of_1944" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalmyk deportations of 1944">Kalmyks</a>, were deported to remote and unpopulated areas of <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Sybirak" title="Sybirak">sybirak</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Conquest_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conquest-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Koreans_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union">Koreans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Romanians_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Deportation of Romanians in the Soviet Union">Romanians</a> were also deported. <a href="/wiki/Mass_operations_of_the_NKVD" title="Mass operations of the NKVD">Mass operations of the NKVD</a> were needed to <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deport</a> millions of people, many of whom died. According to various sources, more than 6 million people were deported, with the death toll ranging from 800,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrieb2014930_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrieb2014930-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 1,500,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWerth200473_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWerth200473-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the USSR only. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gulag">Gulag</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Gulag"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_(2017-12-12)_-_59.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_%282017-12-12%29_-_59.jpg/220px-State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_%282017-12-12%29_-_59.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_%282017-12-12%29_-_59.jpg/330px-State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_%282017-12-12%29_-_59.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_%282017-12-12%29_-_59.jpg/440px-State_Museum_of_Gulag_History_%282017-12-12%29_-_59.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>Map of Stalin's concentration camps in the Gulag Museum in Moscow</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a></div> <p>The Gulag "was the branch of the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">State Security</a> that operated the penal system of <a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">forced labour camps</a> and associated detention and transit camps and prisons. While these camps housed criminals of all types, the Gulag system has become primarily known as a place for <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a> and as a mechanism for repressing political opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet state</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Repressions_in_annexed_territories">Repressions in annexed territories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Repressions in annexed territories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet war crimes</a></div> <p>During the early years of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the Soviet Union annexed several territories in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> as a consequence of the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">German–Soviet Pact</a> and its <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Molotov-Ribbentrop_Pact#Secret_Additional_Protocol" class="extiw" title="s:Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact">Secret Additional Protocol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baltic_States">Baltic States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Baltic States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_States#Soviet_occupation_and_annexation" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of the Baltic States">Occupation of the Baltic States § Soviet occupation and annexation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_deportations_from_Estonia" title="Soviet deportations from Estonia">Soviet deportations from Estonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Latvia_in_1940" title="Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940">Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1940)" title="Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)">Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_re-occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1944)" title="Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)">Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation Priboi</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AntanasSnie%C4%8Dkus7-11-1970Vlns.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/AntanasSnie%C4%8Dkus7-11-1970Vlns.jpg/220px-AntanasSnie%C4%8Dkus7-11-1970Vlns.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/AntanasSnie%C4%8Dkus7-11-1970Vlns.jpg/330px-AntanasSnie%C4%8Dkus7-11-1970Vlns.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/AntanasSnie%C4%8Dkus7-11-1970Vlns.jpg/440px-AntanasSnie%C4%8Dkus7-11-1970Vlns.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8075" data-file-height="4924" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Antanas_Snie%C4%8Dkus" title="Antanas Sniečkus">Antanas Sniečkus</a>, the leader of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Lithuania" title="Communist Party of Lithuania">Communist Party of Lithuania</a> from 1940 to 1974, supervised the mass deportations of Lithuanians.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic countries">Baltic countries</a> of <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, repressions and mass <a href="/wiki/Deportations" class="mw-redirect" title="Deportations">deportations</a> were carried out by the Soviets. The <a href="/wiki/Serov_Instructions" title="Serov Instructions">Serov Instructions</a>, <i>"On the Procedure for carrying out the Deportation of Anti-Soviet Elements from Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia"</i>, contained detailed procedures and protocols to observe in the deportation of Baltic nationals. Public tribunals were also set up to punish "traitors to the people": those who had fallen short of the "political duty" of voting their countries into the USSR. In the first year of Soviet occupation, from June 1940 to June 1941, the number confirmed executed, conscripted, or deported is estimated at a minimum of 124,467: 59,732 in Estonia, 34,250 in Latvia, and 30,485 in Lithuania.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This included 8 former heads of state and 38 ministers from Estonia, 3 former heads of state and 15 ministers from Latvia, and the then-president, 5 prime ministers and 24 other ministers from Lithuania.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Poland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_repressions_of_Polish_citizens_(1939%E2%80%931946)" title="Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)">Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (1939–1946)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romania">Romania</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Romania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-Stalin_era_(1953–1991)"><span id="Post-Stalin_era_.281953.E2.80.931991.29"></span>Post-Stalin era (1953–1991)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Post-Stalin era (1953–1991)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissidents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cases_of_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cases of political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Cases of political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></div> <p>After <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin" title="Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin">Stalin's death</a>, the suppression of dissent was dramatically reduced and it also took new forms. The internal critics of the system were convicted of <a href="/wiki/Anti-Soviet_agitation" title="Anti-Soviet agitation">anti-Soviet agitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Soviet_slander" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Soviet slander">anti-Soviet slander</a>, or they were accused of being <a href="/wiki/Parasitism_(social_offense)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitism (social offense)">"social parasites"</a>. Other critics were accused of being mentally ill, they were accused of having <a href="/wiki/Sluggish_schizophrenia" title="Sluggish schizophrenia">sluggish schizophrenia</a> and incarcerated in "<a href="/wiki/Psikhushka" title="Psikhushka">psikhushkas</a>", i.e. <a href="/wiki/Mental_hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental hospital">mental hospitals</a> which were used as prisons by the Soviet authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-Psyche_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Psyche-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of notable <a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">dissidents</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bukovsky" title="Vladimir Bukovsky">Vladimir Bukovsky</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a>, were sent to internal or external exile. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Loss_of_life">Loss of life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Loss of life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mass_killings_under_communist_regimes" title="Mass killings under communist regimes">Mass killings under communist regimes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity_under_communist_regimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimes against humanity under communist regimes">Crimes against humanity under communist regimes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Excess_mortality_in_the_Soviet_Union_under_Joseph_Stalin" title="Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin">Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg/220px-GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg/330px-GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg/440px-GULag_2_Museum_Moscow_Russia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Gulag Museum in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> was founded in 2001 by historian <a href="/wiki/Anton_Antonov-Ovseyenko" class="mw-redirect" title="Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko">Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Estimates of the number of deaths attributable specifically to <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> vary widely. Some scholars assert that record-keeping of the executions of political prisoners and ethnic minorities are neither reliable nor complete;<sup id="cite_ref-:0_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others contend archival materials contain irrefutable data far superior to sources utilized prior to 1991, such as statements from emigres and other informants.<sup id="cite_ref-Wheatcroft1996_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheatcroft1996-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1a_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1a-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those historians working after the Soviet Union's dissolution have estimated victim totals ranging from approximately 3 million<sup id="cite_ref-:2_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to nearly 9 million.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars still assert that the death toll could be in the tens of millions.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American historian <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pipes" title="Richard Pipes">Richard Pipes</a> noted: "Censuses revealed that between 1932 and 1939—that is, after collectivization but before World War II—the population decreased by 9 to 10 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his most recent edition of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Terror" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Terror">The Great Terror</a></i> (2007), <a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Robert Conquest</a> states that while exact numbers may never be known with complete certainty, at least 15 million people were killed "by the whole range of Soviet regime's terrors".<sup id="cite_ref-Conquest_2007_in_Preface,_p._xvi:_Exact_numbers_may_never_be_known_with_complete_certainty,_but_the_total_of_deaths_caused_by_the_whole_range_of_Soviet_regime's_terrors_can_hardly_be_lower_than_some_fifteen_million._28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conquest_2007_in_Preface,_p._xvi:_Exact_numbers_may_never_be_known_with_complete_certainty,_but_the_total_of_deaths_caused_by_the_whole_range_of_Soviet_regime's_terrors_can_hardly_be_lower_than_some_fifteen_million.-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Rummel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolph Rummel">Rudolph Rummel</a> in 2006 said that the earlier higher victim total estimates are correct, although he includes those killed by the government of the Soviet Union in other Eastern European countries as well.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, <a href="/wiki/J._Arch_Getty" title="J. Arch Getty">J. Arch Getty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Wheatcroft" title="Stephen G. Wheatcroft">Stephen G. Wheatcroft</a> insist that the opening of the Soviet archives has vindicated the lower estimates put forth by "revisionist" scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Simon_Sebag_Montefiore" title="Simon Sebag Montefiore">Simon Sebag Montefiore</a> in 2003 suggested that Stalin was ultimately responsible for the deaths of at least 20 million people.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of these estimates rely in part on demographic losses. Conquest explained how he arrived at his estimate: "I suggest about eleven million by the beginning of 1937, and about three million over the period 1937–38, making fourteen million. The eleven-odd million is readily deduced from the undisputed population deficit shown in the suppressed census of January 1937, of fifteen to sixteen million, by making reasonable assumptions about how this was divided between birth deficit and deaths."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Australian historian <a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Wheatcroft" title="Stephen G. Wheatcroft">Stephen G. Wheatcroft</a> claims that prior to the opening of the archives for historical research, "our understanding of the scale and the nature of Soviet repression has been extremely poor" and that some specialists who wish to maintain earlier high estimates of the Stalinist death toll are "finding it difficult to adapt to the new circumstances when the archives are open and when there are plenty of irrefutable data" and instead "hang on to their old Sovietological methods with round-about calculations based on odd statements from emigres and other informants who are supposed to have superior knowledge."<sup id="cite_ref-Wheatcroft1996_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wheatcroft1996-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1a_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1a-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, some historians believe that the official archival figures of the categories that were recorded by Soviet authorities are unreliable and incomplete.