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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Discovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Variations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_and_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_and_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Origins and evolution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins_and_evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origins and evolution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origins_and_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Before_Y_chromosome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Before_Y_chromosome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Before Y chromosome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Before_Y_chromosome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recombination_inhibition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recombination_inhibition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Recombination inhibition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recombination_inhibition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degeneration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degeneration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Degeneration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degeneration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-High_mutation_rate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_mutation_rate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>High mutation rate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_mutation_rate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inefficient_selection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inefficient_selection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Inefficient selection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inefficient_selection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_drift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_drift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Genetic drift</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_drift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gene_conversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gene_conversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Gene conversion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gene_conversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Future evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1:1_sex_ratio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1:1_sex_ratio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>1:1 sex ratio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1:1_sex_ratio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-therian_Y_chromosome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-therian_Y_chromosome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Non-therian Y chromosome</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Non-therian_Y_chromosome-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Non-therian Y chromosome subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Non-therian_Y_chromosome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-ZW_chromosomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ZW_chromosomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>ZW chromosomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ZW_chromosomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-inverted_Y_chromosome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-inverted_Y_chromosome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Non-inverted Y chromosome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-inverted_Y_chromosome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multiple_XY_pairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multiple_XY_pairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Multiple XY pairs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multiple_XY_pairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_Y_chromosome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_Y_chromosome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Human Y chromosome</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_Y_chromosome-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Human Y chromosome subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Human_Y_chromosome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sequence_of_the_human_Y_chromosome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sequence_of_the_human_Y_chromosome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Sequence of the human Y chromosome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sequence_of_the_human_Y_chromosome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cytogenetic_band" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cytogenetic_band"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Cytogenetic band</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cytogenetic_band-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-combining_region_of_Y_(NRY)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-combining_region_of_Y_(NRY)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Non-combining region of Y (NRY)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-combining_region_of_Y_(NRY)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sequence_classes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sequence_classes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Sequence classes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sequence_classes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Genes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Number_of_genes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number_of_genes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Number of genes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Number_of_genes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gene_list" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gene_list"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Gene list</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gene_list-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Y-chromosome-linked_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Y-chromosome-linked_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Y-chromosome-linked diseases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Y-chromosome-linked_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Loss_of_Y_chromosome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_Y_chromosome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Loss of Y chromosome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_Y_chromosome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Y_chromosome_microdeletion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Y_chromosome_microdeletion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.2</span> <span>Y chromosome microdeletion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Y_chromosome_microdeletion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defective_Y_chromosome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defective_Y_chromosome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.3</span> <span>Defective Y chromosome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defective_Y_chromosome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-XXY" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#XXY"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.4</span> <span>XXY</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-XXY-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-XYY" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#XYY"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.5</span> <span>XYY</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-XYY-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.6</span> <span>Rare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-More_than_two_Y_chromosomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#More_than_two_Y_chromosomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.6.1</span> <span>More than two Y chromosomes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-More_than_two_Y_chromosomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-XX_male_syndrome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#XX_male_syndrome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.6.2</span> <span>XX male syndrome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-XX_male_syndrome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_genealogy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_genealogy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Genetic genealogy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_genealogy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brain_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brain_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Brain function</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brain_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microchimerism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microchimerism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Microchimerism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microchimerism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Y chromosome</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 55 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-55" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">55 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-chromosoom" title="Y-chromosoom – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Y-chromosoom" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-Chromosom" title="Y-Chromosom – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Y-Chromosom" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%A8%D8%BA%D9%8A_Y" title="الصبغي Y – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الصبغي Y" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_ji%C3%A1m-sek-th%C3%A9" title="Y jiám-sek-thé – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Y jiám-sek-thé" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Y-храмасома – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Y-храмасома" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Y-храмасома – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Y-храмасома" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hromosom_Y" title="Hromosom Y – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hromosom Y" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosoma_Y" title="Cromosoma Y – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cromosoma Y" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-%D1%85%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Y-хромосома – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Y-хромосома" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromozom_Y" title="Chromozom Y – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chromozom Y" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-Chromosom" title="Y-Chromosom – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Y-Chromosom" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-kromosoom" title="Y-kromosoom – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Y-kromosoom" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CF%81%CF%89%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%83%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CE%A5" title="Χρωμόσωμα Υ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χρωμόσωμα Υ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosoma_Y" title="Cromosoma Y – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cromosoma Y" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosomo_Y" title="Kromosomo Y – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kromosomo Y" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_kromosoma" title="Y kromosoma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Y kromosoma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%85_Y" title="کروموزوم Y – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کروموزوم Y" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome_Y" title="Chromosome Y – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chromosome Y" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-chr%C3%B3mas%C3%B3m" title="Y-chrómasóm – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Y-chrómasóm" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosoma_Y" title="Cromosoma Y – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cromosoma Y" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_%EC%97%BC%EC%83%89%EC%B2%B4" title="Y 염색체 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="Y 염색체" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_%D6%84%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B4" title="Y քրոմոսոմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Y քրոմոսոմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="वाई गुण सूत्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वाई गुण सूत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom-Y" title="Kromosom-Y – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kromosom-Y" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%96%D7%95%D7%9D_Y" title="כרומוזום Y – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כרומוזום Y" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chembeuzi_Y" title="Chembeuzi Y – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Chembeuzi Y" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-kromosz%C3%B3ma" title="Y-kromoszóma – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Y-kromoszóma" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Y хромозом – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Y хромозом" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom_Y" title="Kromosom Y – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kromosom Y" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-chromosoom" title="Y-chromosoom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Y-chromosoom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E4%BD%93" title="Y染色体 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="Y染色体" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-kromosom" title="Y-kromosom – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Y-kromosom" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-kromosom" title="Y-kromosom – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Y-kromosom" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_xromosoma" title="Y xromosoma – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Y xromosoma" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%85" title="وای کروموزوم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="وای کروموزوم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosom_Y" title="Chromosom Y – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chromosom Y" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromossoma_Y" title="Cromossoma Y – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cromossoma Y" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromozomul_Y" title="Cromozomul Y – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cromozomul Y" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-%D1%85%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Y-хромосома – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Y-хромосома" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Y chromosome" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromoz%C3%B3m_Y" title="Chromozóm Y – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Chromozóm Y" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom_Y" title="Kromosom Y – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kromosom Y" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%86%D9%85%DB%86%D8%B3%DB%86%D9%85%DB%8C_Y" title="کرۆمۆسۆمی Y – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کرۆمۆسۆمی Y" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Y хромозом – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Y хромозом" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_hromozom" title="Y hromozom – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Y hromozom" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosom_Y" title="Kromosom Y – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kromosom Y" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-kromosomi" title="Y-kromosomi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Y-kromosomi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-kromosom" title="Y-kromosom – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Y-kromosom" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromosomang_Y" title="Kromosomang Y – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kromosomang Y" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2" title="โครโมโซมวาย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โครโมโซมวาย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_Kromozomu" title="Y Kromozomu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Y Kromozomu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-%D1%85%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Y-хромосома – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Y-хромосома" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nhi%E1%BB%85m_s%E1%BA%AFc_th%E1%BB%83_Y" title="Nhiễm sắc thể Y – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhiễm sắc thể Y" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E9%AB%94" title="Y 染色體 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="Y 染色體" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E9%AB%94" title="Y染色體 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="Y染色體" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q202771#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Human Y chromosome</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_male_karyotpe_high_resolution_-_Y_chromosome_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Human_male_karyotpe_high_resolution_-_Y_chromosome_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="52" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="28" data-file-height="52" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Human Y chromosome (after <a href="/wiki/G_banding" title="G banding">G-banding</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_male_karyotpe_high_resolution_-_Chromosome_Y.