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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Geographic distribution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geographic_distribution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Geographic distribution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geographic_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aramaic_languages_and_dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aramaic_languages_and_dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Aramaic languages and dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aramaic_languages_and_dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Writing system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Periodization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Periodization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Periodization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Periodization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Old_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Old Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Old_Aramaic-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Old Aramaic subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Old_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Ancient Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperial_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Imperial Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biblical_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Biblical Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Achaemenid_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Achaemenid_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Post-Achaemenid Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post-Achaemenid_Aramaic-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Post-Achaemenid Aramaic subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Post-Achaemenid_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Targumic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Targumic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Targumic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Targumic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Babylonian_Documentary_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Babylonian_Documentary_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Babylonian Documentary Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Babylonian_Documentary_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nabataean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nabataean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Nabataean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nabataean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palmyrene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palmyrene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Palmyrene</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palmyrene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Eastern dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Western dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages_during_Jesus'_lifetime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages_during_Jesus'_lifetime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Languages during Jesus' lifetime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages_during_Jesus'_lifetime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Middle Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Middle_Aramaic-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Middle Aramaic subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Middle_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eastern_Middle_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Middle_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Eastern Middle Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Middle_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Syriac_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syriac_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Syriac Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syriac_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>Jewish Babylonian Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mandaic_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mandaic_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.3</span> <span>Mandaic Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mandaic_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Middle_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Middle_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Western Middle Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Middle_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Samaritan_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samaritan_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Samaritan Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samaritan_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.3</span> <span>Christian Palestinian Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Modern Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_Aramaic-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern Aramaic subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_Eastern_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Eastern_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Modern Eastern Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Eastern_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Western_Aramaic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Western_Aramaic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Modern Western Aramaic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Western_Aramaic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sample texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_sound_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_sound_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Historical sound changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_sound_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Grammar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns_and_adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns_and_adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Nouns and adjectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns_and_adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aspectual_tense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aspectual_tense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2.1</span> <span>Aspectual tense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aspectual_tense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conjugations_or_verbal_stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conjugations_or_verbal_stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2.2</span> <span>Conjugations or verbal stems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conjugations_or_verbal_stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Aramaic</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 116 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-116" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">116 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramees" title="Aramees – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Aramees" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C3%A4ische_Sprachen" title="Aramäische Sprachen – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Aramäische Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%A8%E1%88%9B%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%AD" title="አረማይክ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አረማይክ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة الآرامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الآرامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_arameu" title="Idioma arameu – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Idioma arameu" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A0%DC%AB%DC%A2%DC%90_%DC%90%DC%AA%DC%A1%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܠܫܢܐ ܐܪܡܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܠܫܢܐ ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C3%A8an" title="Aramèan – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Aramèan" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_aramees" title="Llingües aramees – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües aramees" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arami_dill%C9%99ri" title="Arami dilləri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Arami dilləri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="آرامی دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آرامی دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="আরামীয় ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আরামীয় ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B4%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Арамей телдәре – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Арамей телдәре" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Арамейскія мовы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Арамейскія мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Арамэйскія мовы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Арамэйскія мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameo" title="Arameo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Arameo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Арамейски езици – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Арамейски езици" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_aramaek" title="Yezhoù aramaek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù aramaek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameu" title="Arameu – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Arameu" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Арамей чĕлхисем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Арамей чĕлхисем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameo" title="Arameo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Arameo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramej%C5%A1tina" title="Aramejština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Aramejština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiaramu" title="Chiaramu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chiaramu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaeg" title="Aramaeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Aramaeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C3%A6isk_(sprog)" title="Aramæisk (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Aramæisk (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C3%A4ische_Sprachen" title="Aramäische Sprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aramäische Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramea_keel" title="Aramea keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aramea keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Αραμαϊκή γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αραμαϊκή γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_arameas" title="Lenguas arameas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas arameas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramea_lingvo" title="Aramea lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aramea lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramera" title="Aramera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aramera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="زبان آرامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان آرامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_bhasa" title="Aramaic bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Aramaic bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C3%A6iskt_m%C3%A1l" title="Aramæiskt mál – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Aramæiskt mál" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C3%A9en" title="Araméen – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Araméen" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameesk" title="Arameesk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Arameesk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Aramais" title="An Aramais – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Aramais" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaaish" title="Aramaaish – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Aramaaish" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramais" title="Aramais – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Aramais" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_aramea" title="Lingua aramea – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua aramea" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%9E%8C%EC%96%B4" title="아람어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아람어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Արամեերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արամեերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%95" title="आरामाईक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आरामाईक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramejski_jezik" title="Aramejski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Aramejski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasao_nga_Arameo" title="Pagsasao nga Arameo – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagsasao nga Arameo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Aram" title="Bahasa Aram – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Aram" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaico" title="Aramaico – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Aramaico" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arame%C3%ADska" title="Arameíska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Arameíska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_aramaica" title="Lingua aramaica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua aramaica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA" title="ארמית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ארמית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="არამეული ენები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="არამეული ენები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiaramu" title="Kiaramu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kiaramu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Aramaica" title="Lingua Aramaica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Aramaica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramie%C5%A1u_valoda" title="Aramiešu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aramiešu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C4%97j%C5%B3_kalba" title="Aramėjų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Aramėjų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram" title="Aram – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Aram" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Li Niha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arami_(lingua)" title="Arami (lingua) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Arami (lingua)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar%C3%A1mi_nyelv" title="Arámi nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Arámi nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Арамејски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Арамејски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_arameana" title="Fiteny arameana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny arameana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF" title="അറമായ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അറമായ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reo_Aramaic" title="Reo Aramaic – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Reo Aramaic" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Māori</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A5%B2%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="ॲरेमाईक भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ॲरेमाईक भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="არამეული ნინეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="არამეული ნინეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الاراميه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الاراميه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Aramia" title="Bahasa Aramia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Aramia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahaso_Aram" title="Bahaso Aram – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Bahaso Aram" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BA%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Арамеянь кяль – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Арамеянь кяль" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Арамей хэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Арамей хэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramees" title="Aramees – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Aramees" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramees" title="Aramees – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Aramees" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="आरामी भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="आरामी भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A9%E3%83%A0%E8%AA%9E" title="アラム語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アラム語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82" title="Арамийн мотт – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Арамийн мотт" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameesk_spriaken" title="Arameesk spriaken – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Arameesk spriaken" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameisk" title="Arameisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Arameisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameisk" title="Arameisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Arameisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C3%A9en" title="Araméen – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Araméen" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram%C3%A8u" title="Aramèu – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Aramèu" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oromiy_tili" title="Oromiy tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Oromiy tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="آرامی بولیاں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="آرامی بولیاں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="ارامي ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ارامي ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%98" title="ភាសាអារ៉ាម – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភាសាអារ៉ាម" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_aramejski" title="Język aramejski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język aramejski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaico" title="Aramaico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Aramaico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_aramaic%C4%83" title="Limba aramaică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba aramaică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Арамейские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Арамейские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A0_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱟᱨᱟᱢᱟᱭᱤᱠ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱟᱨᱟᱢᱟᱭᱤᱠ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="آرامی زبان – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="آرامی زبان" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_aramike" title="Gjuha aramike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha aramike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_aram%C3%A0ica" title="Lingua aramàica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lingua aramàica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic_language" title="Aramaic language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Aramaic language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%BB%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A" title="آرامي ٻولي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="آرامي ٻولي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramej%C4%8Dina" title="Aramejčina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Aramejčina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramej%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Aramejščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Aramejščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="زمانی ئارامی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی ئارامی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Арамејски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Арамејски језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramejski_jezik" title="Aramejski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Aramejski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramean_kieli" title="Aramean kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aramean kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameiska" title="Arameiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Arameiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Arameo" title="Wikang Arameo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Arameo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="அரமேயம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அரமேயம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81" title="ภาษาแอราเมอิก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาแอราเมอิก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D3%A3" title="Забони оромӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Забони оромӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramice" title="Aramice – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Aramice" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Арамейська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Арамейська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="آرامی زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="آرامی زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Aram" title="Tiếng Aram – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Aram" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameyin" title="Arameyin – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Arameyin" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arameo" title="Arameo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Arameo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E6%8B%89%E5%A7%86%E8%AF%AD" title="亚拉姆语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="亚拉姆语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A9" title="אראמיש – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אראמיש" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Semitic language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Aramaic (disambiguation)">Aramaic (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Aramaic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;"><span title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (ca. 200-1200 CE)-language text"><span lang="tmr" dir="rtl">ארמית</span></span>, <span title="Classical Syriac-language text"><span lang="syc" dir="rtl">ܐܪܡܐܝܬ</span></span><br /><span title="Classical Syriac-language romanization"><i lang="syc-Latn">Arāmāiṯ</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Anatolia_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Anatolia Region">Southeastern Anatolia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">eastern Arabia</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Aramoid<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Aramaic</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Afroasiatic">Proto-Afroasiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Semitic">Proto-Semitic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="#Middle_Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armazic_language" title="Armazic language">Armazic</a> <abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene</a> <abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac alphabet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Christian</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_alphabet" title="Mandaic alphabet">Mandaic alphabet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaean</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a></li><li>Historically <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic alphabet</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Variously:<br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/arc" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:arc">arc</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/syc" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:syc">syc</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/myz" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:myz">myz</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Classical Mandaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/xrm" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:xrm">xrm</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Armazic_language" title="Armazic language">Armazic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/bjf" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:bjf">bjf</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Barzani_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Barzani Neo-Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/bhn" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:bhn">bhn</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Bohtan" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan">Bohtan Neo-Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hrt" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:hrt">hrt</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Hertevin" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin">Hertevin Neo-Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/aij" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:aij">aij</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Inter-Zab Neo-Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/tmr" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:tmr">tmr</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/jpa" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:jpa">jpa</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/kqd" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:kqd">kqd</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Koy_Sanjaq_Christian_Neo-Aramaic" title="Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic">Koy Sanjaq Neo-Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/lhs" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:lhs">lhs</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Mla%E1%B8%A5s%C3%B4_language" title="Mlaḥsô language">Mlaḥsô</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mid" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:mid">mid</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Neo-Mandaic" title="Neo-Mandaic">Modern Mandaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/oar" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:oar">oar</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/sam" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:sam">sam</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Aramaic language">Samaritan Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/syn" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:syn">syn</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Senaya" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya">Senaya Neo-Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/syr" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:syr">syr</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/huy" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:huy">huy</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Trans-Zab Neo-Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/tru" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:tru">tru</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/trg" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:trg">trg</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Neo-Aramaic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/amw" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:amw">amw</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Neo-Aramaic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/aram1259">aram1259</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=12-AAA">12-AAA</a></code></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aramaic_alphabet.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aramaic_alphabet.svg/250px-Aramaic_alphabet.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aramaic_alphabet.svg/330px-Aramaic_alphabet.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aramaic_alphabet.svg/440px-Aramaic_alphabet.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="93" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac alphabet</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Aramaic</b> (<a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic language">Jewish Babylonian Aramaic</a>: <span lang="tmr" dir="rtl">ארמית</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic-language romanization"><i lang="tmr-Latn">ˀərāmiṯ</i></span> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Imperial Aramaic pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arc-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ʔɛrɑmitˤ]</a></span>; <a href="/wiki/Classical_Syriac_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a>: <span lang="syc" dir="rtl">ܐܪܡܐܝܬ</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Classical Syriac-language romanization"><i lang="syc-Latn">arāmāˀiṯ</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is a <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic language</a> that originated in the ancient <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">region of Syria</a> and quickly spread to <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Levant" title="Southern Levant">southern Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Anatolia_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Anatolia Region">southeastern Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>, where it has been continually written and spoken in different <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrock198911–23_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrock198911–23-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for over three thousand years. </p><p>Aramaic served as a language of public life and administration of ancient kingdoms and empires, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, and also as a language of divine worship and religious study within <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a>. Several <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">modern varieties of Aramaic</a> are still spoken. The modern <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Aramaic">eastern branch</a> is spoken by <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandeans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PhylaAndWaves_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhylaAndWaves-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GzellaAramaic_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GzellaAramaic-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAufrecht2001145"The_Aramaic_Language_originated_in_ancient_Syria_at_the_end_of_the_Late_Bronze_Age_(c._1500–1200_B.C.),_is_one_of_the_oldest_continually_spoken_languages_in_the_world."_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAufrecht2001145"The_Aramaic_Language_originated_in_ancient_Syria_at_the_end_of_the_Late_Bronze_Age_(c._1500–1200_B.C.),_is_one_of_the_oldest_continually_spoken_languages_in_the_world."-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Aramaic</a> is still spoken by the Muslim and Christian <a href="/wiki/Terms_for_Syriac_Christians#Aramean_identity" title="Terms for Syriac Christians">Arameans (Syriacs)</a> in the towns of <a href="/wiki/Maaloula" title="Maaloula">Maaloula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bakh%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakh'a">Bakh'a</a> and nearby <a href="/wiki/Jubb%27adin" title="Jubb'adin">Jubb'adin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Classical varieties are used as liturgical and literary languages in several West Asian churches,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenfield1995_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenfield1995-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETal2012619–28_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETal2012619–28-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurtea2012670–685_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurtea2012670–685-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Aramaic language is now considered <a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">endangered</a>, with several varieties used mainly by the older generations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaby2004197–203_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaby2004197–203-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers are working to record and analyze all of the remaining varieties of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo-Aramaic languages</a> before or in case they become extinct.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacuch1990214–223_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacuch1990214–223-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoghill2007115–122_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoghill2007115–122-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aramaic belongs to the Northwest group of the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic language family</a>, which also includes the mutually intelligible <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ekronite_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekronite language">Ekronite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suteans" title="Suteans">Sutean</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński200164_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200164-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella201517–22_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella201517–22-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aramaic varieties are written in the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic alphabet</a>, a descendant of the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a>. The most prominent variant of this alphabet is the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac alphabet</a>, used in the ancient city of <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels1996499–514_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels1996499–514-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Aramaic alphabet also became a base for the creation and adaptation of specific writing systems in some other Semitic languages of <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer198656_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer198656-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_and_Aramaic_inscriptions" title="Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions">Aramaic inscriptions</a> date from 11th century BC, placing it among the <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_account" title="List of languages by first written account">earliest languages to be written down</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrock198911–23_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrock198911–23-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aramaicist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Holger_Gzella&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Holger Gzella (page does not exist)">Holger Gzella</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holger_Gzella" class="extiw" title="de:Holger Gzella">de</a>]</span> notes, "The linguistic history of Aramaic prior to the appearance of the first textual sources in the ninth century BC remains unknown."<sup id="cite_ref-Gzella2015_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gzella2015-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aramaic is also believed by most historians and scholars to have been the primary <a href="/wiki/Language_of_Jesus" title="Language of Jesus">language</a> spoken by <a href="/wiki/Jesus_of_Nazareth" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus of Nazareth">Jesus of Nazareth</a> both for preaching and in everyday life.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen_Myers_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen_Myers-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:This_clay_tablet_represents_a_classroom_experiment;_a_teacher_imposed_a_challenging_writing_exercise_on_pupils_who_spoke_both_languages._The_pupils_had_to_use_traditional_syllabic_signs_to_express_the_sounds_of_the_Aramaic_alphabet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/This_clay_tablet_represents_a_classroom_experiment%3B_a_teacher_imposed_a_challenging_writing_exercise_on_pupils_who_spoke_both_languages._The_pupils_had_to_use_traditional_syllabic_signs_to_express_the_sounds_of_the_Aramaic_alphabet.jpg/250px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/This_clay_tablet_represents_a_classroom_experiment%3B_a_teacher_imposed_a_challenging_writing_exercise_on_pupils_who_spoke_both_languages._The_pupils_had_to_use_traditional_syllabic_signs_to_express_the_sounds_of_the_Aramaic_alphabet.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/This_clay_tablet_represents_a_classroom_experiment%3B_a_teacher_imposed_a_challenging_writing_exercise_on_pupils_who_spoke_both_languages._The_pupils_had_to_use_traditional_syllabic_signs_to_express_the_sounds_of_the_Aramaic_alphabet.jpg/500px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2084" data-file-height="2953" /></a><figcaption>This clay tablet represents a classroom experiment; a teacher imposed a challenging writing exercise on pupils who spoke both Babylonian-Akkadian and Aramaic. The pupils had to use traditional syllabic signs to express the sounds of the Aramaic alphabet. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500 BC</span>. From Iraq</figcaption></figure> <p>Historically and originally, Aramaic was the language of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Aramean</a> tribes. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, and the fringes of southern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>). Aramaic rose to prominence under the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language after being adopted as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of the empire by <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> kings, and its use was spread throughout <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Iran">Ancient Iran</a> under Assyrian rule. At its height, Aramaic was spoken in what is now <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestine" title="Palestine">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, parts of southeast and south central <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, northern parts of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> and parts of northwest <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, as well as the southern <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, having gradually replaced several other related Semitic languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhan200795–114_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhan200795–114-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2015-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Talmud" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin_(tractate)" title="Sanhedrin (tractate)">Sanhedrin</a> 38b), the language spoken by Adam – the Bible's first human – was Aramaic.