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to failures regarding comprehensive recordings, as one additional example, Canadian historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gellately" title="Robert Gellately">Robert Gellately</a> and British historian <a href="/wiki/Simon_Sebag_Montefiore" title="Simon Sebag Montefiore">Simon Sebag Montefiore</a> argue that the many suspects beaten and tortured to death while in "investigative custody" were likely not to have been counted amongst the executed.<sup id="cite_ref-:1a_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1a-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Victims of repression and famine </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Event</th> <th>Deaths</th> <th>References </th></tr> <tr> <td>1- <a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7005100000000000000♠" style="display:none"></span> 50,000 – 2,000,000</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lib.ru_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lib.ru-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2- <a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">Dekulakization</a></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7005550000000000000♠" style="display:none"></span> 389,521 – 5,000,000</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3- <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7006170000000000000♠" style="display:none"></span> 1,053,829 - 2,500,000</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-:2_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4- <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7005750000000000000♠" style="display:none"></span> 683,692 – 1,200,000</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-:2_68-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EllmanComment_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EllmanComment-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>5- <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Deportation of national minorities</a></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7005625000000000000♠" style="display:none"></span> 450,000 – 1,500,000</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWerth200473_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWerth200473-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>A- <b>Repression outside of famine</b></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7006390000000000000♠" style="display:none"></span> 2,627,042 – 12,200,000</td> <td>Sum of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 above </td></tr> <tr> <td>6- <a href="/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921%E2%80%931922" title="Russian famine of 1921–1922">Russian famine of 1921–1922</a></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7006500000000000000♠" style="display:none"></span> 1,000,000 – 5,000,000</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>7- <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Soviet famine of 1930–1933">Soviet famine of 1930–1933</a></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7006720000000000000♠" style="display:none"></span> 5,700,000 – 8,700,000</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wolowyna_2020_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolowyna_2020-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>8- <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1946%E2%80%931947" title="Soviet famine of 1946–1947">Soviet famine of 1946–1947</a></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7006125000000000000♠" style="display:none"></span> 500,000 - 2,000,000</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 233">: 233 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>B- <b>Famine deaths</b></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7007105000000000000♠" style="display:none"></span> 7,200,000 – 15,700,000</td> <td>Sum of 6 and 7 above </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Total</b></td> <td><span data-sort-value="7007122500000000000♠" style="display:none"></span> 9,827,042 – 27,900,000</td> <td>Sum of A and B above </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Remembering_the_victims">Remembering the victims</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Remembering the victims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Day_of_Remembrance_of_the_Victims_of_Political_Repressions" title="Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Political Repressions">Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Political Repressions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GulagMemorial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/GulagMemorial.jpg/220px-GulagMemorial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/GulagMemorial.jpg/330px-GulagMemorial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/GulagMemorial.jpg/440px-GulagMemorial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The Gulag Memorial in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">St Petersburg</a> made of a boulder from the <a href="/wiki/Solovki_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Solovki camp">Solovki camp</a>—the first prison camp in the Gulag system. People gather here every year on the <a href="/wiki/Day_of_Remembrance_of_the_Victims_of_Political_Repressions" title="Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Political Repressions">Day of Remembrance of Victims of the Repression</a> (October 30)</figcaption></figure> <p>A Day of Remembrance for the Victims of Political Repression (День памяти жертв политических репрессий) has been officially held on 30 October in Russia since 1991. It is also marked in other former Soviet republics except Ukraine, which has its own annual Day of Remembrance for the victims of political repressions by the Soviet regime, held each year on the third Sunday of May. </p><p>Members of the <a href="/wiki/Memorial_(society)" title="Memorial (society)">Memorial society</a> took an active part in such commemorative meetings.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Since 2007, Memorial had also organised the day-long "Restoring the Names" ceremony at the <a href="/wiki/Solovetsky_Stone" title="Solovetsky Stone">Solovetsky Stone</a> in Moscow every 29 October.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The organization was banned by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Russia" title="Government of Russia">Russian government</a> in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of Memorial's human rights activities have continued in Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Wall_of_Grief" title="Wall of Grief">Wall of Grief</a> in Moscow, inaugurated in October 2017, is Russia's first monument ordered by presidential decree for people killed during the <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinist</a> repressions in the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity_under_communist_regimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimes against humanity under communist regimes">Crimes against humanity under communist regimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_communist_party_rule" title="Criticism of communist party rule">Criticism of communist party rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goli_Otok" title="Goli Otok">Goli Otok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler_Youth_conspiracy" title="Hitler Youth conspiracy">Hitler Youth conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killings_under_communist_regimes" title="Mass killings under communist regimes">Mass killings under communist regimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union">Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc">Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(Soviet)" title="Rehabilitation (Soviet)">Rehabilitation (Soviet)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_repressions_in_Belarus" title="Soviet repressions in Belarus">Soviet repressions in Belarus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Communism" title="The Black Book of Communism">The Black Book of Communism</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-religious_campaign_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Anti-religious campaign during the Russian Civil War">Anti-religious campaign during the Russian Civil War (1917–1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1921%E2%80%931928)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)">RSFSR and USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1928%E2%80%931941)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)">USSR anti-religious campaign (1928–1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1958%E2%80%931964)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964)">USSR anti-religious campaign (1958–1964)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_anti-religious_campaign_(1970s%E2%80%931987)" title="USSR anti-religious campaign (1970s–1987)">USSR anti-religious campaign (1970s–1987)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2022/03/02/past-political-repression-creates-long-lasting-mistrust/">"Past political repression creates long-lasting mistrust"</a>. 2 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Past+political+repression+creates+long-lasting+mistrust&rft.date=2022-03-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brookings.edu%2Fblog%2Fup-front%2F2022%2F03%2F02%2Fpast-political-repression-creates-long-lasting-mistrust%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210222175025/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union">"How Lenin's Red Terror set a macabre course for the Soviet Union"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a></i>. 2 September 2020. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union">the original</a> on February 22, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Society&rft.atitle=How+Lenin%27s+Red+Terror+set+a+macabre+course+for+the+Soviet+Union&rft.date=2020-09-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fhistory%2Farticle%2Fred-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/5386789/red-terror-soviet-history/">"How the 'Red Terror' Exposed the True Turmoil of Soviet Russia 100 Years Ago"</a>. 5 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+the+%27Red+Terror%27+Exposed+the+True+Turmoil+of+Soviet+Russia+100+Years+Ago&rft.date=2018-09-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F5386789%2Fred-terror-soviet-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivi-Bacci1993" class="citation journal cs1">Livi-Bacci, Massimo (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2938412">"On the Human Costs of Collectivization in the Soviet Union"</a>. <i>Population and Development Review</i>. <b>19</b> (4): 743–766. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2938412">10.2307/2938412</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2938412">2938412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Population+and+Development+Review&rft.atitle=On+the+Human+Costs+of+Collectivization+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=743-766&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2938412&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2938412%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Livi-Bacci&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2938412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViola1986" class="citation journal cs1">Viola, Lynne (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2499054">"The Campaign to Eliminate the Kulak as a Class, Winter 1929-1930: A Reevaluation of the Legislation"</a>. <i>Slavic Review</i>. <b>45</b> (3): 503–524. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2499054">10.2307/2499054</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2499054">2499054</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159758939">159758939</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=The+Campaign+to+Eliminate+the+Kulak+as+a+Class%2C+Winter+1929-1930%3A+A+Reevaluation+of+the+Legislation&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=503-524&rft.date=1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159758939%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2499054%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2499054&rft.aulast=Viola&rft.aufirst=Lynne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2499054&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/soviet-massive-deportations-chronology.html">"The Soviet Massive Deportations - A Chronology | Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance – Réseau de recherche"</a>. 18 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Massive+Deportations+-+A+Chronology+%26%23124%3B+Sciences+Po+Violence+de+masse+et+R%C3%A9sistance+%E2%80%93+R%C3%A9seau+de+recherche&rft.date=2019-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fmass-violence-war-massacre-resistance%2Ffr%2Fdocument%2Fsoviet-massive-deportations-chronology.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Purge">"Great Purge | History & Facts | Britannica"</a>. 8 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Great+Purge+%26%23124%3B+History+%26+Facts+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft.date=2023-06-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FGreat-Purge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gulag">"Gulag | Definition, History, Prison, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. 21 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gulag+%26%23124%3B+Definition%2C+History%2C+Prison%2C+%26+Facts+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft.date=2023-06-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FGulag&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leninism_Under_Lenin-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leninism_Under_Lenin_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leninism_Under_Lenin_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leninism_Under_Lenin_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiebman1985" class="citation book cs1">Liebman, Marcel (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OQjzAAAAMAAJ"><i>Leninism Under Lenin</i></a>. Merlin Press. pp. 1–348. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85036-261-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85036-261-9"><bdi>978-0-85036-261-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leninism+Under+Lenin&rft.pages=1-348&rft.pub=Merlin+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-85036-261-9&rft.aulast=Liebman&rft.aufirst=Marcel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOQjzAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeutscher2015" class="citation book cs1">Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet"><i>The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky</i></a>. Verso Books. p. 528. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78168-721-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78168-721-5"><bdi>978-1-78168-721-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prophet%3A+The+Life+of+Leon+Trotsky&rft.pages=528&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2015-01-05&rft.isbn=978-1-78168-721-5&rft.aulast=Deutscher&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYGznDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Disaac%2Bdeutscher%2Btrotsky%2Bthe%2Bprophet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Anton_Antonov-Ovseenko" title="Anton Antonov-Ovseenko">Anton Antonov-Ovseenko</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Lavrentiy_Beria" title="Lavrentiy Beria">Beria</a></i> (Russian) Moscow, AST, 1999. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fictionbook.ru/author/antonov_ovseenko_anton/beriya/antonov_ovseenko_beriya.html">Russian text online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayer2002395Werth1999117-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayer2002395Werth1999117_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMayer2002">Mayer 2002</a>, p. 395; <a href="#CITEREFWerth1999">Werth 1999</a>, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiges1997768Pipes2011387–401-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiges1997768Pipes2011387–401_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFiges1997">Figes 1997</a>, p. 768; <a href="#CITEREFPipes2011">Pipes 2011</a>, pp. 387–401.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiges1997Chapter_13-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiges1997Chapter_13_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFiges1997">Figes (1997)</a>, Chapter 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Courtois et al, 1999: <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2011)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReese2023" class="citation book cs1">Reese, Roger R. (3 October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hWS2EAAAQBAJ&dq=trotsky+desertion+612&pg=PA109"><i>Russia's Army: A History from the Napoleonic Wars to the War in Ukraine</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-9356-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-9356-4"><bdi>978-0-8061-9356-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+Army%3A+A+History+from+the+Napoleonic+Wars+to+the+War+in+Ukraine&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2023-10-03&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-9356-4&rft.aulast=Reese&rft.aufirst=Roger+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhWS2EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtrotsky%2Bdesertion%2B612%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiges1990" class="citation journal cs1">Figes, Orlando (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/650938">"The Red Army and Mass Mobilization during the Russian Civil War 1918-1920"</a>. <i>Past & Present</i> (129): 168–211. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F129.1.168">10.1093/past/129.1.168</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-2746">0031-2746</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/650938">650938</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=The+Red+Army+and+Mass+Mobilization+during+the+Russian+Civil+War+1918-1920&rft.issue=129&rft.pages=168-211&rft.date=1990&rft.issn=0031-2746&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F650938%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F129.1.168&rft.aulast=Figes&rft.aufirst=Orlando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F650938&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zs-vesna-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zs-vesna_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927200818/http://www.znanie-sila.ru/online/issue2print_2471.html">Операция «Весна»</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Znanie_%E2%80%94_Sila" class="mw-redirect" title="Znanie — Sila">Znanie — Sila</a></i> magazine, no. 11, 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKline1992" class="citation book cs1">Kline, George L (1992). <i>In Defence of Terrorism in The Trotsky reappraisal. Brotherstone, Terence; Dukes, Paul,(eds)</i>. Edinburgh University Press. p. 158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-0317-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-0317-6"><bdi>978-0-7486-0317-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Defence+of+Terrorism+in+The+Trotsky+reappraisal.+Brotherstone%2C+Terence%3B+Dukes%2C+Paul%2C%28eds%29&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-0317-6&rft.aulast=Kline&rft.aufirst=George+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan20122-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan20122_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRyan2012">Ryan (2012)</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERyan2012114-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyan2012114_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRyan2012">Ryan (2012)</a>, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-anatomy-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-anatomy_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-anatomy_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stone, Bailey (2013). <i>The Anatomy of Revolution Revisited: A Comparative Analysis of England, France, and Russia</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pipes, Richard (2011). <i>The Russian Revolution</i>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 838.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELowe2002151-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELowe2002151_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLowe2002">Lowe (2002)</a>, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLincoln1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/W._Bruce_Lincoln" title="W. Bruce Lincoln">Lincoln, W. Bruce</a> (1989). <i>Red Victory: A History of the Russian Civil War</i>. Simon & Schuster. p. 384. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-63166-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-63166-7"><bdi>0-671-63166-7</bdi></a>. <q>... the best estimates set the probable number of executions at about a hundred thousand.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Victory%3A+A+History+of+the+Russian+Civil+War&rft.pages=384&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-671-63166-7&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=W.+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scepsis.net/library/id_3807.html">"On the scale of the Red Terror during the Civil War"</a>. <i>scepsis.net</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=scepsis.net&rft.atitle=On+the+scale+of+the+Red+Terror+during+the+Civil+War&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscepsis.net%2Flibrary%2Fid_3807.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD,_%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Эрлихман, Вадим Викторович (page does not exist)">Эрлихман В. В.</a></i> Потери народонаселения в XX веке.: Справочник — <abbr>М.</abbr>: Издательский дом «Русская панорама», 2004. — ISBN 5-93165-107-1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conquest_2007_in_Preface,_p._xvi:_Exact_numbers_may_never_be_known_with_complete_certainty,_but_the_total_of_deaths_caused_by_the_whole_range_of_Soviet_regime's_terrors_can_hardly_be_lower_than_some_fifteen_million.-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Conquest_2007_in_Preface,_p._xvi:_Exact_numbers_may_never_be_known_with_complete_certainty,_but_the_total_of_deaths_caused_by_the_whole_range_of_Soviet_regime's_terrors_can_hardly_be_lower_than_some_fifteen_million._28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conquest_2007_in_Preface,_p._xvi:_Exact_numbers_may_never_be_known_with_complete_certainty,_but_the_total_of_deaths_caused_by_the_whole_range_of_Soviet_regime's_terrors_can_hardly_be_lower_than_some_fifteen_million._28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConquest2007" class="citation book cs1">Conquest, Robert (2007). <i>The Great Terror: A Reassessment, 40th Anniversary Edition</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. in Preface, p. xvi: "Exact numbers may never be known with complete certainty, but the total of deaths caused by the whole range of Soviet regime's terrors can hardly be lower than some fifteen million.".</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Terror%3A+A+Reassessment%2C+40th+Anniversary+Edition&rft.pages=in+Preface%2C+p.+xvi%3A+%22Exact+numbers+may+never+be+known+with+complete+certainty%2C+but+the+total+of+deaths+caused+by+the+whole+range+of+Soviet+regime%27s+terrors+can+hardly+be+lower+than+some+fifteen+million.%22&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Conquest&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scepsis.net/library/id_3807.html">К вопросу о масштабах красного террора в годы Гражданской войны</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lib.ru-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lib.ru_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lib.ru_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Часть IV. На гражданской войнe. // <i><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Melgunov" title="Sergei Melgunov">Sergei Melgunov</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.ru/POLITOLOG/MELGUNOW/terror.txt">«Красный террор» в России 1918–1923.</a> — 2-ое изд., доп. — Берлин, 1924</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelgunov2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Melgunov" title="Sergei Melgunov">Melgunov, Sergei Petrovich</a> (2008) [1924]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S3FGAQAAIAAJ"><i>Der rote Terror in Russland 1918–1923</i></a> (reprint of the 1924 Olga Diakow edition) (in German). Berlin: OEZ. p. 186, note 182. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-940452-47-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-940452-47-4"><bdi>978-3-940452-47-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+rote+Terror+in+Russland+1918%E2%80%931923&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=186%2C+note+182&rft.pub=OEZ&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-940452-47-4&rft.aulast=Melgunov&rft.aufirst=Sergei+Petrovich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS3FGAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span> An online English translation of the second edition of Melgunov's work is accessible at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/RedTerrorInRussia1918-1923">Internet Archive</a>, whence the following translated text is drawn (p. 85, note n. 128): "Professor Sarolea, who published a series of articles about Russia in Edinburgh newspaper “The Scotsman” touched upon the death statistics in an essay on terror (No. 7, November 1923.). He summarized the outcome of the Bolshevik massacre as follows: 28 bishops, 1219 clergy, 6000 professors and teachers, 9000 doctors, 54,000 officers, 260,000 soldiers, 70,000 policemen, 12,950 landowners, 355,250 professionals, 193,290 workers, 815,000 peasants. The author did not provide the sources of that data. Needless to say that the precise counts seem [too] fictional, but the author's [characterisation] of terror in Russia in general matches reality."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Перевощиков_А-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Перевощиков_А_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Перевощиков_А_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFПеревощиков_А.2010" class="citation web cs1">Перевощиков А. (August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100911021003/http://mosnarodsobor.ru/mainnews/istorik_sergeiy_volkov_geneticheskomu_fondu.htm">"Генетическому фонду России был нанесен чудовищный, не восполненный до сего времени, урон"</a>. Официальный сайт Московского регионального отделения движения "<a href="/wiki/Narodny_Sobor" title="Narodny Sobor">Народный собор</a>". Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mosnarodsobor.ru/mainnews/istorik_sergeiy_volkov_geneticheskomu_fondu.htm">the original</a> on 2010-09-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83+%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD+%D1%87%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%2C+%D0%BD%D0%B5+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D0%B4%D0%BE+%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%2C+%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD&rft.pub=%D0%9E%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82+%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%22%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%22&rft.date=2010-08&rft.au=%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%90.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmosnarodsobor.ru%2Fmainnews%2Fistorik_sergeiy_volkov_geneticheskomu_fondu.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimofeychev2018" class="citation web cs1">Timofeychev, Alexey (7 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rbth.com/history/329091-how-many-lives-claimed-red-terror">"How many lives did the Red Terror claim?"</a>. <i>Russia Beyond</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Russia+Beyond&rft.atitle=How+many+lives+did+the+Red+Terror+claim%3F&rft.date=2018-09-07&rft.aulast=Timofeychev&rft.aufirst=Alexey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rbth.com%2Fhistory%2F329091-how-many-lives-claimed-red-terror&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraziosi2007171_&_570-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraziosi2007171_&_570_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraziosi2007">Graziosi (2007)</a>, pp. 171 & 570.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnp error: no target: CITEREFGraziosi2007 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In particular, they seem quite at odds with the demographic considerations elaborated by Italian historian and professor <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andrea_Graziosi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrea Graziosi (page does not exist)">Andrea Graziosi</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Graziosi" class="extiw" title="it:Andrea Graziosi">it</a>]</span> in the light of the good quality Tsarist and early Soviet statistics. According to him, the <a href="/wiki/Excess_mortality" title="Excess mortality">excess deaths</a> between 1914 and 1922 were about 16 million, of which 4–5 were military, the rest civilian. The overwhelming majority of the latter resulted from "starvation, typhus, epidemics, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_flu" title="Spanish flu">Spanish flu</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921%E2%80%931922" title="Russian famine of 1921–1922">famine of 1921-22</a>", the roughly number of "victims of the various kinds of terror, and red and white repressions" amounting to a few hundred thousand— albeit a dreadful number in itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraziosi2007171_&_570_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraziosi2007171_&_570-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies, R.W., <i>The Soviet Collective Farms, 1929–1930,</i> Macmillan, London (1980), p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Valentin Berezhkov, "Kak ya stal perevodchikom Stalina", Moscow, DEM, 1993, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-85207-044-0" title="Special:BookSources/5-85207-044-0">5-85207-044-0</a>. p. 317</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanislav Kulchytsky, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/nn/show/420/36833/">"How many of us perished in Holodomor in 1933"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060721011333/http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/nn/show/420/36833/">Archived</a> 2006-07-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Zerkalo_Nedeli" class="mw-redirect" title="Zerkalo Nedeli">Zerkalo Nedeli</a></i>, November 23–29, 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstantin_IordachiArnd_Bauerkamper2014" class="citation book cs1">Constantin Iordachi; Arnd Bauerkamper (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=84Z2BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA9"><i>The Collectivization of Agriculture in Communist Eastern Europe: Comparison and Entanglements</i></a>. Central European University Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9786155225635" title="Special:BookSources/9786155225635"><bdi>9786155225635</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collectivization+of+Agriculture+in+Communist+Eastern+Europe%3A+Comparison+and+Entanglements&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9786155225635&rft.au=Constantin+Iordachi&rft.au=Arnd+Bauerkamper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D84Z2BgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Figes-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Figes_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Figes_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Figes, 2007: pp. 227–315</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Social_Catastrophe-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Social_Catastrophe_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. By Robert Gellately. 