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Human_male_karyotpe_high_resolution_-_Chromosome_Y.png/220px-Human_male_karyotpe_high_resolution_-_Chromosome_Y.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Human_male_karyotpe_high_resolution_-_Chromosome_Y.png/330px-Human_male_karyotpe_high_resolution_-_Chromosome_Y.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Human_male_karyotpe_high_resolution_-_Chromosome_Y.png/440px-Human_male_karyotpe_high_resolution_-_Chromosome_Y.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="940" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Y chromosome in human male <a href="/wiki/Karyogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Karyogram">karyogram</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #ddd">Features</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3">Length (<a href="/wiki/Base_pair#Length_measurements" title="Base pair">bp</a>)</th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee">62,460,029 bp (CHM13)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3"><a href="/wiki/Number_of_genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Number of genes"><abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> of genes</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee">63 (<a href="/wiki/Consensus_CDS_Project" title="Consensus CDS Project">CCDS</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-CCDS_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCDS-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3">Type</th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee"><a href="/wiki/Allosome" class="mw-redirect" title="Allosome">Allosome</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3"><a href="/wiki/Centromere#Positions" title="Centromere">Centromere position</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee"><a href="/wiki/Centromere#Acrocentric" title="Centromere">Acrocentric</a><sup id="cite_ref-StrachanRead2010_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StrachanRead2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(10.4 Mbp<sup id="cite_ref-850bphs_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-850bphs-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #ddd">Complete gene lists</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3"><a href="/wiki/Consensus_CDS_Project" title="Consensus CDS Project">CCDS</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene?term=Y%5BChr%5D%20AND%20%22Homo%20sapiens%22%5BOrganism%5D%20AND%20%28%22has%20ccds%22%5BProperties%5D%20AND%20alive%5Bprop%5D%29&cmd=DetailsSearch">Gene list</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3"><a href="/wiki/HUGO_Gene_Nomenclature_Committee" title="HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee">HGNC</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genenames.org/cgi-bin/statistics?c=Y">Gene list</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3"><a href="/wiki/UniProt" title="UniProt">UniProt</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uniprot.org/docs/humchry.txt">Gene list</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/?term=Y%5BCHR%5D+AND+human%5BORGN%5D">Gene list</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #ddd">External map viewers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3"><a href="/wiki/Ensembl_genome_database_project" title="Ensembl genome database project">Ensembl</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ensembl.org/Homo_sapiens/Location/Chromosome?r=Y">Chromosome Y</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3"><a href="/wiki/Entrez" title="Entrez">Entrez</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mapview/maps.cgi?TAXID=9606&chr=Y">Chromosome Y</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/gdv/browser/?context=genome&acc=GCF_000001405.36&chr=Y">Chromosome Y</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3"><a href="/wiki/UCSC_Genome_Browser" title="UCSC Genome Browser">UCSC</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hgTracks?db=hg38&position=chrY">Chromosome Y</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #ddd"><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_sequence" title="Nucleic acid sequence">Full DNA sequences</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3"><a href="/wiki/RefSeq" title="RefSeq">RefSeq</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee"><span class="nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/NC_000024?report=fasta">NC_000024</a> (<a href="/wiki/FASTA_format" title="FASTA format">FASTA</a>) </span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background-color: #e7dcc3"><a href="/wiki/GenBank" title="GenBank">GenBank</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="background-color: #eee"><span class="nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/CM000686?report=fasta">CM000686</a> (<a href="/wiki/FASTA_format" title="FASTA format">FASTA</a>) </span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Y chromosome</b> is one of two <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex chromosomes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Theria" title="Theria">therian mammals</a> and <a href="#Non-therian_Y_chromosome">other organisms</a>. Along with the <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a>, it is part of the <a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">XY sex-determination system</a>, in which the Y is the <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome#Sex_determination" title="Sex chromosome">sex-determining</a> chromosome because the presence of the Y chromosome causes <a href="/wiki/Offspring" title="Offspring">offspring</a> produced in <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> to be of male <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sex</a>. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains the <a href="/wiki/SRY" class="mw-redirect" title="SRY">SRY</a> gene, which triggers development of <a href="/wiki/Male_gonads" class="mw-redirect" title="Male gonads">male gonads</a>. The Y chromosome is passed only from male parents to male offspring. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery">Discovery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Discovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Y chromosome was identified as a sex-determining chromosome by <a href="/wiki/Nettie_Stevens" title="Nettie Stevens">Nettie Stevens</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bryn_Mawr_College" title="Bryn Mawr College">Bryn Mawr College</a> in 1905 during a study of the <a href="/wiki/Mealworm" title="Mealworm">mealworm</a> <i>Tenebrio molitor</i>. <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beecher_Wilson" title="Edmund Beecher Wilson">Edmund Beecher Wilson</a> independently discovered the same mechanisms the same year, working with <a href="/wiki/Hemiptera" title="Hemiptera">Hemiptera</a>. Stevens proposed that chromosomes always existed in pairs and that the smaller chromosome (now labelled "Y") was the pair of the X chromosome discovered in 1890 by <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Henking" title="Hermann Henking">Hermann Henking</a>. She realized that the previous idea of <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Erwin_McClung" title="Clarence Erwin McClung">Clarence Erwin McClung</a>, that the X chromosome determines sex, was wrong and that <a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">sex determination</a> is, in fact, due to the presence or absence of the Y chromosome. In the early 1920s, <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_Painter" title="Theophilus Painter">Theophilus Painter</a> determined that X and Y chromosomes determined sex in humans (and other mammals).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11616163_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11616163-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chromosome was given the name "Y" simply to follow on from Henking's "X" alphabetically.<sup id="cite_ref-Bainbridge_2003_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bainbridge_2003-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea that the Y chromosome was named after its similarity in appearance to the letter "Y" is mistaken. All chromosomes normally appear as an amorphous blob under the microscope and only take on a well-defined shape during <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>. This shape is vaguely X-shaped for all chromosomes. It is entirely coincidental that the Y chromosome, during <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>, has two very short branches which can look merged under the microscope and appear as the descender of a Y-shape.<sup id="cite_ref-Bainbridge_2003_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bainbridge_2003-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 65–66">: 65–66 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variations">Variations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Androgen_insensitivity_syndrome" title="Androgen insensitivity syndrome">Androgen insensitivity syndrome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></div> <p>Most therian mammals have only one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell. Males have one Y chromosome and one <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a>, while females have two X chromosomes. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains a gene, <a href="/wiki/SRY" class="mw-redirect" title="SRY">SRY</a>, which triggers embryonic development as a male. The Y chromosomes of humans and other mammals also contain other genes needed for normal sperm production.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are exceptions, however. Among humans, some males are born two Xs and a Y ("XXY", see <a href="/wiki/Klinefelter_syndrome" title="Klinefelter syndrome">Klinefelter syndrome</a>), one X and two Ys (see <a href="/wiki/XYY_syndrome" title="XYY syndrome">XYY syndrome</a>). Some females have three Xs (<a href="/wiki/Trisomy_X" title="Trisomy X">Trisomy X</a>), and some have a single X instead of two Xs ("X0", see <a href="/wiki/Turner_syndrome" title="Turner syndrome">Turner syndrome</a>). There are other variations in which, during <a href="/wiki/Embryonic_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryonic development">embryonic development</a>, the <a href="/wiki/WNT4" title="WNT4">WNT4</a> gene<sup id="cite_ref-Swyer_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swyer-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is activated and/or the SRY gene is damaged leading to birth of an <a href="/wiki/XY_female" class="mw-redirect" title="XY female">XY female</a> (Swyer syndrome<sup id="cite_ref-Swyer_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swyer-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). A Y chromosome may also be present but fail to result in the development of a male phenotype in individuals with <a href="/wiki/Androgen_insensitivity_syndrome" title="Androgen insensitivity syndrome">androgen insensitivity syndrome</a>, instead resulting in a female or ambiguous phenotype. In other cases, the SRY gene is copied to the X, leading to birth of an <a href="/wiki/XX_male" class="mw-redirect" title="XX male">XX male</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-XX_male_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-XX_male-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_and_evolution">Origins and evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Origins and evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_Y_chromosome">Before Y chromosome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Before Y chromosome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many <a href="/wiki/Ectotherm" title="Ectotherm">ectothermic</a> <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">vertebrates</a> have no sex chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If these species have different sexes, sex is determined environmentally rather than genetically. For some species, especially <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, sex depends on the incubation temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some vertebrates are <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodites" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermaphrodites">hermaphrodites</a>, though hermaphroditic species are most commonly <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite#Sequential_hermaphrodites" title="Hermaphrodite">sequential</a>, meaning the organism switches sex, producing male or female <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> at different points in its life, but never producing both at the same time. This is opposed to <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite#Simultaneous_hermaphrodites" title="Hermaphrodite">simultaneous</a> hermaphroditism, where the same organism produces male and female gametes at the same time. Most simultaneous hermaphrodite species are invertebrates, and among vertebrates, simultaneous hermaphroditism has only been discovered in a few <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">orders</a> of fish.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin">Origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The X and Y chromosomes are thought to have evolved from a pair of identical chromosomes,<sup id="cite_ref-muller_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-muller-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lahn_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lahn-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> termed <a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">autosomes</a>, when an ancestral animal developed an allelic variation (a so-called "sex locus") and simply possessing this <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">allele</a> caused the organism to be male.