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aramaic was the <a href="/wiki/Language_of_Jesus" title="Language of Jesus">language of Jesus</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuzer2014182–205_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuzer2014182–205-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButh2014395–421_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButh2014395–421-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015237_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2015237-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who spoke the <a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean dialect</a> during his public ministry, as well as the language of several sections of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, including parts of the books of <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezra" title="Book of Ezra">Ezra</a>, and also the language of the <a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a>, the Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchen196531–79_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchen196531–79-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2006_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal2006-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015304–10_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2015304–10-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also the language of the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Talmud" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a>. </p><p>The scribes of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a> bureaucracy also used Aramaic, and this practice was subsequently inherited by the succeeding <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (605–539 BC) and later by the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> (539–330 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFolmer2012587–98_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFolmer2012587–98-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mediated by scribes that had been trained in the language, highly standardized written Aramaic, named by scholars <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a>, progressively also became the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of public life, trade and commerce throughout Achaemenid territories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBae20041–20_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBae20041–20-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wide use of written Aramaic subsequently led to the adoption of the Aramaic alphabet and, as <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logograms</a>, some Aramaic vocabulary in the <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi scripts</a>, which were used by several <a href="/wiki/Middle_Iranian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Iranian languages">Middle Iranian languages</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Khwarezmian_language" title="Khwarezmian language">Khwarezmian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199245_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199245-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some variants of Aramaic are also retained as <a href="/wiki/Sacred_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred languages">sacred languages</a> by certain religious communities. Most notable among them is <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a>, the liturgical language of <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac Christianity</a>. It is used by several communities, including the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian Church of the East</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient Church of the East</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Catholic_Church" title="Chaldean Catholic Church">Chaldean Catholic Church</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syriac Orthodox Church</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Catholic_Church" title="Syriac Catholic Church">Syriac Catholic Church</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Church" title="Maronite Church">Maronite Church</a>, and also the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Christians" title="Saint Thomas Christians">Saint Thomas Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac Christians</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer198638–43_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer198638–43-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasey199983–93_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasey199983–93-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the liturgical dialects was <a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurtea2012670–85_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurtea2012670–85-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which besides becoming a vernacular, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Mandaic" title="Neo-Mandaic">Neo-Mandaic</a>, also remained the liturgical language of <a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Syriac was also the liturgical language of several now-extinct <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">gnostic</a> faiths, such as <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo-Aramaic languages</a> are still spoken in the 21st century as a <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first language</a> by many communities of <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a> (in particular, the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Jews">Iraqi Jews</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeinrichs1990xi–xv_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinrichs1990xi–xv-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer198653_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer198653-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the main Neo-Aramaic languages being <a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret</a> (~240,000 speakers) and <a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a> (~250,000 speakers).<sup id="cite_ref-DYK_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DYK-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Neo-Aramaic</a> (~3,000)<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> persists in only two villages in the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon Mountains</a> in western <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have retained use of the once-dominant lingua franca despite subsequent <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">language shifts</a> experienced throughout the Middle East. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carpentras_Stela,_in_CIS_II_141_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Carpentras_Stela%2C_in_CIS_II_141_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Carpentras_Stela%2C_in_CIS_II_141_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Carpentras_Stela%2C_in_CIS_II_141_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Carpentras_Stela%2C_in_CIS_II_141_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Carpentras_Stela%2C_in_CIS_II_141_%28cropped%29.jpg/500px-Carpentras_Stela%2C_in_CIS_II_141_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1010" data-file-height="1129" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Carpentras_Stele" title="Carpentras Stele">Carpentras Stele</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_and_Aramaic_inscriptions" title="Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions">ancient inscription ever identified as "Aramaic"</a>. Although it was first published in 1704, it was not identified as Aramaic until 1821, when <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Friedrich_Kopp" title="Ulrich Friedrich Kopp">Ulrich Friedrich Kopp</a> complained that previous scholars had left everything "to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Caputo_Lougovaya_2020_p._147_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caputo_Lougovaya_2020_p._147-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The connection between Chaldean, Syriac, and Samaritan as "Aramaic" was first identified in 1679 by German theologian <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Hilliger" class="extiw" title="de:Johann Wilhelm Hilliger">Johann Wilhelm Hilliger</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hilliger1679_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilliger1679-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1819–21 <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Friedrich_Kopp" title="Ulrich Friedrich Kopp">Ulrich Friedrich Kopp</a> published his <i>Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit</i> ("Images and Inscriptions of the Past"), in which he established the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">paleographical</a> development of the Northwest Semitic scripts.<sup id="cite_ref-Lemaire_2021_pp._5–29_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lemaire_2021_pp._5–29-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kopp criticised <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Jean-Jacques Barthélemy">Jean-Jacques Barthélemy</a> and other scholars who had characterized all the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_and_Aramaic_inscriptions" title="Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions">then-known inscriptions and coins</a> as Phoenician, with "everything left to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopp1821226-227_(§168–169)_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopp1821226-227_(§168–169)-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kopp noted that some of the words on the <a href="/wiki/Carpentras_Stele" title="Carpentras Stele">Carpentras Stele</a> corresponded to the Aramaic in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Book of Daniel</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ruth" title="Book of Ruth">Book of Ruth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopp1821S._182–185_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopp1821S._182–185-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> (the latter citing <a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a>) both stated that the "Syrians" called themselves "Arameans".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade20137_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade20137-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>, the earliest extant full copy of the Hebrew Bible, a Greek translation, used the terms <i>Syria</i> and <i>Syrian</i> where the <a href="/wiki/Masoretic_Text" title="Masoretic Text">Masoretic Text</a>, the earliest extant Hebrew copy of the Bible, uses the terms <i>Aramean</i> and <i>Aramaic</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWevers2001237–51_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWevers2001237–51-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoosten200893–105_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoosten200893–105-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoosten201053–72_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoosten201053–72-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> numerous later bibles followed the Septuagint's usage, including the <a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Joseph2000_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joseph2000-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This connection between the names Syrian and Aramaic was discussed in 1835 by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Marc_Quatrem%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Marc Quatremère">Étienne Marc Quatremère</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TN_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TN-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In historical sources, Aramaic language is designated by two distinctive groups of terms, first of them represented by <a href="/wiki/Endonymic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endonymic">endonymic</a> (native) names, and the other one represented by various <a href="/wiki/Exonymic" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonymic">exonymic</a> (foreign in origin) names. Native (endonymic) terms for Aramaic language were derived from the same <a href="/wiki/Word_root" class="mw-redirect" title="Word root">word root</a> as the name of its original speakers, the ancient <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a>. Endonymic forms were also adopted in some other languages, like ancient <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> (Hebrew Bible), "Aram" is used as a proper name of several people including descendants of Shem,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nahor,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Jacob.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aram_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aram-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient <a href="/wiki/Aram_(region)" title="Aram (region)">Aram</a>, bordering northern Israel and what is now called Syria, is considered the linguistic center of Aramaic, the language of the Arameans who settled the area during the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3500 BC</span>. </p><p>Unlike in Hebrew, designations for Aramaic language in some other ancient languages were mostly exonymic. In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a>, Aramaic language was most commonly known as the "Syrian language",<sup id="cite_ref-TN_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TN-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in relation to the native (non-Greek) inhabitants of the historical <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">region of Syria</a>. Since the <a href="/wiki/Name_of_Syria" title="Name of Syria">name of Syria</a> itself emerged as a variant of Assyria,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1992281–85_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1992281–85-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye199730–36_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye199730–36-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the biblical <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Ashur</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Akkadian Ashuru,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a complex set of <a href="/wiki/Semantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic">semantic</a> phenomena was created, becoming a subject of interest both among ancient writers and modern scholars. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> word <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Ἑβραϊστί</span></span> (<i>Hebraïstí</i>) has been translated as "Aramaic" in some versions of the Christian <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, as Aramaic was at that time the language commonly spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKöstenberger2009350_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKöstenberger2009350-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamp20054_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamp20054-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Ἑβραϊστί</span></span> is consistently used in Koine Greek at this time to mean Hebrew and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Συριστί</span></span> (<i>Syristi</i>) is used to mean Aramaic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButhPierce2014107–109_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButhPierce2014107–109-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Biblical scholarship, the term "Chaldean" was for many years used as a synonym of Aramaic, due to its use in the book of Daniel and subsequent interpretation by <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Geographic distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syriac_inscription_at_Syro-Malabar_Catholic_Major_Archbishop%27s_House_Ernakulam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Syriac_inscription_at_Syro-Malabar_Catholic_Major_Archbishop%27s_House_Ernakulam.jpg/250px-Syriac_inscription_at_Syro-Malabar_Catholic_Major_Archbishop%27s_House_Ernakulam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Syriac_inscription_at_Syro-Malabar_Catholic_Major_Archbishop%27s_House_Ernakulam.jpg/330px-Syriac_inscription_at_Syro-Malabar_Catholic_Major_Archbishop%27s_House_Ernakulam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Syriac_inscription_at_Syro-Malabar_Catholic_Major_Archbishop%27s_House_Ernakulam.jpg/500px-Syriac_inscription_at_Syro-Malabar_Catholic_Major_Archbishop%27s_House_Ernakulam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1778" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> inscription at the <a href="/wiki/Syro-Malabar_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Syro-Malabar Catholic Church">Syro-Malabar Catholic Church</a>'s Major Archbishop's House in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg/330px-East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg" decoding="async" width="265" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg/500px-East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg/530px-East_Syriac_Script_Thaksa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>Late Syriac text, written in <i>Madnhāyā</i> script, from <a href="/wiki/Thrissur" title="Thrissur">Thrissur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> (1799)</figcaption></figure> <p>During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> began to settle in greater numbers in <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>, and later in the heartland of <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, also known as the "Arbela triangle" (<a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Arbela</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influx eventually resulted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) adopting an <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>-influenced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of its empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBae20041–20_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBae20041–20-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This policy was continued by the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire, and both empires became operationally bilingual in written sources, with Aramaic used alongside Akkadian.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreck2012416–24_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreck2012416–24-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Achaemenid Empire (539–323 BC) continued this tradition, and the extensive influence of these empires led to Aramaic gradually becoming the lingua franca of most of western Asia, <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2015-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a> in the late seventh century, Arabic gradually replaced Aramaic as the lingua franca of the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeninger2012747–55_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeninger2012747–55-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Aramaic remains a spoken, literary, and liturgical language for local Christians and also some Jews. Aramaic also continues to be spoken by the Assyrians of northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and northwest Iran, with diaspora communities in <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, and southern <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. The Mandaeans also continue to use Classical Mandaic as a liturgical language, although most now speak Arabic as their first language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are still also a small number of first-language speakers of Western Aramaic varieties in isolated villages in western Syria. </p><p>Being in contact with other regional languages, some Neo-Aramaic dialects were often engaged in the mutual exchange of influences, particularly with Arabic,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeninger2012747–55_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeninger2012747–55-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iranian,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapeliuk2012738–47_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapeliuk2012738–47-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Kurdish.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChyet1997283–300_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChyet1997283–300-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The turbulence of the last two centuries (particularly the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian genocide">Assyrian genocide</a>, also known as <i>Seyfo</i> "Sword" in Syriac, has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. However, there are several sizable Assyrian towns in northern Iraq, such as <a href="/wiki/Alqosh" title="Alqosh">Alqosh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bakhdida" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakhdida">Bakhdida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bartella" title="Bartella">Bartella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tesqopa" title="Tesqopa">Tesqopa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tel_Keppe" title="Tel Keppe">Tel Keppe</a>, and numerous small villages, where Aramaic is still the main spoken language, and many large cities in this region also have Suret-speaking communities, particularly <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erbil" title="Erbil">Erbil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kirkuk" title="Kirkuk">Kirkuk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dohuk" class="mw-redirect" title="Dohuk">Dohuk</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah" title="Al-Hasakah">al-Hasakah</a>. In modern Israel, the only native Aramaic-speaking population are the <a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Kurdistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews of Kurdistan">Jews of Kurdistan</a>, although the language is dying out.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Aramaic is also experiencing a revival among <a href="/wiki/Maronites_in_Israel" title="Maronites in Israel">Maronites in Israel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jish" title="Jish">Jish</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aramaic_languages_and_dialects">Aramaic languages and dialects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aramaic languages and dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aramaic is often spoken of as a single language but is actually a group of related languages.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some languages differ more from each other than the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> do among themselves. Its long history, extensive literature, and use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not, similar to the situation with modern <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">varieties of Arabic</a>. </p><p>Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, Syriac is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic variety spoken by <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac Christian communities</a> in northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwestern Iran, and the Saint Thomas Christians in <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, India. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern" or "Western", the dividing line being roughly the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, or slightly west of it. </p><p>It is also helpful to distinguish modern living languages, or Neo-Aramaics, and those that are still in use as literary or liturgical languages or are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Old", "Middle", and "Modern" periods alongside "Eastern" and "Western" areas to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Writing system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syriac_Sert%C3%A2_book_script.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Syriac_Sert%C3%A2_book_script.jpg/250px-Syriac_Sert%C3%A2_book_script.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Syriac_Sert%C3%A2_book_script.jpg/330px-Syriac_Sert%C3%A2_book_script.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Syriac_Sert%C3%A2_book_script.jpg/500px-Syriac_Sert%C3%A2_book_script.jpg 2x" data-file-width="991" data-file-height="748" /></a><figcaption>11th century book in <a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac Serto</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic alphabet</a></div> <p>The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a>. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive "square" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a> adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a>. This is the writing system used in <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a> and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac alphabet</a>. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the <a href="/wiki/Mandaic_alphabet" title="Mandaic alphabet">Mandaic alphabet</a>, is used by the <a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: the <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean alphabet">Nabataean alphabet</a> in <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_alphabet" title="Palmyrene alphabet">Palmyrene alphabet</a> in <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a>. In modern times, <a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a> (see <a href="#Modern_Eastern_Aramaic">below</a>) has sometimes been written in a <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Periodization">Periodization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Periodization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table border="0" cellpadding="5" style="float:right; background:#ffffd9; margin-left:10px;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="background:#ffffd9;"><div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_67u5f3188nfvh33ndfqkhrv9bfug9oc"></map><img usemap="#timeline_67u5f3188nfvh33ndfqkhrv9bfug9oc" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/67u5f3188nfvh33ndfqkhrv9bfug9oc.png" /></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a> of historical development of Aramaic language has been the subject of particular interest for scholars, who proposed several types of periodization, based on linguistic, chronological and territorial criteria. Overlapping terminology, used in different periodizations, led to the creation of several <a href="/wiki/Polysemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysemic">polysemic</a> terms, that are used differently among scholars. Terms like: Old Aramaic, Ancient Aramaic, Early Aramaic, Middle Aramaic, Late Aramaic (and some others, like Paleo-Aramaic), were used in various meanings, thus referring (in scope or substance) to different stages in historical development of Aramaic language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzmyer199757–60_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzmyer199757–60-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella201547–48_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella201547–48-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButts2019222–25_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButts2019222–25-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most commonly used types of periodization are those of Klaus Beyer and Joseph Fitzmyer. </p><p>Periodization of Klaus Beyer (1929–2014):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer1986_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer1986-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a>, from the earliest records, to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a>, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 AD, to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Aramaic">Modern Aramaic</a>, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 AD, up to the modern times</li></ul> <p>Periodization of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fitzmyer" title="Joseph Fitzmyer">Joseph Fitzmyer</a> (1920–2016):<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzmyer199760–63_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzmyer199760–63-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a>, from the earliest records, to regional prominence <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 700 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Official Aramaic">Official Aramaic</a>, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 700 BC, to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a>, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 BC, to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Aramaic">Late Aramaic</a>, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 AD, to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 700 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Aramaic">Modern Aramaic</a>, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 700 AD, up to the modern times</li></ul> <p>Recent periodization of Aaron Butts:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButts2019224–25_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButts2019224–25-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a>, from the earliest records, to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 538 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Aramaic">Achaemenid Aramaic</a>, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 538 BC, to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 333 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a>, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 333 BC, to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Aramaic">Late Aramaic</a>, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 AD, to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Aramaic">Neo-Aramaic</a>, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 AD, up to the modern times</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Old_Aramaic">Old Aramaic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Old Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20131205_Istanbul_067.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/20131205_Istanbul_067.jpg/250px-20131205_Istanbul_067.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/20131205_Istanbul_067.jpg/330px-20131205_Istanbul_067.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/20131205_Istanbul_067.jpg/500px-20131205_Istanbul_067.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2141" data-file-height="3273" /></a><figcaption>One of the <a href="/wiki/Bar-Rakib_inscriptions" title="Bar-Rakib inscriptions">Bar-Rakib inscriptions</a> from <a href="/wiki/Sam%27al" class="mw-redirect" title="Sam'al">Sam'al</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inscription is in the <a href="/wiki/Samalian_language" title="Samalian language">Samalian language</a> (also considered a dialect).</figcaption></figure> <p>Aramaic's long history and diverse and widespread use has led to the development of many divergent varieties, which are sometimes considered <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a>, though they have become distinct enough over time that they are now sometimes considered separate <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a>. Therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language; each time and place rather has had its own variation. The more widely spoken <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern Aramaic languages</a> are largely restricted to <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizrahi Jewish">Mizrahi Jewish</a> communities in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, northeastern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, northwestern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, and southeastern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, whilst the severely endangered <a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Neo-Aramaic</a> language is spoken by small Christian and Muslim communities in the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_mountains" title="Anti-Lebanon mountains">Anti-Lebanon mountains</a>, and closely related western varieties of Aramaic<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> persisted in <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon" title="Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon</a> until as late as the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold2012685–96_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2012685–96-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "Old Aramaic" is used to describe the varieties of the language from its first known use, until the point roughly marked by the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> (224 AD), dominating the influential, eastern dialect region. As such, the term covers over thirteen centuries of the development of Aramaic. This vast time span includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. Regarding the earliest forms, Beyer suggests that written Aramaic probably dates from the 11th century BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer198611_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer198611-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as it is established by the 10th century, to which he dates the oldest inscriptions of northern Syria. Heinrichs uses the less controversial date of the 9th century,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeinrichs1990x_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinrichs1990x-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for which there is clear and widespread attestation. </p><p>The central phase in the development of Old Aramaic was its official use by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (911–608 BC), <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (620–539 BC), and <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> (500–330 BC). The period before this, dubbed "Ancient Aramaic", saw the development of the language from being spoken in Aramaean city-states to become a major means of communication in diplomacy and trade throughout <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, local vernaculars became increasingly prominent, fanning the divergence of an Aramaic <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a> and the development of differing written standards. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Aramaic">Ancient Aramaic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ancient Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Samalian_language" title="Samalian language">Samalian language</a></div> <p>"Ancient Aramaic" refers to the earliest known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hamath</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arpad,_Syria" title="Arpad, Syria">Arpad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFales2012555–73_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFales2012555–73-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a>, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Due to increasing Aramean migration eastward, the Western periphery of Assyria became bilingual in Akkadian and Aramean at least as early as the mid-9th century BC. As the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> conquered Aramean lands west of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser III</a> made Aramaic the Empire's second official language, and it eventually supplanted Akkadian completely. </p><p>From 700 BC, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its unity. Different dialects emerged in Assyria, Babylonia, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. Around 600 BC, Adon, a <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanite</a> king, used Aramaic to write to an Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaoh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer198614_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer198614-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperial_Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Imperial Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a></div> <style 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.sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:190px;background:white; font-size:85%"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccf"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Arameans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Arameans">Ancient Arameans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic alphabet</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc"> <a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram_(biblical_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aram (biblical region)">Biblical region</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc"> <a href="/wiki/Aramean_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramean kings">Aramean kings</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irhuleni" title="Irhuleni">Irhuleni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezion" title="Hezion">Hezion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabrimmon" title="Tabrimmon">Tabrimmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben-Hadad_I" title="Ben-Hadad I">Ben-Hadad I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadadezer" title="Hadadezer">Hadadezer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazael" title="Hazael">Hazael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben-Hadad_III" title="Ben-Hadad III">Ben-Hadad III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rezin" title="Rezin">Rezin</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc"> Aramean cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amrit" title="Amrit">Amrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arpad,_Syria" title="Arpad, Syria">Arpad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bit_Bahiani" title="Bit Bahiani">Bit Bahiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coba_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk" title="Coba Höyük">Coba Höyük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gidara" title="Gidara">Gidara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarqar" title="Qarqar">Qarqar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhizzi" title="Ruhizzi">Ruhizzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam%27al" class="mw-redirect" title="Sam'al">Sam'al</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Aran" title="Tell Aran">Tell Aran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Halaf" title="Tell Halaf">Tell Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Til_Barsip" title="Til Barsip">Til Barsip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upu" title="Upu">Upu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zobah" title="Zobah">Zobah</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #ccc"> Sources</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_and_Aramaic_inscriptions" title="Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions">Aramaic inscriptions</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arameans" title="Template:Arameans"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arameans" title="Template talk:Arameans"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arameans" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arameans"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Around 500 BC, following the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a> (Persian) conquest of Mesopotamia under <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a>, Aramaic (as had been used in that region) was adopted by the conquerors as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2012a574–86_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2012a574–86-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFolmer2012587–98_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFolmer2012587–98-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2012b598–609_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2012b598–609-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did".<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought. </p><p>Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in 330 BC), Imperial Aramaic – or a version thereof near enough for it to be recognisable – would remain an influence on the various native <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a>. Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi scripts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the <a href="/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives" title="Persepolis Administrative Archives">Persepolis Administrative Archives</a>, found at <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>, which number about five hundred.