2007. Knopf. 720 pages <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4000-4005-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-4000-4005-1">1-4000-4005-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002">"Introduction: the Great Purges as history"</a>, <i>Origins of the Great Purges</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–9, 1985, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511572616.002">10.1017/cbo9780511572616.002</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521259217" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521259217"><bdi>978-0521259217</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-12-02</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Origins+of+the+Great+Purges&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+the+Great+Purges+as+history&rft.pages=1-9&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511572616.002&rft.isbn=978-0521259217&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511572616.002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHomkes2004" class="citation journal cs1">Homkes, Brett (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=mcnair">"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge"</a>. <i>McNair Scholars Journal</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=McNair+Scholars+Journal&rft.atitle=Certainty%2C+Probability%2C+and+Stalin%27s+Great+Purge&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Homkes&rft.aufirst=Brett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1032%26context%3Dmcnair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllman2002" class="citation journal cs1">Ellman, Michael (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/826310">"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments"</a>. <i>Europe-Asia Studies</i>. <b>54</b> (7): 1151–1172. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0966-8136">0966-8136</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/826310">826310</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Soviet+Repression+Statistics%3A+Some+Comments&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1151-1172&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F826310%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0966-8136&rft.aulast=Ellman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F826310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShearer2023" class="citation book cs1">Shearer, David R. (11 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CCHMEAAAQBAJ&dq=great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PR7"><i>Stalin and War, 1918-1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. vii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-95544-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-95544-6"><bdi>978-1-000-95544-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin+and+War%2C+1918-1953%3A+Patterns+of+Repression%2C+Mobilization%2C+and+External+Threat&rft.pages=vii&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2023-09-11&rft.isbn=978-1-000-95544-6&rft.aulast=Shearer&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCCHMEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dgreat%2Bpurge%2B1.2%2Bmillion%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson2019" class="citation book cs1">Nelson, Todd H. (16 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oJGyDwAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PA7"><i>Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-9153-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-9153-9"><bdi>978-1-4985-9153-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bringing+Stalin+Back+In%3A+Memory+Politics+and+the+Creation+of+a+Useable+Past+in+Putin%27s+Russia&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2019-10-16&rft.isbn=978-1-4985-9153-9&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Todd+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoJGyDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dstalin%2Bgreat%2Bpurge%2B1.2%2Bmillion%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/ss/14214910">Игорь Кон. Лики и маски однополой любви: лунный свет на заре</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.ua/ru/texts/69767-88-let-nazad-stalinu-dolozhili-o-shpionskom-zagovore-geev-i-on-obyavil-ih-vne-zakona-vspominaem-kak-v-sssr-gomoseksualov-lechili-v-psihbolnicah-a-za-muzhelozhstvo-sudili-dissidentov-i-chekistov">Как в СССР преследовали гомосексуалов - история, фото</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Дэн Хили. Гомосексуальное влечение в революционной России: регулирование сексуально-гендерного диссидентства = Homosexual Desire in Revolutionary Russia: The Regulation of Sexual and Gender Dissent / науч. ред. Л. В. Бессмертных, Ю. А. Михайлов, пер. с англ. Т .Ю. Логачева, В. И. Новиков. — Москва: НИЦ «Ладомир», 2008. — 624 с. — (Русская потаенная литература). — 1000 экз.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://xgayru.info/people/star/russian/xix/vozlyublennyy-kamen-gde.html">"Возлюбленный - камень, где тысячи граней...". Николай Клюев</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">З. Дичаров. Николай Алексеевич Клюев // «Писатели Ленинграда»</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Русские писатели XX века. — М.: 2000. С. 346</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Николай Клюев. Сердце Единорога. Стихотворения и поэмы. — СПб.: РХГИ, 1999. — С. 9—67. — 1072 с.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zn.ua/ART/sledy-kgb-i-scherbickogo-v-dele-paradzhanova-_.html">СЛЕДЫ КГБ И ЩЕРБИЦКОГО В ДЕЛЕ ПАРАДЖАНОВА</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conquest-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Conquest_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conquest, 1986: <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2011)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrieb2014930-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrieb2014930_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrieb2014">Grieb 2014</a>, p. 930.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWerth200473-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWerth200473_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWerth200473_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWerth2004">Werth 2004</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnne_Applebaum2003" class="citation book cs1">Anne Applebaum (2003). <a href="/wiki/Gulag:_A_History" title="Gulag: A History"><i>Gulag: A History</i></a>. Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0767900560" title="Special:BookSources/978-0767900560"><bdi>978-0767900560</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gulag%3A+A+History&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0767900560&rft.au=Anne+Applebaum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Service2003" class="citation web cs1">Robert Service (June 7, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/jun/07/featuresreviews.guardianreview19">"The accountancy of pain"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+accountancy+of+pain&rft.date=2003-06-07&rft.au=Robert+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2003%2Fjun%2F07%2Ffeaturesreviews.guardianreview19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37317/Latvia">The Soviet occupation and incorporation</a> at <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoszkowski2016" class="citation book cs1">Roszkowski, Wojciech (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RnKlDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2549"><i>Biographical Dictionary of Central and Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century</i></a>. Routledge. p. 2549. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317475934" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317475934"><bdi>978-1317475934</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biographical+Dictionary+of+Central+and+Eastern+Europe+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=2549&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1317475934&rft.aulast=Roszkowski&rft.aufirst=Wojciech&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRnKlDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA2549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dunsdorfs, Edgars. <i>The Baltic Dilemma</i>. Speller & Sons, New York. 1975</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Küng, Andres. <i>Communism and Crimes against Humanity in the Baltic States</i>. 1999 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010301223347/http://www.rel.ee/eng/communism_crimes.htm">"Communism and Crimes against Humanity in the Baltic states"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rel.ee/eng/communism_crimes.htm">the original</a> on 2001-03-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-02-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Communism+and+Crimes+against+Humanity+in+the+Baltic+states&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rel.ee%2Feng%2Fcommunism_crimes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Psyche-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Psyche_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/china02/china0802-02.htm">"Dangerous Minds"</a>. <i>www.hrw.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hrw.org&rft.atitle=Dangerous+Minds&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Freports%2F2002%2Fchina02%2Fchina0802-02.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/">"SOVIET STUDIES"</a>. <i>sovietinfo.tripod.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sovietinfo.tripod.com&rft.atitle=SOVIET+STUDIES&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wheatcroft1996-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wheatcroft1996_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wheatcroft1996_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft1996" class="citation journal cs1">Wheatcroft, S. G. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-German_Soviet.pdf">"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Europe-Asia_Studies" title="Europe-Asia Studies">Europe-Asia Studies</a></i>. <b>48</b> (8): 1319–1353. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139608412415">10.1080/09668139608412415</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/152781">152781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Scale+and+Nature+of+German+and+Soviet+Repression+and+Mass+Killings%2C+1930%E2%80%9345&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1319-1353&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139608412415&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F152781%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wheatcroft&rft.aufirst=S.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FWCR-German_Soviet.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1a-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1a_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1a_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1a_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft,_S._G.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Wheatcroft, S. G. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Comments_KEP_CNQ.pdf">"The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Europe-Asia Studies</i>. <b>52</b> (6): 1143–1159. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668130050143860">10.1080/09668130050143860</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19326595">19326595</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205667754">205667754</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Scale+and+Nature+of+Stalinist+Repression+and+its+Demographic+Significance%3A+On+Comments+by+Keep+and+Conquest&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1143-1159&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205667754%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19326595&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668130050143860&rft.au=Wheatcroft%2C+S.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FWCR-Comments_KEP_CNQ.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_68-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_68-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGettyRitterspornZemskov1993" class="citation journal cs1">Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sovietinfo.tripod.com/GTY-Penal_System.pdf">"Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="American Historical Review">American Historical Review</a></i>. <b>98</b> (4): 1022. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2166597">10.2307/2166597</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2166597">2166597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Victims+of+the+Soviet+penal+system+in+the+pre-war+years%3A+a+first+approach+on+the+basis+of+archival+evidence&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1022&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2166597&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2166597%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Getty&rft.aufirst=J.+Arch&rft.au=Rittersporn%2C+G%C3%A1bor&rft.au=Zemskov%2C+Viktor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FGTY-Penal_System.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2011" class="citation web cs1">Snyder, Timothy (2011-01-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/">"Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse?"</a>. <i>The New York Review of Books</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=Hitler+vs.+Stalin%3A+Who+Was+Worse%3F&rft.date=2011-01-27&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nybooks.com%2Fdaily%2F2011%2F01%2F27%2Fhitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosefielde2008" class="citation book cs1">Rosefielde, Steven (2008). <i>Red Holocaust</i>. Routledge. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77757-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77757-5"><bdi>978-0-415-77757-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Holocaust.