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves,_J.A.M_2006_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves,_J.A.M_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chromosome with this allele became the Y chromosome, while the other member of the pair became the X chromosome. Over time, genes that were beneficial for males and harmful to (or had no effect on) females either developed on the Y chromosome or were acquired by the Y chromosome through the process of <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation" title="Chromosomal translocation">translocation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until recently, the X and Y chromosomes in mammals were thought to have diverged around 300 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Y-chromosome_evolution:_emerging_in_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Y-chromosome_evolution:_emerging_in-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, research published in 2008 analyzing the <a href="/wiki/Platypus" title="Platypus">platypus</a> genome<sup id="cite_ref-Warren_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warren-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggested that the XY sex-determination system would not have been present more than 166 million years ago, when <a href="/wiki/Monotreme" title="Monotreme">monotremes</a> split from other mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-Veyrunes_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veyrunes-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This re-estimation of the age of the <a href="/wiki/Theria" title="Theria">therian</a> XY system is based on the finding that sequences that are on the X chromosomes of <a href="/wiki/Marsupials" class="mw-redirect" title="Marsupials">marsupials</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eutherian" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutherian">eutherian</a> mammals are not present on the autosomes of platypus and birds.<sup id="cite_ref-Veyrunes_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veyrunes-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The older estimate was based on erroneous reports that the platypus X chromosomes contained these sequences.<sup id="cite_ref-Grützner_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grützner-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recombination_inhibition">Recombination inhibition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Recombination inhibition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most chromosomes <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">recombine</a> during meiosis. However, in males, the X and Y pair in a shared region known as the <a href="/wiki/Pseudoautosomal_region" title="Pseudoautosomal region">pseudoautosomal region</a> (PAR).<sup id="cite_ref-LeMieux_2020_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeMieux_2020-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The PAR undergoes frequent recombination between the X and Y chromosomes,<sup id="cite_ref-LeMieux_2020_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeMieux_2020-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but recombination is suppressed in other regions of the Y chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves,_J.A.M_2006_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves,_J.A.M_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These regions contain sex-determining and other male-specific genes.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without this suppression, these genes could be lost from the Y chromosome from recombination and cause issues such as infertility.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The lack of recombination across the majority of the Y chromosome makes it a useful tool in studying <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>, since recombination complicates the mathematical models used to trace ancestries.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Degeneration">Degeneration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Degeneration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By one estimate, the human Y chromosome has lost 1,393 of its 1,438 original genes over the course of its existence, and <a href="/wiki/Extrapolation" title="Extrapolation">linear extrapolation</a> of this 1,393-gene loss over 300 million years gives a rate of genetic loss of 4.6 genes per million years.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Continued loss of genes at the rate of 4.6 genes per million years would result in a Y chromosome with no functional genes – that is the Y chromosome would lose complete function – within the next 10 million years, or half that time with the current age estimate of 160 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves,_J.A.M_2006_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves,_J.A.M_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">Comparative genomic</a> analysis reveals that many mammalian species are experiencing a similar loss of function in their heterozygous sex chromosome. Degeneration may simply be the fate of all non-recombining sex chromosomes, due to three common evolutionary forces: high <a href="/wiki/Mutation_rate" title="Mutation rate">mutation rate</a>, inefficient <a href="/wiki/Selection_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection (biology)">selection</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves,_J.A.M_2006_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves,_J.A.M_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With a 30% difference between humans and chimpanzees, the Y chromosome is one of the fastest-evolving parts of the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these changes have been limited to non-coding sequences and comparisons of the human and <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a> Y chromosomes (first published in 2005) show that the human Y chromosome has not lost any genes since the divergence of humans and chimpanzees between 6–7 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, a scientific report in 2012 stated that only one gene had been lost since humans diverged from the <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">rhesus macaque</a> 25 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These facts provide direct evidence that the <a href="/wiki/Linear_extrapolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear extrapolation">linear extrapolation</a> model is flawed and suggest that the current human Y chromosome is either no longer shrinking or is shrinking at a much slower rate than the 4.6 genes per million years estimated by the linear extrapolation model.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="High_mutation_rate">High mutation rate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: High mutation rate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The human Y chromosome is particularly exposed to high mutation rates due to the environment in which it is housed. The Y chromosome is passed exclusively through <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a>, which undergo multiple <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell divisions</a> during <a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">gametogenesis</a>. Each cellular division provides further opportunity to accumulate base pair mutations. Additionally, sperm are stored in the highly oxidative environment of the <a href="/wiki/Testis" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis">testis</a>, which encourages further mutation. These two conditions combined put the Y chromosome at a greater opportunity of mutation than the rest of the genome.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves,_J.A.M_2006_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves,_J.A.M_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increased mutation opportunity for the Y chromosome is reported by Graves as a factor 4.8.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves,_J.A.M_2006_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves,_J.A.M_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, her original reference obtains this number for the relative mutation rates in male and female germ lines for the lineage leading to humans.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The observation that the Y chromosome experiences little <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">recombination</a> and has an accelerated rate of <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> and degradative change compared to the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> suggests an evolutionary explanation for the adaptive function of <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> with respect to the main body of genetic information. Brandeis<sup id="cite_ref-pmid28913952_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28913952-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proposed that the basic function of meiosis (particularly meiotic recombination) is the conservation of the integrity of the genome, a proposal consistent with the idea that meiosis is an adaptation for <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">repairing DNA damage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid3324702_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid3324702-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inefficient_selection">Inefficient selection</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Inefficient selection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Without the ability to recombine during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, the Y chromosome is unable to expose individual <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a> to natural selection. Deleterious alleles are allowed to "hitchhike" with beneficial neighbors, thus propagating maladapted alleles into the next generation. Conversely, advantageous alleles may be selected against if they are surrounded by harmful alleles (background selection). Due to this inability to sort through its gene content, the Y chromosome is particularly prone to the accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Noncoding_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Noncoding DNA">"junk" DNA</a>. Massive accumulations of retrotransposable elements are scattered throughout the Y.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves,_J.A.M_2006_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves,_J.A.M_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The random insertion of DNA segments often disrupts encoded gene sequences and renders them nonfunctional. However, the Y chromosome has no way of weeding out these "jumping genes". Without the ability to isolate alleles, selection cannot effectively act upon them.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A clear, quantitative indication of this inefficiency is the <a href="/wiki/Entropy_rate" title="Entropy rate">entropy rate</a> of the Y chromosome. Whereas all other chromosomes in the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a> have entropy rates of 1.5–1.9 bits per nucleotide (compared to the theoretical maximum of exactly 2 for no redundancy), the Y chromosome's entropy rate is only 0.84.<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the definition of <a href="/wiki/Entropy_rate" title="Entropy rate">entropy rate</a>, the Y chromosome has a much lower information content relative to its overall length, and is more redundant. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genetic_drift">Genetic drift</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Genetic drift"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Even if a well adapted Y chromosome manages to maintain genetic activity by avoiding mutation accumulation, there is no guarantee it will be passed down to the next generation. The population size of the Y chromosome is inherently limited to 1/4 that of autosomes: diploid organisms contain two copies of autosomal chromosomes while only half the population contains 1 Y chromosome. Thus, genetic drift is an exceptionally strong force acting upon the Y chromosome. Through sheer random assortment, an adult male may never pass on his Y chromosome if he only has female offspring. Thus, although a male may have a well adapted Y chromosome free of excessive mutation, it may never make it into the next gene pool.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves,_J.A.M_2006_14-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves,_J.A.M_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The repeat random loss of well-adapted Y chromosomes, coupled with the tendency of the Y chromosome to evolve to have more deleterious mutations rather than less for reasons described above, contributes to the species-wide degeneration of Y chromosomes through <a href="/wiki/Muller%27s_ratchet" title="Muller's ratchet">Muller's ratchet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gene_conversion">Gene conversion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Gene conversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As has been already mentioned, the Y chromosome is unable to recombine during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> like the other human chromosomes; however, in 2003, researchers from <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a> discovered a process which may slow down the process of degradation. They found that human Y chromosome is able to "recombine" with itself, using <a href="/wiki/Palindrome" title="Palindrome">palindrome</a> <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pair</a> sequences.<sup id="cite_ref-Rozen_2003_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozen_2003-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a "recombination" is called <a href="/wiki/Gene_conversion" title="Gene conversion">gene conversion</a>. </p><p>In the case of the Y chromosomes, the <a href="/wiki/Palindrome" title="Palindrome">palindromes</a> are not <a href="/wiki/Noncoding_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Noncoding DNA">noncoding DNA</a>; these strings of nucleotides contain functioning genes important for male fertility. Most of the sequence pairs are greater than 99.97% identical. The extensive use of gene conversion may play a role in the ability of the Y chromosome to edit out genetic mistakes and maintain the integrity of the relatively few genes it carries. In other words, since the Y chromosome is single, it has duplicates of its genes on itself instead of having a second, homologous, chromosome. When errors occur, it can use other parts of itself as a template to correct them.<sup id="cite_ref-Rozen_2003_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozen_2003-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Findings were confirmed by comparing similar regions of the Y chromosome in humans to the Y chromosomes of <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a>. The comparison demonstrated that the same phenomenon of gene conversion appeared to be at work more than 5 million years ago, when humans and the non-human primates diverged from each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Rozen_2003_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rozen_2003-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gene_conversion" title="Gene conversion">Gene conversion</a> tracts formed during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> are long, about 2,068 base pairs, and significantly biased towards the fixation of G or C nucleotides (GC biased).<sup id="cite_ref-Hallast2013_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallast2013-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">recombination</a> intermediates preceding gene conversion were found to rarely take the alternate route of crossover recombination.<sup id="cite_ref-Hallast2013_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallast2013-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Y-Y gene conversion rate in humans is about 1.52 x 10<sup>-5</sup> conversions/base/year.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These gene conversion events may reflect a basic function of meiosis, that of conserving the integrity of the genome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Future_evolution">Future evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Future evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to some theories, in the terminal stages of the degeneration of the Y chromosome, other chromosomes may increasingly take over genes and functions formerly associated with it and finally, within the framework of this theory, the Y chromosome disappears entirely, and a new sex-determining system arises.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves,_J.A.M_2006_14-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves,_J.A.M_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view"><span title="This statement is possibly biased. (September 2016)">neutrality</span></a> is <a href="/wiki/Talk:Y_chromosome" title="Talk:Y chromosome">disputed</a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Synthesis_of_published_material" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag may be based upon an improper synthesis of sources. (September 2016)">improper synthesis?