CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Penal transportation - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"574241d2-3301-4992-8d65-9b2b367ed115","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Penal_transportation","wgTitle":"Penal transportation","wgCurRevisionId":1257284519,"wgRevisionId":1257284519,"wgArticleId":241953,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use British English from March 2013","Use dmy dates from June 2022","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2013","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2021", "Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2023","Forced migration","History of immigration to Australia","Convictism in Australia","Punishments","Crime in Australia","Penal labour"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Penal_transportation","wgRelevantArticleId":241953,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false, "wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q1770529","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init" :"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Black-eyed_Sue_and_Sweet_Poll_of_Plymouth_taking_leave_of_their_lovers_who_are_going_to_Botany_Bay.jpeg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="996"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Black-eyed_Sue_and_Sweet_Poll_of_Plymouth_taking_leave_of_their_lovers_who_are_going_to_Botany_Bay.jpeg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="664"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Black-eyed_Sue_and_Sweet_Poll_of_Plymouth_taking_leave_of_their_lovers_who_are_going_to_Botany_Bay.jpeg/640px-Black-eyed_Sue_and_Sweet_Poll_of_Plymouth_taking_leave_of_their_lovers_who_are_going_to_Botany_Bay.jpeg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="531"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Penal transportation - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_transportation"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal_transportation"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Penal_transportation rootpage-Penal_transportation skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Penal+transportation" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Penal+transportation" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Penal+transportation" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Penal+transportation" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_and_implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_and_implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Origin and implementation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Britain_and_the_British_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Britain_and_the_British_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Great Britain and the British Empire</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Great_Britain_and_the_British_Empire-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Great Britain and the British Empire subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Great_Britain_and_the_British_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Historical background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trend_towards_more_flexibility_of_sentencing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trend_towards_more_flexibility_of_sentencing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Trend towards more flexibility of sentencing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trend_towards_more_flexibility_of_sentencing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation_as_a_commercial_transaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_as_a_commercial_transaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Transportation as a commercial transaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_as_a_commercial_transaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation_Act_1717" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_Act_1717"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Transportation Act 1717</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_Act_1717-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_and_children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_and_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Women and children</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_and_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_end_of_transportation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_end_of_transportation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>The end of transportation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_end_of_transportation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation_locations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_locations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Transportation locations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_locations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transportation_to_North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_to_North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Transportation to North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_to_North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation_to_Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_to_Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Transportation to Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_to_Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transportation_from_British_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transportation_from_British_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Transportation from British India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transportation_from_British_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modern Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In popular culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Performing_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performing_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Performing arts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Performing_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Penal transportation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="ترحيل جزائي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ترحيل جزائي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportaci%C3%B3_penal" title="Deportació penal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Deportació penal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destierro_penal" title="Destierro penal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Destierro penal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prizontransportado" title="Prizontransportado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Prizontransportado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AF_%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="تبعید کیفری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تبعید کیفری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9portation_p%C3%A9nale" title="Déportation pénale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Déportation pénale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%B0%B0" title="유배 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유배" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukuman_buang" title="Hukuman buang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hukuman buang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94" title="הגליה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הגליה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E7%BD%AA" title="流罪 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="流罪" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportering" title="Transportering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Transportering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="جزايي تبعید – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جزايي تبعید" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desterro_penal" title="Desterro penal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Desterro penal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5)" title="Ссылка (наказание) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ссылка (наказание)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCrg%C3%BCn_cezas%C4%B1" title="Sürgün cezası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sürgün cezası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E6%94%BE" title="流放 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="流放" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1770529#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Penal_transportation" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Penal_transportation" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Penal_transportation"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Penal_transportation"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Penal_transportation" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Penal_transportation" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&oldid=1257284519" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Penal_transportation&id=1257284519&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPenal_transportation"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPenal_transportation"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Penal_transportation&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Penal_transportation" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1770529" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Relocation of convicted criminals to a distant place</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about relocation as a punishment. For prisoner relocation for other reasons, see <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_transport" title="Prisoner transport">Prisoner transport</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Transportation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Transportation (disambiguation)">Transportation (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Black-eyed_Sue_and_Sweet_Poll_of_Plymouth_taking_leave_of_their_lovers_who_are_going_to_Botany_Bay.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Black-eyed_Sue_and_Sweet_Poll_of_Plymouth_taking_leave_of_their_lovers_who_are_going_to_Botany_Bay.jpeg/290px-Black-eyed_Sue_and_Sweet_Poll_of_Plymouth_taking_leave_of_their_lovers_who_are_going_to_Botany_Bay.jpeg" decoding="async" width="290" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Black-eyed_Sue_and_Sweet_Poll_of_Plymouth_taking_leave_of_their_lovers_who_are_going_to_Botany_Bay.jpeg/435px-Black-eyed_Sue_and_Sweet_Poll_of_Plymouth_taking_leave_of_their_lovers_who_are_going_to_Botany_Bay.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Black-eyed_Sue_and_Sweet_Poll_of_Plymouth_taking_leave_of_their_lovers_who_are_going_to_Botany_Bay.jpeg/580px-Black-eyed_Sue_and_Sweet_Poll_of_Plymouth_taking_leave_of_their_lovers_who_are_going_to_Botany_Bay.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption>Women in Plymouth, England, parting from their lovers who are about to be transported to <a href="/wiki/Botany_Bay" title="Botany Bay">Botany Bay</a>, 1792</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Penal transportation</b> (or simply <b>transportation</b>) was the relocation of <a href="/wiki/Convict" title="Convict">convicted</a> criminals, or other persons regarded as undesirable, to a distant place, often a <a href="/wiki/Colony" title="Colony">colony</a>, for a specified term; later, specifically established <a href="/wiki/Penal_colony" title="Penal colony">penal colonies</a> became their destination. While the <a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">prisoners</a> may have been released once the sentences were served, they generally did not have the resources to return home. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_implementation">Origin and implementation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin and implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Banishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Banishment">Banishment</a> or forced <a href="/wiki/Exile" title="Exile">exile</a> from a polity or society has been used as a punishment since at least the 5th century BCE in <a href="/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism">Ancient Greece</a>. The practice of penal transportation reached its height in the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> during the 18th and 19th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-DigitalPanopticon_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DigitalPanopticon-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Transportation removed the offender from society, mostly permanently, but was seen as more merciful than <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a>. This method was used for criminals, debtors, military prisoners, and political prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Penal transportation was also used as a method of <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a>. For example, from the earliest days of English colonial schemes, new settlements beyond the seas were seen as a way to alleviate domestic social problems of criminals and <a href="/wiki/English_Poor_Laws#A_new_colonial_solution" title="English Poor Laws">the poor</a> as well as to increase the colonial labour force,<sup id="cite_ref-DigitalPanopticon_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DigitalPanopticon-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for the overall benefit of the realm.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Great_Britain_and_the_British_Empire">Great Britain and the British Empire<span class="anchor" id="Transportation,_etc._Act_1799"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Great Britain and the British Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Initially based on the <a href="/wiki/Royal_prerogative_of_mercy" title="Royal prerogative of mercy">royal prerogative of mercy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later under <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a>, transportation was an alternative sentence imposed for a <a href="/wiki/Felony" title="Felony">felony</a>. It was typically imposed for offences for which <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">death</a> was deemed too severe. By 1670, as new felonies were defined, the option of being sentenced to transportation was allowed.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the crime, the sentence was imposed for life or for a set period of years. If imposed for a period of years, the offender was permitted to return home after serving their time, but had to make their own way back. Many offenders thus stayed in the colony as free persons, and might obtain employment as jailers or other servants of the penal colony. </p><p>England transported an estimated 50,000 to 120,000 convicts and political prisoners,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as prisoners of war from <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, to <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">its overseas colonies in the Americas</a> from the 1610s until early in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> in 1776, when transportation to America was temporarily suspended by the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Law_Act_1776" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal Law Act 1776">Criminal Law Act 1776</a> (<a href="/wiki/16_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="16 Geo. 3">16 Geo. 3</a>. c. 43).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice was mandated in Scotland by an act of 1785, but was less used there than in England. Transportation on a large scale resumed with the departure of the <a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">First Fleet</a> to <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> in 1787, and continued there <a href="/wiki/Convicts_in_Australia#Cessation_of_transportation" title="Convicts in Australia">until 1868</a>. </p><p>Transportation was not used by Scotland before the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Union_1707" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Union 1707">Act of Union 1707</a>; following union, the <a href="/wiki/Transportation_Act_1717" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation Act 1717">Transportation Act 1717</a> specifically excluded its use in Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transportation,_etc._Act_1785&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transportation, etc. Act 1785 (page does not exist)">Transportation, etc. Act 1785</a> (<a href="/wiki/25_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="25 Geo. 3">25 Geo. 3</a>. c. 46) the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament of Great Britain</a> specifically extended the usage of transportation to Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-archive.org_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-archive.org-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It remained little used<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> under Scots Law until the early 19th century. </p><p>In Australia, a convict who had served part of his time might apply for a <a href="/wiki/Ticket_of_leave#Australia" title="Ticket of leave">ticket of leave</a>, permitting some prescribed <a href="/wiki/Freedom_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom (political)">freedoms</a>. This enabled some convicts to resume a more normal life, to marry and raise a family, and to contribute to the development of the colony. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Historical background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trend_towards_more_flexibility_of_sentencing">Trend towards more flexibility of sentencing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Trend towards more flexibility of sentencing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Convict_ship_Neptune00.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Convict_ship_Neptune00.jpg/220px-Convict_ship_Neptune00.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Convict_ship_Neptune00.jpg/330px-Convict_ship_Neptune00.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Convict_ship_Neptune00.jpg/440px-Convict_ship_Neptune00.jpg 2x" data-file-width="545" data-file-height="445" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Neptune_(1780_ship)" title="Neptune (1780 ship)"><i>Neptune</i></a>, a 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Convict_ship" title="Convict ship">convict ship</a> that brought prisoners to Australia</figcaption></figure> <p>In England in the 17th and 18th centuries criminal justice was severe, later termed the <a href="/wiki/Bloody_Code" title="Bloody Code">Bloody Code</a>. This was due to both the particularly large number of offences which were punishable by execution (usually by hanging), and to the limited choice of sentences available to judges for convicted criminals. With modifications to the traditional <a href="/wiki/Benefit_of_clergy" title="Benefit of clergy">benefit of clergy</a>, which originally exempted only clergymen from the general criminal law, it developed into a <a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">legal fiction</a> by which many common offenders of "clergyable" offences were extended the privilege to avoid execution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986470_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986470-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many offenders were pardoned as it was considered unreasonable to execute them for relatively minor offences, but under the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, it was equally unreasonable for them to escape punishment entirely. With the development of colonies, transportation was introduced as an alternative punishment, although legally it was considered a condition of a pardon, rather than a sentence in itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986472_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986472-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Convicts who represented a menace to the community were sent away to distant lands. A secondary aim was to discourage crime for fear of being transported. Transportation continued to be described as a public exhibition of the king's mercy. It was a solution to a real problem in the domestic penal system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986473_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986473-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was also the hope that transported convicts could be rehabilitated and reformed by starting a new life in the colonies. In 1615, in the reign of <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James I</a>, a committee of the council had already obtained the power to choose from the prisoners those that deserved pardon and, consequently, transportation to the colonies. Convicts were chosen carefully: the Acts of the Privy Council showed that prisoners "for strength of bodie or other abilities shall be thought fit to be employed in foreign discoveries or other services beyond the Seas".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_England" title="Commonwealth of England">Commonwealth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a> overcame the popular prejudice against subjecting Christians to slavery or selling them into foreign parts, and initiated group transportation of military<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and civilian prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration (England)">Restoration</a>, the penal transportation system and the number of people subjected to it, started to change inexorably between 1660 and 1720, with transportation replacing the simple discharge of clergyable felons after <a href="/wiki/Human_branding#Branding_in_Britain" title="Human branding">branding the thumb</a>. Alternatively, under the second act dealing with <a href="/wiki/Moss-trooper" title="Moss-trooper">Moss-trooper</a> brigands on the Scottish border, offenders had their benefit of clergy taken away, or otherwise at the judge's discretion, were to be transported to America, "there to remaine and not to returne".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were various influential agents of change: judges' discretionary powers influenced the law significantly, but the king's and Privy Council's opinions were decisive in granting a royal pardon from execution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986471_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986471-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The system changed one step at a time: in February 1663, after that first experiment, a bill was proposed to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> to allow the transporting of felons, and was followed by another bill presented to the Lords to allow the transportation of criminals convicted of felony within clergy or petty larceny. These bills failed, but it was clear that change was needed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986471–472_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986471–472-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transportation was not a sentence in itself, but could be arranged by indirect means. The reading test, crucial for the <a href="/wiki/Benefit_of_clergy" title="Benefit of clergy">benefit of clergy</a>, was a fundamental feature of the penal system, but to prevent its abuse, this pardoning process was used more strictly. Prisoners were carefully selected for transportation based on information about their character and previous criminal record. It was arranged that they fail the reading test, but they were then reprieved and held in jail, without bail, to allow time for a royal pardon (subject to transportation) to be organised.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986475_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986475-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transportation_as_a_commercial_transaction">Transportation as a commercial transaction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Transportation as a commercial transaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Lycett_-_The_residence_of_Edward_Riley_Esquire,_Wooloomooloo,_Near_Sydney_N._S._W._-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Joseph_Lycett_-_The_residence_of_Edward_Riley_Esquire%2C_Wooloomooloo%2C_Near_Sydney_N._S._W._-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Joseph_Lycett_-_The_residence_of_Edward_Riley_Esquire%2C_Wooloomooloo%2C_Near_Sydney_N._S._W._-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Joseph_Lycett_-_The_residence_of_Edward_Riley_Esquire%2C_Wooloomooloo%2C_Near_Sydney_N._S._W._-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Joseph_Lycett_-_The_residence_of_Edward_Riley_Esquire%2C_Wooloomooloo%2C_Near_Sydney_N._S._W._-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Joseph_Lycett_-_The_residence_of_Edward_Riley_Esquire%2C_Wooloomooloo%2C_Near_Sydney_N._S._W._-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Joseph_Lycett_-_The_residence_of_Edward_Riley_Esquire%2C_Wooloomooloo%2C_Near_Sydney_N._S._W._-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5341" data-file-height="3823" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lycett" title="Joseph Lycett">Joseph Lycett</a>, an artist transported for forging bank notes, <i>The residence of Edward Riley Esquire, Wooloomooloo, Near Sydney N. S. W.</i>, 1825, hand-coloured <a href="/wiki/Aquatint" title="Aquatint">aquatint</a> and etching printed in dark blue ink. Australian print in the tradition of British decorative production.</figcaption></figure> <p>Transportation became a business: merchants chose from among the prisoners on the basis of the demand for labour and their likely profits. They obtained a contract from the sheriffs, and after the voyage to the colonies they sold the convicts as <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servant">indentured servants</a>. The payment they received also covered the jail fees, the fees for granting the pardon, the clerk's fees, and everything necessary to authorise the transportation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986479_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986479-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These arrangements for transportation continued until the end of the 17th century and beyond, but they diminished in 1670 due to certain complications. The colonial opposition was one of the main obstacles: colonies were unwilling to collaborate in accepting prisoners: the convicts represented a danger to the colony and were unwelcome. <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> enacted laws to prohibit transportation in 1670, and the king was persuaded to respect these.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986479_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986479-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The penal system was also influenced by economics: the profits obtained from convicts' labour boosted the economy of the colonies and, consequently, of England. Nevertheless, it could be argued that transportation was economically deleterious because the aim was to enlarge population, not diminish it;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986480_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986480-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the character of an individual convict was likely to harm the economy. <a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War" title="King William's War">King William's War</a> (1688–1697) (part of the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War" title="Nine Years' War">Nine Years' War</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1701–14) adversely affected merchant shipping and hence transportation. In the post-war period there was more crime<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986500_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986500-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and hence potentially more executions, and something needed to be done. In the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Queen Anne</a> (1702–14) and <a href="/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain" title="George I of Great Britain">George I</a> (1714–27), transportation was not easily arranged, but imprisonment was not considered enough to punish hardened criminals or those who had committed capital offences, so transportation was the preferred punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986502_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986502-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transportation_Act_1717">Transportation Act 1717</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Transportation Act 1717"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transportation_Act_1717" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation Act 1717">Transportation Act 1717</a></div> <p>There were several obstacles to the use of transportation. In 1706 the reading test for claiming benefit of clergy was abolished (<a href="/wiki/6_Ann." class="mw-redirect" title="6 Ann.">6 Ann.</a> c. 9). This allowed judges to sentence "clergyable" offenders to a <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouse</a> or a <a href="/wiki/House_of_correction" title="House of correction">house of correction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986502_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986502-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the punishments that then applied were not enough of a disincentive to commit crime: another solution was needed. The Transportation Act was introduced into the House of Commons in 1717 under the <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whig</a> government. It legitimised transportation as a direct sentence, thus simplifying the penal process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986503_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986503-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Non-capital convicts (clergyable <a href="/wiki/Felon" class="mw-redirect" title="Felon">felons</a> usually destined for branding on the thumb, and <a href="/wiki/Petty_larceny" class="mw-redirect" title="Petty larceny">petty larceny</a> convicts usually destined for public whipping)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001428_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001428-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were directly sentenced to transportation to the American colonies for seven years. A sentence of fourteen years was imposed on prisoners guilty of capital offences pardoned by the king. Returning from the colonies before the stated period was a capital offence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986503_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986503-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bill was introduced by <a href="/wiki/William_Thompson_(Ipswich_MP)" title="William Thompson (Ipswich MP)">William Thomson</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General" class="mw-redirect" title="Solicitor General">Solicitor General</a>, who was "the architect of the transportation policy".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001429_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001429-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson, a supporter of the Whigs, was <a href="/wiki/Recorder_(judge)" title="Recorder (judge)">Recorder</a> of London and became a judge in 1729. He was a prominent sentencing officer at the Old Bailey and the man who gave important information about capital offenders to the cabinet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001426_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001426-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One reason for the success of this Act was that transportation was financially costly. The system of sponsorship by merchants had to be improved. Initially the government rejected Thomson's proposal to pay merchants to transport convicts, but three months after the first transportation sentences were pronounced at the Old Bailey, his suggestion was proposed again, and the Treasury contracted <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Forward" title="Jonathan Forward">Jonathan Forward</a>, a London merchant, for the transportation to the colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001430_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001430-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The business was entrusted to Forward in 1718: for each prisoner transported overseas, he was paid £3 (equivalent to £590 in 2023), rising to £5 in 1727 (equivalent to £940 in 2023). The Treasury also paid for the transportation of prisoners from the <a href="/wiki/Home_Counties" class="mw-redirect" title="Home Counties">Home Counties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986504_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986504-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "Felons' Act" (as the Transportation Act was called) was printed and distributed in 1718, and in April twenty-seven men and women were sentenced to transportation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001432_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001432-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Act led to significant changes: both <a href="/wiki/Petty_larceny" class="mw-redirect" title="Petty larceny">petty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_larceny" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand larceny">grand larceny</a> were punished by transportation (seven years), and the sentence for any non-capital offence was at the judge's discretion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986506_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986506-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1723 an Act was presented in Virginia to discourage transportation by establishing complex rules for the reception of prisoners, but the reluctance of colonies did not stop transportation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986505_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986505-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a few cases before 1734, the court changed sentences of transportation to sentences of branding on the thumb or whipping, by convicting the accused for lesser crimes than those of which they were accused.