&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-415-77757-5&rft.aulast=Rosefielde&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPipes2001" class="citation book cs1">Pipes, Richard (2001). <i>Communism: A History</i>. USA. p. 67.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communism%3A+A+History&rft.place=USA&rft.pages=67&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Pipes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170930113819/http://www.distributedrepublic.net/archives/2006/05/01/how-many-did-stalin-really-murder/">"How Many Did Stalin Really Murder? | The Distributed Republic"</a>. <i>www.distributedrepublic.net</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.distributedrepublic.net/archives/2006/05/01/how-many-did-stalin-really-murder/">the original</a> on 2017-09-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.distributedrepublic.net&rft.atitle=How+Many+Did+Stalin+Really+Murder%3F+%7C+The+Distributed+Republic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.distributedrepublic.net%2Farchives%2F2006%2F05%2F01%2Fhow-many-did-stalin-really-murder%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft,_S._G.1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wheatcroft, S. G. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Secret_Police.pdf">"Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Europe-Asia Studies</i>. <b>51</b> (2): 315–345. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139999056">10.1080/09668139999056</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Victims+of+Stalinism+and+the+Soviet+Secret+Police%3A+The+Comparability+and+Reliability+of+the+Archival+Data.+Not+the+Last+Word&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=315-345&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139999056&rft.au=Wheatcroft%2C+S.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FWCR-Secret_Police.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontefiore2007" class="citation book cs1">Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2007-12-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f-HerzgvxssC&q=%E2%80%9CPerhaps+20+million+had+been+killed;+28+million+deported,+of+whom+18+million+had+slaved+in+the+Gulags.+Yet,+after+so+much+slaughter,+they+were+still+believers.%E2%80%9D&pg=PA643"><i>Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 643. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307427939" title="Special:BookSources/9780307427939"><bdi>9780307427939</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%3A+The+Court+of+the+Red+Tsar&rft.pages=643&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007-12-18&rft.isbn=9780307427939&rft.aulast=Montefiore&rft.aufirst=Simon+Sebag&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df-HerzgvxssC%26q%3D%25E2%2580%259CPerhaps%2B20%2Bmillion%2Bhad%2Bbeen%2Bkilled%3B%2B28%2Bmillion%2Bdeported%2C%2Bof%2Bwhom%2B18%2Bmillion%2Bhad%2Bslaved%2Bin%2Bthe%2BGulags.%2BYet%2C%2Bafter%2Bso%2Bmuch%2Bslaughter%2C%2Bthey%2Bwere%2Bstill%2Bbelievers.%25E2%2580%259D%26pg%3DPA643&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConquest1996" class="citation journal cs1">Conquest, Robert (October 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newleftreview.org/issues/I219/articles/robert-conquest-excess-deaths-in-the-soviet-union">"Robert Conquest, Excess Deaths in the Soviet Union, NLR I/219, September–October 1996"</a>. <i>New Left Review</i> (I/219): 143<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Left+Review&rft.atitle=Robert+Conquest%2C+Excess+Deaths+in+the+Soviet+Union%2C+NLR+I%2F219%2C+September%E2%80%93October+1996&rft.issue=I%2F219&rft.pages=143&rft.date=1996-10&rft.aulast=Conquest&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewleftreview.org%2Fissues%2FI219%2Farticles%2Frobert-conquest-excess-deaths-in-the-soviet-union&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stone, Bailey (2013). The Anatomy of Revolution Revisited: A Comparative Analysis of England, France, and Russia. Cambridge University Press. p. 335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lowe, Norman (2002). Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History. Palgrave. ISBN 9780333963074. p. 151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pohl, J. Otto (1999). Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30921-2. LCCN 98-046822 p. 46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHildermeier2016" class="citation book cs1">Hildermeier, Manfred (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JoOmDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35"><i>Die Sowjetunion 1917–1991</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3486855548" title="Special:BookSources/978-3486855548"><bdi>978-3486855548</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Sowjetunion+1917%E2%80%931991&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3486855548&rft.aulast=Hildermeier&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJoOmDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNakonechnyi2020" class="citation thesis cs1">Nakonechnyi, Mikhail (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:f81e082c-a3b1-46a8-993c-4a134c199d89"><i><span></span>'Factory of invalids': Mortality, disability and early release on medical grounds in GULAG, 1930–1955</i></a> (Thesis). University of Oxford.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=%27Factory+of+invalids%27%3A+Mortality%2C+disability+and+early+release+on+medical+grounds+in+GULAG%2C+1930%E2%80%931955&rft.inst=University+of+Oxford&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Nakonechnyi&rft.aufirst=Mikhail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fora.ox.ac.uk%2Fobjects%2Fuuid%3Af81e082c-a3b1-46a8-993c-4a134c199d89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EllmanComment-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EllmanComment_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllman2002" class="citation journal cs1">Ellman, Michael (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/ELM-Repression_Statistics.pdf">"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Europe-Asia Studies</i>. <b>54</b> (7): 1151–1172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0966813022000017177">10.1080/0966813022000017177</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43510161">43510161</a>. <q>The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e. about a million. This is the estimate which should be used by historians, teachers and journalists concerned with twentieth century Russian—and world—history</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Soviet+Repression+Statistics%3A+Some+Comments&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1151-1172&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0966813022000017177&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43510161%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ellman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FELM-Repression_Statistics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuckleyRubleHofmann2008" class="citation book cs1">Buckley, Cynthia J.; Ruble, Blair A.; Hofmann, Erin Trouth (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wulDuN7APaIC&pg=PA207"><i>Migration, Homeland, and Belonging in Eurasia</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Center_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodrow Wilson Center Press">Woodrow Wilson Center Press</a>. p. 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801890758" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801890758"><bdi>978-0801890758</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008-015571">2008-015571</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Migration%2C+Homeland%2C+and+Belonging+in+Eurasia&rft.pages=207&rft.pub=Woodrow+Wilson+Center+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008-015571&rft.isbn=978-0801890758&rft.aulast=Buckley&rft.aufirst=Cynthia+J.&rft.au=Ruble%2C+Blair+A.&rft.au=Hofmann%2C+Erin+Trouth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwulDuN7APaIC%26pg%3DPA207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grieb, Christiane (2014). "Warsaw, Battle for". In C. Dowling, Timothy (ed.). Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598849486. LCCN 2014017775. p.930</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bertrand M. Patenaude. The Big Show in Bololand. The American Relief Expedition to Soviet Russia in the Famine of 1921. Stanford University Press, 2002. p. 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman Lowe. Mastering Twentieth-Century Russian History. Palgrave, 2002. p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesWheatcroft2009" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Robert W.; Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (2009). <i>The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 1931–1933</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 415. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230273979">10.1057/9780230273979</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230238558" title="Special:BookSources/9780230238558"><bdi>9780230238558</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Years+of+Hunger%3A+Soviet+Agriculture+1931%E2%80%931933&rft.pages=415&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9780230273979&rft.isbn=9780230238558&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rft.au=Wheatcroft%2C+Stephen+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosefielde1996" class="citation journal cs1">Rosefielde, Steven (September 1996). "Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s". <i>Europe-Asia Studies</i>. <b>48</b> (6): 959–987. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139608412393">10.1080/09668139608412393</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Stalinism+in+Post-Communist+Perspective%3A+New+Evidence+on+Killings%2C+Forced+Labour+and+Economic+Growth+in+the+1930s&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=959-987&rft.date=1996-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139608412393&rft.aulast=Rosefielde&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wolowyna_2020-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wolowyna_2020_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolowyna2020" class="citation journal cs1">Wolowyna, Oleh (October 2020). "A Demographic Framework for the 1932–1934 Famine in the Soviet Union". <i>Journal of Genocide Research</i>. <b>23</b> (4): 501–526. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623528.2020.1834741">10.1080/14623528.2020.1834741</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226316468">226316468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genocide+Research&rft.atitle=A+Demographic+Framework+for+the+1932%E2%80%931934+Famine+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=501-526&rft.date=2020-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623528.2020.1834741&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226316468%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wolowyna&rft.aufirst=Oleh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerth2015" class="citation book cs1">Werth, Nicolas (2015). "Apogee and Crisis in the Gulag System". In Courtois, Stephane (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/929124088"><i>Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5882380556" title="Special:BookSources/978-5882380556"><bdi>978-5882380556</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/929124088">929124088</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Apogee+and+Crisis+in+the+Gulag+System&rft.btitle=Black+Book+of+Communism%3A+Crimes%2C+Terror%2C+Repression.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F929124088&rft.isbn=978-5882380556&rft.aulast=Werth&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F929124088&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ganson, Nicholas (2009). "Introduction: Famine of Victors". The Soviet Famine of 1946–1947 in Global and Historical Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. xii–xix. ISBN 9780230613331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dmitrievaffair.wordpress.com/2017/10/30/restoring-the-names-29-october-2017/#more-1875">"Restoring the Names, Dmitriev Affair website, 30 October 2017</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.omct.org/en/resources/statements/russia-dissolution-of-human-rights-center-memorial-confirmed-in-appeal">"Russia: Dissolution of Human Rights Center "Memorial" confirmed in…"</a>. <i>OMCT</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OMCT&rft.atitle=Russia%3A+Dissolution+of+Human+Rights+Center+%22Memorial%22+confirmed+in%E2%80%A6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.omct.org%2Fen%2Fresources%2Fstatements%2Frussia-dissolution-of-human-rights-center-memorial-confirmed-in-appeal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.memo.ru/en-us/">"The Organization Has Been Liquidated by a Court Decision"</a>. <i>Memorial Society</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Memorial+Society&rft.atitle=The+Organization+Has+Been+Liquidated+by+a+Court+Decision&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.memo.ru%2Fen-us%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChernova" class="citation news cs1">Chernova, Anna. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/ukraine-russia-putin-news-04-05-22/h_898a98f6feb1ec357775a6d70b434940">"Historic Russian Human Rights Center Closes, Warns of "Return to the Totalitarian Past"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>CNN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Historic+Russian+Human+Rights+Center+Closes%2C+Warns+of+%22Return+to+the+Totalitarian+Past%22&rft.aulast=Chernova&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2Feurope%2Flive-news%2Fukraine-russia-putin-news-04-05-22%2Fh_898a98f6feb1ec357775a6d70b434940&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFСтарикова,_М.2022" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Старикова, М. (7 April 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/5295773">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Мемориал" после ликвидации объявил о старте нового проекта"</a> [after the liquidation, "Memorial" announced the start of a new project] (in Russian). Коммерсантъ<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%22+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5+%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8A%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB+%D0%BE+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B5+%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0&rft.pub=%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8A&rft.date=2022-04-07&rft.au=%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%2C+%D0%9C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kommersant.ru%2Fdoc%2F5295773&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rbc.ru/society/30/10/2017/59f745af9a79472b6bbde1ef">"Путин открыл в Москве мемориал "Стена скорби"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> [Putin Opened the Memorial "Wall of Grief" in Moscow]. <i><a href="/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%91%D0%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="РБК">РБК</a></i> (in Russian). 