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Several species of <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodent</a> in the sister families <a href="/wiki/Muridae" title="Muridae">Muridae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cricetidae" title="Cricetidae">Cricetidae</a> have reached a stage where the XY system has been modified,<sup id="cite_ref-Marchal_2003_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marchal_2003-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the following ways: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasian_mole_vole" title="Transcaucasian mole vole">Transcaucasian mole vole</a>, <i>Ellobius lutescens</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Zaisan_mole_vole" title="Zaisan mole vole">Zaisan mole vole</a>, <i>Ellobius tancrei</i>, and the Japanese spinous country rats <i><a href="/wiki/Tokudaia_osimensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokudaia osimensis">Tokudaia osimensis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Tokudaia_tokunoshimensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokudaia tokunoshimensis">Tokudaia tokunoshimensis</a></i>, have lost the Y chromosome and <a href="/wiki/SRY" class="mw-redirect" title="SRY">SRY</a> entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves,_J.A.M_2006_14-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves,_J.A.M_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Arakawa_et_al._2002_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arakawa_et_al._2002-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Tokudaia" title="Tokudaia">Tokudaia</a></i> spp. have relocated some other genes ancestrally present on the Y chromosome to the X chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-Arakawa_et_al._2002_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arakawa_et_al._2002-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both sexes of <i>Tokudaia</i> spp. and <i>Ellobius lutescens</i> have an XO genotype (<a href="/wiki/Turner_syndrome" title="Turner syndrome">Turner syndrome</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-Arakawa_et_al._2002_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arakawa_et_al._2002-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas all <i>Ellobius tancrei</i> possess an XX genotype.<sup id="cite_ref-Graves,_J.A.M_2006_14-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graves,_J.A.M_2006-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new sex-determining system(s) for these rodents remains unclear.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Wood_lemming" title="Wood lemming">wood lemming</a> <i>Myopus schisticolor</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_lemming" title="Arctic lemming">Arctic lemming</a>, <i>Dicrostonyx torquatus</i>, and multiple species in the grass mouse genus <i><a href="/wiki/Akodon" title="Akodon">Akodon</a></i> have evolved fertile females who possess the genotype generally coding for males, XY, in addition to the ancestral XX female, through a variety of modifications to the X and Y chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Marchal_2003_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marchal_2003-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/Creeping_vole" title="Creeping vole">creeping vole</a>, <i>Microtus oregoni</i>, the females, with just one X chromosome each, produce X gametes only, and the males, XY, produce Y gametes, or gametes devoid of any sex chromosome, through <a href="/wiki/Nondisjunction" title="Nondisjunction">nondisjunction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Outside of the rodents, the <a href="/wiki/Hairy-fronted_muntjac" title="Hairy-fronted muntjac">black muntjac</a>, <i>Muntiacus crinifrons</i>, evolved new X and Y chromosomes through fusions of the ancestral sex chromosomes and <a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">autosomes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern data cast doubt on the hypothesis that the Y-chromosome will disappear.<sup id="cite_ref-Y-chromosome_evolution:_emerging_in_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Y-chromosome_evolution:_emerging_in-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This conclusion was reached by scientists who studied the Y chromosomes of rhesus monkeys. When genomically comparing the Y chromosome of rhesus monkeys and humans, scientists found very few differences, given that humans and rhesus monkeys diverged 30 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="I don't see whether this sentence is supposed to refute, explain, or support the previous sentence. Some inference step is missing. (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Outside of mammals, some organisms have lost the Y chromosome, such as most species of Nematodes. However, in order for the complete elimination of Y to occur, it was necessary to develop an alternative way of determining sex (for example, by determining sex by the ratio of the X chromosome to autosomes), and any genes necessary for male function had to be moved to other chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Y-chromosome_evolution:_emerging_in_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Y-chromosome_evolution:_emerging_in-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the meantime, modern data demonstrate the complex mechanisms of Y chromosome evolution and the fact that the disappearance of the Y chromosome is not guaranteed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1:1_sex_ratio">1:1 sex ratio</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1:1 sex ratio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a> outlines why almost all species using <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> have a <a href="/wiki/Sex_ratio" title="Sex ratio">sex ratio</a> of 1:1. <a href="/wiki/W._D._Hamilton" title="W. D. Hamilton">W. D. Hamilton</a> gave the following basic explanation in his 1967 paper on "Extraordinary sex ratios",<sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton67_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton67-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> given the condition that males and females cost equal amounts to produce: </p> <dl><dd><ol><li>Suppose male births are less common than female.</li> <li>A newborn male then has better mating prospects than a newborn female, and therefore can expect to have more offspring.</li> <li>Therefore, parents genetically disposed to produce males tend to have more than average numbers of grandchildren born to them.</li> <li>Therefore, the genes for male-producing tendencies spread, and male births become more common.</li> <li>As the 1:1 sex ratio is approached, the advantage associated with producing males dies away.</li> <li>The same reasoning holds if females are substituted for males throughout. Therefore, 1:1 is the equilibrium ratio.</li></ol></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-therian_Y_chromosome">Non-therian Y chromosome</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Non-therian Y chromosome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many groups of organisms in addition to therian mammals have Y chromosomes, but these Y chromosomes do not share common ancestry with therian Y chromosomes. Such groups include monotremes, <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila" title="Drosophila">Drosophila</a></i>, some other insects, some fish, some reptiles, and some plants. In <i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i>, the Y chromosome does not trigger male development. Instead, sex is determined by the number of X chromosomes. The <i>D. melanogaster</i> Y chromosome does contain genes necessary for male fertility. So XXY <i>D. melanogaster</i> are female, and <i>D. melanogaster</i> with a single X (X0), are male but sterile. There are some species of Drosophila in which X0 males are both viable and fertile.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ZW_chromosomes">ZW chromosomes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: ZW chromosomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/ZW_sex-determination_system" title="ZW sex-determination system">ZW sex-determination system</a></div> <p>Other organisms have mirror image sex chromosomes: where the homogeneous sex is the male, with two Z chromosomes, and the female is the heterogeneous sex with a Z chromosome and a W chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_2007_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_2007-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the ZW sex-determination system is found in <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snakes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Butterflies" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterflies">butterflies</a>; the females have ZW sex chromosomes, and males have ZZ sex chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_2007_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_2007-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-inverted_Y_chromosome">Non-inverted Y chromosome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Non-inverted Y chromosome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are some species, such as the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_rice_fish" title="Japanese rice fish">Japanese rice fish</a>, in which the XY system is still developing and cross over between the X and Y is still possible. Because the male specific region is very small and contains no essential genes, it is even possible to artificially induce XX males and YY females to no ill effect.<sup id="cite_ref-Schartl_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schartl-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multiple_XY_pairs">Multiple XY pairs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Multiple XY pairs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Monotremes like <a href="/wiki/Platypus" title="Platypus">platypuses</a> possess four or five pairs of XY sex chromosomes, each pair consisting of sex chromosomes with homologous regions. The chromosomes of neighboring pairs are partially homologous, such that a chain is formed during <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Grützner_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grützner-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first X chromosome in the chain is also partially homologous with the last Y chromosome, indicating that profound rearrangements, some adding new pieces from autosomes, have occurred in history.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: fig. 5">: fig. 5 </span></sup> </p><p>Platypus sex chromosomes have strong sequence similarity with the avian <a href="/wiki/ZW_sex-determination_system" title="ZW sex-determination system">Z chromosome</a>, (indicating close <a href="/wiki/Sequence_homology" title="Sequence homology">homology</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-Warren_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warren-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the SRY gene so central to sex-determination in most other mammals is apparently not involved in platypus sex-determination.<sup id="cite_ref-Veyrunes_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veyrunes-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_Y_chromosome">Human Y chromosome</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Human Y chromosome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Cleanup" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may <b>require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">cleanup</a></b> to meet Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>. The specific problem is: <b>Too many subsections. Article might benefit from moving h3 subsections into h2 sections, if we can somehow reconcile the gap between all therians and humans. "Origins and evolution" section has a human focus, but the discussion does include all therians.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Y_chromosome#Move_page_to_"Human_Y_Chromosome"" title="Talk:Y chromosome">talk page</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Y_chromosome" title="Special:EditPage/Y chromosome">improve this section</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The human Y chromosome is composed of about 62 million <a href="/wiki/Base_pairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Base pairs">base pairs</a> of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, making it similar in size to <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_19" title="Chromosome 19">chromosome 19</a> and represents almost 2% of the total DNA in a male <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chromosome_Y_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chromosome_Y-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The human Y chromosome carries 693 <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, 107 of which are <a href="/wiki/Protein-coding_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein-coding gene">protein-coding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhie_2023_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhie_2023-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some genes are repeated, making the number of exclusive <a href="/wiki/Protein-coding_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein-coding gene">protein-coding</a> genes just 42.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhie_2023_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhie_2023-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Consensus_CDS_Project" title="Consensus CDS Project">Consensus Coding Sequence (CCDS) Project</a> only classifies 63 out of 107 genes, though CCDS estimates are often considered lower bounds due to their conservative classification strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All single-copy Y-linked genes are <a href="/wiki/Hemizygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemizygous">hemizygous</a> (present on only one chromosome) except in cases of <a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">aneuploidy</a> such as <a href="/wiki/XYY_syndrome" title="XYY syndrome">XYY syndrome</a> or <a href="/wiki/XXYY_syndrome" title="XXYY syndrome">XXYY syndrome</a>. Traits that are inherited via the Y chromosome are called <a href="/wiki/Y_linkage" title="Y linkage">Y-linked</a> traits, or holandric traits (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> ὅλος <i>hólos</i>, "whole" + ἀνδρός <i>andrós</i>, "male").<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sequence_of_the_human_Y_chromosome">Sequence of the human Y chromosome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sequence of the human Y chromosome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the end of the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> (and after many updates) almost half of the Y chromosome remained un-sequenced even in 2021; a different Y chromosome from the HG002 (GM24385) genome was completely sequenced in January 2022 and is included in the new "complete genome" human <a href="/wiki/Reference_genome" title="Reference genome">reference genome</a> sequence, CHM13.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhie_2023_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhie_2023-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The complete <a href="/wiki/Sequencing" title="Sequencing">sequencing</a> of a human Y chromosome was shown to contain 62,460,029 base pairs and 41 additional <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhie_2023_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhie_2023-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This added 30 million base pairs,<sup id="cite_ref-Rhie_2023_56-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhie_2023-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it was discovered that the Y chromosome can vary a lot in size between individuals, from 45.2 million to 84.9 million base pairs.<sup id="cite_ref-Hallast_2023_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallast_2023-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since almost half of the human Y sequence was unknown before 2022, it could not be screened out as contamination in microbial sequencing projects. As a result, the NCBI RefSeq bacterial genome database mistakenly includes some Y chromosome data.