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a> in particular (see <a href="/wiki/Elephantine_papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Elephantine papyri">Elephantine papyri</a>). Of them, the best known is the <i><a href="/wiki/Story_of_Ahikar" title="Story of Ahikar">Story of Ahikar</a></i>, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Proverbs" title="Book of Proverbs">Book of Proverbs</a>. Consensus as of 2022<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> regards the Aramaic portion of the Biblical book of Daniel (i.e., 2:4b–7:28) as an example of Imperial (Official) Aramaic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1993710–12_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1993710–12-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language. </p><p>A group of thirty Aramaic documents from <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> have been discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC Achaemenid administration of Bactria and <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biblical_Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Biblical Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a> is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezra" title="Book of Ezra">Ezra</a><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – documents from the Achaemenid period (5th century BC) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – five tales and an apocalyptic vision.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHasel1981211–25_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHasel1981211–25-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_10:11" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeremiah 10:11">Jeremiah 10:11</a> – a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – translation of a Hebrew place-name.</li></ul> <p>Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. It is theorized that some Biblical Aramaic material originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty. </p><p>Biblical Aramaic presented various challenges for writers who were engaged in early <a href="/wiki/Biblical_studies" title="Biblical studies">Biblical studies</a>. Since the time of <a href="/wiki/Jerome_of_Stridon" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerome of Stridon">Jerome of Stridon</a> (d. 420), Aramaic of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> was named as "Chaldean" (Chaldaic, Chaldee).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallagher2012123–41_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallagher2012123–41-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That label remained common in early <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_studies" title="Aramaic studies">Aramaic studies</a>, and persisted up into the nineteenth century. The "<i><a href="/wiki/Chaldean_language_(misnomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaldean language (misnomer)">Chaldean misnomer</a></i>" was eventually abandoned, when modern scholarly analyses showed that Aramaic dialect used in the Hebrew Bible was not related to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chaldeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Chaldeans">ancient Chaldeans</a> and their language.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENöldeke1871113–31_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENöldeke1871113–31-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKautzsch1884a17–21_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKautzsch1884a17–21-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKautzsch1884b110–13_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKautzsch1884b110–13-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-Achaemenid_Aramaic">Post-Achaemenid Aramaic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Post-Achaemenid Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Aramaic_coin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Alexander_Aramaic_coin.jpg/250px-Alexander_Aramaic_coin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Alexander_Aramaic_coin.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="261" data-file-height="129" /></a><figcaption>Coin of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> bearing an Aramaic language inscription</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AsokaKandahar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/AsokaKandahar.jpg/250px-AsokaKandahar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/AsokaKandahar.jpg/330px-AsokaKandahar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/AsokaKandahar.jpg/500px-AsokaKandahar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="717" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Bilingual_Rock_Inscription" title="Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription">Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription</a> (Greek and Aramaic) by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">Indian</a> king <a href="/wiki/Ashoka_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashoka the Great">Ashoka</a>, 3rd century BC at <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Targum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Targum.jpg/250px-Targum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Targum.jpg/330px-Targum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Targum.jpg/500px-Targum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="946" data-file-height="1102" /></a><figcaption>11th century <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> with <a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a> intercalated between verses of Hebrew text</figcaption></figure> <p>The fall of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 334–330 BC), and its replacement with the newly created political order, imposed by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> (d. 323 BC) and his <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> successors, marked an important turning point in the history of Aramaic language. During the early stages of the post-Achaemenid era, public use of Aramaic language was continued, but shared with the newly introduced <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a>. By the year 300 BC, all of the main Aramaic-speaking regions came under political rule of the newly created <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> that promoted <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic culture">Hellenistic culture</a>, and favored <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> as the main language of public life and administration. During the 3rd century BCE, Greek overtook Aramaic in many spheres of public communication, particularly in highly <a href="/wiki/Hellenized" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenized">Hellenized</a> cities throughout the Seleucid domains. However, Aramaic continued to be used, in its post-Achaemenid form, among upper and literate classes of native Aramaic-speaking communities, and also by local authorities (along with the newly introduced Greek). Post-Achaemenid Aramaic, that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the Achaemenid period, continued to be used up to the 2nd century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015212–17_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2015212–17-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the 2nd century BC, several variants of Post-Achaemenid Aramaic emerged, bearing regional characteristics. One of them was Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official administrative language of <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmonean">Hasmonaean</a> Judaea (142–37 BC), alongside <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, which was the language preferred in religious and some other public uses (coinage). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the <a href="/wiki/Qumran" title="Qumran">Qumran</a> texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major <a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targums</a>, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean Aramaic. It also appears in quotations in the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a>, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms. </p><p>The use of <i>written</i> Aramaic in the Achaemenid bureaucracy also precipitated the adoption of Aramaic(-derived) scripts to render a number of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Iranian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Iranian">Middle Iranian</a> languages. Moreover, many common words, including even pronouns, particles, numerals, and auxiliaries, continued to be written as Aramaic "words" even when writing Middle Iranian languages. In time, in Iranian usage, these Aramaic "words" became disassociated from the Aramaic language and came to be understood as <i>signs</i> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Logograms" class="mw-redirect" title="Logograms">logograms</a>), much like the symbol '&' is read as "and" in English and the original Latin <i>et</i> is now no longer obvious. Under the early 3rd-century BC <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid Empire">Parthian Arsacids</a>, whose government used Greek but whose native language was <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a>, the Parthian language and its Aramaic-derived writing system both gained prestige. This in turn also led to the adoption of the name '<a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">pahlavi</a>' (< <i>parthawi</i>, "of the Parthians") for that writing system. The <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Persian Sassanids</a>, who succeeded the Parthian Arsacids in the mid-3rd century AD, subsequently inherited/adopted the Parthian-mediated Aramaic-derived writing system for their own Middle Iranian ethnolect as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer198628_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer198628-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That particular Middle Iranian dialect, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>, i.e. the language of Persia proper, subsequently also became a prestige language. Following the conquest of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the 7th-century, the Aramaic-derived writing system was replaced by the Arabic alphabet in all but <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian_literature" title="Middle Persian literature">Zoroastrian usage</a>, which continued to use the name 'pahlavi' for the Aramaic-derived writing system and went on to create the bulk of all Middle Iranian literature in that writing system. </p><p>Other regional dialects continued to exist alongside these, often as simple, spoken variants of Aramaic. Early evidence for these <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, some of those regional dialects became written languages by the 2nd century BC. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not directly dependent on <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Aramaic">Achaemenid Aramaic</a>, and they also show a clear linguistic diversity between eastern and western regions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Targumic">Targumic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Targumic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Babylonian <a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targumic</a> is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the <a href="/wiki/Targum_Onkelos" title="Targum Onkelos">Targum Onqelos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Targum_Jonathan" title="Targum Jonathan">Targum Jonathan</a>, the "official" targums. The original, Hasmonaean targums had reached Babylon sometime in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow. </p><p>Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>. The Hasmonaean targums reached Galilee in the 2nd century AD, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was not considered an authoritative work by other communities, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended. From the 11th century AD onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Babylonian_Documentary_Aramaic">Babylonian Documentary Aramaic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Babylonian Documentary Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the 3rd century AD onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the 12th century, all Jewish private documents are in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps because many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nabataean">Nabataean</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nabataean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Nabataean Aramaic</a> was the written language of the Arab kingdom of Nabataea, whose capital was <a href="/wiki/Petra" title="Petra">Petra</a>. The kingdom (<i>c.</i> 200 BC – 106 AD) controlled the region to the east of the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Negev" title="Negev">Negev</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>, and the northern <a href="/wiki/Hijaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hijaz">Hijaz</a>, and supported a wide-ranging trade network. The Nabataeans used imperial Aramaic for written communications, rather than their native Arabic. Nabataean Aramaic developed from <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a>, with some influence from Arabic: "l" is often turned into "n", and there are some Arabic loanwords. Arabic influence on Nabataean Aramaic increased over time. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions date from the early days of the kingdom, but most datable inscriptions are from the first four centuries AD. The language is written in a <a href="/wiki/Cursive" title="Cursive">cursive</a> script that was the precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a>. After annexation by the Romans in 106 AD, most of Nabataea was subsumed into the province of Arabia Petraea, the Nabataeans turned to Greek for written communications, and the use of Aramaic declined. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palmyrene">Palmyrene</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Palmyrene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene Aramaic</a> is the dialect that was in use in the multicultural<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> city state of <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> in the Syrian Desert from 44 BC to 274 AD. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive <a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Estrangela</a>. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a much lesser degree. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_dialects">Eastern dialects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Eastern dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern Aramaic languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mandaic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mandaic.jpg/250px-Mandaic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mandaic.jpg/330px-Mandaic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Mandaic.jpg/500px-Mandaic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="981" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a> <a href="/wiki/Incantation_bowl" title="Incantation bowl">magical "demon trap"</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the eastern regions (from Mesopotamia to Persia), dialects like Palmyrene Aramaic and Arsacid Aramaic gradually merged with the regional vernacular dialects, thus creating languages with a foot in Achaemenid and a foot in regional Aramaic. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Osroene" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Osroene">Kingdom of Osroene</a>, founded in 132 BCE and centred in <a href="/wiki/Edessa,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Edessa, Mesopotamia">Edessa</a> (Urhay), the regional dialect became the official language: Edessan Aramaic (Urhaya), that later came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a>. On the upper reaches of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from the regions of <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tatian" title="Tatian">Tatian the Assyrian</a> (or Syrian), the author of the gospel harmony the <a href="/wiki/Diatessaron" title="Diatessaron">Diatessaron</a> came from <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> (Syr. <i>Beth-Hadiab</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and perhaps wrote his work (172 AD) in East Mesopotamian rather than Classical Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 70 AD</span>). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic. </p><p>The written form of <a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a>, the language of <a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a>, was descended from the Arsacid chancery script.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_dialects">Western dialects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Western dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western Aramaic languages</a></div> <p>The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually completely displacing <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> in the first century BC and <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language#Displacement_by_Aramaic" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> around the turn of the fourth century AD. </p><p>The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Philippi" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesarea Philippi">Caesarea Philippi</a>. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">Book of Enoch</a> (<i>c.</i> 170 BC). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean lasting into the second century AD. Old Judean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> and receipts from <a href="/wiki/Qumran" title="Qumran">Qumran</a>. <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>' first, non-extant edition of his <i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a></i> was written in Old Judean. </p><p>The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century AD by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see <a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages_during_Jesus'_lifetime"><span id="Languages_during_Jesus.27_lifetime"></span>Languages during Jesus' lifetime</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Languages during Jesus' lifetime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Language_of_Jesus" title="Language of Jesus">Language of Jesus</a></div><p>It is generally believed by Christian scholars that in the first century, Jews in <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judea</a> primarily spoke Aramaic with a decreasing number using <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> as their first language, though many learned Hebrew as a liturgical language. Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> was the lingua franca of the Near East in trade, among the Hellenized classes (much like French in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries in Europe), and in the Roman administration. <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, the language of the Roman army and higher levels of administration, had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape. </p><p>In addition to the formal, literary dialects of Aramaic based on <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean</a> and Babylonian, there were a number of colloquial Aramaic dialects spoken in the southern Levant. Seven <a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western Aramaic varieties</a> were spoken in the vicinity of Judea in <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>' time.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judean was the prominent dialect of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> and Judaea. The region of <a href="/wiki/Ein_Gedi" title="Ein Gedi">Ein Gedi</a> spoke the Southeast Judaean dialect. <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Aramaic" title="Samaritan Aramaic">Samaritan Aramaic</a> was distinct; it ultimately merged [ʔ], [h], [ħ], and [ʕ] as a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>, only maintaining [ʕ] in the initial position before the vowel [a]. Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature, and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features, including the collapse of gutturals and the maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a>, the various dialects of East Jordanian Aramaic were spoken. In the region of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon Mountains</a>, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken. </p><p>The three languages, especially Hebrew and Aramaic, influenced one another through <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semantic_loans" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic loans">semantic loans</a>. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic. Most were mostly technical religious words, but a few were everyday words like <span title="Imperial Aramaic (700-300 BCE)-language text"><span lang="arc" dir="rtl">עץ</span></span> <i><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ʿēṣ</i></span></i> "wood". Conversely, Aramaic words, such as <i>māmmôn</i> "wealth" were borrowed into Hebrew, and Hebrew words acquired additional senses from Aramaic. For instance, Hebrew: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">ראוי</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">rāʾûi</i></span>, <small><abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> </small>'seen' borrowed the sense "worthy, seemly" from Aramaic <i><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḥzî</i></span></i> "seen, worthy". </p><p><a href="/wiki/Language_of_the_New_Testament" title="Language of the New Testament">New Testament Greek</a> preserves some semiticisms, including transliterations of <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> words. Some are Aramaic,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzmyer19805–21_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzmyer19805–21-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> like <i>talitha</i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ταλιθα</span></span>), which represents the Aramaic noun <span title="Imperial Aramaic (700-300 BCE)-language text"><span lang="arc" dir="rtl">טליתא</span></span> <i><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ṭalīṯā</i></span></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Bibleverse|Mark|5:41|KJV_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bibleverse|Mark|5:41|KJV-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and others may be either Hebrew or Aramaic like <span title="Imperial Aramaic (700-300 BCE)-language text"><span lang="arc" dir="rtl">רבוני</span></span> <i>Rabbounei</i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Ραββουνει</span></span>), which means "my master/great one/teacher" in both languages.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other examples: </p> <ul><li>"Talitha kumi" (טליתא קומי)<sup id="cite_ref-Bibleverse|Mark|5:41|KJV_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bibleverse|Mark|5:41|KJV-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Ephphatha" (אתפתח)<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>"Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" (?אלי, אלי, למה שבקתני)<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The 2004 film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Passion_of_the_Christ" title="The Passion of the Christ">The Passion of the Christ</a></i> used Aramaic for much of its dialogue, specially reconstructed by a scholar, <a href="/wiki/William_Fulco" title="William Fulco">William Fulco</a>, S.J. Where the appropriate words (in first-century Aramaic) were no longer known, he used the Aramaic of Daniel and fourth-century Syriac and Hebrew as the basis for his work.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Middle Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the Late Middle Aramaic period, spanning from 300 B.C.E. to 200 C.E., Aramaic diverged into its eastern and western branches. During this time, the nature of various Aramaic dialects began to change. The descendants of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional dialects started to develop significant new literatures. Unlike many dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Middle_Aramaic">Eastern Middle Aramaic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Eastern Middle Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The dialects of Old Eastern Aramaic continued in ancient <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Babylon</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> as written languages using various <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic scripts</a>. Eastern Middle Aramaic comprises <a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Classical Mandaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hatran_Aramaic" title="Hatran Aramaic">Hatran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian Aramaic</a> dialects, and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Syriac" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Syriac">Classical Syriac</a><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/60px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/120px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Recording_1648798987707.ogg" title="File:Recording 1648798987707.ogg">Avūo·nə đə·Vē·shəmēiā</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="34" data-mwtitle="Recording_1648798987707.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Recording_1648798987707.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d7/Recording_1648798987707.ogg/Recording_1648798987707.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description">The <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a>, <i>Avūo·nə đə·Vē·shəmēyā</i>, Reading in Eastern variant of <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a></div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syriac_Aramaic">Syriac Aramaic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Syriac Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac language</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Estrangela.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Estrangela.jpg/250px-Estrangela.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="367" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Estrangela.jpg/330px-Estrangela.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Estrangela.jpg/500px-Estrangela.jpg 2x" data-file-width="594" data-file-height="992" /></a><figcaption>9th century <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> <a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Estrangela</a> manuscript of <a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a>'s <i>Homily on the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a></i></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132" /><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/60px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/120px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Abunbshmayo.ogg" title="File:Abunbshmayo.ogg">Abun D'Bashmayo</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="81" data-mwtitle="Abunbshmayo.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Abunbshmayo.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b3/Abunbshmayo.ogg/Abunbshmayo.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description">The <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a>, <i>Abun D'Bashmayo</i>, recited in Western variant of <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a></div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <p>Syriac Aramaic (also "Classical Syriac") is the literary, liturgical, and often spoken language of <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac Christianity</a>. It originated in the <a href="/wiki/First_century" class="mw-redirect" title="First century">first century</a> in the region of <a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a>, centered in <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a>, but its golden age was the fourth to eighth centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the <a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a>, and the masterful prose and poetry of <a href="/wiki/Ephrem_the_Syrian" title="Ephrem the Syrian">Ephrem the Syrian</a>. Classical Syriac became the language of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a> and missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac from Mesopotamia and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persia</a>, into <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHealey2012637–52_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2012637–52-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriquel-Chatonnet2012652–59_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriquel-Chatonnet2012652–59-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian Aramaic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Jewish Babylonian Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian Aramaic</a></div> <p>Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the fourth and the eleventh century. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> (which was completed in the seventh century) and of post-Talmudic <a href="/wiki/Geonim" title="Geonim">Geonic</a> literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Judaism. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Incantation_bowl" title="Incantation bowl">incantation bowls</a> written in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESokoloff2012b660–70_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESokoloff2012b660–70-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mandaic_Aramaic">Mandaic Aramaic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Mandaic Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic language</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Classical Mandaic</a>, used as a liturgical language by the <a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. It is the language in which the Mandaeans' <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">gnostic</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Mandaean_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Mandaean texts">religious literature</a> was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography and does not make use of vowel diacritics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurtea2012670–85_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurtea2012670–85-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Middle_Aramaic">Western Middle Aramaic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Western Middle Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Nabataean</a>, Jewish Palestinian (in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew "square script"</a>), Samaritan Aramaic (in the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Old Hebrew script</a>), and Christian Palestinian (in <a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#Classical_ʾEsṭrangēlā" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac Estrangela script</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these four, only Jewish Palestinian continued as a written language.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2010)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Samaritan_Aramaic">Samaritan Aramaic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Samaritan Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Aramaic language">Samaritan Aramaic language</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Aramaic language">Samaritan Aramaic</a> is earliest attested by the documentary tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a> that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETal2012619–28_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETal2012619–28-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Jewish Palestinian Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kennicott_Bible_fol_42v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Kennicott_Bible_fol_42v.jpg/250px-Kennicott_Bible_fol_42v.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Kennicott_Bible_fol_42v.jpg/330px-Kennicott_Bible_fol_42v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Kennicott_Bible_fol_42v.jpg/500px-Kennicott_Bible_fol_42v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="942" /></a><figcaption>Hebrew (left) and Aramaic (right) in parallel in a 1299 Hebrew Bible held by the <a href="/wiki/Bodleian_Library" title="Bodleian Library">Bodleian Library</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a></div> <p>In 135, after the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jewish</a> leaders, expelled from <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, moved to <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a> (completed in the 5th century), Palestinian <a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">targumim</a> (Jewish Aramaic versions of scripture), and <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">midrashim</a> (biblical commentaries and teaching). The standard <a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">vowel pointing</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, the Tiberian system (7th century), was developed by speakers of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. Classical Hebrew vocalisation, therefore, in representing the Hebrew of this period, probably reflects the contemporary pronunciation of this Aramaic dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESokoloff2012a610–19_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESokoloff2012a610–19-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Middle Judaean Aramaic, the descendant of Old Judaean Aramaic, was no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian Aramaic continued as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian Aramaic. The inscriptions in the synagogue at <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura-Europos</a> are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic">Christian Palestinian Aramaic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Christian Palestinian Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Christian Palestinian Aramaic">Christian Palestinian Aramaic</a></div> <p>This was the language of the Christian <a href="/wiki/Melkite" title="Melkite">Melkite</a> (Chalcedonian) community, predominantly of <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> descent, in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai</a><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from the 5th to the 8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a liturgical language, it was used up to the 13th century. It is also been called "Melkite Aramaic", "Syro-Palestinian" and "Palestinian Syriac".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgenstern2012628–37_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgenstern2012628–37-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The language itself comes from Old Western Aramaic, but its writing conventions were based on the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Aramaic</a> dialect of <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a>, and it was heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>. For example, the name Jesus, Syriac <i>īšū‘</i>, is written <i>īsūs</i>, a transliteration of the Greek form, in Christian Palestinian.<sup id="cite_ref-El-Badawi2013_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-El-Badawi2013-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_Aramaic">Modern Aramaic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Modern Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syriac_Dialects_EN.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Syriac_Dialects_EN.svg/250px-Syriac_Dialects_EN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Syriac_Dialects_EN.svg/375px-Syriac_Dialects_EN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Syriac_Dialects_EN.svg/500px-Syriac_Dialects_EN.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1190" data-file-height="810" /></a><figcaption>Territorial distribution of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo-Aramaic languages</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo-Aramaic languages</a></div> <p>As the <a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western Aramaic dialects</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> have become nearly extinct in non-liturgical usage, the most prolific speakers of Neo-Aramaic languages in the 21st century are <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern Aramaic</a> speakers, the most numerous being the <a href="/wiki/Central_Neo-Aramaic" title="Central Neo-Aramaic">Central Neo-Aramaic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Neo-Aramaic" title="Northeastern Neo-Aramaic">Northeastern Neo-Aramaic</a> (NENA) speakers of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. This includes speakers of the Assyrian (235,000 speakers) and Chaldean (216,000 speakers) varieties of <a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a> (112,000 to 450,000 speakers). Having largely lived in remote areas as insulated communities for over a millennium, the remaining speakers of modern Aramaic dialects, such as the Arameans of the <a href="/wiki/Qalamoun_Mountains" title="Qalamoun Mountains">Qalamoun Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a>, escaped the linguistic pressures experienced by others during the large-scale <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">language shifts</a> that saw the proliferation of other tongues among those who previously did not speak them, most recently the <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> of the Middle East and North Africa by <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a> of the seventh century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeninger2012747–55_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeninger2012747–55-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Eastern_Aramaic">Modern Eastern Aramaic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Modern Eastern Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amen_in_East_Syriac_Aramaic_language.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Amen_in_East_Syriac_Aramaic_language.svg/150px-Amen_in_East_Syriac_Aramaic_language.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Amen_in_East_Syriac_Aramaic_language.svg/225px-Amen_in_East_Syriac_Aramaic_language.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Amen_in_East_Syriac_Aramaic_language.svg/300px-Amen_in_East_Syriac_Aramaic_language.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="120" data-file-height="100" /></a><figcaption>Amen in <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Eastern Syriac</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Central_Neo-Aramaic" title="Central Neo-Aramaic">Central Neo-Aramaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Neo-Aramaic" title="Northeastern Neo-Aramaic">Northeastern Neo-Aramaic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Mandaic" title="Neo-Mandaic">Neo-Mandaic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132" /><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/60px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/120px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyriansample.ogg" title="File:Assyriansample.ogg">Spoken Assyrian Neo-Aramaic</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="61" data-mwtitle="Assyriansample.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Assyriansample.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/Assyriansample.ogg/Assyriansample.