30 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%A0%D0%91%D0%9A&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD+%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BB+%D0%B2+%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B5+%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB+%22%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%22&rft.date=2017-10-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rbc.ru%2Fsociety%2F30%2F10%2F2017%2F59f745af9a79472b6bbde1ef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41809659">"Wall of Grief: Putin opens first Soviet victims memorial"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i>. 30 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Wall+of+Grief%3A+Putin+opens+first+Soviet+victims+memorial&rft.date=2017-10-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-41809659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConquest,_Robert1986" class="citation book cs1">Conquest, Robert (1986). <a href="/wiki/The_Harvest_of_Sorrow" title="The Harvest of Sorrow"><i>The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505180-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505180-3"><bdi>978-0-19-505180-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Harvest+of+Sorrow%3A+Soviet+Collectivization+and+the+Terror-Famine&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505180-3&rft.au=Conquest%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCourtois,_Stephane1999" class="citation book cs1">Courtois, Stephane; et al., eds. (1999). <i>The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07608-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07608-2"><bdi>978-0-674-07608-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Book+of+Communism%3A+Crimes%2C+Terror%2C+Repression&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-674-07608-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiges,_Orlando2007" class="citation book cs1">Figes, Orlando (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sge44FaZDREC"><i>The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia</i></a>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7461-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7461-1"><bdi>978-0-8050-7461-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Whisperers%3A+Private+Life+in+Stalin%27s+Russia&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-7461-1&rft.au=Figes%2C+Orlando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dsge44FaZDREC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGettyRitterspornZemskov1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._Arch_Getty" title="J. Arch Getty">Getty, J. Arch</a>; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sovietinfo.tripod.com/GTY-Penal_System.pdf">"Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="American Historical Review">American Historical Review</a></i>. <b>98</b> (4): 1022. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2166597">10.2307/2166597</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2166597">2166597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Victims+of+the+Soviet+penal+system+in+the+pre-war+years%3A+a+first+approach+on+the+basis+of+archival+evidence&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1022&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2166597&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2166597%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Getty&rft.aufirst=J.+Arch&rft.au=Rittersporn%2C+G%C3%A1bor&rft.au=Zemskov%2C+Viktor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FGTY-Penal_System.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrieb2014" class="citation book cs1">Grieb, Christiane (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA930">"War Crimes, Soviet, World War II"</a>. In C. Dowling, Timothy (ed.). <i>Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond</i>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781598849486" title="Special:BookSources/9781598849486"><bdi>9781598849486</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2014017775">2014017775</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=War+Crimes%2C+Soviet%2C+World+War+II&rft.btitle=Russia+at+War%3A+From+the+Mongol+Conquest+to+Afghanistan%2C+Chechnya%2C+and+Beyond&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2014017775&rft.isbn=9781598849486&rft.aulast=Grieb&rft.aufirst=Christiane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKTq2BQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA930&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindyLifton2001" class="citation book cs1">Lindy, Jacob D.; Lifton, Robert Jay (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JQRTev1AHjQC"><i>Beyond invisible walls: the psychological legacy of Soviet trauma, East European therapists, and their patients</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58391-318-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58391-318-5"><bdi>978-1-58391-318-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+invisible+walls%3A+the+psychological+legacy+of+Soviet+trauma%2C+East+European+therapists%2C+and+their+patients&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-58391-318-5&rft.aulast=Lindy&rft.aufirst=Jacob+D.&rft.au=Lifton%2C+Robert+Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJQRTev1AHjQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowe2002" class="citation book cs1">Lowe, Norman (2002). <i>Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History</i>. Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780333963074" title="Special:BookSources/9780333963074"><bdi>9780333963074</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mastering+Twentieth+Century+Russian+History&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780333963074&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00085006.2017.1384665?src=recsys&journalCode=rcsp20">"New directions in Gulag studies: a roundtable discussion,"</a> Canadian Slavonic Papers 59, no 3-4 (2017)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNove,_Alec1993" class="citation book cs1">Nove, Alec (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NWYvGYcxCjYC">"Victims of Stalinism: How Many?"</a>. In Getty, J. Arch; Manning, Roberta T. (eds.). <i>Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44670-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44670-9"><bdi>978-0-521-44670-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Victims+of+Stalinism%3A+How+Many%3F&rft.btitle=Stalinist+Terror%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-44670-9&rft.au=Nove%2C+Alec&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNWYvGYcxCjYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan2012" class="citation book cs1">Ryan, James (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/products/9781138815681"><i>Lenin's Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138815681" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138815681"><bdi>978-1138815681</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%27s+Terror%3A+The+Ideological+Origins+of+Early+Soviet+State+Violence&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1138815681&rft.aulast=Ryan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2Fproducts%2F9781138815681&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Wheatcroft" title="Stephen G. Wheatcroft">Wheatcroft, Stephen</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-German_Soviet.pdf">"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Europe-Asia_Studies" title="Europe-Asia Studies">Europe-Asia Studies</a></i>. <b>48</b> (8): 1319–1353. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139608412415">10.1080/09668139608412415</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/152781">152781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Scale+and+Nature+of+German+and+Soviet+Repression+and+Mass+Killings%2C+1930%E2%80%9345&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1319-1353&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139608412415&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F152781%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wheatcroft&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FWCR-German_Soviet.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft,_S._G.2000" class="citation journal cs1">Wheatcroft, S. G. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Comments_KEP_CNQ.pdf">"The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Europe-Asia Studies</i>. <b>52</b> (6): 1143–1159. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668130050143860">10.1080/09668130050143860</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19326595">19326595</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205667754">205667754</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Scale+and+Nature+of+Stalinist+Repression+and+its+Demographic+Significance%3A+On+Comments+by+Keep+and+Conquest&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1143-1159&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205667754%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19326595&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668130050143860&rft.au=Wheatcroft%2C+S.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FWCR-Comments_KEP_CNQ.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynne_Viola" title="Lynne Viola">Lynne Viola</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00085006.2018.1497393">"New sources on Soviet perpetrators of mass repression: a research note,"</a> Canadian Slavonic Papers 60, no 3-4 (2018)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiges1997" class="citation book cs1">Figes, Orlando (1997). <i>A People's Tragedy</i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Viking_Press" title="Viking Press">Viking Press</a>. pp. 753–769. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0670859168" title="Special:BookSources/0670859168"><bdi>0670859168</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People%27s+Tragedy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=753-769&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0670859168&rft.aulast=Figes&rft.aufirst=Orlando&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayer2002" class="citation book cs1">Mayer, Arno J. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gveBKGhmskAC"><i>The Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09015-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09015-3"><bdi>978-0-691-09015-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Furies%3A+Violence+and+Terror+in+the+French+and+Russian+Revolutions&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-691-09015-3&rft.aulast=Mayer&rft.aufirst=Arno+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgveBKGhmskAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPipes2011" class="citation book cs1">Pipes, Richard (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pfNEY931UzYC"><i>Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-78861-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-78861-0"><bdi>978-0-307-78861-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+Under+the+Bolshevik+Regime&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-307-78861-0&rft.aulast=Pipes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpfNEY931UzYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerth1999" class="citation book cs1">Werth, Nicolas (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PG108">"A State against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Communism" title="The Black Book of Communism">The Black Book of Communism</a>: Crimes, Terror, Repression</i>. Harvard University Press. pp. 33–268. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07608-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07608-2"><bdi>978-0-674-07608-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+State+against+Its+People%3A+Violence%2C+Repression%2C+and+Terror+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.btitle=The+Black+Book+of+Communism%3A+Crimes%2C+Terror%2C+Repression&rft.pages=33-268&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-674-07608-2&rft.aulast=Werth&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH1jsgYCoRioC%26pg%3DPG108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerth2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Werth" title="Nicolas Werth">Werth, Nicolas</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CIt7fMp30sAC&pg=PA73">"Strategies of Violence in the Stalinist USSR"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Henry_Rousso" title="Henry Rousso">Rousso, Henry</a>; Golsan, Richard Joseph (eds.). <i>Stalinism and Nazism: History and Memory Compared</i>. University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780803290006" title="Special:BookSources/9780803290006"><bdi>9780803290006</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003026805">2003026805</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Strategies+of+Violence+in+the+Stalinist+USSR&rft.btitle=Stalinism+and+Nazism%3A+History+and+Memory+Compared&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003026805&rft.isbn=9780803290006&rft.aulast=Werth&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCIt7fMp30sAC%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Russian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War">Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Stalinism_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union">Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Post_Stalinist_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union">Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union</a></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooks,_Jeffrey2000" class="citation book cs1">Brooks, Jeffrey (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kUl3Od-xWn8C"><i>Thank you, comrade Stalin!: Soviet public culture from revolution to Cold War</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00411-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00411-2"><bdi>978-0-691-00411-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thank+you%2C+comrade+Stalin%21%3A+Soviet+public+culture+from+revolution+to+Cold+War&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00411-2&rft.au=Brooks%2C+Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkUl3Od-xWn8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesWheatcroft2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_William_Davies" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert William Davies">Davies, Robert</a>; <a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Wheatcroft" title="Stephen G. Wheatcroft">Wheatcroft, Stephen</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9780333311073"><i>The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia Volume 5: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 1931–1933</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan UK. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-27397-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-27397-9"><bdi>978-0-230-27397-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Industrialisation+of+Soviet+Russia+Volume+5%3A+The+Years+of+Hunger%3A+Soviet+Agriculture+1931%E2%80%931933&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-230-27397-9&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Wheatcroft%2C+Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.palgrave.com%2Fus%2Fbook%2F9780333311073&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllman,_Michael2002" class="citation journal cs1">Ellman, Michael (November 2002). "Soviet repression statistics: some comments". <i><a href="/wiki/Europe-Asia_Studies" title="Europe-Asia Studies">Europe-Asia Studies</a></i>. <b>54</b> (7): 1151–1172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0966813022000017177">10.1080/0966813022000017177</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43510161">43510161</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Soviet+repression+statistics%3A+some+comments&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1151-1172&rft.date=2002-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0966813022000017177&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43510161%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Ellman%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEremina,_Larisa;_Roginsky,_Arseny_[Лариса_Еремина,_Арсений_Рогинский]2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Eremina, Larisa; Roginsky, Arseny [Лариса Еремина, Арсений Рогинский] (2002). <i>Расстрельные списки: Москва, 1937–1941: "Коммунарка", Бутово: книга памяти жертв политических репрессий</i> [<i>Shot lists: Moscow, 1937–1941: "Kommunarka", Butovo: the book for commemoration of political repression victims</i>] (in Russian). Moscow: <a href="/wiki/Memorial_(society)" title="Memorial (society)">Memorial</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5787000597" title="Special:BookSources/978-5787000597"><bdi>978-5787000597</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%3A+%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0%2C+1937%E2%80%931941%3A+%22%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%22%2C+%D0%91%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%3A+%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0+%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B2+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=Memorial&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-5787000597&rft.au=Eremina%2C+Larisa%3B+Roginsky%2C+Arseny+%5B%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0+%D0%95%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+%D0%90%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%5D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEremina,_Larisa;_Roginsky,_Arseny_[Лариса_Еремина,_Арсений_Рогинский]2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Eremina, Larisa; Roginsky, Arseny [Лариса Еремина, Арсений Рогинский] (2005). <i>Расстрельные списки: Москва, 1935–1953: Донское кладбище (Донской крематорий): книга памяти жертв политических репрессий</i> [<i>Shot lists: Moscow, 1935–1953: the Donskoye cemetery (the Donskoy crematorium): the book for commemoration of political repression victims</i>] (in Russian). Moscow: <a href="/wiki/Memorial_(society)" title="Memorial (society)">Memorial</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5787000818" title="Special:BookSources/978-5787000818"><bdi>978-5787000818</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%3A+%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0%2C+1935%E2%80%931953%3A+%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5+%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%B5+%28%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%29%3A+%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0+%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B2+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=Memorial&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-5787000818&rft.au=Eremina%2C+Larisa%3B+Roginsky%2C+Arseny+%5B%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0+%D0%95%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%2C+%D0%90%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%5D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaynesHusan2003" class="citation book cs1">Haynes, Michael; Husan, Rumy (2003). <i>A Century Of State Murder? Death and Policy in Twentieth Century Russia</i>. <a href="/wiki/Pluto_Press" title="Pluto Press">Pluto Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0745319308" title="Special:BookSources/978-0745319308"><bdi>978-0745319308</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+Of+State+Murder%3F+Death+and+Policy+in+Twentieth+Century+Russia&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0745319308&rft.aulast=Haynes&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Husan%2C+Rumy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohns,_Michael1987" class="citation journal cs1">Johns, Michael (Fall 1987). "Seventy years of evil: Soviet crimes from Lenin to Gorbachev". <i><a href="/wiki/Policy_Review" title="Policy Review">Policy Review</a></i>: 10–23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Policy+Review&rft.atitle=Seventy+years+of+evil%3A+Soviet+crimes+from+Lenin+to+Gorbachev&rft.ssn=fall&rft.pages=10-23&rft.date=1987&rft.au=Johns%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeggett,_George1981" class="citation book cs1">Leggett, George (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NRUFAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police</i></a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822862-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822862-2"><bdi>978-0-19-822862-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cheka%3A+Lenin%27s+Political+Police&rft.pub=Oxford%3A+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-19-822862-2&rft.au=Leggett%2C+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNRUFAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedvedev,_Roy_Aleksandrovich1985" class="citation book cs1">Medvedev, Roy Aleksandrovich (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=alue7o_Ygh0C"><i>On Soviet Dissent</i></a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-04813-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-04813-2"><bdi>978-0-231-04813-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Soviet+Dissent&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-231-04813-2&rft.au=Medvedev%2C+Roy+Aleksandrovich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dalue7o_Ygh0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosefielde,_Steven2009" class="citation book cs1">Rosefielde, Steven (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D1QH38Cxn74C"><i>Red Holocaust</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77757-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77757-5"><bdi>978-0-415-77757-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Holocaust&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-77757-5&rft.au=Rosefielde%2C+Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD1QH38Cxn74C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamatan,_Marie1980" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Samatan, Marie (1980). <i>Droits de l'homme et répression en URSS: l'appareil et les victimes</i> [<i>Human rights and repression in the USSR: mechanism and victims</i>] (in French). Paris: Seuil. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2020057059" title="Special:BookSources/978-2020057059"><bdi>978-2020057059</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Droits+de+l%27homme+et+r%C3%A9pression+en+URSS%3A+l%27appareil+et+les+victimes&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Seuil&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-2020057059&rft.au=Samatan%2C+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShearer,_David_R.2009" class="citation book cs1">Shearer, David R. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oC1ylmvtvn4C"><i>Policing Stalin's socialism: repression and social order in the Soviet Union, 1924–1953</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-14925-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-14925-8"><bdi>978-0-300-14925-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Policing+Stalin%27s+socialism%3A+repression+and+social+order+in+the+Soviet+Union%2C+1924%E2%80%931953&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-300-14925-8&rft.au=Shearer%2C+David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoC1ylmvtvn4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolomon,_Peter_H.1996" class="citation book cs1">Solomon, Peter H. (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sovietcriminalju0000solo"><i>Soviet criminal justice under Stalin</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56451-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56451-9"><bdi>978-0-521-56451-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+criminal+justice+under+Stalin&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56451-9&rft.au=Solomon%2C+Peter+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsovietcriminalju0000solo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWintrobe,_Ronald2000" class="citation book cs1">Wintrobe, Ronald (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o4G8SlNUROoC"><i>The Political Economy of Dictatorship</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79449-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79449-7"><bdi>978-0-521-79449-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Economy+of+Dictatorship&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79449-7&rft.au=Wintrobe%2C+Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do4G8SlNUROoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFАлександр_Подрабинек2015" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Александр Подрабинек (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://magazines.russ.ru/znamia/2015/4/60p-pr.html"><bdi lang="ru">Наша кампания за амнистию</bdi></a> [Our campaign for amnesty]. <i><a href="/wiki/Zvezda_(magazine)" title="Zvezda (magazine)">Zvezda</a></i> (in Russian) (4)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zvezda&rft.atitle=%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B0+%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B7%D0%B0+%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8E&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2015&rft.au=%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80+%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmagazines.russ.ru%2Fznamia%2F2015%2F4%2F60p-pr.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhanbosinova,_Albina_[Альбина_Жанбосинова]2013" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zhanbosinova, Albina [Альбина Жанбосинова] (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.erjournal.ru/journals_n/1367264619.pdf">"Политические репрессии в СССР (1920–1950 гг.): историко-статистическое исследование"</a> [Political repression in the USSR (1920–1950s): historical and statistical research] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>European Researcher</i> (in Russian). <b>45</b> (4–1): 811–822. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151115032118/http://www.erjournal.ru/journals_n/1367264619.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 15 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Researcher&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B2+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0+%281920%E2%80%931950+%D0%B3%D0%B3.%29%3A+%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5+%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=4%E2%80%931&rft.pages=811-822&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Zhanbosinova%2C+Albina+%5B%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.erjournal.ru%2Fjournals_n%2F1367264619.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160214215130/http://old.sakharov-center.ru/museum/expositions/english/repressions-ussr/">"Political repressions in the USSR"</a>. The Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.sakharov-center.ru/museum/expositions/english/repressions-ussr/">the original</a> on 2016-02-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-09-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Political+repressions+in+the+USSR&rft.pub=The+Andrei+Sakharov+Museum+and+Public+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fold.sakharov-center.ru%2Fmuseum%2Fexpositions%2Fenglish%2Frepressions-ussr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+repression+in+the+Soviet+Union" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression in the Soviet Union</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_Union_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Template talk:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet_Union_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet Union topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soviet_Union_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Soviet Union–related articles">Index of Soviet Union–related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Creation treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Great Patriotic War</a> (World War II) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Evacuation in the Soviet Union">Evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">The Holocaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw" title="Khrushchev Thaw">Khrushchev Thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_Soviet_economic_reform" title="1965 Soviet economic reform">1965 economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia_for_the_Soviet_Union" title="Nostalgia for the Soviet Union">Nostalgia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Subdivisions of the Soviet Union">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krais_of_Russia" title="Krais of Russia">Krais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Oblasts of the Soviet Union">Oblasts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_okrugs_of_Russia" title="Autonomous okrugs of Russia">Autonomous okrugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_city" title="Closed city">Closed city</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Siberian_Plain" title="West Siberian Plain">West Siberian Plain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1936</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union">1977</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Elections in the Soviet Union">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Soviet Union">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_control_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Gun control in the Soviet Union">Gun control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governments_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of governments of the Soviet Union">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_post-Soviet_states" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the post-Soviet states">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Law of the Soviet Union">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Capital punishment in the Soviet Union">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passport_system_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Passport system in the Soviet Union">Passport system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propiska_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propiska in the Soviet Union">Propiska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of political parties in the Soviet Union">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">State ideology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_anti-Zionism" title="Soviet anti-Zionism">Soviet