<sup id="cite_ref-Rhie_2023_56-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rhie_2023-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Missing_information plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>is missing information</b> about NRY/MSY structure - How there's a huge chunk of <a href="/wiki/Heterochromatin" title="Heterochromatin">heterochromatin</a> in q, nomenclature of the palindromes and <a href="/wiki/Amplicon" title="Amplicon">amplicons</a>, TTTY transcripts, etc. Best if we add a figure that mashes together the tops of Colaco 2018 Fig 1 and PMID 12815422 fig 3..<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Y_chromosome" title="Talk:Y chromosome">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cytogenetic_band">Cytogenetic band</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Cytogenetic band"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:322px;max-width:322px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">G-banding ideograms of human Y chromosome</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:570px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_chromosome_Y_ideogram_vertical.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Human_chromosome_Y_ideogram_vertical.svg/110px-Human_chromosome_Y_ideogram_vertical.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="573" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Human_chromosome_Y_ideogram_vertical.svg/165px-Human_chromosome_Y_ideogram_vertical.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Human_chromosome_Y_ideogram_vertical.svg/220px-Human_chromosome_Y_ideogram_vertical.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="216" data-file-height="1125" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">G-banding ideogram of human Y chromosome in resolution 850 bphs. Band length in this diagram is proportional to base-pair length. This type of ideogram is generally used in genome browsers (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Ensembl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensembl">Ensembl</a>, <a href="/wiki/UCSC_Genome_Browser" title="UCSC Genome Browser">UCSC Genome Browser</a>).</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:206px;max-width:206px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:570px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_chromosome_Y_-_400_550_850_bphs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Human_chromosome_Y_-_400_550_850_bphs.png/204px-Human_chromosome_Y_-_400_550_850_bphs.png" decoding="async" width="204" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Human_chromosome_Y_-_400_550_850_bphs.png/306px-Human_chromosome_Y_-_400_550_850_bphs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Human_chromosome_Y_-_400_550_850_bphs.png/408px-Human_chromosome_Y_-_400_550_850_bphs.png 2x" data-file-width="977" data-file-height="898" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">G-banding patterns of human Y chromosome in three different resolutions (400,<sup id="cite_ref-400bphs_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-400bphs-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 550<sup id="cite_ref-550bphs_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-550bphs-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 850<sup id="cite_ref-850bphs_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-850bphs-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Band length in this diagram is based on the ideograms from ISCN (2013).<sup id="cite_ref-Nomenclature2013_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nomenclature2013-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of ideogram represents actual relative band length observed under a microscope at the different moments during the <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitotic process</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SethakulvichaiManitpornsut2012_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SethakulvichaiManitpornsut2012-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"> <caption><a href="/wiki/G_banding" title="G banding">G-bands</a> of human Y chromosome in resolution 850 bphs<sup id="cite_ref-850bphs_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-850bphs-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Chr. </th> <th>Arm<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Band<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>ISCN<br />start<sup id="cite_ref-ISCN_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISCN-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>ISCN<br />stop<sup id="cite_ref-ISCN_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISCN-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Basepair<br />start </th> <th>Basepair<br />stop </th> <th>Stain<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Density </th></tr> <tr> <td>Y</td> <td>p </td> <td style="text-align:left">11.32</td> <td>0</td> <td>149</td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000100000000000000♠"></span>1</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7005300000000000000♠"></span>300,000</span> </td> <td style="background:white">gneg</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Y</td> <td>p </td> <td style="text-align:left">11.31</td> <td>149</td> <td>298</td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7005300001000000000♠"></span>300,001</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7005600000000000000♠"></span>600,000</span> </td> <td style="background:#979797">gpos</td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Y</td> <td>p </td> <td style="text-align:left">11.2</td> <td>298</td> <td>1043</td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7005600001000000000♠"></span>600,001</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007103000000000000♠"></span>10,300,000</span> </td> <td style="background:white">gneg</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Y</td> <td>p </td> <td style="text-align:left">11.1</td> <td>1043</td> <td>1117</td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007103000010000000♠"></span>10,300,001</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007104000000000000♠"></span>10,400,000</span> </td> <td style="background:#6e7f8f; color:white;">acen</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Y</td> <td>q </td> <td style="text-align:left">11.1</td> <td>1117</td> <td>1266</td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007104000010000000♠"></span>10,400,001</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007106000000000000♠"></span>10,600,000</span> </td> <td style="background:#6e7f8f; color:white;">acen</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Y</td> <td>q </td> <td style="text-align:left">11.21</td> <td>1266</td> <td>1397</td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007106000010000000♠"></span>10,600,001</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007124000000000000♠"></span>12,400,000</span> </td> <td style="background:white">gneg</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Y</td> <td>q </td> <td style="text-align:left">11.221</td> <td>1397</td> <td>1713</td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007124000010000000♠"></span>12,400,001</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007171000000000000♠"></span>17,100,000</span> </td> <td style="background:#979797">gpos</td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Y</td> <td>q </td> <td style="text-align:left">11.222</td> <td>1713</td> <td>1881</td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007171000010000000♠"></span>17,100,001</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007196000000000000♠"></span>19,600,000</span> </td> <td style="background:white">gneg</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Y</td> <td>q </td> <td style="text-align:left">11.223</td> <td>1881</td> <td>2160</td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007196000010000000♠"></span>19,600,001</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007238000000000000♠"></span>23,800,000</span> </td> <td style="background:#979797">gpos</td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Y</td> <td>q </td> <td style="text-align:left">11.23</td> <td>2160</td> <td>2346</td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007238000010000000♠"></span>23,800,001</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007266000000000000♠"></span>26,600,000</span> </td> <td style="background:white">gneg</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Y</td> <td>q </td> <td style="text-align:left">12</td> <td>2346</td> <td>3650</td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007266000010000000♠"></span>26,600,001</span></td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7007572274150000000♠"></span>57,227,415</span> </td> <td style="background:#e0e0e0">gvar</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-combining_region_of_Y_(NRY)"><span id="Non-combining_region_of_Y_.28NRY.29"></span>Non-combining region of Y (NRY)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Non-combining region of Y (NRY)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Human_Y-chromosome_DNA_haplogroup" title="Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup">Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup</a></div> <p>The human Y chromosome is normally unable to recombine with the X chromosome, except for small pieces of <a href="/wiki/Pseudoautosomal_region" title="Pseudoautosomal region">pseudoautosomal regions</a> (PARs) at the <a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">telomeres</a> (which comprise about 5% of the chromosome's length). These regions are relics of ancient <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homology</a> between the X and Y chromosomes. The bulk of the Y chromosome, which does not recombine, is called the "NRY", or non-recombining region of the Y chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphism">Single-nucleotide polymorphisms</a> (SNPs) in this region are used to trace direct paternal ancestral lines. </p><p>More specifically, PAR1 is at 0.1–2.7 Mb. PAR2 is at 56.9–57.2 Mb. The non-recombining region (NRY) or male-specific region (MSY) sits between. Their sizes is now known perfectly from CHM13: 2.77 Mb and 329.5 kb. Until CHM13 the data in PAR1 and PAR2 was just copied over from X chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-Hallast_2023_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallast_2023-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sequence_classes">Sequence classes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sequence classes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genes">Genes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Genes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Number_of_genes">Number of genes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Number of genes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following are some of the gene count estimates of human Y chromosome. Because researchers use different approaches to <a href="/wiki/Genome_annotation" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome annotation">genome annotation</a> their predictions of the <a href="/wiki/Number_of_genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Number of genes">number of genes</a> on each chromosome varies (for technical details, see <a href="/wiki/Gene_prediction" title="Gene prediction">gene prediction</a>). Among various projects, CCDS takes an extremely conservative strategy. So CCDS's gene number prediction represents a lower bound on the total number of human protein-coding genes.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20441615_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20441615-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"> <tbody><tr> <th>Estimated by </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Protein-coding_genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein-coding genes">Protein-coding genes</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Non-coding_RNA" title="Non-coding RNA">Non-coding RNA genes</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pseudogene" title="Pseudogene">Pseudogenes</a> </th> <th>Source </th> <th>Release date </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Consensus_CDS_Project" title="Consensus CDS Project">CCDS</a></td> <td>63</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td> <td style="text-align:center"><sup id="cite_ref-CCDS_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCDS-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>2016-09-08 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/HUGO_Gene_Nomenclature_Committee" title="HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee">HGNC</a></td> <td>45</td> <td>55</td> <td>381 </td> <td style="text-align:center"><sup id="cite_ref-HGNC20170512_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HGNC20170512-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>2017-05-12 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ensembl_genome_database_project" title="Ensembl genome database project">Ensembl</a></td> <td>63</td> <td>109</td> <td>392 </td> <td style="text-align:center"><sup id="cite_ref-Ensembl_Release_88_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ensembl_Release_88-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>2017-03-29 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/UniProt" title="UniProt">UniProt</a></td> <td>47</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td> <td style="text-align:center"><sup id="cite_ref-UniProt_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UniProt-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>2018-02-28 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a></td> <td>73</td> <td>122</td> <td>400 </td> <td style="text-align:center"><sup id="cite_ref-NCBI_coding_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCBI_coding-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NCBI_noncoding_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCBI_noncoding-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NCBI_pseudo_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCBI_pseudo-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>2017-05-19 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gene_list">Gene list</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Gene list"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Genes_on_human_chromosome_Y" title="Category:Genes on human chromosome Y">Category:Genes on human chromosome Y</a></div> <p>In general, the human Y chromosome is extremely gene poor—it is one of the largest <a href="/wiki/Gene_Deserts" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene Deserts">gene deserts</a> in the human genome. Disregarding <a href="/wiki/Pseudoautosomal_region" title="Pseudoautosomal region">pseudoautosomal</a> genes, genes encoded on the human Y chromosome include: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Genes on the non-recombining portion of the Y chromosome<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Name </th> <th><a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X</a> <a href="/wiki/Paralog" class="mw-redirect" title="Paralog">paralog</a> </th> <th>Note </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/SRY" class="mw-redirect" title="SRY">SRY</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/SOX3" title="SOX3">SOX3</a></td> <td>Sex-determining region. This is the p arm [Yp]. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ZFY" title="ZFY">ZFY</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/ZFX" title="ZFX">ZFX</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zinc_finger" title="Zinc finger">Zinc finger</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/RPS4Y1" class="mw-redirect" title="RPS4Y1">RPS4Y1</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/RPS4X" class="mw-redirect" title="RPS4X">RPS4X</a></td> <td>Ribosomal protein S4. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/AMELY" title="AMELY">AMELY</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/AMELX" title="AMELX">AMELX</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Amelogenin" title="Amelogenin">Amelogenin</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=TBL1Y&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TBL1Y (page does not exist)">TBL1Y</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/TBL1X" title="TBL1X">TBL1X</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/PCDH11Y" title="PCDH11Y">PCDH11Y</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=PDCH11X&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PDCH11X (page does not exist)">PDCH11X</a></td> <td>X-transposed region (XTR) from Xq21, one of two genes. Once dubbed "PAR3"<sup id="cite_ref-Veerappa_2013_285–293_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veerappa_2013_285–293-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but later refuted.