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001435_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001435-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001439_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001439-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This manipulation phase came to an end in 1734. With the exception of those years, the Transportation Act led to a decrease in whipping of convicts, thus avoiding potentially inflammatory public displays. Clergyable discharge continued to be used when the accused could not be transported for reasons of age or infirmity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001447_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001447-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women_and_children">Women and children</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Women and children"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Penal transportation was not limited to men or even to adults. Men, women, and children were sentenced to transportation, but its implementation varied by sex and age. From 1660 to 1670, highway robbery, <a href="/wiki/Burglary" title="Burglary">burglary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Horse_theft" title="Horse theft">horse theft</a> were the offences most often punishable with transportation for men. In those years, five of the nine women who were transported after being sentenced to death were guilty of simple larceny, an offence for which <a href="/wiki/Benefit_of_clergy" title="Benefit of clergy">benefit of clergy</a> was not available for women until 1692.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986474_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986474-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, merchants preferred young and able-bodied men for whom there was a demand in the colonies. </p><p>All these factors meant that most women and children were simply left in jail.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986479_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986479-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some magistrates supported a proposal to release women who could not be transported, but this solution was considered absurd: this caused the Lords Justices to order that no distinction be made between men and women.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986483_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986483-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women were sent to the <a href="/wiki/Leeward_Islands" title="Leeward Islands">Leeward Islands</a>, the only colony that accepted them, and the government had to pay to send them overseas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986482_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986482-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1696 <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a> refused to welcome a group of prisoners because most of them were women; <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> similarly accepted convicts but not "women, children nor other infirm persons".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986481_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986481-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thanks to transportation, the number of men whipped and released diminished, but whipping and discharge were chosen more often for women. The reverse was true when women were sentenced for a capital offence, but actually served a lesser sentence due to a manipulation of the penal system: one advantage of this sentence was that they could be discharged thanks to benefit of clergy while men were whipped.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001444_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001444-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women with young children were also supported since transportation unavoidably separated them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001444_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001444-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The facts and numbers revealed how transportation was less frequently applied to women and children because they were usually guilty of minor crimes and they were considered a minimal threat to the community.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001435_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001435-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_end_of_transportation">The end of transportation<span class="anchor" id="Criminal_Law_Act_1776"></span></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The end of transportation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">United Kingdom legislation</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:100%"><span style="font-size:125%">Criminal Law Act 1776</span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;">Act of Parliament</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg/210px-Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg/280px-Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament of Great Britain</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Short_and_long_titles" title="Short and long titles">Long title</a></th><td class="infobox-data description">An Act to authorize, for a limited Time, the Punishment, by hard Labour, of Offenders who, for certain Crimes, are or shall become liable to be transported to any of His Majesty’s Colonies and Plantations.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Citation_of_United_Kingdom_legislation" title="Citation of United Kingdom legislation">Citation</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/16_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="16 Geo. 3">16 Geo. 3</a>. c. 43</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Dates</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">Royal assent</a></th><td class="infobox-data">23 May 1776</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Repealed</th><td class="infobox-data dtend">21 August 1871</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Other legislation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Amended by</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><li>Criminal Law Act 1778</li><li>Criminal Law Act 1779</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repealed by</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Statute_Law_Revision_Act_1871" title="Statute Law Revision Act 1871">Statute Law Revision Act 1871</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"><div style="background-color: #ffcccc;">Status: Repealed</div></th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B09RAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA262">Text of statute as originally enacted</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <p>The outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> (1775–1783) halted transportation to America. Parliament claimed that "the transportation of convicts to his Majesty's colonies and plantations in America ... is found to be attended with various inconveniences, particularly by depriving this kingdom of many subjects whose labour might be useful to the community, and who, by proper care and correction, might be reclaimed from their evil course"; they then passed the <b>Criminal Law Act 1776</b> (<a href="/wiki/16_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="16 Geo. 3">16 Geo. 3</a>. c. 43) "An act to authorize ... the punishment by hard labour of offenders who, for certain crimes, are or shall become liable to be transported to any of his Majesty's colonies and plantations."<sup id="cite_ref-BasAsylum_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BasAsylum-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Criminal_Law_Act_1778"></span><span class="anchor" id="Criminal_Law_Act_1779"></span> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">United Kingdom legislation</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox vevent mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:100%"><span style="font-size:125%">Criminal Law Act 1778</span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;">Act of Parliament</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg/210px-Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg/280px-Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament of Great Britain</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Short_and_long_titles" title="Short and long titles">Long title</a></th><td class="infobox-data description">An Act to continue an Act made in the Sixteenth Year of His present Majesty, intituled, "An Act to authorize, for a limited Time, the Punishment by hard Labour of Offenders who, for certain Crimes, are or shall become liable to be transported to any of His Majesty's Colonies and Plantations."</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Citation_of_United_Kingdom_legislation" title="Citation of United Kingdom legislation">Citation</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/18_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="18 Geo. 3">18 Geo. 3</a>. c. 62</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Dates</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">Royal assent</a></th><td class="infobox-data">28 May 1778</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Repealed</th><td class="infobox-data dtend">21 August 1871</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Other legislation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Amends</th><td class="infobox-data">Criminal Law Act 1776</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repealed by</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Statute_Law_Revision_Act_1871" title="Statute Law Revision Act 1871">Statute Law Revision Act 1871</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"><div style="background-color: #ffcccc;">Status: Repealed</div></th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">United Kingdom legislation</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox vevent mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:100%"><span style="font-size:125%">Criminal Law Act 1779</span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;">Act of Parliament</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg/210px-Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg/280px-Coat_of_arms_of_Great_Britain_%281714%E2%80%931801%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament of Great Britain</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Short_and_long_titles" title="Short and long titles">Long title</a></th><td class="infobox-data description">An Act for further continuing, for a limited Time, an Act made in the Sixteenth Year of the Reign of His present Majesty, intituled, "An Act to authorize, for a limited Time, the Punishment, by hard Labour, of Offenders, who for certain Crimes are or shall become liable to be transported to any of His Majesty's Colonies and Plantations."</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Citation_of_United_Kingdom_legislation" title="Citation of United Kingdom legislation">Citation</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/19_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="19 Geo. 3">19 Geo. 3</a>. c. 54</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Dates</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">Royal assent</a></th><td class="infobox-data">31 May 1779</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Repealed</th><td class="infobox-data dtend">21 August 1871</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Other legislation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Amends</th><td class="infobox-data">Criminal Law Act 1776</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repealed by</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Statute_Law_Revision_Act_1871" title="Statute Law Revision Act 1871">Statute Law Revision Act 1871</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"><div style="background-color: #ffcccc;">Status: Repealed</div></th></tr></tbody></table> <p>For the ensuing decade, men were instead sentenced to hard labour and women were imprisoned. Finding alternative locations to send convicts was not easy, and the act was extended twice by the <b>Criminal Law Act 1778</b> (<a href="/wiki/18_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="18 Geo. 3">18 Geo. 3</a>. c. 62) and the <b>Criminal Law Act 1779</b> (<a href="/wiki/19_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="19 Geo. 3">19 Geo. 3</a>. c. 54).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This resulted in a 1779 inquiry by a parliamentary committee on the entire subject of transportation and punishment; initially the <a href="/wiki/Penitentiary_Act_1779" title="Penitentiary Act 1779">Penitentiary Act 1779</a> was passed, introducing a policy of state prisons as a measure to reform the system of <a href="/wiki/Prison_overcrowding" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison overcrowding">overcrowded</a> <a href="/wiki/Prison_ship" title="Prison ship">prison hulks</a> that had developed, but no prisons were ever built as a result of the act.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transportation,_etc._Act_1784&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transportation, etc. Act 1784 (page does not exist)">Transportation, etc. Act 1784</a> (<a href="/wiki/24_Geo._3._Sess._2" class="mw-redirect" title="24 Geo. 3. Sess. 2">24 Geo. 3. Sess. 2</a>. c. 56)<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transportation,_etc._Act_1785&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transportation, etc. Act 1785 (page does not exist)">Transportation, etc. Act 1785</a> (<a href="/wiki/25_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="25 Geo. 3">25 Geo. 3</a>. c. 46)<sup id="cite_ref-archive.org_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-archive.org-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also resulted to help alleviate overcrowding. Both acts empowered the Crown to appoint certain places within his dominions, or outside them, as the destination for transported criminals; the acts would move convicts around the country as needed for labour, or where they could be utilized and accommodated. </p><p>The overcrowding situation and the resumption of transportation would be initially resolved by <a href="/wiki/Orders_in_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Orders in Council">Orders in Council</a> on 6 December 1786, by the decision to establish a penal colony in <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a>, on land previously claimed for Britain in 1770,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but as yet not settled by Britain or any other European power. The British policy toward Australia, specifically for use as a <a href="/wiki/Penal_colony" title="Penal colony">penal colony</a>, within their overall plans to populate and colonise the continent, would differentiate it from America, where the use of convicts was only a minor adjunct to its overall policy.<sup id="cite_ref-ShHist_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShHist-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1787, when transportation resumed to the chosen Australian colonies, the far greater distance added to the terrible experience of exile, and it was considered more severe than the methods of imprisonment employed for the previous decade.<sup id="cite_ref-oldbaileyonline1_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oldbaileyonline1-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transportation_Act_1790&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transportation Act 1790 (page does not exist)">Transportation Act 1790</a> (<a href="/wiki/30_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="30 Geo. 3">30 Geo. 3</a>. c. 47) officially enacted the previous orders in council into law, stating "his Majesty hath declared and appointed... that the eastern coast of New South Wales, and the islands thereunto adjacent, should be the place or places beyond the seas to which certain felons, and other offenders, should be conveyed and transported ... or other places". The act also gave "authority to remit or shorten the time or term" of the sentence "in cases where it shall appear that such felons, or other offenders, are proper objects of the royal mercy"<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Transportation_Act_1824"></span> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">United Kingdom legislation</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox vevent mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:100%"><span style="font-size:125%">Transportation Act 1824</span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;">Act of Parliament</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg/210px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg/280px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1550" /></span></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Short_and_long_titles" title="Short and long titles">Long title</a></th><td class="infobox-data description">An act for the Transportation of Offenders from Great Britain.