anti-Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Presidium/Politburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a> (1922–1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a> (1938–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_People%27s_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a> (1989–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Military Collegium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Heads of state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">Deputy Premier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">Security services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Political_Directorate" title="State Political Directorate">GPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_battalions" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction battalions">Destruction battalions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Militsiya" title="Militsiya">Militsiya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_State_Security_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of State Security (Soviet Union)">MGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chairmen_of_the_KGB" title="List of chairmen of the KGB">Chairmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Border_Troops" title="Soviet Border Troops">Soviet Border Troops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spetsnaz_GRU" title="Spetsnaz GRU">Spetsnaz GRU</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Soviet Air Forces</a>/<a href="/wiki/Soviet_Airborne_Forces" title="Soviet Airborne Forces">Soviet Airborne Forces</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor in the Soviet Union">Forced labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gulag_camps" title="List of Gulag camps">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Repression of science in the Soviet Union">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gosbank" class="mw-redirect" title="Gosbank">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Energy policy of the Soviet Union">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/.su" title=".su">Internet domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation#Soviet_Union" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_material_product" title="Net material product">Net material product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OGAS" title="OGAS">OGAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">Rouble <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Transport in the Soviet Union">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Railway_system_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Railway system of the Soviet Union">Railway system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Rail transport in the Soviet Union">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metro_systems_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of metro systems in the Soviet Union">List of metro systems</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Academy" title="Communist Academy">Communist Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences#In_the_Soviet_Union" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences" title="USSR Academy of Medical Sciences">Academy of Medical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VASKhNIL" title="VASKhNIL">Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">Sharashkas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naukograd" title="Naukograd">Naukograds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naukograds" title="Category:Naukograds">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Society of the Soviet Union">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Crime in the Soviet Union">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">Soviet people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Working class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Soviet_census" title="1989 Soviet census">1989 census</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Drug policy of the Soviet Union">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Family in the Soviet Union">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Languages of the Soviet Union">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistics of the Soviet Union">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cyrillisation in the Soviet Union">Cyrillisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_Russian_Empire_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Prohibition in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Racism in the Soviet Union">Racism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_ballet" title="Russian ballet">Ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cinema of the Soviet Union">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion in the Soviet Union">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_literature#20th_century" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Music of the Soviet Union">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_opera#20th_century" title="Russian opera">Opera</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_phraseology" title="Soviet phraseology">Phraseology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_media_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Printed media in the Soviet Union">Printed media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Radio in the Soviet Union">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Russia" title="Sport in Russia">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Television in the Soviet Union">Television</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissidents</a> and their groups <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Soviet_opposition_groups" title="Category:Soviet opposition groups">List</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_Anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Anthem of the Soviet Union">Anthem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Anthems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Emblem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union">Emblem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emblems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Emblems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Flag of the Soviet Union">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Flags of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammer_and_sickle" title="Hammer and sickle">Hammer and sickle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Soviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Soviet_Union" title="Category:Soviet Union">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&oldid=1257940879">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&oldid=1257940879</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression in the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_and_cultural_purges" title="Category:Political and cultural purges">Political and cultural purges</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Persecution_of_dissidents_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Persecution of dissidents in the Soviet Union">Persecution of dissidents in the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commemoration_of_communist_crimes" title="Category:Commemoration of communist crimes">Commemoration of communist crimes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Murder_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Murder in the Soviet Union">Murder in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2011" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2011">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_no-target_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors">Harv and Sfn no-target errors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru)" title="Category:CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)">CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2011" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_January_2011" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from January 2011">Articles lacking reliable references from January 2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Russian-language text">Articles containing Russian-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Russian-language_script_(ru)" title="Category:CS1 uses Russian-language script (ru)">CS1 uses Russian-language script (ru)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 17 November 2024, at 09:39<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-bd5cc","wgBackendResponseTime":132,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.563","walltime":"1.835","ppvisitednodes":{"value":7723,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":309541,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6934,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":32,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":388220,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1583.369 1 -total"," 33.29% 527.115 1 Template:Reflist"," 15.44% 244.512 44 Template:Cite_book"," 12.83% 203.105 19 Template:Cite_web"," 9.21% 145.851 2 Template:Langx"," 7.54% 119.438 6 Template:Sidebar"," 7.12% 112.751 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.74% 106.768 20 Template:Cite_journal"," 6.21% 98.257 1 Template:Repression_in_the_Soviet_Union"," 5.12% 81.089 5 Template:Fix"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.010","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":25598880,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAnne_Applebaum2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrooks,_Jeffrey2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuckleyRubleHofmann2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChernova\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConquest,_Robert1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConquest1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConquest2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConstantin_IordachiArnd_Bauerkamper2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCourtois,_Stephane1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaviesWheatcroft2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDeutscher2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllman,_Michael2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllman2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEremina,_Larisa;_Roginsky,_Arseny_\u0026#91;Лариса_Еремина,_Арсений_Рогинский\u0026#93;2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEremina,_Larisa;_Roginsky,_Arseny_\u0026#91;Лариса_Еремина,_Арсений_Рогинский\u0026#93;2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiges,_Orlando2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiges1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiges1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGettyRitterspornZemskov1993\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGrieb2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaynesHusan2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHildermeier2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHomkes2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohns,_Michael1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKline1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeggett,_George1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiebman1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLincoln1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindyLifton2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLivi-Bacci1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowe2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayer2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedvedev,_Roy_Aleksandrovich1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelgunov2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontefiore2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNakonechnyi2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNove,_Alec1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPipes2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPipes2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReese2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Service2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosefielde,_Steven2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosefielde1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosefielde2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoszkowski2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamatan,_Marie1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShearer,_David_R.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShearer2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnyder2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSolomon,_Peter_H.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimofeychev2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFViola1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWerth1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWerth2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWerth2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheatcroft,_S._G.1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheatcroft,_S._G.2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWheatcroft1996\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWintrobe,_Ronald2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolowyna2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhanbosinova,_Albina_\u0026#91;Альбина_Жанбосинова\u0026#93;2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFАлександр_Подрабинек2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFПеревощиков_А.2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFСтарикова,_М.2022\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 44,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 20,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 19,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 10,\n [\"Ntsh\"] = 11,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refn\"] = 1,\n [\"Repression in the Soviet Union\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 5,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Soviet Union sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Soviet Union topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreliable source?\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","180","16.4"],["?","160","14.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","120","10.9"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","100","9.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","7.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","80","7.3"],["\u003Cmw.title.lua:50\u003E","40","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","40","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","40","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::parseFormattedNumber","40","3.6"],["[others]","220","20.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-86n86","timestamp":"20241125095627","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Political repression in the Soviet Union","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2991155","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2991155","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-07-17T16:43:53Z","dateModified":"2024-11-17T09:39:48Z","headline":"use of coercion against citizens by the Marxist-Leninist Eurasian state"}</script> </body> </html>