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description"></div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <p>Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurre_van_den_Berg1999_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurre_van_den_Berg1999-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a>, and Mandaeans, with mutually unintelligible variations within each of these groups. </p><p>The Christian varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) are often called "Assyrian", "Chaldean" or "Eastern Syriac", and are spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a> in northern Iraq, northeast Syria, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran, and in the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian%E2%80%93Chaldean%E2%80%93Syriac_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora">diaspora</a>. However, they also have roots in numerous previously unwritten local Aramaic varieties and, in some cases, even contain <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> influences. These varieties are not purely the direct descendants of the language of <a href="/wiki/Ephrem_the_Syrian" title="Ephrem the Syrian">Ephrem the Syrian</a>, which was <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhan2012708–24_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhan2012708–24-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic languages</a> are now mostly spoken in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, and most are facing extinction. The Jewish varieties that have come from communities that once lived between <a href="/wiki/Lake_Urmia" title="Lake Urmia">Lake Urmia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example <a href="/wiki/Urmia" title="Urmia">Urmia</a>, Christian Assyrians and Mizrahi Jews speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic in the same place. In others, the <a href="/wiki/Nineveh_Plains" title="Nineveh Plains">Nineveh Plains</a> around Mosul for example, the varieties of these two ethnicities are similar enough to allow conversation. </p><p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Central_Neo-Aramaic" title="Central Neo-Aramaic">Central Neo-Aramaic</a>, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic, is generally represented by Turoyo, the language of the Assyrians/Syriacs of <a href="/wiki/Tur_Abdin" title="Tur Abdin">Tur Abdin</a>. A related Neo-Aramaic language, <a href="/wiki/Mla%E1%B8%A5s%C3%B4_language" title="Mlaḥsô language">Mlaḥsô</a>, has recently become extinct.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJastrow2012697–707_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJastrow2012697–707-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a> living in the <a href="/wiki/Khuzestan_province" title="Khuzestan province">Khuzestan province</a> of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq, speak <a href="/wiki/Neo-Mandaic" title="Neo-Mandaic">Neo-Mandaic</a>. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Mandaeans number some 50,000–75,000 people, but it is believed Neo-Mandaic may now be spoken fluently by as few as 5,000 people, with other Mandaeans having varying degrees of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Western_Aramaic">Modern Western Aramaic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Modern Western Aramaic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Neo-Aramaic</a></div> <p>Very little remains of Western Aramaic. Its only remaining vernacular is <a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Neo-Aramaic</a>, which is still spoken in the Aramean villages of <a href="/wiki/Maaloula" title="Maaloula">Maaloula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jubb%27adin" title="Jubb'adin">Jubb'adin</a> on <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>'s side of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon Mountains</a>, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages, to <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and other larger towns of Syria. <a href="/wiki/Al-Sarkha_(Bakhah)" title="Al-Sarkha (Bakhah)">Bakh'a</a> was completely destroyed during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a> and all the survivors fled to other parts of Syria or to Lebanon.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All these speakers of modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold2012685–96_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2012685–96-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other Western Aramaic languages, like <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Aramaic" title="Samaritan Aramaic">Samaritan Aramaic</a>, are preserved only in liturgical and literary usage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_texts">Sample texts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sample texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Matthew_2" title="Matthew 2">Matthew 2</a>, verses 1–4, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Christian Palestinian Aramaic and Suret (Swadaya):<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>English (<a href="/wiki/KJV" class="mw-redirect" title="KJV">KJV</a>): </th> <td>[1] Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king, behold, there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem, <p>[2] Saying, Where is he that is born King of the Jews? for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him. </p><p>[3] When Herod the king had heard these things, he was troubled, and all Jerusalem with him. </p><p>[4] And when he had gathered all the chief priests and scribes of the people together, he demanded of them where Christ should be born. </p> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Classical_Syriac" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Syriac">Classical Syriac</a> (Eastern accent): </th> <td>[1] <i>Ḵaḏ dēyn eṯīleḏ Īšōʕ b-Ḇēṯlḥem d-Īhūḏā b-yawmay Herodes malkā eṯaw mġōšē min maḏnḥā l-Ōrešlem.</i> <p>[2] <i>W-Āmrīn: Aykaw malkā d-īhūḏāyē d-eṯīleḏ? Ḥzayn gēr kawkḇēh b-maḏnḥā w-eṯayn l-mesgaḏ lēh.</i> </p><p>[3] <i>Šmaʕ dēyn Herodes malkā w-ettzīʕ w-ḵullāh Ōrešlem ʕammēh.</i> </p><p>[4] <i>W-ḵanneš ḵulhōn rabbay kāhnē w-sāprē d-ʕammā wa-mšayel-wālhōn d-aykā meṯīleḏ mšīḥā.</i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Christian Palestinian Aramaic">Christian Palestinian Aramaic</a>: </th> <td>[1] <i>Ḵaḏ eṯileḏ mōro Yesūs b-Beṯlḥem d-Yuḏō b-yawmay d-Herodes malkō w-hō mġušōya min maḏnḥō eṯaw l-Irušlem.</i> <p>[2] <i>Ōmrin: Hōn hū deyn d-eṯileḏ? Ḥmaynan ger kawkḇeh b-maḏnḥō w-eṯaynan d-nesguḏ leh.</i> </p><p>[3] <i>W-ḵaḏ šmaʕ malkō Herodes eṯʕabaḇ w-ḵuloh Irušlem ʕameh.</i> </p><p>[4] <i>W-ḵaneš ḵulhun rišay koḥnōya w-soprawi d-qahlo wa-hwo mšayel lhun hōn mšiḥō meṯileḏ.</i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Suret" class="mw-redirect" title="Suret">Suret</a> (Swadaya): </th> <td>[1] <i>Min baṯar d-pišleh iliḏe Išo go Beṯlkham d-Ihuḏa b-yomane d-Herodes malka ṯelon mġoše min maḏnkha l-Orešlim.</i> <p>[2] <i>W-buqrehon: Eykeleh haw d-pišleh iliḏe malka d-ihuḏāye? Sabab khzelan l-kawkhḇeh b-maḏnkha w-telan d-saġdakh eleh.</i> </p><p>[3] <i>Iman d-šmayeleh Herodes malka aha pišleh šġhiše w-kulaha Orešlim ʔammeh.</i> </p><p>[4] <i>W-qraeleh kuleh gurane d-kahne w-sapre d-ʔamma w-buqrehmennay eyka bit paiš va iliḏe mšikha.</i> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Matthew_28" title="Matthew 28">Matthew 28</a>, verse 16, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Western Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo and Suret (Swadaya): </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>English (<a href="/wiki/KJV" class="mw-redirect" title="KJV">KJV</a>): </th> <td>[16] Then the eleven disciples went away into Galilee, into a mountain where Jesus had appointed them. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Classical Syriac (Eastern accent) </th> <td>[16] <i>Talmīḏē dēyn ḥḏaʕesre āzalū l-Glīlā l-ṭūrā aykā d-waʕad ennūn Īšōʕ.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Neo-Aramaic</a>: </th> <td>[16] <i>Bes aḥḥadaʕsar tilmit̲ zallun l-Ġalila l-ṭūra ti amerlun maʕleh Yešūʕ.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a>: </th> <td>[16] <i>Wa-ḥḏaḥsar talmiḏe azzinnewa lu Ġlilo lu ṭūro ayko d-moʕadleh Yešū.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Suret (Swadaya): </th> <td>[16] <i>Ina talmiḏe khadissar azzillun l-Glila l-ṭūra eyka d-bit khwaʔda ʔammeh Išo.</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This section contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p>Each dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. Some modern Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of "emphatic" consonants, and some have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span>) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a></span>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels: </p> <ul><li>Open <i>a</i>-vowels</li> <li>Close front <i>i</i>-vowels</li> <li>Close back <i>u</i>-vowels</li></ul> <p>These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting. </p><p>The open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ("short" <i>a</i>, somewhat like the first vowel in the English "batter", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>]</span>). It usually has a back counterpart ("long" <i>a</i>, like the <i>a</i> in "father", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a>]</span>, or even tending to the vowel in "caught", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>]</span>), and a front counterpart ("short" <i>e</i>, like the vowel in "head", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>]</span>). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short <i>a</i> and short <i>e</i>. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long <i>a</i> became the <i>o</i> sound. The open <i>e</i> and back <i>a</i> are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א "alaph" (a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>) or ה "he" (like the English <i>h</i>). </p><p>The close front vowel is the "long" <i>i</i> (like the vowel in "need", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span>). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the "long" <i>e</i>, as in the final vowel of "café" (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span>). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close <i>e</i> corresponds with the open <i>e</i> in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant י <i>y</i> as a <a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">mater lectionis</a>. </p><p>The close back vowel is the "long" <i>u</i> (like the vowel in "school", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span>). It has a more open counterpart, the "long" <i>o</i>, like the vowel in "show" (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[o]</span>). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close <i>o</i> sometimes corresponding with the long open <i>a</i>. The close back vowels often use the consonant ו <i>w</i> to indicate their quality. </p><p>Two basic <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> exist: an open vowel followed by י <i>y</i> (<i>ay</i>), and an open vowel followed by ו <i>w</i> (<i>aw</i>). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to <i>e</i> and <i>o</i> respectively. </p><p>The so-called "emphatic" consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Post-alveolar_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-alveolar consonant">Post-alv.</a> / <br /> <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> / <br /> <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><small>plain</small> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emp.</a></small> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">tˤ</a></span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">sˤ</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a></span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricative</a> at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives: </p> <ul><li>Labial set: <b>פּ</b>\<b>פ</b> <i>p</i>/<i>f</i> and <b>בּ</b>\<b>ב</b> <i>b</i>/<i>v</i>,</li> <li>Dental set: <b>תּ</b>\<b>ת</b> <i>t</i>/<i>θ</i> and <b>דּ</b>\<b>ד</b> <i>d</i>/<i>ð</i>,</li> <li>Velar set: <b>כּ</b>\<b>כ</b> <i>k</i>/<i>x</i> and <b>גּ</b>\<b>ג</b> <i>ɡ</i>/<i>ɣ</i>.</li></ul> <p>Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, <i>p</i> and <i>f</i> are written with the same letter), and are near <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a>. </p><p>A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of "emphatic" consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">pharyngealization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velarization</a>. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are: </p> <ul><li>ח Ḥêṯ, a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">voiceless pharyngeal fricative</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ħ/</span>,</li> <li>ט Ṭêṯ, a pharyngealized <i>t</i>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tˤ/</span>,</li> <li>ע ʽAyin (or ʽE in some dialects), a pharyngealized <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> (sometimes considered to be a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">voiced pharyngeal approximant</a>), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʕ]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔˤ]</span>,</li> <li>צ Ṣāḏê, a pharyngealized <i>s</i>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sˤ/</span>,</li> <li>ק Qôp, a <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless uvular stop">voiceless uvular stop</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/q/</span>.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132" /><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/60px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/120px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Aramaic_emphatics.ogg" title="File:Aramaic emphatics.ogg">The emphatic consonants of Aramaic</a></div> <div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="11" data-mwtitle="Aramaic_emphatics.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Aramaic_emphatics.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/20/Aramaic_emphatics.ogg/Aramaic_emphatics.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div> <div class="description"></div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr /><i class="selfreference">Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</i></div> </div> <p>Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics, and some Neo-Aramaic languages definitely do. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values. </p><p>Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the "guttural" consonants. They include ח Ḥêṯ and ע ʽAyn from the emphatic set, and add א ʼĀlap̄ (a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>) and ה Hê (as the English "h"). </p><p>Aramaic classically has a set of four <a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilants</a> (ancient Aramaic may have had six): </p> <ul><li>ס, שׂ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> (as in English "sea"),</li> <li>ז <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/z/</span> (as in English "zero"),</li> <li>שׁ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃ/</span> (as in English "ship"),</li> <li>צ <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sˤ/</span> (the emphatic Ṣāḏê listed above).</li></ul> <p>In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal consonants</a> מ <i>m</i> and נ <i>n</i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">approximants</a> ר <i>r</i> (usually an <a href="/wiki/Dental,_alveolar_and_postalveolar_trills" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills">alveolar trill</a>), ל <i>l</i>, י <i>y</i> and ו <i>w</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_sound_changes">Historical sound changes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Historical sound changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials: </p> <ul><li><b>Vowel change</b> occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects.</li> <li><b>Plosive/fricative pair reduction</b>. Originally, Aramaic, like <a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">Tiberian Hebrew</a>, had fricatives as conditioned <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example, <a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a> has mostly lost <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>, using <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f/</span> instead, like Arabic; other dialects (for instance, standard <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Neo-Aramaic">Assyrian Neo-Aramaic</a>) have lost <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> and replaced them with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span>, as with Modern Hebrew. In most dialects of Modern Syriac, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span> are realized as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span> after a vowel.</li> <li><b>Loss of emphatics</b>. Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> often have <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">glottalized</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">pharyngealized</a> emphatics.</li> <li><b>Guttural assimilation</b> is the main distinctive feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan Hebrew</a>: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce <i>h</i> in all words (the third person masculine pronoun <i>hu</i> becomes <i>ow</i>).</li> <li>Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three is שלוש <i>šālôš</i> in Hebrew but תלת <i>tlāṯ</i> in Aramaic, the word gold is זהב zahav<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Hebrew but דהב dehav<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects.</li> <li><b>New phonetic inventory</b>. Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the dominant surrounding languages. The most frequent borrowings are <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʒ]</span> (as the first consonant in "azure"), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d͡ʒ]</span> (as in "jam"), and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t͡ʃ]</span> (as in "church"). The <a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac alphabet</a> has been adapted for writing these new sounds.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As in other Semitic languages, Aramaic <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> (the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">root</a>. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, כת״ב <i>k-t-b</i> has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning: </p> <ul><li>כתבה <i>kṯāḇâ</i>, handwriting, inscription, script, book.</li> <li>כתבי <i>kṯāḇê</i>, books, the Scriptures.</li> <li>כתובה <i>kāṯûḇâ</i>, secretary, scribe.</li> <li>כתבת <i>kiṯḇeṯ</i>, I wrote.</li> <li>אכתב '<i>eḵtûḇ</i>, I shall write.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns_and_adjectives">Nouns and adjectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Nouns and adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aramaic nouns and adjectives are inflected to show <i>gender</i>, <i>number</i> and <i>state</i>. </p><p>Aramaic has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine absolute singular is often marked by the ending ה- <i>-â</i>. </p><p>Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional "dual" number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic. </p><p>Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of articles and cases in the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>: </p> <ol><li>The <i>absolute</i> state is the basic form of a noun. In early forms of Aramaic, the absolute state expresses indefiniteness, comparable to the English indefinite article a(n) (for example, כתבה <i>kṯāḇâ</i>, "<b>a</b> handwriting"), and can be used in most syntactic roles. However, by the Middle Aramaic period, its use for nouns (but not adjectives) had been widely replaced by the emphatic state.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Status_constructus" class="mw-redirect" title="Status constructus">construct</a></i> state is a form of the noun used to make possessive constructions (for example, <b>כתבת</b> מלכתא <i><b>kṯāḇat</b> malkṯâ</i>, "the handwriting of the queen"). In the masculine singular, the form of the construct is often the same as the absolute, but it may undergo vowel reduction in longer words. The feminine construct and masculine construct plural are marked by suffixes. Unlike a <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive case</a>, which marks the possessor, the construct state is marked on the possessed. This is mainly due to Aramaic word order: <b>possessed[const.] possessor[abs./emph.]</b> are treated as a speech unit, with the first unit (possessed) employing the construct state to link it to the following word. In Middle Aramaic, the use of the construct state for all but stock phrases (like בר נשא <i>bar nāšâ</i>, "son of man") begins to disappear.</li> <li>The <i>emphatic</i> or <i>determined</i> state is an extended form of the noun that functions similarly to the <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">definite article</a>. It is marked with a suffix (for example, כתבת<b>א</b> <i>kṯāḇtâ</i>, "<b>the</b> handwriting"). Although its original grammatical function seems to have been to mark definiteness, it is used already in Imperial Aramaic to mark all important nouns, even if they should be considered technically indefinite. This practice developed to the extent that the absolute state became extraordinarily rare in later varieties of Aramaic.</li></ol> <p>Whereas other <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic languages</a>, like Hebrew, have the absolute and construct states, the emphatic/determined state is a unique feature to Aramaic. <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">Case endings</a>, as in <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_grammar#Case" title="Ugaritic grammar">Ugaritic</a>, probably existed in a very early stage of the language, and glimpses of them can be seen in a few compound proper names. However, as most of those cases were expressed by short final vowels, they were never written, and the few characteristic long vowels of the masculine plural accusative and genitive are not clearly evidenced in inscriptions. Often, the <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">direct object</a> is marked by a prefixed -ל <i>l-</i> (the <a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">preposition</a> "to") if it is definite. </p><p>Adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender but agree in state only if used attributively. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun (a <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> may or may not be written). Thus, an attributive adjective to an emphatic noun, as in the phrase "the good king", is written also in the emphatic state מלכא טבא <i>malkâ ṭāḇâ</i> – king[emph.] good[emph.]. In comparison, the predicative adjective, as in the phrase "the king is good", is written in the absolute state מלכא טב <i>malkâ ṭāḇ</i> – king[emph.] good[abs.]. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>"good" </th> <th>masc. sg. </th> <th>fem. sg. </th> <th>masc. pl. </th> <th>fem. pl. </th></tr> <tr> <th>abs. </th> <td rowspan="2">טב ṭāḇ </td> <td>טבה ṭāḇâ </td> <td>טבין ṭāḇîn </td> <td>טבן ṭāḇān </td></tr> <tr> <th>const. </th> <td>טבת ṭāḇaṯ </td> <td>טבי ṭāḇê </td> <td>טבת ṭāḇāṯ </td></tr> <tr> <th>det./emph. </th> <td>טבא ṭāḇâ </td> <td>טבתא ṭāḇtâ </td> <td>טביא ṭāḇayyâ </td> <td>טבתא ṭāḇāṯâ </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The final א- <i>-â</i> in a number of these suffixes is written with the letter <a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">aleph</a>. However, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the letter <a href="/wiki/He_(letter)" title="He (letter)">he</a> for the feminine absolute singular. Likewise, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the Hebrew masculine absolute singular suffix ים- <i>-îm</i> instead of ין- <i>-în</i>. The masculine determined plural suffix, יא- <i>-ayyâ</i>, has an alternative version, <i>-ê</i>. The alternative is sometimes called the "gentilic plural" for its prominent use in ethnonyms (יהודיא <i>yəhûḏāyê</i>, 'the Jews', for example). This alternative plural is written with the letter <a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">aleph</a>, and came to be the only plural for nouns and adjectives of this type in Syriac and some other varieties of Aramaic. The masculine construct plural, <i>-ê</i>, is written with <a href="/wiki/Yodh" title="Yodh">yodh</a>. In Syriac and some other variants this ending is <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongized</a> to <i>-ai</i>. </p><p>Possessive phrases in Aramaic can either be made with the construct state or by linking two nouns with the relative particle -[ד[י <i>d[î]-</i>. As the use of the construct state almost disappears from the Middle Aramaic period on, the latter method became the main way of making possessive phrases. </p><p>For example, the various forms of possessive phrases (for "the handwriting of the queen") are: </p> <ol><li><b>כתבת מלכתא</b> <b>kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ</b> – the oldest construction, also known as סמיכות səmîḵûṯ : the possessed object (כתבה kṯābâ, "handwriting") is in the construct state (כתבת kṯāḇaṯ); the possessor (מלכה malkâ, "queen") is in the emphatic state (מלכתא malkṯâ)</li> <li><b>כתבתא דמלכתא</b> <b>kṯāḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ</b> – both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle -[ד[י <i>d[î]-</i> is used to mark the relationship</li> <li><b>כתבתה דמלכתא</b> <b>kṯāḇtāh d(î)-malkṯâ</b> – both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (כתבתה kṯāḇtā-h, "handwriting-her"; literally, "her writing, that (of) the queen").</li></ol> <p>In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Aramaic verb has gradually evolved in time and place, varying between varieties of the language. Verb forms are marked for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a> (first, second or third), <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a> (singular or plural), <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a> (masculine or feminine), <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a> (perfect or imperfect), <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a> (indicative, imperative, jussive, or infinitive), and <a href="/wiki/Voice_(grammar)" title="Voice (grammar)">voice</a> (active, reflexive, or passive). Aramaic also employs a system of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">conjugations</a>, or verbal stems, to mark intensive and extensive developments in the lexical meaning of verbs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aspectual_tense">Aspectual tense</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Aspectual tense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aramaic has two proper <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tenses</a>: <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfect</a>. These were originally <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspectual</a>, but developed into something more like a <a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">preterite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">future</a>. The perfect is <a href="/wiki/Markedness" title="Markedness">unmarked</a>, while the imperfect uses various <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">preformatives</a> that vary according to person, number and gender. In both tenses the third-person singular masculine is the unmarked form from which others are derived by addition of <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">afformatives</a> (and preformatives in the imperfect). In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Person & gender </th> <th colspan="2">Perfect </th> <th colspan="2">Imperfect </th></tr> <tr> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>3rd m. </th> <td>כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ </td> <td>כתבו ↔ כתב(ו)\כתבון kəṯaḇû ↔ kəṯaḇ(w)/kəṯabbûn </td> <td>יכתוב ↔ נכתוב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ </td> <td>יכתבון ↔ נכתבון yiḵtəḇûn ↔ neḵtəḇûn </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd f. </th> <td>כתבת kiṯbaṯ ↔ keṯbaṯ </td> <td>כתבת ↔ כתב(י)\כתבן kəṯaḇâ ↔ kəṯaḇ(y)/kəṯabbên </td> <td>תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ </td> <td>יכתבן ↔ נכתבן yiḵtəḇān ↔ neḵtəḇān </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd m. </th> <td>כתבת kəṯaḇt ↔ kəṯaḇt </td> <td>כתבתון kəṯaḇtûn ↔ kəṯaḇton </td> <td>תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ </td> <td>תכתבון tiḵtəḇûn ↔ teḵtəḇûn </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd f. </th> <td>(כתבתי ↔ כתבת(י kəṯaḇtî ↔ kəṯaḇt(y) </td> <td>כתבתן kəṯaḇtēn ↔ kəṯaḇtên </td> <td>תכתבין tiḵtuḇîn ↔ teḵtuḇîn </td> <td>תכתבן tiḵtəḇān ↔ teḵtəḇān </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st m./f. </th> <td>כתבת kiṯḇēṯ ↔ keṯḇeṯ </td> <td>כתבנא ↔ כתבן kəṯaḇnâ ↔ kəṯaḇn </td> <td>אכתב eḵtuḇ ↔ eḵtoḇ </td> <td>נכתב niḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conjugations_or_verbal_stems">Conjugations or verbal stems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Conjugations or verbal stems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like other Semitic languages, Aramaic employs a number of <a href="/wiki/Derived_stem" title="Derived stem">derived verb stems</a>, to extend the lexical coverage of verbs. The basic form of the verb is called the <i>ground stem</i>, or <i>G-stem</i>. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə‘al פעל (also written Pe‘al), using the form of the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic root</a> פע״ל P-‘-L, meaning "to do". This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb. </p><p>By doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D-stem or פעל Pa‘‘el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, <i>qəṭal</i> means "he killed", whereas <i>qaṭṭel</i> means "he slew". The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Preformative" class="mw-redirect" title="Preformative">preformative</a>, which can be -ה <i>ha-</i>, -א <i>a-</i>, or -ש <i>ša-</i>, creates the C-stem or variously the Hap̄‘el, Ap̄‘el or Šap̄‘el (also spelt הפעל Haph‘el, אפעל Aph‘el, and שפעל Shaph‘el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, טעה <i>ṭə‘â</i> means "he went astray", whereas אטעי <i>aṭ‘î</i> means "he deceived". The Šap̄‘el שפעל is the least common variant of the C-stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants הפעל Hap̄‘el and אפעל Ap̄‘el appears to be the gradual dropping of the initial ה <i>h</i> sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older <a href="/wiki/He_(letter)" title="He (letter)">he</a> preformative with א <a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">aleph</a>. </p><p>These three conjugations are supplemented with three further derived stems, produced by the preformative -הת <i>hiṯ-</i> or -את <i>eṯ-</i>. The loss of the initial ה <i>h</i> sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt-stem, התפעל Hiṯpə‘el or אתפעל Eṯpə‘el (also written Hithpe‘el or Ethpe‘el), the Dt-stem, התפעּל Hiṯpa‘‘al or אתפעּל Eṯpa‘‘al (also written Hithpa‘‘al or Ethpa‘‘al), and the Ct-stem, התהפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al, אתּפעל Ettap̄‘al, השתפעל Hištap̄‘al or אשתפעל Eštap̄‘al (also written Hithhaph‘al, Ettaph‘al, Hishtaph‘al, or Eshtaph‘al). Their meaning is usually <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">reflexive</a>, but later became <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive</a>. However, as with other stems, actual meaning differs from verb to verb. </p><p>Not all verbs use all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G-stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Stem </th> <th>Perfect active </th> <th>Imperfect active </th> <th>Perfect passive </th> <th>Imperfect passive </th></tr> <tr> <th>פעל Pə‘al (G-stem) </th> <td>כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ </td> <td>יכתב ↔ נכתב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ </td> <td>כתיב kəṯîḇ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpə‘ēl/Eṯpə‘el (Gt-stem) </th> <td>התכתב ↔ אתכתב hiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ eṯkəṯeḇ </td> <td>יתכתב ↔ נתכתב yiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ neṯkəṯeḇ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>פעּל Pa‘‘ēl/Pa‘‘el (D-stem) </th> <td>כתּב kattēḇ ↔ katteḇ </td> <td>יכתּב ↔ נכתּב yəḵattēḇ ↔ nəkatteḇ </td> <td>כֻתּב kuttaḇ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpa‘‘al/Eṯpa‘‘al (Dt-stem) </th> <td>התכתּב ↔ אתכתּב hiṯkəttēḇ ↔ eṯkətteḇ </td> <td>יתכתּב ↔ נתכתּב yiṯkəttēḇ ↔ neṯkətteḇ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>הפעל\אפעל Hap̄‘ēl/Ap̄‘el (C-stem) </th> <td>הכתב ↔ אכתב haḵtēḇ ↔ aḵteḇ </td> <td>יהכתב↔ נכתב yəhaḵtēḇ ↔ naḵteḇ </td> <td>הֻכתב huḵtaḇ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>התהפעל\אתּפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al/Ettap̄‘al (Ct-stem) </th> <td>התהכתב ↔ אתּכתב hiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ ettaḵtaḇ </td> <td>יתהכתב ↔ נתּכתב yiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ nettaḵtaḇ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In Imperial Aramaic, the <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participle</a> began to be used for a <a href="/wiki/Historical_present" title="Historical present">historical present</a>. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verb</a>), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. Aramaic <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> usually follows the order verb–subject–object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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/></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Languages">Languages portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/40px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/60px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/120px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output 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alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Gospel of Matthew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Aramaic-language_television_channels" title="List of Aramaic-language television channels">List of Aramaic-language television channels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_loanwords_in_Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic" title="List of loanwords in Assyrian Neo-Aramaic">List of loanwords in modern Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Syriac" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Syriac">Romanization of Syriac</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKozahAbu-HusaynAl-MurikhiAl_Thani2014" class="citation book cs1">Kozah, Mario; <a href="/wiki/Abdulrahim_Abu-Husayn" title="Abdulrahim Abu-Husayn">Abu-Husayn, Abdulrahim</a>; Al-Murikhi, Saif Shaheen; Al Thani, Haya (9 December 2014). <i>The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century</i>. Gorgias Press. p. 298. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781463236649" title="Special:BookSources/9781463236649"><bdi>9781463236649</bdi></a>. <q>The Syriac writers of Qatar themselves produced some of the best and most sophisticated writing to be found in all Syriac literature of the seventh century, but they have not received the scholarly attention that they deserve in the last half century. This volume seeks to redress this underdevelopment by setting the standard for further research in the sub-field of Beth Qatraye studies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Syriac+Writers+of+Qatar+in+the+Seventh+Century&rft.pages=298&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press&rft.date=2014-12-09&rft.isbn=9781463236649&rft.aulast=Kozah&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft.au=Abu-Husayn%2C+Abdulrahim&rft.au=Al-Murikhi%2C+Saif+Shaheen&rft.au=Al+Thani%2C+Haya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huehnergard, J., "What is Aramaic?." Aram 7 (1995): 281</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThompson2019" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Andrew David (31 October 2019). <i>Christianity in Oman</i>. Springer. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783030303983" title="Special:BookSources/9783030303983"><bdi>9783030303983</bdi></a>. <q>The Persian location and character of the Metropolitan proved to be a source of friction between the Syriac-speaking Christians of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Eastern_Arabia" title="Christianity in Eastern Arabia">Beth Qatraye</a> who naturally looked to their co-linguists back in Mesopotamia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+in+Oman&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2019-10-31&rft.isbn=9783030303983&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Andrew+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRahebLamport2020" class="citation book cs1">Raheb, Mitri; Lamport, Mark A. (15 December 2020). <i>The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781538124185" title="Special:BookSources/9781538124185"><bdi>9781538124185</bdi></a>. <q>He was born in the region of Beth Qatraye in Eastern Arabia, a mixed Syriac- and Arabic Speaking region...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Handbook+of+Christianity+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2020-12-15&rft.isbn=9781538124185&rft.aulast=Raheb&rft.aufirst=Mitri&rft.au=Lamport%2C+Mark+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrock198911–23-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrock198911–23_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrock198911–23_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrock1989">Brock 1989</a>, pp. 11–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PhylaAndWaves-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PhylaAndWaves_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHuehnergardRubin2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Huehnergard" title="John Huehnergard">Huehnergard, John</a>; <a href="/wiki/Aaron_D._Rubin" title="Aaron D. Rubin">Rubin, Aaron D.</a> (2011). "Phyla and Waves: Models of Classification of the Semitic Languages". In Weninger, Stefan (ed.). <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. <span class="nowrap">259–</span>278. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018613-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018613-0"><bdi>978-3-11-018613-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phyla+and+Waves%3A+Models+of+Classification+of+the+Semitic+Languages&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E259-%3C%2Fspan%3E278&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-11-018613-0&rft.aulast=Huehnergard&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Rubin%2C+Aaron+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GzellaAramaic-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GzellaAramaic_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2021">Gzella 2021</a>, pp. 4–5: "The overarching concept of Aramaic, strictly a historical-linguistic abstraction, is made more concrete by various terms for the various Aramaic languages (or dialects, where we are mainly dealing with regional vernaculars without a written tradition; the neutral term variety includes both categories). ... Or scholars use the same terms to refer to different historical periods, as with "Old Aramaic" or "Imperial Aramaic." Others still are just misleading, such as "Modern Syriac" for the modern spoken languages, which do not directly descend from Syriac. When discussing what a certain word or phrase is "in Aramaic" then, we always have to specify which period, region, or culture is meant unlike Classical Latin, for instance. ... For the most part, Aramaic is thus studied as a crucial but subservient element in several well-established, mainly philological and historical disciplines and social sciences. Even in the academic world, only few people see any inherent value that transcends the disciplinary boundaries in this language family."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Quotations#Specific_recommendations" title="Wikipedia:Quotations"><span title="too-lengthy quotation (January 2025)">excessive quote</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVan_Rompay2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Van Rompay, Lucas (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Aramaic">"Aramaic"</a>. In Brock, Sebastian P.; Butts, Aaron M.; Kiraz, George A.; Van Rompay, Lucas (eds.). <i>Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage</i> (Electronic Edition, Beth Mardutho, 2018 ed.). Gorgias Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-714-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-714-8"><bdi>978-1-59333-714-8</bdi></a>. <q>Aramaic itself consists of a great number of language forms (and indeed languages), spoken and written in many different scripts over a period of 3000 years.