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=TGIF2LY&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TGIF2LY (page does not exist)">TGIF2LY</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=TGIF2LX&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TGIF2LX (page does not exist)">TGIF2LX</a></td> <td>The other X-transposed gene. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/TSPY1" title="TSPY1">TSPY1</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=TSPY2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TSPY2 (page does not exist)">TSPY2</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=TSPX&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TSPX (page does not exist)">TSPX</a></td> <td>Testis-specific protein. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/AZF1" class="mw-redirect" title="AZF1">AZFa</a></td> <td>(none)</td> <td>Not a gene. First part of the AZF (Azoospermia factor) region on arm q. Contains the four following genes. X counterparts escape inactivation. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/USP9Y" title="USP9Y">USP9Y</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/USP9X" title="USP9X">USP9X</a></td> <td>Ubiquitin protease. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/DDX3Y" title="DDX3Y">DDX3Y</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/DDX3X" title="DDX3X">DDX3X</a></td> <td>Helicase. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/UTY_(gene)" title="UTY (gene)">UTY</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/UTX_(gene)" title="UTX (gene)">UTX</a></td> <td>Histone demethylase. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=TB4Y&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TB4Y (page does not exist)">TB4Y</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=TB4X&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TB4X (page does not exist)">TB4X</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>AZFb</td> <td>(none)</td> <td>Second AZF region on arm q. Prone to NAHR [non-allelic homologous recombination] with AZFc. Overlaps with AZFc. Contains three single-copy gene regions and repeats. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=CYorf15&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CYorf15 (page does not exist)">CYorf15</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=CXorf15&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CXorf15 (page does not exist)">CXorf15</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/RPS4Y2" class="mw-redirect" title="RPS4Y2">RPS4Y2</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/RPS4X" class="mw-redirect" title="RPS4X">RPS4X</a></td> <td>Another copy of ribosomal protein S4. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/EIF1AY" title="EIF1AY">EIF1AY</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=EIF4AX&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="EIF4AX (page does not exist)">EIF4AX</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/KDM5D" title="KDM5D">KDM5D</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/KDM5C" title="KDM5C">KDM5C</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=XKRY&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="XKRY (page does not exist)">XKRY</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/XK_(protein)" title="XK (protein)">XK (protein)</a></td> <td>Found in the "yellow" <a href="/wiki/Amplicon" title="Amplicon">amplicon</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=HSFY1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HSFY1 (page does not exist)">HSFY1</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=HSFY2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HSFY2 (page does not exist)">HSFY2</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=HSFX1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HSFX1 (page does not exist)">HSFX1</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=HSFX2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HSFX2 (page does not exist)">HSFX2</a></td> <td>Found in the "blue" amplicon. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polycystin-related_Y_protein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polycystin-related Y protein (page does not exist)">PRY</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=PRY2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PRY2 (page does not exist)">PRY2</a></td> <td></td> <td>Found in the "blue" amplicon. Identified by similarity to <a href="/wiki/PTPN13" title="PTPN13">PTPN13</a> (Chr. 4). </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/RBMY1A1" class="mw-redirect" title="RBMY1A1">RBMY1A1</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=RBMY&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="RBMY (page does not exist)">RBMY</a></td> <td>Large number of copies. Part of an <a href="/w/index.php?title=RBM_gene_family&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="RBM gene family (page does not exist)">RBM gene family</a> of RNA recognition motif (RRM) proteins. </td></tr> <tr> <td>AZFc</td> <td>(none)</td> <td>Final (distal) part of the AZF. Multiple palindromes. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/DAZ1" title="DAZ1">DAZ1</a>, <a href="/wiki/DAZ2" title="DAZ2">DAZ2</a>, <a href="/wiki/DAZ3" title="DAZ3">DAZ3</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=DAZ4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DAZ4 (page does not exist)">DAZ4</a></td> <td></td> <td>RRM genes in two palindromic clusters. <a href="/wiki/BOLL" title="BOLL">BOLL</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=DAZLA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DAZLA (page does not exist)">DAZLA</a> are autosomal homologs. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/CDY1" title="CDY1">CDY1</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=CDY2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CDY2 (page does not exist)">CDY2</a></td> <td></td> <td>CDY1 is actually two identical copies. CDY2 is two closely related copies in palindrome P5. Probably derived from autosomal <a href="/w/index.php?title=CDYL&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CDYL (page does not exist)">CDYL</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=VCY1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="VCY1 (page does not exist)">VCY1</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=VCY2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="VCY2 (page does not exist)">VCY2</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/VCX1" class="mw-redirect" title="VCX1">VCX1</a> through 3</td> <td>Three copies of VCX2 (BPY2). Part of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=VCX/VCY&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="VCX/VCY (page does not exist)">VCX/VCY</a> family. The two copies of BPY1 are instead in Yq11.221/AZFa. </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Y-chromosome-linked_diseases">Y-chromosome-linked diseases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Y-chromosome-linked diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Diseases linked to the Y chromosome typically involve an <a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">aneuploidy</a>, an atypical number of chromosomes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Loss_of_Y_chromosome">Loss of Y chromosome</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Loss of Y chromosome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Males can lose the Y chromosome in a subset of cells, known as <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_(genetics)" title="Mosaic (genetics)">mosaic</a> loss. Mosaic loss is strongly associated with age,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and smoking is another important risk factor for mosaic loss.<sup id="cite_ref-Forsberg_2017_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsberg_2017-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mosaic loss may be related to health outcomes, indicating that the Y chromosome plays important roles outside of sex determination.<sup id="cite_ref-Forsberg_2017_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsberg_2017-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Forsberg_2014_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsberg_2014-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Males with a higher percentage of <a href="/wiki/Haematopoiesis" title="Haematopoiesis">hematopoietic</a> <a href="/wiki/Stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cells">stem cells</a> lacking the Y chromosome have a higher risk of certain <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancers</a> and have a shorter life expectancy.<sup id="cite_ref-Forsberg_2014_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsberg_2014-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many cases, a cause and effect relationship between the Y chromosome and health outcomes has not been determined, and some propose loss of the Y chromosome could be a "neutral <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotype</a> related to normal <a href="/wiki/Aging" class="mw-redirect" title="Aging">aging</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a 2022 study showed that mosaic loss of the Y chromosome causally contributes to <a href="/wiki/Fibrosis" title="Fibrosis">fibrosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_dysfunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac dysfunction">heart risks</a>, and mortality.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further studies are needed to understand how mosaic Y chromosome loss may contribute to other sex differences in health outcomes, such as how male smokers have between 1.5 and 2 times the risk of non-respiratory cancers as female smokers.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Potential countermeasures identified so far include not smoking or <a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">stopping smoking</a> and at least one potential drug that "may help counteract the harmful effects of the chromosome loss" is under investigation.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (August 2022)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Y_chromosome_microdeletion">Y chromosome microdeletion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Y chromosome microdeletion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome_microdeletion" title="Y chromosome microdeletion">Y chromosome microdeletion</a> (YCM) is a family of genetic disorders caused by missing genes in the Y chromosome. Many affected men exhibit no symptoms and lead normal lives. However, YCM is also known to be present in a significant number of men with reduced fertility or reduced sperm count.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Defective_Y_chromosome">Defective Y chromosome</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Defective Y chromosome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This results in the person presenting a female <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> (i.e., is born with female-like genitalia) even though that person possesses an XY <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyotype</a>. The lack of the second X results in infertility. In other words, viewed from the opposite direction, the person goes through <a href="/wiki/Defeminization" title="Defeminization">defeminization</a> but fails to complete <a href="/wiki/Virilization" title="Virilization">masculinization</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The cause can be seen as an incomplete Y chromosome: the usual karyotype in these cases is 45X, plus a fragment of Y. This usually results in defective testicular development, such that the infant may or may not have fully formed male genitalia internally or externally. The full range of ambiguity of structure may occur, especially if <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_(genetics)" title="Mosaic (genetics)">mosaicism</a> is present. When the Y fragment is minimal and nonfunctional, the child is usually a girl with the features of <a href="/wiki/Turner_syndrome" title="Turner syndrome">Turner syndrome</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mixed_gonadal_dysgenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed gonadal dysgenesis">mixed gonadal dysgenesis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="XXY">XXY</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: XXY"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Klinefelter_syndrome" title="Klinefelter syndrome">Klinefelter syndrome</a></div> <p>Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY) is not an <a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">aneuploidy</a> of the Y chromosome, but a condition of having an extra X chromosome, which usually results in defective postnatal testicular function. The mechanism is not fully understood; it does not seem to be due to direct interference by the extra X with expression of Y genes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="XYY">XYY</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: XYY"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/XYY_syndrome" title="XYY syndrome">XYY syndrome</a></div> <p>47, XYY syndrome (simply known as XYY syndrome) is caused by the presence of a single extra copy of the Y chromosome in each of a male's cells. 47, XYY males have one X chromosome and two Y chromosomes, for a total of 47 chromosomes per cell. Researchers have found that an extra copy of the Y chromosome is associated with increased stature and an increased incidence of learning problems in some boys and men, but the effects are variable, often minimal, and the vast majority do not know their karyotype.<sup id="cite_ref-1950-_2007_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1950-_2007-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1965 and 1966 <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Jacobs" title="Patricia Jacobs">Patricia Jacobs</a> and colleagues published a chromosome survey of 315 male patients at <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>'s only special security hospital for the <a href="/wiki/Developmental_disability" title="Developmental disability">developmentally disabled</a>, finding a higher than expected number of patients to have an extra Y chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-jacobs-1965_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacobs-1965-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors of this study wondered "whether an extra Y chromosome predisposes its carriers to unusually aggressive behaviour", and this conjecture "framed the next fifteen years of research on the human Y chromosome".<sup id="cite_ref-richardson-sex-itself_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-richardson-sex-itself-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through studies over the next decade, this conjecture was shown to be incorrect: the elevated crime rate of XYY males is due to lower median intelligence and not increased aggression,<sup id="cite_ref-witkin-1976_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witkin-1976-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and increased height was the only characteristic that could be reliably associated with XYY males.<sup id="cite_ref-witkin-1977_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witkin-1977-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "criminal karyotype" concept is therefore inaccurate.<sup id="cite_ref-1950-_2007_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1950-_2007-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also <a href="/wiki/XXXY_syndrome" title="XXXY syndrome">XXXY syndrome</a> and <a href="/wiki/XXXXY_syndrome" title="XXXXY syndrome">XXXXY syndrome</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rare">Rare</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Rare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following Y-chromosome-linked diseases are rare, but notable because of their elucidation of the nature of the Y chromosome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="More_than_two_Y_chromosomes">More than two Y chromosomes</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: More than two Y chromosomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Greater degrees of Y chromosome polysomy (having more than one extra copy of the Y chromosome in every cell, e.g., XYYY) are considerably more rare. The extra genetic material in these cases can lead to skeletal abnormalities, dental abnormalities, decreased IQ, delayed development, and respiratory issues, but the severity features of these conditions are variable.