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Citation_of_United_Kingdom_legislation" title="Citation of United Kingdom legislation">Citation</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/5_Geo._4" class="mw-redirect" title="5 Geo. 4">5 Geo. 4</a>. c. 84</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Dates</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">Royal assent</a></th><td class="infobox-data">21 June 1824</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Coming_into_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Coming into force">Commencement</a></th><td class="infobox-data dtstart">21 June 1824</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Repealed</th><td class="infobox-data dtend">5 August 1873</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Other legislation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Amended by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Statute_Law_Revision_Act_1873" title="Statute Law Revision Act 1873">Statute Law Revision Act 1873</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"><div style="background-color: #ffffcc;">Status: Amended</div></th></tr></tbody></table> <p>At the beginning of the 19th century, transportation for life became the maximum penalty for several offences which had previously been punishable by death.<sup id="cite_ref-oldbaileyonline1_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oldbaileyonline1-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With complaints starting in the 1830s, sentences of transportation became less common in 1840 since the system was perceived to be a failure: crime continued at high levels, people were not dissuaded from committing felonies, and the conditions of convicts in the colonies were inhumane. Although a concerted programme of prison building ensued, the <a href="/wiki/Short_Titles_Act_1896" title="Short Titles Act 1896">Short Titles Act 1896</a> lists seven other laws relating to penal transportation in the first half of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-ShTitl_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShTitl-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The system of criminal punishment by transportation, as it had developed over nearly 150 years, was officially ended in Britain in the 1850s, when that sentence was substituted by imprisonment with <a href="/wiki/Penal_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal labor">penal servitude</a>, and intended to punish. The <a href="/wiki/Penal_Servitude_Act_1853" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal Servitude Act 1853">Penal Servitude Act 1853</a> (<a href="/wiki/16_%26_17_Vict." class="mw-redirect" title="16 & 17 Vict.">16 & 17 Vict.</a> c. 99), long titled "An Act to substitute, in certain Cases, other Punishment in lieu of Transportation,"<sup id="cite_ref-ShTitl_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShTitl-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> enacted that with judicial discretion, lesser felonies, those subject to transportation for less than 14 years, could be sentenced to imprisonment with labour for a specific term. To provide confinement facilities, the general change in sentencing was passed in conjunction with the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Convict_Prisons_Act_1853&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Convict Prisons Act 1853 (page does not exist)">Convict Prisons Act 1853</a> (<a href="/wiki/16_%26_17_Vict." class="mw-redirect" title="16 & 17 Vict.">16 & 17 Vict.</a> c. 121), long titled "An Act for providing Places of Confinement in England or Wales for Female Offenders under Sentence or Order of Transportation."<sup id="cite_ref-ShTitl_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShTitl-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_Servitude_Act_1857&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Penal Servitude Act 1857 (page does not exist)">Penal Servitude Act 1857</a> (<a href="/wiki/20_%26_21_Vict." class="mw-redirect" title="20 & 21 Vict.">20 & 21 Vict.</a> c. 3) ended the sentence of transportation in virtually all cases, with the terms of sentence initially being of the same duration as transportation.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oldbaileyonline1_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oldbaileyonline1-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While transport was greatly reduced following enactment of the 1857 act, the last convicts sentenced to transportation arrived in Western Australia in 1868. During the 80 years of its use to Australia, the number of transported convicts totalled about 162,000 men and women.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time the alternative terms of imprisonment would be somewhat reduced from their terms of transportation.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transportation_locations">Transportation locations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Transportation locations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transportation_to_North_America">Transportation to North America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Transportation to North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the early 1600s until the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> of 1776, the British colonies in North America received transported British criminals. Destinations were the island colonies of the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">mainland colonies</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEkirch1987112,_114–115_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEkirch1987112,_114–115-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that became the United States of America.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 17th century transportation was carried out at the expense of the convicts or the shipowners. The <a href="/wiki/Transportation_Act_1717" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation Act 1717">Transportation Act 1717</a> allowed courts to sentence convicts to seven years' transportation to America. In 1720, an extension authorized payments by <a href="/wiki/The_Crown" title="The Crown">the Crown</a> to merchants contracted to take the convicts to America. The Transportation Act made returning from transportation a <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital offence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oldbaileyonline1_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oldbaileyonline1-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of convicts transported to North America is not verified: <a href="/wiki/John_Dunmore_Lang" title="John Dunmore Lang">John Dunmore Lang</a> has estimated 50,000, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Keneally" title="Thomas Keneally">Thomas Keneally</a> has proposed 120,000. Maryland received a larger felon quota than any other province.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many prisoners were taken in battle from Ireland or Scotland and sold into <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servant">indentured servitude</a>, usually for a number of years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEkirch1987_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEkirch1987-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2013)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The American Revolution brought transportation to the North American mainland to an end. The remaining British colonies (in what is now Canada) were regarded as unsuitable for various reasons, including the possibility that transportation might increase dissatisfaction with British rule among settlers and/or the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Annexation_movements_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Annexation movements of Canada">annexation by the United States</a> – as well as the ease with which prisoners could escape across the border. </p><p>After the termination of transportation to North America, British prisons became overcrowded, and dilapidated ships moored in various ports were pressed into service as <a href="/wiki/Prison_ship" title="Prison ship">floating gaols</a> known as "hulks".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following an 18th-century experiment in transporting convicted prisoners to <a href="/wiki/Cape_Coast_Castle" title="Cape Coast Castle">Cape Coast Castle</a> (modern Ghana) and the <a href="/wiki/Gor%C3%A9e" title="Gorée">Gorée</a> (Senegal) in West Africa,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> British authorities turned their attention to <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a> (in what would become Australia). </p><p>From the 1820s until the 1860s, convicts were sent to the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_fortress" title="Imperial fortress">Imperial fortress</a> colony of <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> (part of <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a>) to work on the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Dockyard,_Bermuda" title="Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda">Royal Naval Dockyard</a> and other defence works, including at the East End of the archipelago, where they were accommodated aboard the <a href="/wiki/Prison_hulk" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison hulk">hulk</a> of <a href="/wiki/HMS_Thames" title="HMS Thames">HMS <i>Thames</i></a> at an area still known as "<a href="/wiki/Convict%27s_Bay,_Bermuda" title="Convict's Bay, Bermuda">Convict Bay</a>", at <a href="/wiki/St._George%27s,_Bermuda" title="St. George's, Bermuda">St. George's</a> town. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ireland_Island_Woodcut.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Ireland_Island_Woodcut.jpg/800px-Ireland_Island_Woodcut.jpg" decoding="async" width="800" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Ireland_Island_Woodcut.jpg/1200px-Ireland_Island_Woodcut.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Ireland_Island_Woodcut.jpg/1600px-Ireland_Island_Woodcut.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2940" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption>1848 Woodcut of <a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Dockyard,_Bermuda" title="Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda">HMD Bermuda</a> on <a href="/wiki/Ireland_Island,_Bermuda" title="Ireland Island, Bermuda">Ireland Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a>, showing <a href="/wiki/Prison_hulk" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison hulk">prison hulks</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transportation_to_Australia">Transportation to Australia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Transportation to Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Convicts_in_Australia" title="Convicts in Australia">Convicts in Australia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dorset_Sturminster_Newton_Bridge_notice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Dorset_Sturminster_Newton_Bridge_notice.jpg/220px-Dorset_Sturminster_Newton_Bridge_notice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Dorset_Sturminster_Newton_Bridge_notice.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="314" data-file-height="222" /></a><figcaption>This notice on a bridge in <a href="/wiki/Dorset" title="Dorset">Dorset</a> warns that damage to the bridge can be punished by transportation.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1787, the <a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">First Fleet</a>, a group of <a href="/wiki/Convict_ship" title="Convict ship">convict ships</a> departed from England to establish the first colonial settlement in Australia, as a <a href="/wiki/Penal_colony" title="Penal colony">penal colony</a>. The First Fleet included boats containing food and animals from London. The ships and boats of the fleet would explore the coast of Australia by sailing all around it looking for suitable farming land and resources. The fleet arrived at <a href="/wiki/Botany_Bay" title="Botany Bay">Botany Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> on 18 January 1788, then moved to <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Cove" title="Sydney Cove">Sydney Cove</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Circular_Quay,_Sydney" class="mw-redirect" title="Circular Quay, Sydney">Circular Quay</a>) and established the first permanent European settlement in Australia. This marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1788%E2%80%931850)" title="History of Australia (1788–1850)">European colonisation of Australia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Australian_frontier_wars" title="Australian frontier wars">Violent conflict</a> on the Australian frontier between <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">indigenous Australians</a> and the colonists began only months after the First Fleet landed, lasting over a century. Convicts forced to work in <a href="/wiki/The_bush" title="The bush">the bush</a> on the frontier were sometimes the victims of indigenous attacks, while convicts and ex-convicts also attacked indigenous people in some instances, such as the <a href="/wiki/Myall_Creek_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Myall Creek Massacre">Myall Creek Massacre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ausgov_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ausgov-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Hawkesbury_and_Nepean_Wars" title="Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars">Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars</a>, a group of Irish convicts joined the <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal coalition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eora" title="Eora">Eora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gandangara" title="Gandangara">Gandangara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dharug" title="Dharug">Dharug</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tharawal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tharawal">Tharawal</a> nations in their fight against the colonists. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island" title="Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a>, east of the Australian mainland, was a convict penal settlement from 1788 to 1794, and again from 1824 to 1847. In 1803, <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Van Diemen's Land</a> (modern-day Tasmania) was also settled as a penal colony, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Moreton_Bay_Penal_Settlement" title="Moreton Bay Penal Settlement">Moreton Bay Settlement</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Brisbane" title="Brisbane">Brisbane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a>) in 1824. The other <a href="/wiki/States_and_territories_of_Australia" title="States and territories of Australia">Australian colonies</a> were established as "free settlements", as non-convict colonies were known. However, the <a href="/wiki/Swan_River_Colony" title="Swan River Colony">Swan River Colony</a> (Western Australia) accepted transportation from England and Ireland in 1851, to resolve a long-standing <a href="/wiki/Labor_shortage" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor shortage">labour shortage</a>. </p><p>Two penal settlements were established near modern-day <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a> in <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria (Australia)">Victoria</a> but both were abandoned shortly after. Later, a free settlement was established and this settlement later accepted some convict transportation. </p><p>Until the massive influx of immigrants during the <a href="/wiki/Australian_gold_rushes" title="Australian gold rushes">Australian gold rushes</a> of the 1850s, free settlers had been outnumbered by penal convicts and their descendants. However, compared to the <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British American colonies</a>, Australia received a larger number of convicts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Convicts were generally treated harshly, forced to work against their will, often doing hard physical labour and dangerous jobs. In some cases they were cuffed and chained in work gangs. The majority of convicts were men, although a significant portion were women. Some were as young as 10 when convicted and transported to Australia. Most were guilty of relatively minor crimes like theft of food/clothes/small items, but some were convicted of serious crimes like rape or murder. Convict status was not inherited by children, and convicts were generally freed after serving their sentence, although many died during transportation or during their sentence.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Convict_assignment" title="Convict assignment">Convict assignment</a> (sending convicts to work for private individuals) occurred in all penal colonies aside from <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a>, and can be compared with the practice of <a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">convict leasing</a> in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Transportation from Great Britain and Ireland ended at different times in different colonies, with the last being in 1868, although it had become uncommon several years earlier thanks to the loosening of laws in Britain, changing sentiment in Australia, and groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Transportation_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Transportation League">Anti-Transportation League</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015, an estimated 20% of the Australian population had convict ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-conversationancestry_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conversationancestry-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013, an estimated 30% of the Australian population (about 7 million) had Irish ancestry – the highest percentage outside of Ireland – thanks partially to historical convict transportation.