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaic&rft.btitle=Gorgias+Encyclopedic+Dictionary+of+the+Syriac+Heritage&rft.edition=Electronic+Edition%2C+Beth+Mardutho%2C+2018&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-59333-714-8&rft.aulast=Van+Rompay&rft.aufirst=Lucas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgedsh.bethmardutho.org%2FAramaic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAufrecht2001145"The_Aramaic_Language_originated_in_ancient_Syria_at_the_end_of_the_Late_Bronze_Age_(c._1500–1200_B.C.),_is_one_of_the_oldest_continually_spoken_languages_in_the_world."-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAufrecht2001145"The_Aramaic_Language_originated_in_ancient_Syria_at_the_end_of_the_Late_Bronze_Age_(c._1500–1200_B.C.),_is_one_of_the_oldest_continually_spoken_languages_in_the_world."_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAufrecht2001">Aufrecht 2001</a>, p. 145, "The Aramaic Language originated in ancient Syria at the end of the Late Bronze Age (c. 1500–1200 B.C.), is one of the oldest continually spoken languages in the world.".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchami2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schami, Rafik (25 July 2011). <i>Märchen aus Malula</i> (in German). Carl Hanser. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783446239005" title="Special:BookSources/9783446239005"><bdi>9783446239005</bdi></a>. <q>Ich kenne das Dorf nicht, doch gehört habe ich davon. Was ist mit Malula?‹ fragte der festgehaltene Derwisch. >Das letzte Dorf der Aramäer< lachte einer der…</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M%C3%A4rchen+aus+Malula&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Carl+Hanser&rft.date=2011-07-25&rft.isbn=9783446239005&rft.aulast=Schami&rft.aufirst=Rafik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatrasSakel2007" class="citation book cs1">Matras, Yaron; Sakel, Jeanette (2007). <i>Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective</i>. De Gruyter. p. 185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110199192">10.1515/9783110199192</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110199192" title="Special:BookSources/9783110199192"><bdi>9783110199192</bdi></a>. <q>The fact that nearly all Arabic loans in Ma'lula originate from the period before the change from the rural dialect to the city dialect of Damascus shows that the contact between the Aramaeans and the Arabs was intimate…</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammatical+Borrowing+in+Cross-Linguistic+Perspective&rft.pages=185&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110199192&rft.isbn=9783110199192&rft.aulast=Matras&rft.aufirst=Yaron&rft.au=Sakel%2C+Jeanette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLabidi2022" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Labidi, Emna (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lit-verlag.de/isbn/978-3-643-15261-9"><i>Untersuchungen zum Spracherwerb zweisprachiger Kinder im Aramäerdorf Dschubbadin (Syrien)</i></a> (in German). LIT. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783643152619" title="Special:BookSources/9783643152619"><bdi>9783643152619</bdi></a>. <q>Aramäer von Ǧubbˁadīn</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Untersuchungen+zum+Spracherwerb+zweisprachiger+Kinder+im+Aram%C3%A4erdorf+Dschubbadin+%28Syrien%29&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=LIT&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9783643152619&rft.aulast=Labidi&rft.aufirst=Emna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lit-verlag.de%2Fisbn%2F978-3-643-15261-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArnoldBehnstedt1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Arnold, Werner; Behnstedt, P. (1993). <i>Arabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien)</i> (in German). Harassowitz. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447033268" title="Special:BookSources/9783447033268"><bdi>9783447033268</bdi></a>. <q>Die arabischen Dialekte der Aramäer</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabisch-aram%C3%A4ische+Sprachbeziehungen+im+Qalam%C5%ABn+%28Syrien%29&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Harassowitz&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9783447033268&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft.au=Behnstedt%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArnoldBehnstedt1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Arnold, Werner; Behnstedt, P. (1993). <i>Arabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien)</i> (in German). Harassowitz. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447033268" title="Special:BookSources/9783447033268"><bdi>9783447033268</bdi></a>. <q>Die Kontakte zwischen den drei Aramäer-dörfern sind nicht besonders stark.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabisch-aram%C3%A4ische+Sprachbeziehungen+im+Qalam%C5%ABn+%28Syrien%29&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Harassowitz&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9783447033268&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft.au=Behnstedt%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArnold2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Arnold, Werner (2006). <i>Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen</i> (in German). Harrassowitz. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447053136" title="Special:BookSources/9783447053136"><bdi>9783447053136</bdi></a>. <q>Aramäern in Ma'lūla</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lehrbuch+des+Neuwestaram%C3%A4ischen&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Harrassowitz&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9783447053136&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Werner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArnold2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Arnold, Werner (2006). <i>Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen</i> (in German). Harrassowitz. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447053136" title="Special:BookSources/9783447053136"><bdi>9783447053136</bdi></a>. <q>Viele Aramäer arbeiten heute in Damaskus, Beirut oder in den Golfstaaten und verbringen nur die Sommermonate im Dorf.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lehrbuch+des+Neuwestaram%C3%A4ischen&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Harrassowitz&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9783447053136&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Werner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSokoloff1983">Sokoloff 1983</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBeyer1986">Beyer 1986</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCreason2008">Creason 2008</a>, pp. 108–144</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGzella2015">Gzella 2015</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2021">Gzella 2021</a>, p. 222: "Despite their divergent creeds and confessional affiliations, they retained their own West or East Syriac ritual prayers and liturgical formulae; on the one hand, there are the West Syriac Orthodox and Syriac Catholics...and also to a lesser degree the similarly Catholic Maronites (where Arabic is increasingly taking over the function of Syriac); one the other hand, there is the Assyrian "Church of the East," which stems from the East Syriac tradition, and...the Chaldean Catholic Church. Additionally, some of the many Christian churches of India belong to the Syriac tradition."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenfield1995-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenfield1995_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreenfield1995">Greenfield 1995</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerlin2011_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBerlin2011">Berlin 2011</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETal2012619–28-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETal2012619–28_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETal2012619–28_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTal2012">Tal 2012</a>, p. 619–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurtea2012670–685-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurtea2012670–685_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurtea2012">Burtea 2012</a>, pp. 670–685.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENaby2004197–203-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENaby2004197–203_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNaby2004">Naby 2004</a>, pp. 197–203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacuch1990214–223-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacuch1990214–223_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacuch1990">Macuch 1990</a>, pp. 214–223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoghill2007115–122-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoghill2007115–122_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCoghill2007">Coghill 2007</a>, pp. 115–122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200164-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński200164_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2001">Lipiński 2001</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella201517–22-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella201517–22_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2015">Gzella 2015</a>, pp. 17–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaniels1996499–514-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniels1996499–514_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaniels1996">Daniels 1996</a>, pp. 499–514.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer198656-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer198656_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeyer1986">Beyer 1986</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gzella2015-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gzella2015_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2015">Gzella 2015</a>, p. 56</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen_Myers-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Allen_Myers_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMyers1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Myers, Allen C., ed. (1987). "Aramaic". <i>The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary</i>. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-2402-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-2402-1"><bdi>0-8028-2402-1</bdi></a>. <q>It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaic&rft.btitle=The+Eerdmans+Bible+Dictionary&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+MI&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-8028-2402-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aramaic-language">"Aramaic language"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 10 April 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaic+language&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-04-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FAramaic-language&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2000-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2000_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipiński2000">Lipiński 2000</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhan200795–114-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhan200795–114_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKhan2007">Khan 2007</a>, pp. 95–114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2015-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2015">Gzella 2015</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.38b">"Sanhedrin 38b"</a>. <i>www.sefaria.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.sefaria.org&rft.atitle=Sanhedrin+38b&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sefaria.org%2FSanhedrin.38b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuzer2014182–205-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuzer2014182–205_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuzer2014">Ruzer 2014</a>, pp. 182–205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButh2014395–421-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButh2014395–421_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFButh2014">Buth 2014</a>, pp. 395–421.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2015237-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015237_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2015">Gzella 2015</a>, p. 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchen196531–79-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchen196531–79_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKitchen1965">Kitchen 1965</a>, pp. 31–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal2006-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERosenthal2006_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosenthal2006">Rosenthal 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2015304–10-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015304–10_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2015">Gzella 2015</a>, pp. 304–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFolmer2012587–98-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFolmer2012587–98_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFolmer2012587–98_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFolmer2012">Folmer 2012</a>, pp. 587–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBae20041–20-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBae20041–20_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBae20041–20_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBae2004">Bae 2004</a>, pp. 1–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen199245-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreen199245_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen1992">Green 1992</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer198638–43-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer198638–43_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeyer1986">Beyer 1986</a>, pp. 38–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECasey199983–93-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasey199983–93_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCasey1999">Casey 1999</a>, pp. 83–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTurek2011" class="citation journal cs1">Turek, Przemysław (2011-11-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15633%2Fochc.1038">"Syriac Heritage of the Saint Thomas Christians: Language and Liturgical Tradition Saint Thomas Christians – origins, language and liturgy"</a>. <i>Orientalia Christiana Cracoviensia</i>. <b>3</b>: <span class="nowrap">115–</span>130. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15633%2Fochc.1038">10.15633/ochc.1038</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2081-1330">2081-1330</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orientalia+Christiana+Cracoviensia&rft.atitle=Syriac+Heritage+of+the+Saint+Thomas+Christians%3A+Language+and+Liturgical+Tradition+Saint+Thomas+Christians+%E2%80%93+origins%2C+language+and+liturgy&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E115-%3C%2Fspan%3E130&rft.date=2011-11-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15633%2Fochc.1038&rft.issn=2081-1330&rft.aulast=Turek&rft.aufirst=Przemys%C5%82aw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.15633%252Fochc.1038&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurtea2012670–85-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurtea2012670–85_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurtea2012670–85_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurtea2012">Burtea 2012</a>, pp. 670–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHäberl2012725–37_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHäberl2012">Häberl 2012</a>, pp. 725–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinrichs1990xi–xv-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeinrichs1990xi–xv_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeinrichs1990">Heinrichs 1990</a>, pp. xi–xv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer198653-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer198653_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeyer1986">Beyer 1986</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DYK-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DYK_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://userblogs.fu-berlin.de/saop/didyouknow/">"Did you know"</a>. <i>Surayt-Aramaic Online Project</i>. Free University of Berlin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Surayt-Aramaic+Online+Project&rft.atitle=Did+you+know&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuserblogs.fu-berlin.de%2Fsaop%2Fdidyouknow%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDuntsovHäberlLoesov2022" class="citation journal cs1">Duntsov, Alexey; Häberl, Charles; Loesov, Sergey (2022). "A Modern Western Aramaic Account of the Syrian Civil War". <i>WORD</i>. <b>68</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">359–</span>394. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00437956.2022.2084663">10.1080/00437956.2022.2084663</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WORD&rft.atitle=A+Modern+Western+Aramaic+Account+of+the+Syrian+Civil+War&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E359-%3C%2Fspan%3E394&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00437956.2022.2084663&rft.aulast=Duntsov&rft.aufirst=Alexey&rft.au=H%C3%A4berl%2C+Charles&rft.au=Loesov%2C+Sergey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brock, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://meti.byu.edu/Brock_Introduction.pdf">An Introduction to Syriac Studies</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130518214139/http://meti.byu.edu/Brock_Introduction.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-05-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKopp1821" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrich_Friedrich_Kopp" class="extiw" title="de:Ulrich Friedrich Kopp">Kopp, Ulrich Friedrich</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in German]</span> (1821). "Semitische Paläographie: Aramäische ältere Schrift". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tng9AAAAYAAJ"><i>Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit</i></a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">226–</span>27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Semitische+Pal%C3%A4ographie%3A+Aram%C3%A4ische+%C3%A4ltere+Schrift&rft.btitle=Bilder+und+Schriften+der+Vorzeit&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E226-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=1821&rft.aulast=Kopp&rft.aufirst=Ulrich+Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTng9AAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caputo_Lougovaya_2020_p._147-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Caputo_Lougovaya_2020_p._147_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCaputoLougovaya2020" class="citation book cs1">Caputo, C.; Lougovaya, J. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SK8HEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA147"><i>Using Ostraca in the Ancient World: New Discoveries and Methodologies</i></a>. Materiale Textkulturen. De Gruyter. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-071290-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-071290-2"><bdi>978-3-11-071290-2</bdi></a>. <q>The earliest of the Aramaic finds known to us is the so-called "Carpentras stele"...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Using+Ostraca+in+the+Ancient+World%3A+New+Discoveries+and+Methodologies&rft.series=Materiale+Textkulturen&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-3-11-071290-2&rft.aulast=Caputo&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Lougovaya%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSK8HEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt1923" class="citation journal cs1">Schmidt, Nathaniel (1923). "Early Oriental Studies in Europe and the Work of the American Oriental Society, 1842–1922". <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>. <b>43</b>: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F593293">10.2307/593293</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/593293">593293</a>. <q>Hilliger first saw clearly the relation of the so-called Chaldee, Syriac, and Samaritan (1679)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Early+Oriental+Studies+in+Europe+and+the+Work+of+the+American+Oriental+Society%2C+1842%E2%80%931922&rft.volume=43&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.date=1923&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F593293&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F593293%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Nathaniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hilliger1679-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hilliger1679_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohann_Wilhelm_Hilliger1679" class="citation book cs1">Johann Wilhelm Hilliger (1679). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NgrgAAAAMAAJ"><i>Summarium Lingvæ Aramææ, i.e. Chaldæo-Syro-Samaritanæ: olim in Academia Wittebergensi orientalium lingvarum consecraneis, parietes intra privatos, prælectum & nunc ... publico bono commodatum</i></a>. Sumtibus hæred. D. Tobiæ Mevii & Elerti Schumacheri, per Matthæum Henckelium. <q>[Partial English translation]: "The Aramaic language name comes from its <a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">gentile</a> founder, <a href="/wiki/Aram,_son_of_Shem" title="Aram, son of Shem">Aram</a> (Gen 10:22), in the same manner as the Slavic languages Bohemian, Polish, Vandal etc. Multiple dialects are Chaldean, Syrian, Samaritan."; Latin Original: Linguae Aramaeae nomen à gentis conditore, Aramo nimirum (Gen. X 22) desumptum est, & complectitur, perinde ut Lingua Sclavonica, Bohemican, Polonican, Vandalicam &c. Dialectos plures, ceu sunt: Chaldaica, Syriaca, Samaritana.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Summarium+Lingv%C3%A6+Aram%C3%A6%C3%A6%2C+i.e.+Chald%C3%A6o-Syro-Samaritan%C3%A6%3A+olim+in+Academia+Wittebergensi+orientalium+lingvarum+consecraneis%2C+parietes+intra+privatos%2C+pr%C3%A6lectum+%26+nunc+...+publico+bono+commodatum&rft.pub=Sumtibus+h%C3%A6red.+D.+Tobi%C3%A6+Mevii+%26+Elerti+Schumacheri%2C+per+Matth%C3%A6um+Henckelium&rft.date=1679&rft.au=Johann+Wilhelm+Hilliger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNgrgAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lemaire_2021_pp._5–29-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lemaire_2021_pp._5–29_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLemaire2021" class="citation book cs1">Lemaire, André (2021-05-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781575068879-007/html">"A History of Northwest Semitic Epigraphy"</a>. <i>An Eye for Form</i>. Penn State University Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781575068879-007">10.1515/9781575068879-007</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781575068879" title="Special:BookSources/9781575068879"><bdi>9781575068879</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-10-05</span></span> – via De Gruyter. <q>In his Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit, Ulrich Friedrich Kopp (1819–21) established the basis of the paleographical development of the Northwest Semitic scripts...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Northwest+Semitic+Epigraphy&rft.btitle=An+Eye+for+Form&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Penn+State+University+Press&rft.date=2021-05-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9781575068879-007&rft.isbn=9781575068879&rft.aulast=Lemaire&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2F9781575068879-007%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopp1821226-227_(§168–169)-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopp1821226-227_(§168–169)_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKopp1821">Kopp 1821</a>, p. 226-227 (§168–169): "Irre ich nicht, so hat man die Benennung "phönicische Schrift" bisher etwas zu freygebig gebraucht, den Phöniciern alles gegeben, und den Aramäern nichts gelassen, gleichsam, als ob diese gar nicht hätten schreiben können, oder doch von ihnen nicht ein einziges Denkmal aus ältern Zeiten sich sollte erhalten haben. Selbst Schriften, in welchen sich die aramäische Mund-Art gar nicht verkennen läßt, nennen die Orientalisten phönicisch (§. 195), bloß weil sie noch nicht geahndet haben, daß eine Verschiedenheit vorhanden seyn könne. Ein Haupt-Unterscheidungs-Zeichen – So weit man, ohne auch dasjenige gesehen zu haben, was etwa noch entdeckt werden könnte, vorjetzt durch bloße Induction schließen kann – scheint in den Buchstaben ב, ד, ע und ר zu liegen. Denn so viele phönicische Denkmäler ich auch betrachtet habe; so sind mir doch in keinem einzigen ächt phönicischen diejenigen Gestalten vorgekommen, welche sich oben öffnen (§. 100). Nur bey dem einzigen ע finden sich, wie ich schon erinnert habe, jedoch höchst seltene Ausnahmen, die zuweilen bloß von der Uebereilung des Schreibers herrühren (z.B. im ersten ע der oxforder Inschrift (B.I. S.207). Wir haben sogar oben (§. 159) gesehen, daß selbst noch 153 Jahre nach Christi Geburt, als schon die Schrift in Phönicien sehr ausgeartet war, und in dem ganzen Zeit-Raume vorher, nie ד und ר mit von oben geöffneten Köpfen erscheinen. Dagegen haben diejenigen Denkmäler, auf welchen man sie antrifft, wie ich glaube, auch keinen Anspruch an Pönicier, als Urheber. §. 169 Unter solche gehört vor allen die Inschrift von Carpentras, welche ich hier um so lieber vornehme, als ihre Aechtheit über allen Zweifel erhoben ist... §. 195 Die Schrift darauf nannte man ehemals ägyptisch, welches freylich, weder in Vergleichung mit der ägyptischen Buchstaben-Schrift eine angemessene Benennung, noch der Sprache wegen eine zu wagende Vermuthung war. Schwerlich richtig ist aber auch die bey neuern Gelehrten (Gessenii Gesch. d. hebr. Spr. 139. Bibl. der alt. Literat. VI. 18. Hammer Fund-Grub. V. 277 °°) aufgekommene Benennung "Phönicisch". Ja Hartmann (II. II. 540) nennt sogar unmittelbar nach der ersten malteser diese "eine andere phönicische Inschrift". Schon die Mund-Art, welche nicht phönicisch, sondern aramäisch ist, würde uns vermuthen lassen, daß die Schrift den Aramäern ebenfalls gehöre; wenn nicht in dieser sich zugleich auch Merkmale einer Verschiedenheit von der phönicischen zeigten (s. oben §. 100. 168). Ich habe daher mit gutem Vorbedachte unser Denkmal von Carpentras aus meiner kleinen Sammlung phönicischer Inschriften (B. I. 195) ausgeschlossen. §. 196 Es scheint, als ob zur Zeit des oben (§. 193) mitgetheilten babylonischen Denkmals Aramäer und Phönicier eine und dieselbe Schrift gehabt hätten. Gegen 300 Sahre vor unserer Zeit-Rechnung war aber meiner Vermuthung nach schon eine Trennung eingetreten. Ich sage Vermuthung: denn mein Schluß gründet sich nur auf die einseitige Auslegung folgender Münze, bey welcher man mir vielleicht mehr als einen Einwurf zu machen im Stande ist.."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopp1821S._182–185-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopp1821S._182–185_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKopp1821">Kopp 1821</a>, p. S. 182–185: "Es gehört nicht viel dazu, um einzusehen, daß die Mund-Art, welche in dieser Inschrift herrscht, aramäisch sey. Schon de Wörter עבדת קדם ,ברת ,אמרת, u. s . w. verrathen sie. Allein rein Chaldäisch kann man sie nicht nennen; man müßte denn mit O. G. Tychsen zu manchen Vorausseßungen und Uenderungen seine Zuflucht nehmen wollen. [ ] ist nimmermehr chaldäisch; sondern entweder äthiopisch hic, hoc loco, oder das hebräische Demonstrativum. Denn man bemerkt auch ben [ ] die Orthographie, nach welcher [ ] statt [ ] gefegt wird. Ich war einmal in Versuchung das Relativum der Zabier darinnen sinden zu wollen, weil ich [ ] wirklich gedruckt fand. Als ich aber die Handschrift selbst verglich, say' ich bald, daß es ein Druckfehler, statt [ ], war… [ ]. Oyngeachtet die Endigung nicht gewöhnlich im Chaldäischen ist, so findet sich doch in der Ueberseßung des Buches Ruth (III. 10) dieses Wort grade so geschrieben. [ ] Daß dieses Zeit-Wort hier nicht perfectus fuit, wie gewöhnlich, heißen könne, lehrt der Zusammenhang. Es hat aber auch transitive Bedeutung, wie die Wörter-Bücher lehren (Simonis und Gesenius n. 2) und auch das arabische [ ] tamam wird für perfecit, complevit gebraucht. Ich habe mir daher um so weniger ein Gewissen daraus gemacht, ihm die transitive Bedeutung hier beyzulegen, als in dieser Anschrift, in welcher [ ], [ ] und dergleichen an keine Regeln gebundene Wörter vorkommen, es eine Recheit reyn würde, den Sprach-Gebrauch vorschreiben zu wollen. Daß übrigens in [ ] das [ ] für [ ] stehe, siehet man selbst aus dem Chaldäischen der Bibel (Dan. IV. 15. V. 8)."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrade20137-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrade20137_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndrade2013">Andrade 2013</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josephus, <a href="/wiki/Antiquities_of_the_Jews" title="Antiquities of the Jews">Antiquities of the Jews</a>, 1.144: "Aram had the Aramites, which the Greeks called Syrians" (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el">Ἀραμαίους δὲ Ἄραμος ἔσχεν, οὓς Ἕλληνες Σύρους προσαγορεύουσιν</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strabo, <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a>, 1.2.34: "But it would seem that the view of Poseidonius is best, for here he derives an etymology of the words from the kinship of the peoples and their common characteristics. For the nation of the Armenians and that of the Syrians and Arabians betray a close affinity, not only in their language, but in their mode of life and in their bodily build, and particularly wherever they live as close neighbours. Mesopotamia, which is inhabited by these three nations, gives proof of this, for in the case of these nations the similarity is particularly noticeable. And if, comparing the differences of latitude, there does exist a greater difference between the northern and the southern people of Mesopotamia than between these two peoples and the Syrians in the centre, still the common characteristics prevail. And, too, the Assyrians, the Arians, and the Aramaeans display a certain likeness both to those just mentioned and to each other. Indeed, Poseidonius conjectures that the names of these nations also are akin; for, says he, the people whom we call Syrians are by the Syrians themselves called Arimaeans and Arammaeans; and there is a resemblance between this name and those of the Armenians, the Arabians and the Erembians, since perhaps the ancient Greeks gave the name of Erembians to the Arabians, and since the very etymology of the word "Erembian" contributes to this result".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strabo, <a href="/wiki/Geographica" title="Geographica">Geographica</a>, 16.4.27: "Poseidonius says that the Arabians consist of three tribes, that they are situated in succession, one after another, and that this indicates that they are homogeneous with one another, and that for this reason they were called by similar names – one tribe "Armenians," another "Arameans," and another "Arambians." And just as one may suppose that the Arabians were divided into three tribes, according to the differences in the latitudes, which ever vary more and more, so also one may suppose that they used several names instead of one. Neither are those who write "Eremni" plausible; for that name is more peculiarly applicable to the Aethiopians. The poet also mentions "Arimi,"by which, according to Poseidonius, we should interpret the poet as meaning, not some place in Syria or in Cilicia or in some other land, but Syria itself; for the people in Syria are Arameans, though perhaps the Greeks called them Arimaeans or Arimi".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWevers2001237–51-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWevers2001237–51_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWevers2001">Wevers 2001</a>, pp. 237–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoosten200893–105-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoosten200893–105_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJoosten2008">Joosten 2008</a>, pp. 93–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoosten201053–72-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoosten201053–72_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJoosten2010">Joosten 2010</a>, pp. 53–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joseph2000-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Joseph2000_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJoseph2000" class="citation book cs1">Joseph, John (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=79wj2hj4wKUC&pg=PA10"><i>The Modern Assyrians of the Middle East: A History of Their Encounter with Western Christian Missions, Archaeologists, and Colonial Powers</i></a>. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">9–</span>10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004116419" title="Special:BookSources/9004116419"><bdi>9004116419</bdi></a>. <q>The designations Syria and Syrian were derived from Greek usage long before Christianity. When the Greeks became better acquainted with the Near East, especially after Alexander the Great overthrew the Achaemenian empire in the 4th century B.C., they restricted the name Syria to the lands west of the Euphrates. During the 3rd century B.C., when the Hebrew Bible was translated by Jewish scholars into the Greek Septuagint for the use of the Hellenized Jews of Alexandria, the terms for 'Aramean' and 'Aramaic' in the Hebrew Bible, were translated into 'Syrian' and 'the Syrian tongue' respectively. [Footnote: "The Authorized Version of the Bible continued to use the same terms that the Septuagint had adopted. In 1970, the New English Bible, published by Oxford and Cambridge University presses, and translated by biblical scholars drawn from various British universities, went back to the original Hebrew terms, using Aram and Arameans for Syria and Syrians respectively."] In Palestine itself, according to Noldeke, the Jews and later the Christians there referred to their dialect of Aramaic as Syriac; in Babylon, both Greeks and Persians called the Arameans Syrians. The second-century B.C. Greek historian Posidonius, a native of Syria, noted that 'the people we [Greeks] call Syrians were called by the Syrians themselves Arameans….for the people in Syria are Arameans'."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+Assyrians+of+the+Middle+East%3A+A+History+of+Their+Encounter+with+Western+Christian+Missions%2C+Archaeologists%2C+and+Colonial+Powers&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9004116419&rft.aulast=Joseph&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D79wj2hj4wKUC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TN-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TN_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TN_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nöldeke, 1871, p. 115: "Die Griechen haben den Namen "Aramäer" nie eigentlich gekannt; ausser Posidonius (dem Strabo folgt) nennt ihn uns nur noch ein andrer Orientale, Josephus (Ant. 1, 6, 4). Dass Homer bei den 'Ερεμβοι oder in den Worten eiv 'Αρίμοις an sie dächte, ist sehr unwahrscheinlich. Die Griechen nannten das Volk "Syrer"".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFQuatremère1835" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Marc_Quatrem%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Marc Quatremère">Quatremère, Étienne Marc</a> (1835). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C9CfsXJEvRsC&pg=PA122">"Mémoire Sur Les Nabatéens"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_asiatique" title="Journal asiatique">Journal asiatique</a></i> (in French). Société asiatique: <span class="nowrap">122–</span>27. <q>Les livres du Nouveau Testament furent immédiatement traduits dans fa langue du pays. Or ces livres étaient écrits dans la langue des Grecs, et offraient par conséquent les expressions et les dénominations en usage chez'ce peuple. Or les noms de Syrie, de Syriens se trouvaient souvent employés dans les livres fondamentaux du christianisme. Les habitants des pays situés entre la Méditerranée et l'Euphrate, se voyant désignés par une dénomination qui leur était étrangère, mais qui se trouvait en quelque sorte consacrée par l'autorité des livres qu'ils vénéraient à tant de titres, ne crurent pas sans doute pouvoir rejeter ce nom, et l'adoptèrent sans répugnance. Ils se persuadèrent que, régénérés par un nouveau culte, ils devaient sous tous les rapports devenir un peuple nouveau et abjurer leur nom antique, qui semblait leur rappeler l'idolâtrie à laquelle le christianisme venait de les arracher. Cette conjecture est, si je ne me trompe, confirmée par un fait que je crois décisif. Dans la langue syriaque ecclésiastique, le mot armoïo, ܐܪܡܝܐ, qui ne diffère du nom ancien, ormoïo, ܐܪܡܝܐ, que par une seule voyelle, désigne un païen, un idolâtre. Ainsi s'intrôduisit le nom de Sourioïo, Syrien. Quant à la dénomination Orom, Aram, ou le pays des Araméens, elle fut appliquée de préférence à la contrée que les Grecs et les Latins appelaient Assyrie.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+asiatique&rft.atitle=M%C3%A9moire+Sur+Les+Nabat%C3%A9ens&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E122-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=1835&rft.aulast=Quatrem%C3%A8re&rft.aufirst=%C3%89tienne+Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC9CfsXJEvRsC%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Genesis#10:22" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Genesis">Genesis 10:22</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Genesis#22:21" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Genesis">Genesis 22:21</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/1_Chronicles#7:34" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/1 Chronicles">1 Chronicles 7:34</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aram-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aram_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180929233320/http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch03-hyk2.htm">"The name Aram in the Bible"</a>. <i>Abarim Publications</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Aram.html">the original</a> on 29 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Abarim+Publications&rft.atitle=The+name+Aram+in+the+Bible&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abarim-publications.com%2FMeaning%2FAram.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye1992281–85-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye1992281–85_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrye1992">Frye 1992</a>, pp. 281–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye199730–36-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrye199730–36_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrye1997">Frye 1997</a>, pp. 30–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biblehub.com/hebrew/804.htm">"Strong's Hebrew: 804. אַשּׁוּר (Ashshuwr) – Asshur"</a>. <i>biblehub.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=biblehub.com&rft.atitle=Strong%27s+Hebrew%3A+804.+%D7%90%D6%B7%D7%A9%D6%BC%D7%81%D7%95%D6%BC%D7%A8+%28Ashshuwr%29+%E2%80%93+Asshur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiblehub.com%2Fhebrew%2F804.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.assyrianlanguages.org/akkadian/dosearch.php?searchkey=1505&language=id">"Search Entry"</a>. <i>www.assyrianlanguages.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.assyrianlanguages.org&rft.atitle=Search+Entry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.assyrianlanguages.org%2Fakkadian%2Fdosearch.php%3Fsearchkey%3D1505%26language%3Did&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKöstenberger2009350-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKöstenberger2009350_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKöstenberger2009">Köstenberger 2009</a>, p. 350.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamp20054-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamp20054_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHamp2005">Hamp 2005</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButhPierce2014107–109-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButhPierce2014107–109_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFButhPierce2014">Buth & Pierce 2014</a>, pp. 107–109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKautzsch1884" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emil_Friedrich_Kautzsch" title="Emil Friedrich Kautzsch">Kautzsch, Emil Friedrich</a> (1884). "The Aramaic Language". <i>Hebraica</i>. <b>1</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">98–</span>115. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368803">10.1086/368803</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/527111">527111</a>. <q>The author of Daniel uses the word as a title for the members of the Babylonian guild of priests, as already Herodotus regards oi Xardalot as a designation of the priests of Baal, and the name was subsequently the customary one for the Magians, Astrologers, Soothsayers, etc., of the East. Jerome, however, and those who followed him, confused therewith the use of o'yu, as name of the people; and since, in Dan. II., 4, the "Chaldeans" speak Aramaic, so "Chaldaic" and "Aramaic" were held to be identical. And the matter has stood thus in the "Chaldee grammars" and the "Hebrew and Chaldee lexicons," in spite of all protests,3 up to this day. [Footnote 3: Cf. already Schloezer in Eichhorn's Repertorium, viii. (1781), p. 118 sq.; the correct distinction of East-Aramaic (Syriac) and West-Aramaic (Biblical Aramaic and the language of the Targums) was expressly drawn again by Geiger ZDMG, xviii., 654, and Noeldeke, ibid. xxi., 183 sq,, and particularly xxv., 113 sq. (die Namen der aram. Nation und Sprache.)]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hebraica&rft.atitle=The+Aramaic+Language&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E98-%3C%2Fspan%3E115&rft.date=1884&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F368803&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F527111%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kautzsch&rft.aufirst=Emil+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110202213512/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/countries/centralassyria/">"Central Assyria, the lands between Assur, Nineveh and Arbela"</a>. <i>Assyrian empire builders</i>. 2011-02-02. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/countries/centralassyria/">the original</a> on 2 February 2011. <q>The heartland of Assyria is demarcated by the city of Assur (modern Qala'at Sherqat) in the south, by Nineveh (modern Mosul with the ruin mounds Kuyunjik and Nebi Yunus) in the north and by Arbela (modern Erbil) in the east.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Assyrian+empire+builders&rft.atitle=Central+Assyria%2C+the+lands+between+Assur%2C+Nineveh+and+Arbela&rft.date=2011-02-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2Fsargon%2Fessentials%2Fcountries%2Fcentralassyria%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreck2012416–24-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreck2012416–24_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStreck2012">Streck 2012</a>, pp. 416–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeninger2012747–55-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeninger2012747–55_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeninger2012747–55_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeninger2012747–55_82-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeninger2012">Weninger 2012</a>, pp. 747–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapeliuk2012738–47-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapeliuk2012738–47_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapeliuk2012">Kapeliuk 2012</a>, pp. 738–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChyet1997283–300-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChyet1997283–300_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChyet1997">Chyet 1997</a>, pp. 283–300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The last of the Aramaic speakers", Miriam Shaviv, 14 July 2013, <i>Times of Israel</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpost.com/Christian-News/Aramaic-Israelis-seek-to-revive-endangered-language-of-Jesus-381229">"Aramaic Israelis seek to revive endangered language of Jesus"</a>. <i>The Jerusalem Post</i>. 9 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post&rft.atitle=Aramaic+Israelis+seek+to+revive+endangered+language+of+Jesus&rft.date=2014-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2FChristian-News%2FAramaic-Israelis-seek-to-revive-endangered-language-of-Jesus-381229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKutscher2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kutscher, Eduard (2007). "Aramaic". In Berenbaum, Michael; Skolnik, Fred (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a></i>. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 342. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865928-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865928-2"><bdi>978-0-02-865928-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaic&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.place=Detroit&rft.pages=342&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865928-2&rft.aulast=Kutscher&rft.aufirst=Eduard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzmyer199757–60-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzmyer199757–60_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzmyer1997">Fitzmyer 1997</a>, pp. 57–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella201547–48-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella201547–48_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2015">Gzella 2015</a>, pp. 47–48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButts2019222–25-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButts2019222–25_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFButts2019">Butts 2019</a>, pp. 222–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer1986-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer1986_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeyer1986">Beyer 1986</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzmyer199760–63-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzmyer199760–63_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzmyer1997">Fitzmyer 1997</a>, pp. 60–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEButts2019224–25-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEButts2019224–25_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFButts2019">Butts 2019</a>, pp. 224–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYounger1986" class="citation web cs1">Younger, K. Lawson Jr. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002734/http://www.jtsa.edu/Documents/pagedocs/JANES/1986%2018/Younger18.pdf">"Panammuwa and Bar-Rakib: Two Structural Analyses"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jtsa.edu/Documents/pagedocs/JANES/1986%2018/Younger18.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Panammuwa+and+Bar-Rakib%3A+Two+Structural+Analyses&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Younger&rft.aufirst=K.+Lawson+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jtsa.edu%2FDocuments%2Fpagedocs%2FJANES%2F1986%252018%2FYounger18.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOwens2013" class="citation book cs1">Owens, Jonathan (12 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dVUiAAAAQBAJ&dq=mount+lebanon+western+aramaic+arnold&pg=PA347"><i>Arabic as a Minority Language</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110805451" title="Special:BookSources/9783110805451"><bdi>9783110805451</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabic+as+a+Minority+Language&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2013-03-12&rft.isbn=9783110805451&rft.aulast=Owens&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdVUiAAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dmount%2Blebanon%2Bwestern%2Baramaic%2Barnold%26pg%3DPA347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2012685–96-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold2012685–96_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold2012685–96_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold2012">Arnold 2012</a>, pp. 685–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer198611-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer198611_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeyer1986">Beyer 1986</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeinrichs1990x-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeinrichs1990x_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeinrichs1990">Heinrichs 1990</a>, p. x.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFales2012555–73-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFales2012555–73_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFales2012">Fales 2012</a>, pp. 555–73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer198614-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer198614_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeyer1986">Beyer 1986</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2012a574–86-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2012a574–86_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2012a">Gzella 2012a</a>, pp. 574–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2012b598–609-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2012b598–609_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2012b">Gzella 2012b</a>, pp. 598–609.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShaked1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Shaked, Saul (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aramaic-">"Aramaic"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. <span class="nowrap">251–</span>52<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaic&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E251-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Shaked&rft.aufirst=Saul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Faramaic-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFryeDriver1955" class="citation journal cs1">Frye, Richard N.; Driver, G. R. (1955). "Review of G. R. Driver's 'Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B. C.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies</i>. <b>18</b> (3/4): 457. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2718444">10.2307/2718444</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718444">2718444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Asiatic+Studies&rft.atitle=Review+of+G.+R.+Driver%27s+%27Aramaic+Documents+of+the+Fifth+Century+B.+C.%27&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=457&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2718444&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2718444%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Frye&rft.aufirst=Richard+N.&rft.au=Driver%2C+G.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGeigerKuhn2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Geiger" title="Wilhelm Geiger">Geiger, Wilhelm</a>; Kuhn, Ernst (25 March 2002). <i>Grundriss der iranischen Philologie: Band I. Abteilung 1</i> [<i>Outline of the Iranian Philology: Volume 1. Division 1.</i>] (in German). Boston: Adamant Media Corporation. p. 249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1421246864" title="Special:BookSources/978-1421246864"><bdi>978-1421246864</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grundriss+der+iranischen+Philologie%3A+Band+I.+Abteilung+1&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=249&rft.pub=Adamant+Media+Corporation&rft.date=2002-03-25&rft.isbn=978-1421246864&rft.aulast=Geiger&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm&rft.au=Kuhn%2C+Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStolper2007" class="citation journal cs1">Stolper, John A. Matthew (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://persepolistablets.blogspot.com/2007/01/what-are-persepolis-fortication.html">"What are the Persepolis Fortification Tablets?"</a>. <i>The Oriental Studies News & Notes</i> (winter): <span class="nowrap">6–</span>9<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Oriental+Studies+News+%26+Notes&rft.atitle=What+are+the+Persepolis+Fortification+Tablets%3F&rft.issue=winter&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Stolper&rft.aufirst=John+A.+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpersepolistablets.blogspot.com%2F2007%2F01%2Fwhat-are-persepolis-fortication.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins1993710–12-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins1993710–12_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCollins1993">Collins 1993</a>, pp. 710–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNavehShaked2006" class="citation book cs1">Naveh, Joseph; Shaked, Shaul (2006). <i>Ancient Aramaic Documents from Bactria</i>. Studies in the Khalili Collection. Oxford: Khalili Collections. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1874780749" title="Special:BookSources/1874780749"><bdi>1874780749</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Aramaic+Documents+from+Bactria&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Studies+in+the+Khalili+Collection&rft.pub=Khalili+Collections&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1874780749&rft.aulast=Naveh&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Shaked%2C+Shaul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezra+4:8–6:18&version=nkjv">4:8–6:18</a> and <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Ezra#7:12" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Ezra">7:12–26</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Daniel+2:4–7:28&version=nkjv">2:4b–7:28</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHasel1981211–25-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHasel1981211–25_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHasel1981">Hasel 1981</a>, pp. 211–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%2031:47&version=nrsv">31:47</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallagher2012123–41-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallagher2012123–41_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGallagher2012">Gallagher 2012</a>, pp. 123–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENöldeke1871113–31-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENöldeke1871113–31_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNöldeke1871">Nöldeke 1871</a>, pp. 113–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKautzsch1884a17–21-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKautzsch1884a17–21_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKautzsch1884a">Kautzsch 1884a</a>, pp. 17–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKautzsch1884b110–13-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKautzsch1884b110–13_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKautzsch1884b">Kautzsch 1884b</a>, pp. 110–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGzella2015212–17-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGzella2015212–17_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGzella2015">Gzella 2015</a>, pp. 212–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeyer198628-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeyer198628_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeyer1986">Beyer 1986</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWiesehöfer2001" class="citation book cs1">Wiesehöfer, Josef (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yFocMaM49SgC"><i>Ancient Persia</i></a>. Translated by Azodi, Azizeh. I.B. Taurus. pp. <span class="nowrap">118–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781860646751" title="Special:BookSources/9781860646751"><bdi>9781860646751</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Persia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E118-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.pub=I.B.+Taurus&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9781860646751&rft.aulast=Wieseh%C3%B6fer&rft.aufirst=Josef&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyFocMaM49SgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVeyne2018" class="citation book cs1">Veyne, Paul (5 October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dPglEAAAQBAJ&dq=%C2%A0palmyra+aramean+arabs+greek&pg=PA60"><i>Palmyra: An Irreplaceable Treasure</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226600055" title="Special:BookSources/9780226600055"><bdi>9780226600055</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palmyra%3A+An+Irreplaceable+Treasure&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2018-10-05&rft.isbn=9780226600055&rft.aulast=Veyne&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdPglEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%25C2%25A0palmyra%2Baramean%2Barabs%2Bgreek%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFButts2015" class="citation book cs1">Butts, Aaron (29 September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lai8CgAAQBAJ&dq=assyrian+hatran+aramaic&pg=PA126"><i>Semitic Languages in Contact</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004300156" title="Special:BookSources/9789004300156"><bdi>9789004300156</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semitic+Languages+in+Contact&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2015-09-29&rft.isbn=9789004300156&rft.aulast=Butts&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLai8CgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dassyrian%2Bhatran%2Baramaic%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNicholson2018" class="citation book cs1">Nicholson, Oliver (19 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A09WDwAAQBAJ&dq=tatian+from+adiabene&pg=PA14"><i>The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-256246-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-256246-3"><bdi>978-0-19-256246-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018-04-19&rft.isbn=978-0-19-256246-3&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA09WDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dtatian%2Bfrom%2Badiabene%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHäberl2006" class="citation journal cs1">Häberl, Charles G. (February 2006). "Iranian Scripts for Aramaic Languages: The Origin of the Mandaic Script". <i>Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research</i> (341): <span class="nowrap">53–</span>62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7282%2FT37D2SGZ">10.7282/T37D2SGZ</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25066933">25066933</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Schools+of+Oriental+Research&rft.atitle=Iranian+Scripts+for+Aramaic+Languages%3A+The+Origin+of+the+Mandaic+Script&rft.issue=341&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E53-%3C%2Fspan%3E62&rft.date=2006-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7282%2FT37D2SGZ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25066933%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=H%C3%A4berl&rft.aufirst=Charles+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAllen_C._Myers1987" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Allen C. Myers, ed. (1987). "Aramaic". <i>The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary</i>. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-2402-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-2402-1"><bdi>0-8028-2402-1</bdi></a>. <q>It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaic&rft.btitle=The+Eerdmans+Bible+Dictionary&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+MI&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-8028-2402-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFitzmyer19805–21-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFitzmyer19805–21_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFitzmyer1980">Fitzmyer 1980</a>, pp. 5–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bibleverse|Mark|5:41|KJV-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bibleverse|Mark|5:41|KJV_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bibleverse|Mark|5:41|KJV_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Mark#5:41" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Mark">Mark 5:41</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/John#20:16" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/John">John 20:16</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Mark#7:34" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Mark">Mark 7:34</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Mark#15:34" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Mark">Mark 15:34</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDarling2004" class="citation news cs1">Darling, Cary (25 February 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040403223353/http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/entertainment/special_packages/passion_of_christ/8038021.htm">"What's up with Aramaic?"</a>. <i>Miami Herald</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/entertainment/special_packages/passion_of_christ/8038021.htm">the original</a> on 3 April 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Miami+Herald&rft.atitle=What%27s+up+with+Aramaic%3F&rft.date=2004-02-25&rft.aulast=Darling&rft.aufirst=Cary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.miami.com%2Fmld%2Fmiamiherald%2Fentertainment%2Fspecial_packages%2Fpassion_of_christ%2F8038021.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcNamara2011" class="citation book cs1">McNamara, Martin (2011). <i>Targum and New Testament</i>. Mohr Siebeck. p. 186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783161508363" title="Special:BookSources/9783161508363"><bdi>9783161508363</bdi></a>. <q>a) Old Aramaic from the beginning (through Biblical Aramaic, Nabataean, Palmyrene) down to the established eastern and western branches; b) Middle Aramaic, with two branches, eastern and western; c) Late Aramaic, with the contemporary western (Ma'alula) and eastern branches. This older terminology is still followed by M. Sokoloff in his recent work, A Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period.'1 A different division, now widely accepted, has been put forward by J. A. Fitzmyer.2 It is as follows: a) Old Aramaic, up to 700 B.C.E.; b) Official Aramaic, 700-300 .c.E.; c) Middle Aramaic, 300 ..E.-200 c.E.; d) Late Aramaic (= Middle Aramaic of Rosenthal's division), with two branches: the eastern branch consisting of Syriac, Mandaic, the Aramaic of the Talmud Babli, the Gaonic Literature and incantation texts found mainly in Nippur; and the western, consisting of Samaritan Aramaic, Christian Palestinian Aramaic, Galilean Aramaic (which some, for example Sokoloff, prefer to call Jewish Palestinian Aramaic) found in the Aramaic portions of the Palestinian Talmud and haggadic midrashim and other sources; e) Modern Aramaic (in its eastern and western [Ma'alula] dialects).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Targum+and+New+Testament&rft.pages=186&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9783161508363&rft.aulast=McNamara&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSebastian_Brock2021" class="citation web cs1">Sebastian Brock (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://syriacpress.com/blog/2021/08/08/the-place-of-syriac-among-the-aramaic-dialects-2/">"The place of Syriac among the Aramaic dialects 2"</a>. SyriacPress dot com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+place+of+Syriac+among+the+Aramaic+dialects+2&rft.pub=SyriacPress+dot+com&rft.date=2021&rft.au=Sebastian+Brock&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsyriacpress.com%2Fblog%2F2021%2F08%2F08%2Fthe-place-of-syriac-among-the-aramaic-dialects-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHealey2012637–52-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHealey2012637–52_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHealey2012">Healey 2012</a>, pp. 637–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBriquel-Chatonnet2012652–59-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriquel-Chatonnet2012652–59_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBriquel-Chatonnet2012">Briquel-Chatonnet 2012</a>, pp. 652–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESokoloff2012b660–70-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESokoloff2012b660–70_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSokoloff2012b">Sokoloff 2012b</a>, pp. 660–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFReynolds2007" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds, Gabriel Said (28 September 2007). <i>The Qur'an in Its Historical Context</i>. Routledge. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134109456" title="Special:BookSources/9781134109456"><bdi>9781134109456</bdi></a>. <q>…. Palestinian Aramaic also began to be written for the first time (Coptic was written in an adapted Greek script and Palestinian Aramaic in a modified Estrangelo….</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Qur%27an+in+Its+Historical+Context&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007-09-28&rft.isbn=9781134109456&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Gabriel+Said&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESokoloff2012a610–19-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESokoloff2012a610–19_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSokoloff2012a">Sokoloff 2012a</a>, pp. 610–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Arabic in Context</i>. Brill. 6 June 2017. p. 338. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004343047" title="Special:BookSources/9789004343047"><bdi>9789004343047</bdi></a>. <q>For the Aramaic-speaking Christian communities of Sinai, Palestine or Trans-Jordan, Christian Palestinian Aramaic was the dominant language in local churches; for Syria and Mesopotamia, it was rather Syriac.…</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabic+in+Context&rft.pages=338&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2017-06-06&rft.isbn=9789004343047&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArman_Akopian2017" class="citation book cs1">Arman Akopian (11 December 2017). "Other branches of Syriac Christianity: Melkites and Maronites". <i>Introduction to Aramean and Syriac Studies</i>. Gorgias Press. p. 573. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781463238933" title="Special:BookSources/9781463238933"><bdi>9781463238933</bdi></a>. <q>The main center of Aramaic-speaking Melkites was Palestine. During the 5th-6th centuries, they were engaged in literary, mainly translation work in the local Western Aramaic dialect, known as "Palestinian Christian Aramaic", using a script closely resembling the cursive Estrangela of Osrhoene. Palestinian Melkites were mostly Jewish converts to Christianity, who had a long tradition of using Palestinian Aramaic dialects as literary languages. Closely associated with the Palestinian Melkites were the Melkites of Transjordan, who also used Palestinian Christian Aramaic. Another community of Aramaic-speaking Melkites existed in the vicinity of Antioch and parts of Syria. These Melkites used Classical Syriac as a written language, the common literary language of the overwhelming majority of Christian Arameans.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Other+branches+of+Syriac+Christianity%3A+Melkites+and+Maronites&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Aramean+and+Syriac+Studies&rft.pages=573&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press&rft.date=2017-12-11&rft.isbn=9781463238933&rft.au=Arman+Akopian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgenstern2012628–37-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgenstern2012628–37_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorgenstern2012">Morgenstern 2012</a>, pp. 628–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-El-Badawi2013-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-El-Badawi2013_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEmran_El-Badawi2013" class="citation book cs1">Emran El-Badawi (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iIhiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA35"><i>The Qur'an and the Aramaic Gospel Traditions</i></a>. Routledge. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317929338" title="Special:BookSources/9781317929338"><bdi>9781317929338</bdi></a>. <q>However, what truly distinguishes the CPA Gospels from the Syriac ones is the strong influence that Greek Biblical tradi- tions had upon it. This is evident, for example, in the syntax of the Gospel passages and even in the spelling of proper nouns, both of which duplicate the Greek Gospels. Therefore, unlike Syriac where "Jesus" is spelled īšū', in CPA it is spelled īsūs.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Qur%27an+and+the+Aramaic+Gospel+Traditions&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781317929338&rft.au=Emran+El-Badawi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiIhiAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurre_van_den_Berg1999-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurre_van_den_Berg1999_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMurre_van_den_Berg1999">Murre van den Berg 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhan2012708–24-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhan2012708–24_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKhan2012">Khan 2012</a>, pp. 708–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJastrow2012697–707-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJastrow2012697–707_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJastrow2012">Jastrow 2012</a>, pp. 697–707.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aymennjawad.org/2020/01/the-village-of-bakha-in-qalamoun-interview">"The Village of Bakh'a in Qalamoun: Interview"</a>. 26 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Village+of+Bakh%27a+in+Qalamoun%3A+Interview&rft.date=2020-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aymennjawad.org%2F2020%2F01%2Fthe-village-of-bakha-in-qalamoun-interview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFC._Müller-Kessler1997" class="citation book cs1">C. Müller-Kessler (1 January 1997). <i>The Christian Palestinian Aramaic Old Testament and Apocrypha Version from the Early Period</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-66979-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-66979-6"><bdi>978-90-04-66979-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Christian+Palestinian+Aramaic+Old+Testament+and+Apocrypha+Version+from+the+Early+Period&rft.date=1997-01-01&rft.isbn=978-90-04-66979-6&rft.au=C.+M%C3%BCller-Kessler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChrista_Müller-KesslerMichael_Sokoloff" class="citation book cs1">Christa Müller-Kessler; Michael Sokoloff. <i>The Christian Palestinian Aramaic New Testament Version from the Early Period</i>. STYX Publication.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Christian+Palestinian+Aramaic+New+Testament+Version+from+the+Early+Period&rft.pub=STYX+Publication&rft.au=Christa+M%C3%BCller-Kessler&rft.au=Michael+Sokoloff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rinyo.org/bible">"Classical Syriac"</a>. <i>rinyo.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=rinyo.org&rft.atitle=Classical+Syriac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frinyo.org%2Fbible&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biblehub.com/hebrew/2091.htm">"Strong's Hebrew: 2091. זָהָב (zahab) – gold"</a>. <i>biblehub.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=biblehub.com&rft.atitle=Strong%27s+Hebrew%3A+2091.+%D7%96%D6%B8%D7%94%D6%B8%D7%91+%28zahab%29+%E2%80%93+gold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiblehub.com%2Fhebrew%2F2091.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biblehub.com/hebrew/1722.htm">"Strong's Hebrew: 1722. דְּהַב (dehab) – gold"</a>. <i>biblehub.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=biblehub.com&rft.atitle=Strong%27s+Hebrew%3A+1722.+%D7%93%D6%B0%D6%BC%D7%94%D6%B7%D7%91+%28dehab%29+%E2%80%93+gold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiblehub.com%2Fhebrew%2F1722.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also <span title="Classical Syriac-language text"><span lang="syc" dir="rtl">ܐܪܡܝܐ, ܐܪܐܡܝܬܐ</span></span>. The form <i>arāmāyā</i> is less common in classical texts, but may be found (for example) in the <i><a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Treasures" title="Cave of Treasures">Cave of Treasures</a></i> (ed. Su-Min Ri) XXIV:10 and in <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a> (ed. Cureton) p. 4 (Syriac pagination) line 10. See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPayne_Smith1879" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Payne_Smith" title="Robert Payne Smith">Payne Smith, R.</a> (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/syriacusthesaur01paynuoft"><i>Thesaurus Syriacus</i></a>. Vol. 1. Clarendon. p. 387.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thesaurus+Syriacus&rft.pages=387&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Payne+Smith&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsyriacusthesaur01paynuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span> and in English at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPayne_Smith1903" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Payne_Margoliouth" title="Jessie Payne Margoliouth">Payne Smith, J.</a> (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yn4RHiQz3dAC"><i>A Compendious Syriac Dictionary: Founded Upon the Thesaurus Syriacus of R. Payne Smith</i></a>. Clarendon. pp. 29, 242.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Compendious+Syriac+Dictionary%3A+Founded+Upon+the+Thesaurus+Syriacus+of+R.+Payne+Smith&rft.pages=29%2C+242&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Payne+Smith&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dyn4RHiQz3dAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndrade2013" class="citation book cs1">Andrade, Nathanael J. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4ROhAQAAQBAJ"><i>Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World</i></a>. 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Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">670–</span>85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mandaic&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E670-%3C%2Fspan%3E85&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Burtea&rft.aufirst=Bogdan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFButh2014" class="citation book cs1">Buth, Randall (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F5QXAwAAQBAJ">"The Riddle of Jesus' Cry from the Cross: The Meaning of ηλι ηλι λαμα σαβαχθανι (Matthew 27:46) and the Literary Function of ελωι ελωι λειμα σαβαχθανι (Mark 15:34)"</a>. 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Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">66–</span>109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004264410" title="Special:BookSources/9789004264410"><bdi>9789004264410</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hebraisti+in+Ancient+Texts%3A+Does+%E1%BC%91%CE%B2%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%8A%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AF+Ever+Mean+%27Aramaic%27%3F&rft.btitle=The+Language+Environment+of+1st+Century+Judea+Vol.+2&rft.place=Leiden-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E66-%3C%2Fspan%3E109&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004264410&rft.aulast=Buth&rft.aufirst=Randall&rft.au=Pierce%2C+Chad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF5QXAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFButts2019" class="citation book cs1">Butts, Aaron M. 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Fitzmyer">Fitzmyer, Joseph A.</a> (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3265697">"The Aramaic Language and the Study of the New Testament"</a>. <i>Journal of Biblical Literature</i>. <b>99</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">5–</span>21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3265697">10.2307/3265697</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3265697">3265697</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.atitle=The+Aramaic+Language+and+the+Study+of+the+New+Testament&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3265697&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3265697%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Fitzmyer&rft.aufirst=Joseph+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3265697&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFitzmyer1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_A._Fitzmyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph A. 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Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802848468" title="Special:BookSources/9780802848468"><bdi>9780802848468</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Wandering+Aramean%3A+Collected+Aramaic+Essays&rft.place=Grand+Rapids&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780802848468&rft.aulast=Fitzmyer&rft.aufirst=Joseph+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-wLWRz22vzUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFolmer1995" class="citation book cs1">Folmer, Margaretha (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7-m1R072Ks0C"><i>The Aramaic Language in the Achaemenid Period: A Study in Linguistic Variation</i></a>. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789068317404" title="Special:BookSources/9789068317404"><bdi>9789068317404</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aramaic+Language+in+the+Achaemenid+Period%3A+A+Study+in+Linguistic+Variation&rft.place=Leuven&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9789068317404&rft.aulast=Folmer&rft.aufirst=Margaretha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7-m1R072Ks0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFolmer2012" class="citation book cs1">Folmer, Margaretha (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Imperial Aramaic as an Administrative Language of the Achaemenid Period"</a>. <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">587–</span>98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imperial+Aramaic+as+an+Administrative+Language+of+the+Achaemenid+Period&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E587-%3C%2Fspan%3E98&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Folmer&rft.aufirst=Margaretha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrye1992" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_N._Frye" title="Richard N. 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Gallagher">Gallagher, Edmon L.</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aWkyAQAAQBAJ"><i>Hebrew Scripture in Patristic Biblical Theory: Canon, Language, Text</i></a>. Leiden-Boston: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004228023" title="Special:BookSources/9789004228023"><bdi>9789004228023</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hebrew+Scripture+in+Patristic+Biblical+Theory%3A+Canon%2C+Language%2C+Text&rft.place=Leiden-Boston&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789004228023&rft.aulast=Gallagher&rft.aufirst=Edmon+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaWkyAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGianto2008" class="citation book cs1">Gianto, Agustinus (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC">"Lost and Found in the Grammar of First-Millennium Aramaic"</a>. <i>Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting</i>. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">698–</span>713. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521200912" title="Special:BookSources/9780521200912"><bdi>9780521200912</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaic+in+the+Achaemenian+Empire&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E698-%3C%2Fspan%3E713&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780521200912&rft.aulast=Greenfield&rft.aufirst=Jonas+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBBbyr932QdYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGreenfield1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonas_C._Greenfield" title="Jonas C. 