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="XX_male_syndrome">XX male syndrome</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: XX male syndrome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/XX_male_syndrome" title="XX male syndrome">XX male syndrome</a> occurs due to a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">genetic recombination</a> in the formation of the male <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a>, causing the <a href="/wiki/SRY" class="mw-redirect" title="SRY">SRY</a> portion of the Y chromosome to move to the X chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-XX_male_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-XX_male-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When such an X chromosome is present in a zygote, male gonads develop because of the SRY gene.<sup id="cite_ref-XX_male_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-XX_male-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_genealogy">Genetic genealogy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Genetic genealogy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Human_Y-chromosome_DNA_haplogroup" title="Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup">Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup</a> and <a href="/wiki/Y-chromosomal_Adam" title="Y-chromosomal Adam">Y-chromosomal Adam</a></div> <p>In human <a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">genetic genealogy</a> (the application of <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> to <a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">traditional genealogy</a>), use of the information contained in the Y chromosome is of particular interest because, unlike other chromosomes, the Y chromosome is passed exclusively from father to son, on the patrilineal line. <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">Mitochondrial DNA</a>, maternally inherited to both sons and daughters, is used in an analogous way to trace the matrilineal line.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brain_function">Brain function</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Brain function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research is currently investigating whether male-pattern neural development is a direct consequence of Y-chromosome-related gene expression or an indirect result of Y-chromosome-related <a href="/wiki/Androgenic_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Androgenic hormone">androgenic hormone</a> production.<sup id="cite_ref-Kopsida_2009_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kopsida_2009-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microchimerism">Microchimerism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Microchimerism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1974, male chromosomes were discovered in fetal cells in the blood circulation of women.<sup id="cite_ref-SchroederEtAl1974_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SchroederEtAl1974-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1996, it was found that male fetal progenitor cells could persist postpartum in the maternal blood stream for as long as 27 years.<sup id="cite_ref-BianchiEtAl1996_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BianchiEtAl1996-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2004 study at the <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hutchinson_Cancer_Research_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center">Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center</a>, Seattle, investigated the origin of male chromosomes found in the peripheral blood of women who had not had male progeny. A total of 120 subjects (women who had never had sons) were investigated, and it was found that 21% of them had male DNA in their peripheral blood. The subjects were categorised into four groups based on their case histories:<sup id="cite_ref-YanEtAl2004_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YanEtAl2004-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Group A (8%) had had only female progeny.</li> <li>Patients in Group B (22%) had a history of one or more miscarriages.</li> <li>Patients Group C (57%) had their pregnancies medically terminated.</li> <li>Group D (10%) had never been pregnant before.</li></ul> <p>The study noted that 10% of the women had never been pregnant before, raising the question of where the Y chromosomes in their blood could have come from. The study suggests that possible reasons for occurrence of male chromosome microchimerism could be one of the following:<sup id="cite_ref-YanEtAl2004_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YanEtAl2004-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>miscarriages,</li> <li>pregnancies,</li> <li>vanished male twin,</li> <li>possibly from sexual intercourse.</li></ul> <p>A 2012 study at the same institute has detected cells with the Y chromosome in multiple areas of the brains of deceased women.<sup id="cite_ref-ChanEtAl2012_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChanEtAl2012-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genealogical_DNA_test" title="Genealogical DNA test">Genealogical DNA test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplodiploid_sex-determination_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplodiploid sex-determination system">Haplodiploid sex-determination system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Y_chromosome_DNA_haplogroups" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Y chromosome DNA haplogroups">Human Y chromosome DNA haplogroups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Y-STR_markers" title="List of Y-STR markers">List of Y-STR markers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muller%27s_ratchet" title="Muller's ratchet">Muller's ratchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_nucleotide_polymorphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Single nucleotide polymorphism">Single nucleotide polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y-STR" title="Y-STR">Y chromosome Short Tandem Repeat (STR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_linkage" title="Y linkage">Y linkage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y-chromosomal_Aaron" title="Y-chromosomal Aaron">Y-chromosomal Aaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y-chromosomal_Adam" title="Y-chromosomal Adam">Y-chromosomal Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y-chromosome_haplogroups_in_populations_of_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world">Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CCDS-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CCDS_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CCDS_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene?term=Y%5BChr%5D%20AND%20%22Homo%20sapiens%22%5BOrganism%5D%20AND%20%28%22has%20ccds%22%5BProperties%5D%20AND%20alive%5Bprop%5D%29&cmd=DetailsSearch">"Homo sapiens Y chromosome genes"</a>. <i>CCDS Release 20 for Homo sapiens</i>. 2016-09-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CCDS+Release+20+for+Homo+sapiens&rft.atitle=Homo+sapiens+Y+chromosome+genes&rft.date=2016-09-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fgene%3Fterm%3DY%255BChr%255D%2520AND%2520%2522Homo%2520sapiens%2522%255BOrganism%255D%2520AND%2520%2528%2522has%2520ccds%2522%255BProperties%255D%2520AND%2520alive%255Bprop%255D%2529%26cmd%3DDetailsSearch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AY+chromosome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-StrachanRead2010-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-StrachanRead2010_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrachanRead2010" class="citation book cs1">Strachan T, Read A (2 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dSwWBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45"><i>Human Molecular Genetics</i></a>. Garland Science. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-84407-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-84407-2"><bdi>978-1-136-84407-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Molecular+Genetics&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Garland+Science&rft.date=2010-04-02&rft.isbn=978-1-136-84407-2&rft.aulast=Strachan&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Read%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdSwWBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AY+chromosome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-850bphs-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-850bphs_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-850bphs_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-850bphs_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub/gdp/ideogram_9606_GCF_000001305.14_850_V1">"Ideogram data for Homo sapience (850 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3)"</a>. <i>Genome Decoration Page</i>. U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). 2014-06-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-04-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Genome+Decoration+Page&rft.atitle=Ideogram+data+for+Homo+sapience+%28400+bphs%2C+Assembly+GRCh38.p3&rft.date=2014-06-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpub%2Fgdp%2Fideogram_9606_GCF_000001305.14_400_V1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AY+chromosome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-550bphs-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-550bphs_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub/gdp/ideogram_9606_GCF_000001305.14_550_V1">"Ideogram data for Homo sapience (550 bphs, Assembly GRCh38.p3)"</a>. <i>Genome Decoration Page</i>. U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). 2015-08-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-04-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Genome+Decoration+Page&rft.atitle=Ideogram+data+for+Homo+sapience+%28550+bphs%2C+Assembly+GRCh38.p3%29&rft.date=2015-08-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpub%2Fgdp%2Fideogram_9606_GCF_000001305.14_550_V1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AY+chromosome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nomenclature2013-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nomenclature2013_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Standing_Committee_on_Human_Cytogenetic_Nomenclature2013" class="citation book cs1">International Standing Committee on Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lGCLrh0DIwEC"><i>ISCN 2013: An International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013)</i></a>. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-318-02253-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-318-02253-7"><bdi>978-3-318-02253-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISCN+2013%3A+An+International+System+for+Human+Cytogenetic+Nomenclature+%282013%29&rft.pub=Karger+Medical+and+Scientific+Publishers&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-318-02253-7&rft.au=International+Standing+Committee+on+Human+Cytogenetic+Nomenclature&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlGCLrh0DIwEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AY+chromosome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SethakulvichaiManitpornsut2012-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SethakulvichaiManitpornsut2012_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSethakulvichaiManitpornsutWiboonratLilakiatsakun2012" class="citation book cs1">Sethakulvichai W, Manitpornsut S, Wiboonrat M, Lilakiatsakun W, Assawamakin A, Tongsima S (2012). "Estimation of band level resolutions of human chromosome images". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261304470"><i>2012 Ninth International Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering (JCSSE)</i></a>. pp. 276–282. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJCSSE.2012.6261965">10.1109/JCSSE.2012.6261965</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4673-1921-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4673-1921-8"><bdi>978-1-4673-1921-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16666470">16666470</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Estimation+of+band+level+resolutions+of+human+chromosome+images&rft.btitle=2012+Ninth+International+Conference+on+Computer+Science+and+Software+Engineering+%28JCSSE%29&rft.pages=276-282&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16666470%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FJCSSE.2012.6261965&rft.isbn=978-1-4673-1921-8&rft.aulast=Sethakulvichai&rft.aufirst=W&rft.au=Manitpornsut%2C+S&rft.au=Wiboonrat%2C+M&rft.au=Lilakiatsakun%2C+W&rft.au=Assawamakin%2C+A&rft.au=Tongsima%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F261304470&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AY+chromosome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<b>p</b>": Short arm; "<b>q</b>": Long arm.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For cytogenetic banding nomenclature, see article <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">locus</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ISCN-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ISCN_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISCN_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">These values (ISCN start/stop) are based on the length of bands/ideograms from the ISCN book, An International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (2013). <a href="/wiki/Arbitrary_unit" title="Arbitrary unit">Arbitrary unit</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><b>gpos</b>: Region which is positively stained by <a href="/wiki/G_banding" title="G banding">G banding</a>, generally <a href="/wiki/GC-content" title="GC-content">AT-rich</a> and gene poor; <b>gneg</b>: Region which is negatively stained by G banding, generally <a href="/wiki/GC-content" title="GC-content">CG-rich</a> and gene rich; <b>acen</b> <a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">Centromere</a>. <b>var</b>: Variable region; <b>stalk</b>: Stalk.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/04/080401184955.htm">"Scientists Reshape Y Chromosome Haplogroup Tree Gaining New Insights Into Human Ancestry"</a>. <i>Science Daily</i>. 3 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+Daily&rft.atitle=Scientists+Reshape+Y+Chromosome+Haplogroup+Tree+Gaining+New+Insights+Into+Human+Ancestry&rft.date=2008-04-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2008%2F04%2F080401184955.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AY+chromosome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid20441615-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid20441615_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerteaSalzberg2010" class="citation journal cs1">Pertea M, Salzberg SL (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2898077">"Between a chicken and a grape: estimating the number of human genes"</a>. <i>Genome Biology</i>. <b>11</b> (5): 206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fgb-2010-11-5-206">10.1186/gb-2010-11-5-206</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2898077">2898077</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20441615">20441615</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genome+Biology&rft.atitle=Between+a+chicken+and+a+grape%3A+estimating+the+number+of+human+genes&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=206&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2898077%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20441615&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fgb-2010-11-5-206&rft.aulast=Pertea&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Salzberg%2C+SL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2898077&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AY+chromosome" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HGNC20170512-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HGNC20170512_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170629075523/http://www.genenames.org/cgi-bin/statistics?c=Y">"Statistics & Downloads for chromosome Y"</a>. <i>HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee</i>. 2017-05-12. 