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transportation_from_British_India">Transportation from British India</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Transportation from British India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British India</a> – including the province of <a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma" title="British rule in Burma">Burma</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>) and the port of <a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a> (now part of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>) – <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Indian independence activists</a> were penally transported to the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_Islands" title="Andaman Islands">Andaman Islands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ACJ_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACJ-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A penal colony was established there in 1857 with prisoners from the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857" title="Indian Rebellion of 1857">Indian Rebellion of 1857</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TheHindu_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheHindu-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the Indian independence movement swelled, so did the number of prisoners who were penally transported.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Cellular_Jail" title="Cellular Jail">Cellular Jail</a> in <a href="/wiki/Port_Blair" title="Port Blair">Port Blair</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Andaman_Island" title="South Andaman Island">South Andaman Island</a>, also called Kālā Pānī or Kalapani (Hindi for black waters), was constructed between 1896 and 1906 as a high-security prison with 698 individual cells for <a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">solitary confinement</a>. Surviving prisoners were repatriated in 1937. The penal settlement was shut down in 1945. An estimated 80,000 political prisoners were transported to the Cellular Jail<sup id="cite_ref-TheHindu_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheHindu-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which became known for its harsh conditions, including forced labor; prisoners who went on <a href="/wiki/Hunger_strike" title="Hunger strike">hunger strikes</a> were frequently <a href="/wiki/Force-feeding" title="Force-feeding">force-fed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OurHell_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OurHell-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="France">France</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>France transported convicts to <a href="/wiki/Devil%27s_Island" title="Devil's Island">Devil's Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> in the 19th and early-to-mid 20th centuries. Devil's Island, a French penal colony in <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">Guiana</a>, was used for transportation from 1852 to 1953. <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> became a French penal colony from the 1860s until the end of the transportations in 1897; about 22,000 criminals and political prisoners (most notably <a href="/wiki/Communards" title="Communards">Communards</a>) were sent to New Caledonia. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Henri_Charri%C3%A8re" title="Henri Charrière">Henri Charrière</a> (16 November 1906  – 29 July 1973) was a French writer, convicted in 1931 as a murderer by the French courts and pardoned in 1970. He wrote the novel <i><a href="/wiki/Papillon_(book)" title="Papillon (book)">Papillon</a></i>, a semi-autobiographical novel of his incarceration in and escape from a <a href="/wiki/Penal_colony" title="Penal colony">penal colony</a> in <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a>. </p><p>The most significant individual transported prisoner is probably French army officer <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Dreyfus" title="Alfred Dreyfus">Alfred Dreyfus</a>, wrongly convicted of <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a> in a trial in 1894, held in an atmosphere of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a>. He was sent to Devil's Island. The case became a <a href="/wiki/Cause_c%C3%A9l%C3%A8bre" title="Cause célèbre">cause célèbre</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Dreyfus_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreyfus Affair">Dreyfus Affair</a>, and Dreyfus was fully exonerated in 1906. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer in the Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/101st_kilometre" title="101st kilometre">101st kilometre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">Deportation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet law">Soviet law</a></div> <p>Unlike normal penal transportation, many Soviet people were transported as criminals in forms of <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deportation</a> being proclaimed as enemies of people in a form of <a href="/wiki/Collective_punishment" title="Collective punishment">collective punishment</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>, the Soviet Union transported up to 1.9 million people from its western republics to Siberia and the Central Asian republics of the Union. Most were persons accused of treasonous collaboration with Nazi Germany, or of Anti-Soviet rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-Statiev_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Statiev-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Joseph_Stalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Joseph Stalin">death of Joseph Stalin</a>, most of them were rehabilitated. Populations targeted included <a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans" title="Volga Germans">Volga Germans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chechens" title="Chechens">Chechens</a>, and Caucasian <a href="/wiki/Turkic_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkic people">Turkic</a> populations. The transportations had a twofold objective: to remove potential liabilities from the warfront, and to provide human capital for the settlement and industrialization of the largely underpopulated eastern regions. The policy continued until February 1956, when <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> in his speech, "<a href="/wiki/On_the_Personality_Cult_and_Its_Consequences" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Personality Cult and Its Consequences">On the Personality Cult and Its Consequences</a>", condemned the transportation as a violation of <a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninist</a> principles. Whilst the policy itself was rescinded, the transported populations did not begin to return to their original metropoles until after the collapse of the Soviet Union, in 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_Russia">Modern Russia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Modern Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Russian government today still sends their convicts and <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a> to prisons that echo those of the Soviet Union. The journey to these prisons and labor camps is long and arduous. </p><p>Conditions on the <a href="/wiki/Stolypin_wagon" title="Stolypin wagon">Stolypins</a> (specialized train cars) are very poor. In many cases, the Russian penitentiary system utilizes special cars. These cars contain five large compartments and three smaller compartments. The larger car is 3.5 meters squared. The size of the larger car is approximately the same as normal Russian railcar spaces. The larger compartments have six and a half individual sleeping spaces. There are three bunks on each wall and a half bunk that goes between the two middle bunks. The half bunk is not full sized and prevents prisoners from standing up in the car. For food, prisoners are given dehydrated food three times a day and limited amounts of hot water to rehydrate their meals. Bedding is not provided nor are mattresses.<sup id="cite_ref-Statiev_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Statiev-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During transit, prisoners do not have access to proper medical treatment. The medication that a prisoner would normally take is carried by guards. Transportation routes are often cyclical and prisoners do not know where they are going.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This sense of unease and unknowing has been known to increase feelings of isolation. This process<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> can take 3–5 hours which further prolongs travel time. Prisoners have very limited access to toilets while on the trains, about every five to six hours.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the trains are stationary they have no access at all. This can be very difficult as trains often are kept at stations or <a href="/wiki/Train_depot" class="mw-redirect" title="Train depot">train depots</a> for extended periods of time. </p><p>While traveling to and from train stations, prisoners are transported in vans.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the time spent in vans is usually shorter than the time spent in trains, the conditions are still quite bad. The vans normally have two larger compartments that can fit 10 prisoners. Within the compartments there is a smaller compartment that is used to keep "at risk" prisoners safe. The smaller compartment is known as a <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_transport_vehicle" title="Prisoner transport vehicle">stakan</a> and is smaller than 0.5 meter squared.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_77-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to poor transit conditions, prisoners are severely limited in their communication with the outside world. Prisoners are denied the right to communicate with their lawyers and families.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_77-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be difficult for their families because they do not know where the prisoner is or what has happened to them.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_77-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Performing_arts">Performing arts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Performing arts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Penal transportation is a feature of many <a href="/wiki/Broadside_ballads" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadside ballads">broadsides</a>, a new type of folk song that developed in eighteenth-century England.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of these <a href="/wiki/Transportation_Ballads" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation Ballads">transportation ballads</a> have been collected from traditional singers. Examples include "<a href="/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land_(folk_song)" title="Van Diemen's Land (folk song)">Van Diemen's Land</a>," "<a href="/wiki/The_Black_Velvet_Band" title="The Black Velvet Band">The Black Velvet Band</a>," "<a href="/wiki/The_Peeler_and_the_Goat" title="The Peeler and the Goat">The Peeler and the Goat</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/The_Fields_of_Athenry" title="The Fields of Athenry">The Fields of Athenry</a>." </p><p><a href="/wiki/Timberlake_Wertenbaker" title="Timberlake Wertenbaker">Timberlake Wertenbaker</a>'s play <i><a href="/wiki/Our_Country%27s_Good" title="Our Country's Good">Our Country's Good</a></i> is set in 1780s in the first Australian penal colony. In the 1988 play, <a href="/wiki/Convictism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Convictism in Australia">convicts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines" title="Royal Marines">Royal Marines</a> arrive aboard a <a href="/wiki/First_Fleet" title="First Fleet">First Fleet</a> ship and settle <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a>. Convicts and guards interact as they rehearse a <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">theatre production</a>, which the governor had suggested as an alternate form of entertainment instead of watching public hangings.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the key characters in <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a>'s novel <i><a href="/wiki/Great_Expectations" title="Great Expectations">Great Expectations</a></i> is an escaped convict, <a href="/wiki/Abel_Magwitch" title="Abel Magwitch">Abel Magwitch</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pip_(Great_Expectations)" title="Pip (Great Expectations)">Pip</a> helps him in the opening pages of the novel. Magwitch, who had been apprehended shortly after the young Pip had helped him, was thereafter sentenced to transportation for life to <a href="/wiki/New_South_Wales" title="New South Wales">New South Wales</a> in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. While so exiled, he earned the fortune that he later would use to help Pip. Further, it was Magwitch's desire to see the "gentleman" that Pip had become that motivated him to illegally return to England, which ultimately led to his arrest and death. <i>Great Expectations</i> was published in <a href="/wiki/Serial_(literature)" title="Serial (literature)">serial form</a> in 1860–1861. In Dickens's novel <i><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Twist" title="Oliver Twist">Oliver Twist</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Artful_Dodger" title="Artful Dodger">Artful Dodger</a> is convicted and transported to Australia. </p><p><i>My Transportation for Life</i>, Indian freedom fighter <a href="/wiki/Veer_Savarkar" class="mw-redirect" title="Veer Savarkar">Veer Savarkar</a>'s memoir of his imprisonment, is set in the British <a href="/wiki/Cellular_Jail" title="Cellular Jail">Cellular Jail</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_Islands" title="Andaman Islands">Andaman Islands</a>. Savarkar was imprisoned there from 1911 to 1921. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Franz_Kafka" title="Franz Kafka">Franz Kafka</a>'s story "In der Strafkolonie" ("<a href="/wiki/In_the_Penal_Colony" title="In the Penal Colony">In the Penal Colony</a>"), published in 1919, was set in an unidentified penal settlement where condemned prisoners were executed by a brutal machine. The work was later adapted for several other media, including an opera by <a href="/wiki/Philip_Glass" title="Philip Glass">Philip Glass</a>. </p><p>The novel <i><a href="/wiki/Papillon_(book)" title="Papillon (book)">Papillon</a></i> tells the story of <a href="/wiki/Henri_Charri%C3%A8re" title="Henri Charrière">Henri Charrière</a>, a French man convicted of murder in 1931 and exiled to the French Guiana penal colony on <a href="/wiki/Devil%27s_Island" title="Devil's Island">Devil's Island</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Papillon_(1973_film)" title="Papillon (1973 film)">film adaptation of the book</a> was made in 1973, starring <a href="/wiki/Steve_McQueen" title="Steve McQueen">Steve McQueen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dustin_Hoffman" title="Dustin Hoffman">Dustin Hoffman</a>. </p><p>The British author <a href="/wiki/W._Somerset_Maugham" title="W. Somerset Maugham">W. Somerset Maugham</a> set several stories in the French Caribbean penal colonies. In 1935 he had stayed at <a href="/wiki/Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni" title="Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni">Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni</a> in <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a>. His 1939 novel <i><a href="/wiki/Christmas_Holiday_(novel)" title="Christmas Holiday (novel)">Christmas Holiday</a></i> and two short stories in 1940's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Mixture_as_Before" title="The Mixture as Before">The Mixture as Before</a></i> were set there, although he "ignored the brutal punishments and painted a pleasant picture of the infamous colony."