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New York: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922194-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922194-3"><bdi>978-0-19-922194-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaic+and+the+Jews&rft.btitle=Studia+Aramaica%3A+New+Sources+and+New+Approaches&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-922194-3&rft.aulast=Greenfield&rft.aufirst=Jonas+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGzella2008" class="citation book cs1">Gzella, Holger (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC">"Aramaic in the Parthian Period: The Arsacid Inscriptions"</a>. <i>Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. <span class="nowrap">107–</span>30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447057875" title="Special:BookSources/9783447057875"><bdi>9783447057875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaic+in+the+Parthian+Period%3A+The+Arsacid+Inscriptions&rft.btitle=Aramaic+in+its+Historical+and+Linguistic+Setting&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E107-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9783447057875&rft.aulast=Gzella&rft.aufirst=Holger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtfVZnCV6ABcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGzella2012a" class="citation book cs1">Gzella, Holger (2012a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Imperial Aramaic"</a>. <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">574–</span>86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imperial+Aramaic&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E574-%3C%2Fspan%3E86&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Gzella&rft.aufirst=Holger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGzella2012b" class="citation book cs1">Gzella, Holger (2012b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Late Imperial Aramaic"</a>. <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">598–</span>609. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Late+Imperial+Aramaic&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E598-%3C%2Fspan%3E609&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Gzella&rft.aufirst=Holger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGzella2015" class="citation book cs1">Gzella, Holger (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y9UuBgAAQBAJ"><i>A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam</i></a>. Leiden-Boston: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004285101" title="Special:BookSources/9789004285101"><bdi>9789004285101</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+of+Aramaic%3A+From+the+Beginnings+to+the+Advent+of+Islam&rft.place=Leiden-Boston&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9789004285101&rft.aulast=Gzella&rft.aufirst=Holger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy9UuBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGzella2017" class="citation book cs1">Gzella, Holger (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/34042986">"New Light on Linguistic Diversity in Pre-Achaemenid Aramaic: Wandering Arameans or Language Spread?"</a>. <i>Wandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives</i>. 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Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">725–</span>37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neo-Mandaic&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E725-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=H%C3%A4berl&rft.aufirst=Charles+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHamp2005" class="citation book cs1">Hamp, Douglas (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=12KTD95EhQcC&pg=PA4"><i>Discovering the Language of Jesus: Hebrew Or Aramaic?</i></a>. Calvary Chapel Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597510172" title="Special:BookSources/9781597510172"><bdi>9781597510172</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discovering+the+Language+of+Jesus%3A+Hebrew+Or+Aramaic%3F&rft.pub=Calvary+Chapel+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781597510172&rft.aulast=Hamp&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D12KTD95EhQcC%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHasel1981" class="citation journal cs1">Hasel, Gerhard F. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1544&context=auss">"The Book of Daniel and Matters of Language: Evidences Relating to Names, Words, and the Aramaic Language"</a>. <i>Andrews University Seminary Studies</i>. <b>19</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">211–</span>25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Andrews+University+Seminary+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Book+of+Daniel+and+Matters+of+Language%3A+Evidences+Relating+to+Names%2C+Words%2C+and+the+Aramaic+Language&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E211-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Hasel&rft.aufirst=Gerhard+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.andrews.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1544%26context%3Dauss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHealey1980" class="citation book cs1">Healey, John F. 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(2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol10/HV10N2Healey.pdf">"The Edessan Milieu and the Birth of Syriac"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies</i>. <b>10</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">115–</span>27. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol10/HV10N2Healey.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hugoye%3A+Journal+of+Syriac+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Edessan+Milieu+and+the+Birth+of+Syriac&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E115-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fraw.githubusercontent.com%2FBeth-Mardutho%2Fhugoye-data%2Fmaster%2Fpdf%2Fvol10%2FHV10N2Healey.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHealey2008" class="citation book cs1">Healey, John F. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC">"Variety in Early Syriac: The Context in Contemporary Aramaic"</a>. <i>Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. <span class="nowrap">221–</span>29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447057875" title="Special:BookSources/9783447057875"><bdi>9783447057875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Variety+in+Early+Syriac%3A+The+Context+in+Contemporary+Aramaic&rft.btitle=Aramaic+in+Its+Historical+and+Linguistic+Setting&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E221-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9783447057875&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtfVZnCV6ABcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHealey2012" class="citation book cs1">Healey, John F. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Syriac"</a>. <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">637–</span>52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syriac&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E637-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHealey2019" class="citation book cs1">Healey, John F. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=39nPxgEACAAJ">"Arameans and Aramaic in Transition – Western Influences and the Roots of Aramean Christianity"</a>. <i>Research on Israel and Aram: Autonomy, Independence and Related Issues</i>. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. <span class="nowrap">433–</span>46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783161577192" title="Special:BookSources/9783161577192"><bdi>9783161577192</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arameans+and+Aramaic+in+Transition+%E2%80%93+Western+Influences+and+the+Roots+of+Aramean+Christianity&rft.btitle=Research+on+Israel+and+Aram%3A+Autonomy%2C+Independence+and+Related+Issues&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E433-%3C%2Fspan%3E46&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9783161577192&rft.aulast=Healey&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D39nPxgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHeinrichs1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, Wolfhart</a>, ed. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3n0OAAAAYAAJ"><i>Studies in Neo-Aramaic</i></a>. Atlanta: Scholars Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781555404307" title="Special:BookSources/9781555404307"><bdi>9781555404307</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Neo-Aramaic&rft.place=Atlanta&rft.pub=Scholars+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9781555404307&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3n0OAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJastrow2008" class="citation book cs1">Jastrow, Otto (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC">"Old Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic: Some Reflections on Language History"</a>. <i>Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447057875" title="Special:BookSources/9783447057875"><bdi>9783447057875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Old+Aramaic+and+Neo-Aramaic%3A+Some+Reflections+on+Language+History&rft.btitle=Aramaic+in+its+Historical+and+Linguistic+Setting&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9783447057875&rft.aulast=Jastrow&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtfVZnCV6ABcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJastrow2012" class="citation book cs1">Jastrow, Otto (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Ṭuroyo and Mlaḥsô"</a>. <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">697–</span>707. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%B9%ACuroyo+and+Mla%E1%B8%A5s%C3%B4&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E697-%3C%2Fspan%3E707&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Jastrow&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJoosten2008" class="citation book cs1">Joosten, Jan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC">"The Septuagint as a Source of Information on Egyptian Aramaic in the Hellenistic Period"</a>. <i>Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. <span class="nowrap">93–</span>105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447057875" title="Special:BookSources/9783447057875"><bdi>9783447057875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Septuagint+as+a+Source+of+Information+on+Egyptian+Aramaic+in+the+Hellenistic+Period&rft.btitle=Aramaic+in+its+Historical+and+Linguistic+Setting&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E93-%3C%2Fspan%3E105&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9783447057875&rft.aulast=Joosten&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtfVZnCV6ABcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJoosten2010" class="citation journal cs1">Joosten, Jan (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/33401126">"The Aramaic Background of the Seventy: Language, Culture and History"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies</i>. <b>43</b>: <span class="nowrap">53–</span>72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+International+Organization+for+Septuagint+and+Cognate+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Aramaic+Background+of+the+Seventy%3A+Language%2C+Culture+and+History&rft.volume=43&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E53-%3C%2Fspan%3E72&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Joosten&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F33401126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKautzsch1884a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emil_Friedrich_Kautzsch" title="Emil Friedrich Kautzsch">Kautzsch, Emil F.</a> (1884a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OU09AAAAYAAJ"><i>Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramäischen: Mit einer Kritischen Erörterung der aramäischen Wörter im Neuen Testament</i></a>. Leipzig: Vogel.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammatik+des+Biblisch-Aram%C3%A4ischen%3A+Mit+einer+Kritischen+Er%C3%B6rterung+der+aram%C3%A4ischen+W%C3%B6rter+im+Neuen+Testament&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Vogel&rft.date=1884&rft.aulast=Kautzsch&rft.aufirst=Emil+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOU09AAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKautzsch1884b" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emil_Friedrich_Kautzsch" title="Emil Friedrich Kautzsch">Kautzsch, Emil F.</a> (1884b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/527111">"The Aramaic Language"</a>. <i>Hebraica</i>. <b>1</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">98–</span>115. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368803">10.1086/368803</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/527111">527111</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hebraica&rft.atitle=The+Aramaic+Language&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E98-%3C%2Fspan%3E115&rft.date=1884&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F368803&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F527111%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kautzsch&rft.aufirst=Emil+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F527111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKapeliuk2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Olga_Kapeliuk" title="Olga Kapeliuk">Kapeliuk, Olga</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Language Contact between Aramaic Dialects and Iranian"</a>. <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">738–</span>47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+Contact+between+Aramaic+Dialects+and+Iranian&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E738-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Kapeliuk&rft.aufirst=Olga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKhan2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Khan" title="Geoffrey Khan">Khan, Geoffrey</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190802015917/http://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf">"Aramaic in the Medieval and Modern Periods"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Languages of Iraq: Ancient and Modern</i>. Cambridge: The British School of Archaeology in Iraq. pp. <span class="nowrap">95–</span>114. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2019-08-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">708–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=North-Eastern+Neo-Aramaic&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E708-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Khan&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKim2008" class="citation journal cs1">Kim, Ronald (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/23883016">"Stammbaum or Continuum? 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London: Tyndale Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">31–</span>79. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/daniel_kitchen.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Aramaic+of+Daniel&rft.btitle=Notes+on+Some+Problems+in+the+Book+of+Daniel&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E79&rft.pub=Tyndale+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Kitchen&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblicalstudies.org.uk%2Fpdf%2Fdaniel_kitchen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKöstenberger2009" class="citation book cs1">Köstenberger, Andreas J. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pYkn5RbltmwC&pg=PA350">"Translating John's Gospel: Challenges and Opportunities"</a>. In Scorgie, Glen G.; Strauss, Mark L.; Voth, Steven M. (eds.). <i>The Challenge of Bible Translation: Communicating God's Word to the World</i>. Zondervan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0310321859" title="Special:BookSources/978-0310321859"><bdi>978-0310321859</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Translating+John%27s+Gospel%3A+Challenges+and+Opportunities&rft.btitle=The+Challenge+of+Bible+Translation%3A+Communicating+God%27s+Word+to+the+World&rft.pub=Zondervan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0310321859&rft.aulast=K%C3%B6stenberger&rft.aufirst=Andreas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpYkn5RbltmwC%26pg%3DPA350&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLemaire2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Lemaire" title="André Lemaire">Lemaire, André</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC">"Remarks on the Aramaic of Upper Mesopotamia in the Seventh Century B.C."</a>. <i>Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. <span class="nowrap">77–</span>92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447057875" title="Special:BookSources/9783447057875"><bdi>9783447057875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Remarks+on+the+Aramaic+of+Upper+Mesopotamia+in+the+Seventh+Century+B.C.&rft.btitle=Aramaic+in+its+Historical+and+Linguistic+Setting&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E77-%3C%2Fspan%3E92&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9783447057875&rft.aulast=Lemaire&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtfVZnCV6ABcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLipiński2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Lipi%C5%84ski_(orientalist)" title="Edward Lipiński (orientalist)">Lipiński, Edward</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rrMKKtiBBI4C"><i>The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion</i></a>. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042908598" title="Special:BookSources/9789042908598"><bdi>9789042908598</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aramaeans%3A+Their+Ancient+History%2C+Culture%2C+Religion&rft.place=Leuven&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9789042908598&rft.aulast=Lipi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrrMKKtiBBI4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLipiński2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Lipi%C5%84ski_(orientalist)" title="Edward Lipiński (orientalist)">Lipiński, Edward</a> (2001) [1997]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IiXVqyEkPKcC"><i>Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar</i></a> (2nd ed.). Leuven: Peeters Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789042908154" title="Special:BookSources/9789042908154"><bdi>9789042908154</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semitic+Languages%3A+Outline+of+a+Comparative+Grammar&rft.place=Leuven&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9789042908154&rft.aulast=Lipi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIiXVqyEkPKcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMacuch1990" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Mac%C3%BAch" title="Rudolf Macúch">Macuch, Rudolf</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00026045">"Recent Studies in Neo-Aramaic Dialects"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</i>. <b>53</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">214–</span>23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00026045">10.1017/S0041977X00026045</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162559782">162559782</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Recent+Studies+in+Neo-Aramaic+Dialects&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E214-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X00026045&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162559782%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Macuch&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X00026045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorgenstern2012" class="citation book cs1">Morgenstern, Matthew (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Christian Palestinian Aramaic"</a>. <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">628–</span>37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Christian+Palestinian+Aramaic&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E628-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Morgenstern&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMurre_van_den_Berg1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Heleen_Murre-van_den_Berg" title="Heleen Murre-van den Berg">Murre van den Berg, Heleen</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rh1jAAAAMAAJ"><i>From a Spoken to a Written Language: The Introduction and Development of Literary Urmia Aramaic in the Nineteenth Century</i></a>. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789062589814" title="Special:BookSources/9789062589814"><bdi>9789062589814</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+a+Spoken+to+a+Written+Language%3A+The+Introduction+and+Development+of+Literary+Urmia+Aramaic+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Nederlands+Instituut+voor+het+Nabije+Oosten&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9789062589814&rft.aulast=Murre+van+den+Berg&rft.aufirst=Heleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRh1jAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMurre_van_den_Berg2008" class="citation book cs1">Murre van den Berg, Heleen (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC">"Classical Syriac, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic in the Church of the East and the Chaldean Church between 1500 and 1800"</a>. <i>Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. <span class="nowrap">335–</span>52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447057875" title="Special:BookSources/9783447057875"><bdi>9783447057875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Classical+Syriac%2C+Neo-Aramaic%2C+and+Arabic+in+the+Church+of+the+East+and+the+Chaldean+Church+between+1500+and+1800&rft.btitle=Aramaic+in+Its+Historical+and+Linguistic+Setting&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E335-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9783447057875&rft.aulast=Murre+van+den+Berg&rft.aufirst=Heleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtfVZnCV6ABcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNaby2004" class="citation book cs1">Naby, Eden (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UM3BMtn6TmcC">"From Lingua Franca to Endangered Language: The Legal Aspects of the Preservation of Aramaic in Iraq"</a>. <i>On the Margins of Nations: Endangered Languages and Linguistic Rights</i>. Bath: Foundation for Endangered Languages. pp. <span class="nowrap">197–</span>203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780953824861" title="Special:BookSources/9780953824861"><bdi>9780953824861</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Lingua+Franca+to+Endangered+Language%3A+The+Legal+Aspects+of+the+Preservation+of+Aramaic+in+Iraq&rft.btitle=On+the+Margins+of+Nations%3A+Endangered+Languages+and+Linguistic+Rights&rft.place=Bath&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E197-%3C%2Fspan%3E203&rft.pub=Foundation+for+Endangered+Languages&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780953824861&rft.aulast=Naby&rft.aufirst=Eden&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUM3BMtn6TmcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNöldeke1871" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theodor_N%C3%B6ldeke" title="Theodor Nöldeke">Nöldeke, Theodor</a> (1871). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43366019">"Die Namen der aramäischen Nation und Sprache"</a>. <i>Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i>. <b>25</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">113–</span>31. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43366019">43366019</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+der+Deutschen+Morgenl%C3%A4ndischen+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=Die+Namen+der+aram%C3%A4ischen+Nation+und+Sprache&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E113-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.date=1871&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43366019%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=N%C3%B6ldeke&rft.aufirst=Theodor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43366019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNöldeke1886" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theodor_N%C3%B6ldeke" title="Theodor Nöldeke">Nöldeke, Theodor</a> (1886). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3_dAAQAAMAAJ">"Semitic Languages"</a>. <i>The Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>. Vol. 21 (9th ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons" title="Charles Scribner's Sons">Charles Scribner's Sons</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">641–</span>56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Semitic+Languages&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E641-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=N%C3%B6ldeke&rft.aufirst=Theodor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3_dAAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNöldeke1904" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Theodor_N%C3%B6ldeke" title="Theodor Nöldeke">Nöldeke, Theodor</a> (1904). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rk06AQAAMAAJ"><i>Compendious Syriac Grammar</i></a> (1st English ed.). London: Williams & Norgate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compendious+Syriac+Grammar&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1st+English&rft.pub=Williams+%26+Norgate&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=N%C3%B6ldeke&rft.aufirst=Theodor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRk06AQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeursen2008" class="citation book cs1">Peursen, Wido van (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC">"Language Variation, Language Development, and the Textual History of the Peshitta"</a>. <i>Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. <span class="nowrap">231–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447057875" title="Special:BookSources/9783447057875"><bdi>9783447057875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+Variation%2C+Language+Development%2C+and+the+Textual+History+of+the+Peshitta&rft.btitle=Aramaic+in+Its+Historical+and+Linguistic+Setting&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E231-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9783447057875&rft.aulast=Peursen&rft.aufirst=Wido+van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtfVZnCV6ABcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPrymSocin1881" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Prym" title="Eugen Prym">Prym, Eugen</a>; <a href="/wiki/Albert_Socin" title="Albert Socin">Socin, Albert</a> (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=geoOAAAAQAAJ"><i>Der neu-aramaeische Dialekt des Ṭûr 'Abdîn</i></a>. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht's Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+neu-aramaeische+Dialekt+des+%E1%B9%AC%C3%BBr+%27Abd%C3%AEn&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht%27s+Verlag&rft.date=1881&rft.aulast=Prym&rft.aufirst=Eugen&rft.au=Socin%2C+Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgeoOAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichard2003" class="citation book cs1">Richard, Suzanne (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=khR0apPid8gC&q=aramaic+spread+North+Africa&pg=PA69"><i>Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader</i></a>. Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781575060835" title="Special:BookSources/9781575060835"><bdi>9781575060835</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Near+Eastern+Archaeology%3A+A+Reader&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781575060835&rft.aulast=Richard&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkhR0apPid8gC%26q%3Daramaic%2Bspread%2BNorth%2BAfrica%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRosenthal2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Franz_Rosenthal" title="Franz Rosenthal">Rosenthal, Franz</a> (2006) [1961]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YI5QiMWNougC"><i>A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic</i></a> (7th expanded ed.). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447052511" title="Special:BookSources/9783447052511"><bdi>9783447052511</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+Biblical+Aramaic&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.edition=7th+expanded&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9783447052511&rft.aulast=Rosenthal&rft.aufirst=Franz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYI5QiMWNougC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRubin1998" class="citation journal cs1">Rubin, Milka (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/16441972">"The Language of Creation or the Primordial Language: A Case of Cultural Polemics in Antiquity"</a>. <i>Journal of Jewish Studies</i>. <b>49</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">306–</span>33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18647%2F2120%2FJJS-1998">10.18647/2120/JJS-1998</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Jewish+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Language+of+Creation+or+the+Primordial+Language%3A+A+Case+of+Cultural+Polemics+in+Antiquity&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E306-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18647%2F2120%2FJJS-1998&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Milka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F16441972&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRuzer2014" class="citation book cs1">Ruzer, Serge (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F5QXAwAAQBAJ">"Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesus' Language: Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authors"</a>. <i>The Language Environment of First Century Judaea</i>. Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">182–</span>205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004264410" title="Special:BookSources/9789004264410"><bdi>9789004264410</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hebrew+versus+Aramaic+as+Jesus%27+Language%3A+Notes+on+Early+Opinions+by+Syriac+Authors&rft.btitle=The+Language+Environment+of+First+Century+Judaea&rft.place=Leiden-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E182-%3C%2Fspan%3E205&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004264410&rft.aulast=Ruzer&rft.aufirst=Serge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF5QXAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSabar2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yona_Sabar" title="Yona Sabar">Sabar, Yona</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ygzh_tRZ7NMC"><i>A Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dictionary: Dialects of Amidya, Dihok, Nerwa and Zakho, Northwestern Iraq</i></a>. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447045575" title="Special:BookSources/9783447045575"><bdi>9783447045575</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Jewish+Neo-Aramaic+Dictionary%3A+Dialects+of+Amidya%2C+Dihok%2C+Nerwa+and+Zakho%2C+Northwestern+Iraq&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9783447045575&rft.aulast=Sabar&rft.aufirst=Yona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYgzh_tRZ7NMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohn_F._A.1999" class="citation book cs1">John F. 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London and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134801398" title="Special:BookSources/9781134801398"><bdi>9781134801398</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+Languages+and+Sacred+Texts&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781134801398&rft.aulast=John+F.+A.&rft.aufirst=Sawyer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWERD1QLfq9MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShepardson2019" class="citation book cs1">Shepardson, Christine (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw6LDwAAQBAJ"><i>Controlling Contested Places: Late Antique Antioch and the Spatial Politics of Religious Controversy</i></a>. Oakland: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520303379" title="Special:BookSources/9780520303379"><bdi>9780520303379</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Controlling+Contested+Places%3A+Late+Antique+Antioch+and+the+Spatial+Politics+of+Religious+Controversy&rft.place=Oakland&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780520303379&rft.aulast=Shepardson&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRw6LDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSokoloff1983" class="citation book cs1">Sokoloff, Michael, ed. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0oyujgEACAAJ"><i>Arameans, Aramaic and the Aramaic Literary Tradition</i></a>. Tel Aviv: Bar Ilan University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arameans%2C+Aramaic+and+the+Aramaic+Literary+Tradition&rft.place=Tel+Aviv&rft.pub=Bar+Ilan+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0oyujgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSokoloff1990" class="citation book cs1">Sokoloff, Michael (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_IkOAAAAYAAJ"><i>A Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period</i></a>. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789652261014" title="Special:BookSources/9789652261014"><bdi>9789652261014</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Jewish+Palestinian+Aramaic+of+the+Byzantine+Period&rft.place=Ramat+Gan&rft.pub=Bar+Ilan+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9789652261014&rft.aulast=Sokoloff&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_IkOAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSokoloff2002" class="citation book cs1">Sokoloff, Michael (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4hdjAAAAMAAJ"><i>A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmudic and Geonic Periods</i></a>. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789652262608" title="Special:BookSources/9789652262608"><bdi>9789652262608</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Jewish+Babylonian+Aramaic+of+the+Talmudic+and+Geonic+Periods&rft.place=Ramat+Gan&rft.pub=Bar+Ilan+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9789652262608&rft.aulast=Sokoloff&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4hdjAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSokoloff2003" class="citation book cs1">Sokoloff, Michael (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tfZzQgAACAAJ"><i>A Dictionary of Judean Aramaic</i></a>. Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789652262615" title="Special:BookSources/9789652262615"><bdi>9789652262615</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Judean+Aramaic&rft.place=Ramat+Gan&rft.pub=Bar+Ilan+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9789652262615&rft.aulast=Sokoloff&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtfZzQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSokoloff2012a" class="citation book cs1">Sokoloff, Michael (2012a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Jewish Palestinian Aramaic"</a>. <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">610–</span>19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jewish+Palestinian+Aramaic&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E610-%3C%2Fspan%3E19&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Sokoloff&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSokoloff2012b" class="citation book cs1">Sokoloff, Michael (2012b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Jewish Babylonian Aramaic"</a>. <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">660–</span>70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jewish+Babylonian+Aramaic&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E660-%3C%2Fspan%3E70&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Sokoloff&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSokoloff2014" class="citation book cs1">Sokoloff, Michael (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KYUogEACAAJ"><i>A dictionary of Christian Palestinian Aramaic</i></a>. Leuven: Peeters.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+dictionary+of+Christian+Palestinian+Aramaic&rft.place=Leuven&rft.pub=Peeters&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Sokoloff&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKYUogEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStefanovic1992" class="citation book cs1">Stefanovic, Zdravko (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8kfr5lrsXCIC"><i>The Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic</i></a>. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780567132543" title="Special:BookSources/9780567132543"><bdi>9780567132543</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aramaic+of+Daniel+in+the+Light+of+Old+Aramaic&rft.place=Sheffield&rft.pub=Sheffield+Academic+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780567132543&rft.aulast=Stefanovic&rft.aufirst=Zdravko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8kfr5lrsXCIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStevenson1924" class="citation book cs1">Stevenson, William B. (1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tzj7DwAAQBAJ"><i>Grammar of Palestinian Jewish Aramaic</i></a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781725206175" title="Special:BookSources/9781725206175"><bdi>9781725206175</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammar+of+Palestinian+Jewish+Aramaic&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1924&rft.isbn=9781725206175&rft.aulast=Stevenson&rft.aufirst=William+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtzj7DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStreck2012" class="citation book cs1">Streck, Michael P. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Akkadian and Aramaic Language Contact"</a>. <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">416–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Akkadian+and+Aramaic+Language+Contact&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E416-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Streck&rft.aufirst=Michael+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTal2012" class="citation book cs1">Tal, Abraham (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Samaritan Aramaic"</a>. <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">619–</span>28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Samaritan+Aramaic&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E619-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Tal&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTezel2003" class="citation book cs1">Tezel, Aziz (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y85zQgAACAAJ"><i>Comparative Etymological Studies in the Western Neo-Syriac (Ṭūrōyo) Lexicon: With Special Reference to Homonyms, Related Words and Borrowings with Cultural Signification</i></a>. Uppsala: Uppsala University Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789155455552" title="Special:BookSources/9789155455552"><bdi>9789155455552</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Etymological+Studies+in+the+Western+Neo-Syriac+%28%E1%B9%AC%C5%ABr%C5%8Dyo%29+Lexicon%3A+With+Special+Reference+to+Homonyms%2C+Related+Words+and+Borrowings+with+Cultural+Signification&rft.place=Uppsala&rft.pub=Uppsala+University+Library&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9789155455552&rft.aulast=Tezel&rft.aufirst=Aziz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY85zQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTezel2015" class="citation book cs1">Tezel, Sina (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/13277621">"Arabic or Ṣūrayt/Ṭūrōyo"</a>. <i>Arabic and Semitic Linguistics Contextualized: A Festschrift for Jan Retsö</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. <span class="nowrap">554–</span>68.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabic+or+%E1%B9%A2%C5%ABrayt%2F%E1%B9%AC%C5%ABr%C5%8Dyo&rft.btitle=Arabic+and+Semitic+Linguistics+Contextualized%3A+A+Festschrift+for+Jan+Rets%C3%B6&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E554-%3C%2Fspan%3E68&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Tezel&rft.aufirst=Sina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F13277621&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTezel2015" class="citation book cs1">Tezel, Sina (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/12443985">"Neologisms in Ṣūrayt/Ṭūrōyo"</a>. <i>Neo-Aramaic in Its Linguistic Context</i>. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">100–</span>09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neologisms+in+%E1%B9%A2%C5%ABrayt%2F%E1%B9%AC%C5%ABr%C5%8Dyo&rft.btitle=Neo-Aramaic+in+Its+Linguistic+Context&rft.place=Piscataway%2C+NJ&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E100-%3C%2Fspan%3E09&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Tezel&rft.aufirst=Sina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F12443985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2002" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, David G. K. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F5QXAwAAQBAJ">"Bilingualism and Diglossia in Late Antique Syria and Mesopotamia"</a>. <i>Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">298–</span>331. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004264410" title="Special:BookSources/9789004264410"><bdi>9789004264410</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bilingualism+and+Diglossia+in+Late+Antique+Syria+and+Mesopotamia&rft.btitle=Bilingualism+in+Ancient+Society%3A+Language+Contact+and+the+Written+Word&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E298-%3C%2Fspan%3E331&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9789004264410&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=David+G.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF5QXAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWaltisberg2016" class="citation book cs1">Waltisberg, Michael (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cPNHvgAACAAJ"><i>Syntax des Ṭuroyo</i></a>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447107310" title="Special:BookSources/9783447107310"><bdi>9783447107310</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syntax+des+%E1%B9%ACuroyo&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9783447107310&rft.aulast=Waltisberg&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcPNHvgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWevers2001" class="citation book cs1">Wevers, John W. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7WatAwAAQBAJ">"Aram and Aramaean in the Septuagint"</a>. <i>The World of the Aramaeans</i>. Vol. 1. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">237–</span>51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781841271583" title="Special:BookSources/9781841271583"><bdi>9781841271583</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aram+and+Aramaean+in+the+Septuagint&rft.btitle=The+World+of+the+Aramaeans&rft.place=Sheffield&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E237-%3C%2Fspan%3E51&rft.pub=Sheffield+Academic+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9781841271583&rft.aulast=Wevers&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7WatAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeninger2012" class="citation book cs1">Weninger, Stefan (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Aramaic-Arabic Language Contact"</a>. <i>The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook</i>. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. <span class="nowrap">747–</span>55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110251586" title="Special:BookSources/9783110251586"><bdi>9783110251586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaic-Arabic+Language+Contact&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin-Boston&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E747-%3C%2Fspan%3E55&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783110251586&rft.aulast=Weninger&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYitzhak2003" class="citation book cs1">Yitzhak, Frank (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=My4YBfzqOHQC"><i>Grammar for Gemara and Targum Onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic</i></a>. Jerusalem: Ariel. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781583306062" title="Special:BookSources/9781583306062"><bdi>9781583306062</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammar+for+Gemara+and+Targum+Onkelos%3A+An+Introduction+to+Aramaic&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pub=Ariel&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781583306062&rft.aulast=Yitzhak&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMy4YBfzqOHQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYounger2016" class="citation book cs1">Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vpgsDQAAQBAJ"><i>A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities</i></a>. Atlanta: SBL Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781628370843" title="Special:BookSources/9781628370843"><bdi>9781628370843</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Political+History+of+the+Arameans%3A+From+Their+Origins+to+the+End+of+Their+Polities&rft.place=Atlanta&rft.pub=SBL+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781628370843&rft.aulast=Younger&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Lawson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvpgsDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAramaic" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aramaic&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="arc:"> Aramaic edition</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Incubator-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/40px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/60px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/120px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/tru" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/tru">Turoyo test</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Incubator-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Aramaic_language" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Aramaic language">Aramaic language</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061013182203/http://www.v-a.com/bible/ancient_aramaic_audio_files.html">Ancient Aramaic Audio Files</a>: Contains audio recordings of scripture.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v14n1/e8.pdf">The Aramaic Language and Its Classification – Efrem Yildiz, Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080909222746/http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v14n1/e8.pdf">Archived</a> 2008-09-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cal.huc.edu/index.html">Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon</a> (including editions of <a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targums</a>) at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tyndalearchive.com/tabs/jastrow/">Dictionary of Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-aramaic.html">Jewish Language Research Website: Jewish Aramaic</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080511235552/http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-aramaic.html">Archived</a> 2008-05-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Semitic_languages" title="Template:Semitic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Semitic_languages" title="Template talk:Semitic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Semitic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Semitic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Semitic_languages313" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Canaano-Akkadian_language" title="Canaano-Akkadian language">Canaano-Akkadian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dilmun#People,_language_and_religion" title="Dilmun">Dilmunite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kishite_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kishite language">Kishite</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dadanitic" title="Dadanitic">Dadanitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian#Dumaitic" title="Ancient North Arabian">Dumaitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hasaitic" title="Hasaitic">Hasaitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hismaic" title="Hismaic">Hismaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Safaitic#Language" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thamudic" title="Thamudic">Thamudic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Thamudic_B" title="Thamudic B">Thamudic B</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Dialect groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aramaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Middle_Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialect<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Armazic_language" title="Armazic language">Armazic</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hatran_Aramaic" title="Hatran Aramaic">Ashurian and Hatran</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Aramaic" title="Lebanese Aramaic">Lebanese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Nabataean</a></i></li> <li><i>Palestinian</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Christian Palestinian Aramaic">Christian Palestinian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Aramaic language">Samaritan</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo-<br />Aramaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Neo-Aramaic" title="Central Neo-Aramaic">Central</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mla%E1%B8%A5s%C3%B4_language" title="Mlaḥsô language">Mlaḥsô</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Surayt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Mandaic" title="Neo-Mandaic">Neo-Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Neo-Aramaic" title="Northeastern Neo-Aramaic">Northeastern</a> <ul><li>Christian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barwar" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barwar">Barwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Bohtan" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan">Bohtan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Hertevin" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin">Hértevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koy_Sanjaq_Christian_Neo-Aramaic" title="Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic">Koy Sanjaq Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Qaraqosh" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qaraqosh">Qaraqosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Senaya" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya">Senaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Inter-Zab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Koy_Sanjaq" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Koy Sanjaq">Koy Sanjaq Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanandaj_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Sanandaj Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Sanandaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Trans-Zab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Zakho</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Northern <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Philistine_language" title="Philistine language">Philistine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Southern <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ammonite_language" title="Ammonite language">Ammonite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">northern dialect</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan dialect</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deir_Alla_inscription#Language" title="Deir Alla inscription">South Gileadite</a> (Deir Alla)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taymanitic" title="Taymanitic">Taymanitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samalian_language" title="Samalian language">Samalian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeast Semitic">Southeast</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E1%B9%AD%E1%B8%A5ari_language" title="Baṭḥari language">Baṭḥari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%A4arsusi_language" title="Ḥarsusi language">Ḥarsusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoby%C3%B3t_language" title="Hobyót language">Hobyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehri_language" title="Mehri language">Mehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shehri_language" title="Shehri language">Shehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soqotri_language" title="Soqotri language">Soqotri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southwest</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abyssinian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyssinian languages">Abyssinian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahalik_language" title="Dahalik language">Dahalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigre_language" title="Tigre language">Tigre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trans-<br />versal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Argobba_language" title="Argobba language">Argobba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harari_language" title="Harari language">Harari</a>–<a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">East Gurage</a> <ul><li>East Gurage <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silt%CA%BCe_language" title="Siltʼe language">Siltʼe</a> <ul><li>Inneqor</li> <li>Ulbare</li> <li>Wolane</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zay_language" title="Zay language">Zay</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outer</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>N-group <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gafat_language" title="Gafat language">Gafat</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soddo_language" title="Soddo language">Soddo</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tt-group <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mesmes_language" title="Mesmes language">Mesmes</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muher_language" title="Muher language">Muher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">West Gurage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inor_language" title="Inor language">Inor</a> <ul><li>Endegen</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesqan_language" title="Mesqan language">Mesqan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebat_Bet_Gurage_language" title="Sebat Bet Gurage language">Sebat Bet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaha_language" title="Chaha language">Chaha</a></li> <li>Ezha</li> <li>Gumer</li> <li>Gura</li> <li>Gyeto</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yemenite languages">Yemenite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faifi_language" title="Faifi language">Faifi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hadramautic_language" title="Hadramautic language">Hadramautic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minaean_language" title="Minaean language">Minaean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qatabanian_language" title="Qatabanian language">Qatabanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rijal_Alma_(speech_variety)" title="Rijal Alma (speech variety)">Rijal Alma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razihi_language" title="Razihi language">Razihi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Himyaritic_language" title="Himyaritic language">Himyaritic</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">extinct</a> or historical languages.</li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Assyrian_people&#124;link=Assyrian_people_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Assyrian_people&#124;link=Assyrian_people_Assyrian_people929" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Assyrian_people_footer" title="Template:Assyrian people footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Assyrian_people_footer" title="Template talk:Assyrian people footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Assyrian_people_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Assyrian people footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Assyrian_people&#124;link=Assyrian_people_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Assyrian_people&#124;link=Assyrian_people_Assyrian_people929" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people"><img alt="Assyrian people" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people"><img alt="Assyrian people" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Old_Assyrian_Flag.svg/40px-Old_Assyrian_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Old_Assyrian_Flag.svg/60px-Old_Assyrian_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="932" data-file-height="564" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian people</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>Ethno-linguistic group(s) indigenous to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>; also known as Syriac-Arameans or Chaldeans</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Identity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_continuity" title="Assyrian continuity">Assyrian continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terms_for_Syriac_Christians" title="Terms for Syriac Christians">Terms for Syriac Christians</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Assyrians_(gold_and_blue_Assur).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Assyrian flag"><img alt="The Assyrian flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg/120px-Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Assyrians_%28gold_and_blue_Assur%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_flag" title="Assyrian flag">Assyrian flag</a><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Syriac-Aramaic_People.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Syriac-Aramean flag"><img alt="The Syriac-Aramean flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_Syriac-Aramaic_People.svg/120px-Flag_of_the_Syriac-Aramaic_People.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_Syriac-Aramaic_People.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Syriac-Aramaic_People.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="750" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Aramean-Syriac_flag" title="Aramean-Syriac flag">Aramean-Syriac flag</a><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaldean_flag.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Chaldean flag"><img alt="The Chaldean flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chaldean_flag.svg/120px-Chaldean_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chaldean_flag.svg/250px-Chaldean_flag.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Chaldean_flag" title="Chaldean flag">Chaldean flag</a><br /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Syriac_Rite" title="West Syriac Rite">West Syriac Rite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syriac Orthodox Church</a> (518–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Catholic_Church" title="Syriac Catholic Church">Syriac Catholic Church</a> (1662–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Evangelical_Church" title="Assyrian Evangelical Church">Assyrian Evangelical Church</a> (1870–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Pentecostal_Church" title="Assyrian Pentecostal Church">Assyrian Pentecostal Church</a> (1940–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Syriac_Rite" title="East Syriac Rite">East Syriac Rite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Catholic_Church" title="Chaldean Catholic Church">Chaldean Catholic Church</a> (1552–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian Church of the East</a> (1692–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient Church of the East</a> (1968–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Aramaic">Neo-Aramaic</a><br />dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Sureth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Surayt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Bohtan" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan">Bohtan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Hertevin" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin">Hertevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Senaya" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya">Senaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barwar" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barwar">Barwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koy_Sanjaq_Christian_Neo-Aramaic" title="Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic">Koy Sanjaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Qaraqosh" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qaraqosh">Bakhdida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mla%E1%B8%A5s%C3%B4_language" title="Mlaḥsô language">Mlaḥsô</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac script</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_culture" title="Assyrian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_folk-pop_music" title="Assyrian folk-pop music">Assyrian folk-pop music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_sacral_music" title="Syriac sacral music">Syriac sacral music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_folk_dance" title="Assyrian folk dance">Folk dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_cuisine" title="Assyrian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Assyrian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Assyrian people">History</a><br /><small>(including<br />related<br />contexts)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Assyria" title="Timeline of ancient Assyria">Ancient Assyria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Assyrian_period" title="Early Assyrian period">Early Assyrian period</a> (2600–2025 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyrian period</a> (2025–1364 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a> (1363–912 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (911–609 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-imperial_Assyria" title="Post-imperial Assyria">Post-imperial Assyria</a> (609 BCE–240 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_tribes" title="List of Assyrian tribes">Assyrian tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classical<br />antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (312–63 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> (247 BCE–224 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a> (132 BCE–244 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a> (66 BCE–217 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a> (64 BCE–637 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> (15–116)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria_(Roman_province)" title="Assyria (Roman province)">Roman Assyria</a> (116–118)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Christianization</a> (1st to 3rd c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorian_schism" title="Nestorian schism">Nestorian schism</a> (5th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> (<a href="/wiki/Council_of_Seleucia-Ctesiphon" title="Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon">410</a>-<a href="/wiki/Schism_of_1552" title="Schism of 1552">1552</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Asoristan</a> (226–651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Sasanian Wars">Byzantine–Sasanian Wars</a> (502–628)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia</a> (630s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of Syria</a> (630s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> (750–1258)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Mosul" title="List of rulers of Mosul">Emirs of Mosul</a> (905–1383)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid amirate</a> (945–1055)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a> (1098–1268)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> (1258–1335)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid Sultanate</a> (1335–1432)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a> (1375–1468)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a> (1453–1501)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern era</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Assyrian_people#Islamic_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Assyrian people">Safavid Empire</a> (1508–55)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Assyrian_people#Islamic_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Assyrian people">Ottoman Empire</a> (1555–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism_of_1552" title="Schism of 1552">Schism of 1552</a> (16th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1843_and_1846_massacres_in_Hakkari" title="1843 and 1846 massacres in Hakkari">Massacres of Badr Khan</a> (1840s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Diyarbekir_(1895)" title="Massacres of Diyarbekir (1895)">Massacres of Diyarbekir</a> (1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_nationalism" title="Assyrian nationalism">Rise of nationalism</a> (19th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adana_massacre" title="Adana massacre">Adana massacre</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayfo" title="Sayfo">Assyrian genocide</a> (1914–20)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_independence_movement" title="Assyrian independence movement">Independence movement</a> (1919–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simele_massacre" title="Simele massacre">Simele massacre</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Iraq#Post-Saddam_Iraq" title="Assyrians in Iraq">Post-Saddam Iraq</a> (2003–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Christians_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocide of Christians by ISIL">Genocide of Christians by ISIL</a> (2014–)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_population_by_country" title="Assyrian population by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_homeland" title="Assyrian homeland">Homeland</a><br /><small><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_settlements" title="List of Assyrian settlements">Settlements</a></small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Iraq" title="Assyrians in Iraq">Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nineveh_Plains" title="Nineveh Plains">Nineveh Plains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qaraqosh" title="Qaraqosh">Qaraqosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alqosh" title="Alqosh">Alqosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Keppe" title="Tel Keppe">Tel Keppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartella" title="Bartella">Bartella</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankawa" title="Ankawa">Ankawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaqlawa" title="Shaqlawa">Shaqlawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakho" title="Zakho">Zakho</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Iran" title="Assyrians in Iran">Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urmia" title="Urmia">Urmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmas" title="Salmas">Salmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanandaj" title="Sanandaj">Sanandaj</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Syria" title="Assyrians in Syria">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah_Governorate" title="Al-Hasakah Governorate">Al-Hasakah Governorate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah" title="Al-Hasakah">Al-Hasakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Tamer" title="Tell Tamer">Tell Tamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qamishli" title="Qamishli">Qamishli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Khabur</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Turkey" title="Assyrians in Turkey">Turkey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hakkari_(historical_region)" title="Hakkari (historical region)">Hakkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diyarbak%C4%B1r" title="Diyarbakır">Diyarbakır</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaz%C4%B1%C4%9F" title="Elazığ">Elazığ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mardin_Province" title="Mardin Province">Mardin Province</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mardin" title="Mardin">Mardin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maz%C4%B1da%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Mazıdağı">Mazıdağı</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tur_Abdin" title="Tur Abdin">Tur Abdin</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian%E2%80%93Chaldean%E2%80%93Syriac_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Armenia" title="Assyrians in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Azerbaijan" title="Assyrians in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Australians" title="Assyrian Australians">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Belgium" title="Assyrians in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Canadians" title="Assyrian Canadians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Finland" title="Assyrians in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_France" title="Assyrians in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Georgia" title="Assyrians in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Assyrians" title="German Assyrians">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Greece" title="Assyrians in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Israel" title="Assyrians in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Jordan" title="Assyrians in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Lebanon" title="Assyrians in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Mexico" title="Assyrians in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_the_Netherlands" title="Assyrians in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_New_Zealand" title="Assyrians in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Assyrians in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Russia" title="Assyrians in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Sweden" title="Assyrians in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Assyrians" title="British Assyrians">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Americans" title="Assyrian Americans">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_Eastern_people_in_Metro_Detroit" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Middle Eastern people in Metro Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_nationalism" title="Assyrian nationalism">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Democratic_Movement" title="Assyrian Democratic Movement">Assyrian Democratic Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athra_Alliance" title="Athra Alliance">Athra Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Democratic_Organization" title="Assyrian Democratic Organization">Assyrian Democratic Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Universal_Alliance" title="Assyrian Universal Alliance">Assyrian Universal Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawronoye" title="Dawronoye">Dawronoye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Syriac Union Party (Syria)">Syriac Union Party (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Union_Party_(Lebanon)" title="Syriac Union Party (Lebanon)">Syriac Union Party (Lebanon)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Military_Council" title="Syriac Military Council">Syriac Military Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutoro" title="Sutoro">Sutoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Arameans" title="World Council of Arameans">World Council of Arameans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/20px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/40px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/20px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/40px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Mesopotamia152" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Mesopotamia152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armani_(kingdom)" title="Armani (kingdom)">Armani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turukkaeans" title="Turukkaeans">Tukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Pre)history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrik_9" title="Nemrik 9">Nemrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture/society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_cuisine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerian cuisine (page does not exist)">Sumerian cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of rulers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL">Destruction by ISIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">Tell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian 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[\"CITEREFCaputoLougovaya2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasey1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasey2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChrista_Müller-KesslerMichael_Sokoloff\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChyet1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoghill2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCreason2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniels1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarling2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuntsovHäberlLoesov2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmran_El-Badawi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFales2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzmyer1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzmyer1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFolmer1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFolmer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrye1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrye1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrye1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFryeDriver1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGallagher2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeigerKuhn2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGianto2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenfield1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenfield1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGzella2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGzella2012a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGzella2012b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGzella2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGzella2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGzella2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamp2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHasel1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealey1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealey2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealey2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealey2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeinrichs1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuehnergardRubin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHäberl2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHäberl2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJastrow2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJastrow2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohann_Wilhelm_Hilliger1679\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_F._A.1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoosten2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoosten2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKapeliuk2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKautzsch1884\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKautzsch1884a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKautzsch1884b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitchen1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKopp1821\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKozahAbu-HusaynAl-MurikhiAl_Thani2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKutscher2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKöstenberger2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabidi2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemaire2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemaire2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipiński2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipiński2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacuch1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatrasSakel2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNamara2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgenstern2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurre_van_den_Berg1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurre_van_den_Berg2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyers1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaby2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNavehShaked2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNöldeke1871\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNöldeke1886\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNöldeke1904\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwens2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne_Smith1879\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne_Smith1903\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeursen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrymSocin1881\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuatremère1835\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRahebLamport2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenthal2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuzer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabar2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchami2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt1923\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSebastian_Brock2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaked1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShepardson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSokoloff1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSokoloff1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSokoloff2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSokoloff2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSokoloff2012a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSokoloff2012b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSokoloff2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStefanovic1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevenson1924\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStolper2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStreck2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTal2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTezel2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTezel2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurek2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Rompay2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeyne2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaltisberg2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeninger2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWevers2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiesehöfer2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYitzhak2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYounger1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYounger2016\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Ancient Mesopotamia\"] = 1,\n [\"Aramaeans\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Assyrian topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bibleref2-nb\"] = 4,\n [\"Bibleverse\"] = 7,\n [\"Circa\"] = 24,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 115,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 28,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 12,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Columns-list\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Aramaic Language\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 2,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Extinct\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 8,\n [\"IPA\"] = 27,\n [\"IPA link\"] = 36,\n [\"IPA notice\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAblink\"] = 4,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Incubator\"] = 3,\n [\"Infobox language\"] = 1,\n [\"InterWiki\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 11,\n [\"Langx\"] = 4,\n [\"Listen\"] = 6,\n [\"Long quote\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 14,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Semitic languages\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 89,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 4,\n [\"Transl\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 3,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbulleted list citebundle\"] = 2,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-658b85fd8d-8btz9","timestamp":"20250411151909","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Aramaic","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aramaic","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q28602","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q28602","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-19T10:48:56Z","dateModified":"2025-04-11T15:18:03Z","headline":"subgroup of the Semitic languages"}</script> </body> </html>