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class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Y_chromosome&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/gdv/browser/genome/?id=GCF_009914755.1">CHM13v2.0 Y chromosome</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ensembl.org/Homo_sapiens/Location/Chromosome?chr=Y;r=Y:1-57227415">Ensembl genome browser</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/faq/snps.shtml">Human Genome Project Information</a>—Human Chromosome Y Launchpad</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050207052351/http://wi.mit.edu/news/ontopic/ychromosome.html">On Topic: Y Chromosome</a>—From the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/collections/vmssbdktkr">Nature</a>—focus on the Y chromosome</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genome.gov/11007628/2003-release-mechanism-preserves-y-chromosome-gene">National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)</a>—Use of Novel Mechanism Preserves Y chromosome Genes</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ysearch.org/">Ysearch.org – Public Y-DNA database</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110104031453/http://www.ysearch.org/">Archived</a> 2011-01-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ycc.biosci.arizona.edu/">Y chromosome Consortium (YCC)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170116195823/http://ycc.biosci.arizona.edu/">Archived</a> 2017-01-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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.navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chromosomes" title="Template:Chromosomes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chromosomes" title="Template talk:Chromosomes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chromosomes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chromosomes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_genome" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">Human genome</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_DNA" title="Nuclear DNA">Nuclear genome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">Autosome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_1" title="Chromosome 1">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_2" title="Chromosome 2">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_3" title="Chromosome 3">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_4" title="Chromosome 4">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_5" title="Chromosome 5">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_6" title="Chromosome 6">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_7" title="Chromosome 7">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_8" title="Chromosome 8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_9" title="Chromosome 9">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_10" title="Chromosome 10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_11" title="Chromosome 11">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_12" title="Chromosome 12">12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_13" title="Chromosome 13">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_14" title="Chromosome 14">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_15" title="Chromosome 15">15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_16" title="Chromosome 16">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_17" title="Chromosome 17">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_18" title="Chromosome 18">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_19" title="Chromosome 19">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_20" title="Chromosome 20">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_21" title="Chromosome 21">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_22" title="Chromosome 22">22</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Allosome" class="mw-redirect" title="Allosome">Sex chromosome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Y</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">Mitochondrial genome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics" title="Human mitochondrial genetics">Human mitochondrial DNA</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">Human genome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_genes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of human genes">List of human genes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics#Human_archaeology" title="Archaeogenetics">Human archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cytogenetics:_chromosomes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chromosome_genetics" title="Template:Chromosome genetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chromosome_genetics" title="Template talk:Chromosome genetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chromosome_genetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chromosome genetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cytogenetics:_chromosomes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a>: <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">Ploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genetic material</a>/<a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">Chromatin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euchromatin" title="Euchromatin">Euchromatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterochromatin" title="Heterochromatin">Heterochromatin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatid" title="Chromatid">Chromatid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleosome" title="Nucleosome">Nucleosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_organization" title="Nuclear organization">Nuclear organization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">Autosome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex chromosome</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">allosome</a> or heterosome)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microchromosome" title="Microchromosome">Macrochromosome/Microchromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_bacterial_chromosome" class="mw-redirect" title="Circular bacterial chromosome">Circular chromosome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Linear_chromosome" title="Linear chromosome">Linear chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">Extra chromosome</a> (or accessory chromosome)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_supernumerary_marker_chromosome" title="Small supernumerary marker chromosome">Supernumerary chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_chromosome" title="B chromosome">A chromosome/B chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampbrush_chromosome" title="Lampbrush chromosome">Lampbrush chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytene_chromosome" title="Polytene chromosome">Polytene chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinokaryon" title="Dinokaryon">Dinoflagellate chromosomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">Homologous chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isochromosome" title="Isochromosome">Isochromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_chromosome" title="Satellite chromosome">Satellite chromosome</a></li> <li><i>Centromere position</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centromere#Metacentric" title="Centromere">Metacentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submetacentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Submetacentric">Submetacentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Telocentric">Telocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrocentric">Acrocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocentric_chromosome" title="Holocentric chromosome">Holocentric</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Centromere number</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acentric_fragment" title="Acentric fragment">Acentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocentric">Monocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicentric_chromosome" title="Dicentric chromosome">Dicentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycentric_chromosome" title="Polycentric chromosome">Polycentric</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes<br />and evolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality#Structural_abnormalities" title="Chromosome abnormality">Structural alterations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_inversion" title="Chromosomal inversion">Chromosomal inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation" title="Chromosomal translocation">Chromosomal translocation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_abnormality#Numerical_disorders" title="Chromosome abnormality">Numerical alterations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aneuploidy" title="Aneuploidy">Aneuploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">Euploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">Polyploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopolyploidy" title="Paleopolyploidy">Paleopolyploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyploidization" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploidization">Polyploidization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">Telomere</a>: <a href="/wiki/Telomere-binding_protein" title="Telomere-binding protein">Telomere-binding protein</a> (<a href="/wiki/TINF2" title="TINF2">TINF2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protamine" title="Protamine">Protamine</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Histone" title="Histone">Histone</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H1" title="Histone H1">H1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H2A" title="Histone H2A">H2A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H2B" title="Histone H2B">H2B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H3" title="Histone H3">H3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histone_H4" title="Histone H4">H4</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Centromere" title="Centromere">Centromere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CENPA" title="CENPA">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centromere_protein_B" title="Centromere protein B">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPC1" title="CENPC1">C1</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPC2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPC2 (page does not exist)">C2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centromere_protein_E" title="Centromere protein E">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPF" title="CENPF">F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPH" title="CENPH">H</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPI" title="CENPI">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPJ" title="CENPJ">J</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPK" title="CENPK">K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPM" title="CENPM">M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPN" title="CENPN">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPO" title="CENPO">O</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPP (page does not exist)">P</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CENPQ&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CENPQ (page does not exist)">Q</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CENPT" title="CENPT">T</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extrachromosomal_DNA" title="Extrachromosomal DNA">Extrachromosomal DNA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organisms_by_chromosome_count" title="List of organisms by chromosome count">List of organisms by chromosome count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sequenced_eukaryotic_genomes" title="List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes">List of sequenced genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_System_for_Human_Cytogenetic_Nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature">International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sex" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sex_(biology)" title="Template:Sex (biology)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sex_(biology)" title="Template talk:Sex (biology)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sex_(biology)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sex (biology)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sex" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">Sex</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological<br />terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">Female</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation" title="Sexual differentiation">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminization_(biology)" title="Feminization (biology)">Feminization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virilization" title="Virilization">Virilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">XY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZW_sex-determination_system" title="ZW sex-determination system">ZW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XO_sex-determination_system" title="XO sex-determination system">XO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZO_sex-determination_system" title="ZO sex-determination system">ZO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature-dependent_sex_determination" title="Temperature-dependent sex determination">Temperature-dependent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplodiploidy" title="Haplodiploidy">Haplodiploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">Sex chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testis-determining_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis-determining factor">Testis-determining factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequential_hermaphroditism" title="Sequential hermaphroditism">Sequential hermaphroditism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_hermaphroditism" title="Simultaneous hermaphroditism">Simultaneous hermaphroditism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasexual_cycle" title="Parasexual cycle">parasexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">Sex as a biological variable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual<br />reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Anisogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">Isogamy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">Germ cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">Sex organ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">Mating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">Gametogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">Spermatogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">Oogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">Gamete</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">spermatozoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ovum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">Fertilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_fertilization" title="External fertilization">External</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">Internal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Plant reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_in_fungi" title="Mating in fungi">Fungal reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction_in_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual reproduction in animals">Sexual reproduction in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penile-vaginal_intercourse" title="Penile-vaginal intercourse">Penile-vaginal intercourse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copulation_(zoology)" title="Copulation (zoology)">Copulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_reproduction" title="Human reproduction">Human reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordosis_behavior" title="Lordosis behavior">Lordosis behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_thrust" title="Pelvic thrust">Pelvic thrust</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Animal sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Human sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_of_human_sexuality" title="Mechanics of human sexuality">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">Differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td 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