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Penal transportation, typically to other planets, sometimes appears in works of <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a>. A classic example is <i><a href="/wiki/The_Moon_is_a_Harsh_Mistress" class="mw-redirect" title="The Moon is a Harsh Mistress">The Moon is a Harsh Mistress</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Heinlein" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Heinlein">Robert Heinlein</a> (1966), in which convicts and political dissidents are transported to lunar colonies in order to grow food for Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Heinlein's book, a sentence of lunar transportation is necessarily permanent, as the long-term physiological effects of the moon's weak surface gravity (about one-sixth that of Earth) leave "loonies" unable to return safely to Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Transport" title="Portal:Transport">Transport portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Transportation_of_British_Convicts_to_the_Colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="The Transportation of British Convicts to the Colonies">Bound for America</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/A._Roger_Ekirch" class="mw-redirect" title="A. Roger Ekirch">A. Roger Ekirch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_detention_camp" title="Guantanamo Bay detention camp">Guantanamo Bay detention camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_children" class="mw-redirect" title="Home children">Home children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millbank_Prison" title="Millbank Prison">Millbank Prison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">Prison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windrush_scandal" title="Windrush scandal">Windrush scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Australian_penal_colonies" title="Category:Australian penal colonies">Category:Australian penal colonies</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-DigitalPanopticon-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DigitalPanopticon_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DigitalPanopticon_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell-StewartWatkinsn.d." class="citation web cs1">Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish; Watkins, Emma (n.d.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitalpanopticon.org/Transportation">"Transportation"</a>. <i>Digital Panopticon</i>. Digital Panopticon Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190108014918/https://www.digitalpanopticon.org/Transportation">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+Panopticon&rft.atitle=Transportation&rft.aulast=Maxwell-Stewart&rft.aufirst=Hamish&rft.au=Watkins%2C+Emma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalpanopticon.org%2FTransportation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalarchives.ie/topics/transportation/transp1.html">"Topics: Transportation of Irish convicts to Australia (1791-1853) : Introduction"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Topics%3A+Transportation+of+Irish+convicts+to+Australia+%281791-1853%29+%3A+Introduction&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalarchives.ie%2Ftopics%2Ftransportation%2Ftransp1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.british-history.ac.uk/no-series/acts-ordinances-interregnum/pp403-406">"August 1650: An Act for the Advancing and Regulating of the Trade of this Commonwealth"</a>. <i>Acts and Ordinances of the Interregnum, 1642–1660</i>. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office. 1911. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180919112902/https://www.british-history.ac.uk/no-series/acts-ordinances-interregnum/pp403-406">Archived</a> from the original on 19 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2021</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Historical_Research" title="Institute of Historical Research">Institute of Historical Research</a>. <q>The Parliament of England taking into their care the maintenance and advance of the Traffick Trade, and several Manufactures of this Nation; and being desirous to improve and multiply the same for the best advantage and benefit thereof, to the end that ye poore people of this Land may be set on work, and their Families preserved from Beggary and Ruine, and that the Commonwealth might be enriched thereby, and no occasion left either for Idleness or Poverty:...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Acts+and+Ordinances+of+the+Interregnum%2C+1642%E2%80%931660&rft.atitle=August+1650%3A+An+Act+for+the+Advancing+and+Regulating+of+the+Trade+of+this+Commonwealth&rft.date=1911&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-history.ac.uk%2Fno-series%2Facts-ordinances-interregnum%2Fpp403-406&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924026356299/cu31924026356299_djvu.txt">Acts of the Privy Council of England</a> Colonial Series, Vol. I, 1613–1680, p. 12. (1908)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Egerton, Hugh Edward,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ashorthistorybr01egergoog#page/n60/mode/2up">A short history of British colonial policy</a>, p. 40 (1897)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.british-history.ac.uk/statutes-realm/vol5/p709">"Charles II, 1670 & 1671: An Act to prevent the malitious burning of Houses, Stackes of Corne and Hay and killing or maiming of Catle"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170307044653/http://www.british-history.ac.uk/statutes-realm/vol5/p709">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Charles+II%2C+1670+%26+1671%3A+An+Act+to+prevent+the+malitious+burning+of+Houses%2C+Stackes+of+Corne+and+Hay+and+killing+or+maiming+of+Catle.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-history.ac.uk%2Fstatutes-realm%2Fvol5%2Fp709&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Davie Butler, "British Convicts Shipped to American Colonies," <i>American Historical Review</i> (1896) 2#1 pp. 12–33 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1833611">in JSTOR</a>; Thomas Keneally, <i>The Commonwealth of Thieves</i>, Random House Publishing, Sydney, 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPickering1775" class="citation web cs1">Pickering, Danby (1775). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B09RAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA262">"An act to authorise, for a limited time, the punishment by hard labour of offenders who, for certain crimes, are or shall become liable to be transported to any of his Majesty's colonies and plantations"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180329231528/https://books.google.com/books?id=B09RAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA262&">Archived</a> from the original on 29 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+act+to+authorise%2C+for+a+limited+time%2C+the+punishment+by+hard+labour+of+offenders+who%2C+for+certain+crimes%2C+are+or+shall+become+liable+to+be+transported+to+any+of+his+Majesty%27s+colonies+and+plantations&rft.date=1775&rft.aulast=Pickering&rft.aufirst=Danby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB09RAQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/statutesatlarge54britgoog#page/n504/mode/2up">Transportation Act 1717</a>, Section 8, p. 475</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-archive.org-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-archive.org_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-archive.org_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/statutesatlarge23unkngoog#page/n206/mode/2up">"An act for the effectual transportation of felons, and other offenders, in that part of Great Britain called Scotland, and to authorize the removal of prisoners in certain places."</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonnachie1984" class="citation cs2">Donnachie, Ian (1984), "Scottish Criminals and Transportation to Australia 1786–1852", <i>Journal Scottish Economic and Social History</i>, <b>4</b>: 21–38, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3366%2Fsesh.1984.4.4.21">10.3366/sesh.1984.4.4.21</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+Scottish+Economic+and+Social+History&rft.atitle=Scottish+Criminals+and+Transportation+to+Australia+1786%E2%80%931852&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=21-38&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3366%2Fsesh.1984.4.4.21&rft.aulast=Donnachie&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986470-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986470_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 470.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986472-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986472_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 472.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986473-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986473_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 473.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Acts of the Privy Council (Colonial), vol. I, pp. 310, 314–315</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cunningham. Growth of Eng. Industry and Com. in Mod. Times; 109, Cambridge, 1892. Cited in Karl Frederick Geiser, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/redemptionersind00geis/redemptionersind00geis_djvu.txt">Redemptioners and indentured servants in the colony and commonwealth of Pennsylvania</a>, Supplement to the <a href="/wiki/Yale_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale Review">Yale Review</a>, Vol. X, No. 2, August, 1901. "There was a popular prejudice against subjecting Christians into slavery or selling them into foreign parts, but Cromwell did not draw any such distinctions. Not only did his agents systematically capture Irish youths and girls for export to the West Indies, but all the garrison who were not killed in the Drogheda Massacre were shipped as slaves to the Barbadoes."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">30 July 1649 Act empowering the Lord Mayor, Justices of Gaol delivery for Newgate, to transport threescore prisoners convicted of Felony and other heinous crimes, unto the Summer Islands or other new English Plantations.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.british-history.ac.uk/statutes-realm/vol5/p598">Statutes of the Realm: Volume 5, 1628–80</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180729111722/https://www.british-history.ac.uk/statutes-realm/vol5/p598">Archived</a> 29 July 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 598</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/statutesatlarge20unkngoog#page/n587/mode/2up">Statutes at Large, Volume 24, Index for acts passed before 1 Geo. 3</a> p. 581</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986471-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986471_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 471.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986471–472-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986471–472_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, pp. 471–472.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986475-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986475_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 475.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986479-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986479_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986479_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986479_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 479.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986480-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986480_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 480.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986500-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986500_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 500.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986502-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986502_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986502_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 502.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986503-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986503_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986503_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 503.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001428-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001428_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie2001">Beattie 2001</a>, p. 428.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001429-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001429_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie2001">Beattie 2001</a>, p. 429.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001426-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001426_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie2001">Beattie 2001</a>, p. 426.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001430-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001430_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie2001">Beattie 2001</a>, p. 430.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986504-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986504_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 504.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001432-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001432_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie2001">Beattie 2001</a>, p. 432.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986506-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986506_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 506.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986505-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986505_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 505.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001435-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001435_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001435_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie2001">Beattie 2001</a>, p. 435.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001439-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001439_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie2001">Beattie 2001</a>, p. 439.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001447-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001447_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie2001">Beattie 2001</a>, p. 447.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986474-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986474_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 474.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986483-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986483_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 483.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986482-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986482_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 482.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986481-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie1986481_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie1986">Beattie 1986</a>, p. 481.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001444-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001444_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeattie2001444_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeattie2001">Beattie 2001</a>, p. 444.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BasAsylum-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BasAsylum_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marilyn C. Baseler, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/asylumformankind00base/page/125">"Asylum for Mankind": America, 1607–1800</a>, pp. 124–127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Drew D. Gray, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=33Y8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT298">Crime, Policing and Punishment in England, 1660–1914</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200121215909/https://books.google.com/books?id=33Y8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT298&">Archived</a> 21 January 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> p. 298 (2016)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/rd/bd7861bf-6f01-4945-8218-68eec54966c1">"Penitentiary Act, 1779"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160808101041/http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/rd/bd7861bf-6f01-4945-8218-68eec54966c1">Archived</a> from the original on 8 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Penitentiary+Act%2C+1779&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Fdetails%2Frd%2Fbd7861bf-6f01-4945-8218-68eec54966c1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4sAuAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA732">"An act for the effectual transportation of felons and other offenders; and to authorize the removal of prisoners in certain cases; and for other purposes therein mentioned"</a>. 1782. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200107164312/https://books.google.com/books?id=4sAuAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA732&">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+act+for+the+effectual+transportation+of+felons+and+other+offenders%3B+and+to+authorize+the+removal+of+prisoners+in+certain+cases%3B+and+for+other+purposes+therein+mentioned&rft.date=1782&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4sAuAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.records.nsw.gov.au/archives/collections-and-research/guides-and-indexes/sentenced-beyond-the-seas-australias-early">"Sentenced beyond the Seas: Australia's early convict records"</a>. 15 January 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200814224831/https://www.records.nsw.gov.au/archives/collections-and-research/guides-and-indexes/sentenced-beyond-the-seas-australias-early">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sentenced+beyond+the+Seas%3A+Australia%27s+early+convict+records&rft.date=2016-01-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.records.nsw.gov.au%2Farchives%2Fcollections-and-research%2Fguides-and-indexes%2Fsentenced-beyond-the-seas-australias-early&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60569425">"Australian Discovery and Colonisation"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Empire_(newspaper)" title="Empire (newspaper)">The Empire</a></i>. Sydney: National Library of Australia. 14 April 1865. p. 8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200526190552/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/60569425">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Empire&rft.atitle=Australian+Discovery+and+Colonisation&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1865-04-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.news-article60569425&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:History_of_New_South_Wales_from_the_records,_Volume_1.djvu/575" class="extiw" title="s:Page:History of New South Wales from the records, Volume 1.djvu/575">s:Page:History of New South Wales from the records, Volume 1.djvu/575</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ShHist-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ShHist_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugh Edward Egerton, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ashorthistorybr01egergoog#page/n282/mode/2up/">A short history of British colonial policy</a>, pp. 262–269 (1897)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oldbaileyonline1-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oldbaileyonline1_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oldbaileyonline1_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oldbaileyonline1_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oldbaileyonline1_52-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/static/Punishment.jsp#transportation"><i>Punishments at the Old Bailey</i></a>, Old Bailey Proceedings Online, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181212065840/https://www.oldbaileyonline.org/static/Punishment.jsp#transportation">archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 April</span> 2008</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Punishments+at+the+Old+Bailey&rft.pub=Old+Bailey+Proceedings+Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oldbaileyonline.org%2Fstatic%2FPunishment.jsp%23transportation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ITe3ogChoIC&pg=PA110">"An act for enabling his Majesty to authorize his governor or lieutenant governor of such places beyond the seas, to which felons and others offenders may be transported, to remit the sentences of such offenders"</a>. 1790. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200110035510/https://books.google.com/books?id=1ITe3ogChoIC&pg=PA110&">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+act+for+enabling+his+Majesty+to+authorize+his+governor+or+lieutenant+governor+of+such+places+beyond+the+seas%2C+to+which+felons+and+others+offenders+may+be+transported%2C+to+remit+the+sentences+of+such+offenders&rft.date=1790&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1ITe3ogChoIC%26pg%3DPA110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ShTitl-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ShTitl_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ShTitl_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ShTitl_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1896/act/14/enacted/en/print">"Short Titles Act 1896"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170321171503/http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1896/act/14/enacted/en/print">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Short+Titles+Act+1896&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishstatutebook.ie%2Feli%2F1896%2Fact%2F14%2Fenacted%2Fen%2Fprint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1857/3/pdfs/ukpga_18570003_en.pdf">"Penal Servitude Act 1857"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200511210734/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1857/3/pdfs/ukpga_18570003_en.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 11 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Penal+Servitude+Act+1857&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukpga%2F1857%2F3%2Fpdfs%2Fukpga_18570003_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/convicts-and-the-british-colonies">Convicts and the British colonies in Australia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101181100/http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/convicts-and-the-british-colonies">Archived</a> 1 January 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.penandclink.com/mjmuseum/transps.htm">Transportation and Penal Servitude</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190607184115/http://www.penandclink.com/mjmuseum/transps.htm">Archived</a> 7 June 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mountjoy_Prison" title="Mountjoy Prison">Mountjoy Prison Museum</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEkirch1987112,_114–115-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEkirch1987112,_114–115_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEkirch1987">Ekirch 1987</a>, pp. 112, 114–115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-with-your-research/research-guides/criminal-transportation/">"Criminal transportation"</a>. <i>The National Archives</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200321122107/https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-with-your-research/research-guides/criminal-transportation/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 February</span> 2019</span>. <q>Before 1776, all convicts sentenced to transportation were sent to North America and the West Indies</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+National+Archives&rft.atitle=Criminal+transportation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalarchives.gov.uk%2Fhelp-with-your-research%2Fresearch-guides%2Fcriminal-transportation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>R v Powell</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/browse.jsp?ref=t18050710-23">Sixth session Proceedings of the Old Bailey 10 July 1805 t18050710-23</a>, p. 401 (<a href="/wiki/Old_Bailey" title="Old Bailey">Old Bailey</a> 10 July 1805).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler1896" class="citation journal cs1">Butler, James Davie (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1262177">"British Convicts Shipped to American Colonies"</a>. <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 12–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1833611">10.2307/1833611</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1833611">1833611</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210204025856/https://zenodo.org/record/1262177">Archived</a> from the original on 4 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=British+Convicts+Shipped+to+American+Colonies&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-33&rft.date=1896&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1833611&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1833611%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=James+Davie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1262177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEkirch1987-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEkirch1987_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEkirch1987">Ekirch 1987</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford English Dictionary online, "Hulk" n. 2, sense 3b <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/89220?rskey=416nHV&result=3&isAdvanced=false#eid">http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/89220?rskey=416nHV&result=3&isAdvanced=false#eid</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200526185430/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=547225D81687668BD03FC93DA1F00020?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F89220%3Frskey%3D416nHV%26result%3D3%26isAdvanced%3Dfalse#eid">Archived</a> 26 May 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Accessed 2017/06/26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher2010" class="citation book cs1">Christopher, Emma (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x9OMiWd5aMkC"><i>A Merciless Place: The Lost Story of Britain's Convict Disaster in Africa</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 2011). p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0191623523" title="Special:BookSources/978-0191623523"><bdi>978-0191623523</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200208223849/https://books.google.com/books?id=x9OMiWd5aMkC">Archived</a> from the original on 8 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 March</span> 2018</span>. <q>With the American War of Independence all but lost and hope of restarting the transportation of convicts to the Americas dwindling fast, Britain had begun sneakily banishing its criminals to West Africa</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Merciless+Place%3A+The+Lost+Story+of+Britain%27s+Convict+Disaster+in+Africa&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0191623523&rft.aulast=Christopher&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx9OMiWd5aMkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Hughes1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hughes_(critic)" title="Robert Hughes (critic)">Robert Hughes</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fatalshorehistor00hugh/page/82"><i>The Fatal Shore: A History of the Transportation of Convicts to Australia 1787–1868</i></a>. London: Pan Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fatalshorehistor00hugh/page/82">82</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-330-29892-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-330-29892-6"><bdi>978-0-330-29892-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fatal+Shore%3A+A+History+of+the+Transportation+of+Convicts+to+Australia+1787%E2%80%931868&rft.place=London&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Pan+Books&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-330-29892-6&rft.au=Robert+Hughes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffatalshorehistor00hugh%2Fpage%2F82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/myall-creek-massacre">"Myall Creek massacre"</a>. <i>National Museum of Australia</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190305063646/https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/myall-creek-massacre">Archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+Australia&rft.atitle=Myall+Creek+massacre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nma.gov.au%2Fdefining-moments%2Fresources%2Fmyall-creek-massacre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ausgov-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ausgov_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.environment.gov.au/heritage/places/national/myall-creek/index.html">"Myall Creek Massacre and Memorial Site"</a>. <i>Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts</i>. 25 June 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130605183508/http://www.environment.gov.au/heritage/places/national/myall-creek/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Department+of+the+Environment%2C+Water%2C+Heritage+and+the+Arts&rft.atitle=Myall+Creek+Massacre+and+Memorial+Site&rft.date=2008-06-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.environment.gov.au%2Fheritage%2Fplaces%2Fnational%2Fmyall-creek%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nla.gov.au/research-guides/convicts/convict-assignment">"Convict Assignment – National Library of Australia"</a>. National Library of Australia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210507233408/https://www.nla.gov.au/research-guides/convicts/convict-assignment">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Convict+Assignment+%E2%80%93+National+Library+of+Australia&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Australia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nla.gov.au%2Fresearch-guides%2Fconvicts%2Fconvict-assignment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcConville1981" class="citation cs2">McConville, Sean (1981), <i>A History of English Prison Administration: Volume I 1750–1877</i>, London: Boston & Henley, pp. 381–385, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-0694-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-0694-2"><bdi>0-7100-0694-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+English+Prison+Administration%3A+Volume+I+1750%E2%80%931877&rft.place=London&rft.pages=381-385&rft.pub=Boston+%26+Henley&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-7100-0694-2&rft.aulast=McConville&rft.aufirst=Sean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-conversationancestry-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-conversationancestry_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/stain-or-badge-of-honour-convict-heritage-inspires-mixed-feelings-41097">"Stain or badge of honour? Convict heritage inspires mixed feelings"</a>. The Conversation. 8 June 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210507233407/https://theconversation.com/stain-or-badge-of-honour-convict-heritage-inspires-mixed-feelings-41097">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stain+or+badge+of+honour%3F+Convict+heritage+inspires+mixed+feelings&rft.pub=The+Conversation&rft.date=2015-06-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fstain-or-badge-of-honour-convict-heritage-inspires-mixed-feelings-41097&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130728145239/http://www.dfa.ie/home/index.aspx?id=32623">"Department of Foreign Affairs – Emigrant Grants"</a>. 28 July 2013. Archived from the original on 28 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Department+of+Foreign+Affairs+%E2%80%93+Emigrant+Grants&rft.date=2013-07-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dfa.ie%2Fhome%2Findex.aspx%3Fid%3D32623&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ACJ-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ACJ_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070118091924/http://www.andamancellularjail.org/History.htm%23">"History of Andaman Cellular Jail"</a>. <i>This is about Andaman Cellular Jail</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.andamancellularjail.org/History.htm##Link1">the original</a> on 18 January 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=This+is+about+Andaman+Cellular+Jail&rft.atitle=History+of+Andaman+Cellular+Jail&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.andamancellularjail.org%2FHistory.htm%23%23Link1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TheHindu-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TheHindu_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TheHindu_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930023549/http://www.and.nic.in/cjail-hun.htm">"Hundred years of the Andamans Cellular Jail"</a>. <i>The Hindu</i>. 21 December 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.and.nic.in/cjail-hun.htm">the original</a> on 30 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=Hundred+years+of+the+Andamans+Cellular+Jail&rft.date=2005-12-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.and.nic.in%2Fcjail-hun.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OurHell-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OurHell_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott-ClarkLevy2001" class="citation news cs1">Scott-Clark, Cathy; Levy, Adrian (22 June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2001/jun/23/weekend.adrianlevy">"Survivors of our hell"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200205205218/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2001/jun/23/weekend.adrianlevy">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Survivors+of+our+hell&rft.date=2001-06-22&rft.aulast=Scott-Clark&rft.aufirst=Cathy&rft.au=Levy%2C+Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Flifeandstyle%2F2001%2Fjun%2F23%2Fweekend.adrianlevy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Statiev-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Statiev_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Statiev_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2019-02-07/russia-behind-bars-peculiarities-russian-prison-system">"Russia behind bars: the peculiarities of the Russian prison system"</a>. <i>OSW Centre for Eastern Studies</i>. 7 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OSW+Centre+for+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Russia+behind+bars%3A+the+peculiarities+of+the+Russian+prison+system&rft.date=2019-02-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osw.waw.pl%2Fen%2Fpublikacje%2Fosw-commentary%2F2019-02-07%2Frussia-behind-bars-peculiarities-russian-prison-system&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMawdsley1998" class="citation book cs1">Mawdsley, Evan (1998). <i>The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union, 1929–1953</i>. Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0719046001" title="Special:BookSources/978-0719046001"><bdi>978-0719046001</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003046365">2003046365</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stalin+Years%3A+The+Soviet+Union%2C+1929%E2%80%931953&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003046365&rft.isbn=978-0719046001&rft.aulast=Mawdsley&rft.aufirst=Evan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_77-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_77-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_77-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_77-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/EUR4668782017ENGLISH.pdf">"Prisoner Transportation in Russia: Traveling into the Unknown"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Amnesty International</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Amnesty+International&rft.atitle=Prisoner+Transportation+in+Russia%3A+Traveling+into+the+Unknown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org%2Fen%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F05%2FEUR4668782017ENGLISH.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRouse2007" class="citation journal cs1">Rouse, Andrew C. (Spring–Fall 2007). "The Transportation Ballad: A Song Type Rooted in Eighteenth-Century England". <i>Hungarian Journal of English and American Studies (HJEAS)</i>. <b>13</b> (1/2, The Long Eighteenth Century). Centre for Arts, Humanities and Sciences (CAHS), acting on behalf of the University of Debrecen CAHS: 93–103. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41274385">41274385</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hungarian+Journal+of+English+and+American+Studies+%28HJEAS%29&rft.atitle=The+Transportation+Ballad%3A+A+Song+Type+Rooted+in+Eighteenth-Century+England&rft.chron=spring%E2%80%93fall&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1%2F2%2C+The+Long+Eighteenth+Century&rft.pages=93-103&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41274385%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rouse&rft.aufirst=Andrew+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRokotnitz2011" class="citation book cs1">Rokotnitz, Naomi (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G6oYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA87"><i>Trusting Performance: A Cognitive Approach to Embodiment in Drama</i></a>. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-59433-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-59433-7"><bdi>978-1-349-59433-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200526185431/https://books.google.com/books?id=G6oYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA87">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trusting+Performance%3A+A+Cognitive+Approach+to+Embodiment+in+Drama&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Palgrave+MacMillan&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-349-59433-7&rft.aulast=Rokotnitz&rft.aufirst=Naomi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG6oYDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyers2005" class="citation book cs1">Meyers, Jeffrey (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k8qZW26bc6oC&pg=PA218"><i>Somerset Maugham: A Life</i></a>. Vintage Books. p. 218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4000-3052-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-4000-3052-8"><bdi>1-4000-3052-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200526185431/https://books.google.com/books?id=k8qZW26bc6oC&pg=PA218">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Somerset+Maugham%3A+A+Life&rft.pages=218&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-4000-3052-8&rft.aulast=Meyers&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk8qZW26bc6oC%26pg%3DPA218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2019" class="citation web cs1">Brown, Alan (31 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tor.com/2019/01/31/is-the-moon-is-a-harsh-mistress-heinleins-all-time-greatest-work/">"Is The Moon is a Harsh Mistress Heinlein's All-Time Greatest Work?"</a>. <i>Tor.com</i>. Macmillan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200412110005/https://www.tor.com/2019/01/31/is-the-moon-is-a-harsh-mistress-heinleins-all-time-greatest-work/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 April 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tor.com&rft.atitle=Is+The+Moon+is+a+Harsh+Mistress+Heinlein%27s+All-Time+Greatest+Work%3F&rft.date=2019-01-31&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tor.com%2F2019%2F01%2F31%2Fis-the-moon-is-a-harsh-mistress-heinleins-all-time-greatest-work%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeinlein1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Heinlein" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Heinlein">Heinlein, Robert A.</a> (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drnissani.net/mnissani/RevolutionarysToolkit/TheMoonIsAHarshMistress.pdf"><i>The Moon is a Harsh Mistress</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200511210429/http://drnissani.net/mnissani/RevolutionarysToolkit/TheMoonIsAHarshMistress.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 11 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2020</span>. <q>But most Loonies never tried to leave The Rock – too risky for any bloke who'd been in Luna more than weeks. Computermen sent up to install Mike were on short-term bonus contracts – get job done fast before irreversible physiological change marooned them four hundred thousand kilometres from home.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Moon+is+a+Harsh+Mistress&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Heinlein&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdrnissani.net%2Fmnissani%2FRevolutionarysToolkit%2FTheMoonIsAHarshMistress.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><i>Pardons & Punishments: Judges Reports on Criminals, 1783 to 1830: HO (Home Office) 47 Volumes 304 and 305, List and Index Society</i>, The [British] National Archives</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pardons+%26+Punishments%3A+Judges+Reports+on+Criminals%2C+1783+to+1830%3A+HO+%28Home+Office%29+47+Volumes+304+and+305%2C+List+and+Index+Society&rft.pub=The+%26%2391%3BBritish%26%2393%3B+National+Archives&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeattie1986" class="citation book cs1">Beattie, J. M. (1986). <i>Crime and the Courts in England 1660–1800</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820058-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820058-7"><bdi>0-19-820058-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+and+the+Courts+in+England+1660%E2%80%931800&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-19-820058-7&rft.aulast=Beattie&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeattie2001" class="citation book cs1">Beattie, J. M. (2001). <i>Policing and Punishment in London 1660–1750</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820867-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820867-7"><bdi>0-19-820867-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Policing+and+Punishment+in+London+1660%E2%80%931750&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-19-820867-7&rft.aulast=Beattie&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEkirch1987" class="citation book cs1">Ekirch, A. Roger (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/boundforamericat0000ekir"><i>Bound for America. The transportation of British convicts to the colonies, 1718–1775</i></a></span>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820092-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820092-7"><bdi>0-19-820092-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bound+for+America.+The+transportation+of+British+convicts+to+the+colonies%2C+1718%E2%80%931775&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-19-820092-7&rft.aulast=Ekirch&rft.aufirst=A.+Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fboundforamericat0000ekir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHitchcockShoemaker2006" class="citation book cs1">Hitchcock, Tim; Shoemaker, Robert (2006). <i>Tales From the Hanging Court</i>. London: Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-340-91375-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-340-91375-8"><bdi>978-0-340-91375-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tales+From+the+Hanging+Court&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-340-91375-8&rft.aulast=Hitchcock&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft.au=Shoemaker%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell-Stewart2010" class="citation journal cs1">Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2010). "Convict Transportation from Britain and Ireland 1615–1870". <i>History Compass</i>. <b>8</b> (11): 1221–1242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2010.00722.x">10.1111/j.1478-0542.2010.00722.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Compass&rft.atitle=Convict+Transportation+from+Britain+and+Ireland+1615%E2%80%931870&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1221-1242&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2010.00722.x&rft.aulast=Maxwell-Stewart&rft.aufirst=Hamish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/static/Punishment.jsp#transportation">"Punishments at the Old Bailey"</a>. <i>Old Bailey Proceedings Online</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Old+Bailey+Proceedings+Online&rft.atitle=Punishments+at+the+Old+Bailey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oldbaileyonline.org%2Fstatic%2FPunishment.jsp%23transportation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobson1965" class="citation book cs1">Robson, L. L. (1965). <i>The Convict Settlers of Australia</i>. Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-522-83994-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-522-83994-0"><bdi>0-522-83994-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Convict+Settlers+of+Australia&rft.place=Carlton%2C+Victoria&rft.pub=Melbourne+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=0-522-83994-0&rft.aulast=Robson&rft.aufirst=L.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharpe1999" class="citation book cs1">Sharpe, J. A. (1999). <i>Crime in early modern England 1550–1750</i>. Harlow, Essex: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-23889-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-23889-3"><bdi>978-0-582-23889-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+in+early+modern+England+1550%E2%80%931750&rft.place=Harlow%2C+Essex&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-582-23889-3&rft.aulast=Sharpe&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShoemaker1999" class="citation book cs1">Shoemaker, Robert B. (1999). <i>Prosecution and Punishment. Petty crime and the law in London and rural Middlesex, c. 1660–1725</i>. Harlow, Essex: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-23889-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-23889-3"><bdi>978-0-582-23889-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prosecution+and+Punishment.+Petty+crime+and+the+law+in+London+and+rural+Middlesex%2C+c.+1660%E2%80%931725&rft.place=Harlow%2C+Essex&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-582-23889-3&rft.aulast=Shoemaker&rft.aufirst=Robert+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APenal+transportation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051103055419/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/familyhistory/gallery5/prisoners.htm">UK National archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060918042359/http://www.atmitchell.com/journeys/law/justice/convict/convict.cfm">Convict life – State Library of NSW</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130425022815/http://www.slq.qld.gov.au/resources/family-history/info-guides/convicts">Convict Transportation Registers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slq.qld.gov.au/resources/convict-queenslanders">Convict Queenslanders</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&oldid=1257284519">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&oldid=1257284519</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Forced_migration" title="Category:Forced migration">Forced migration</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_immigration_to_Australia" title="Category:History of immigration to Australia">History of immigration to Australia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Convictism_in_Australia" title="Category:Convictism in Australia">Convictism in Australia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Punishments" title="Category:Punishments">Punishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Crime_in_Australia" title="Category:Crime in Australia">Crime in Australia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Penal_labour" title="Category:Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_British_English_from_March_2013" title="Category:Use British English from March 2013">Use British English from March 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_June_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from June 2022">Use dmy dates from June 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_September_2013" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2013">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from September 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_October_2023" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2023">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2023</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 November 2024, at 03:57<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Penal_transportation&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-d465dfd78-d5zmz","wgBackendResponseTime":168,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.859","walltime":"1.003","ppvisitednodes":{"value":12489,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":142153,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":11734,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":21,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":18,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":185615,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 865.678 1 -total"," 31.75% 274.838 1 Template:Reflist"," 16.88% 146.088 22 Template:Cite_web"," 14.30% 123.791 35 Template:Sfn"," 13.62% 117.882 5 Template:Short_description"," 12.54% 108.525 4 Template:Infobox_UK_legislation"," 8.37% 72.455 10 Template:Pagetype"," 6.78% 58.725 4 Template:Infobox"," 6.50% 56.291 13 Template:Cite_book"," 6.17% 53.401 4 Template:Fix"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.472","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":9619230,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBeattie1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeattie2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButler1896\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristopher2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDonnachie1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEkirch1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeinlein1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHitchcockShoemaker2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMawdsley1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell-Stewart2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell-StewartWatkinsn.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcConville1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyers2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPickering1775\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Hughes1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobson1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRokotnitz2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRouse2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott-ClarkLevy2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharpe1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShoemaker1999\"] = 1,\n [\"Criminal_Law_Act_1776\"] = 1,\n [\"Criminal_Law_Act_1778\"] = 1,\n [\"Criminal_Law_Act_1779\"] = 1,\n [\"Transportation,_etc._Act_1799\"] = 1,\n [\"Transportation_Act_1824\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 4,\n [\"Citation\"] = 4,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite court\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 22,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox UK legislation\"] = 4,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 35,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Ubli\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 5,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-4s84h","timestamp":"20241125134505","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Penal transportation","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Penal_transportation","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1770529","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1770529","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-06-08T01:08:52Z","dateModified":"2024-11-14T03:57:44Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/42\/Black-eyed_Sue_and_Sweet_Poll_of_Plymouth_taking_leave_of_their_lovers_who_are_going_to_Botany_Bay.jpeg","headline":"relocation of convicted criminals to a distant place"}</script> </body> </html>