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class="et_builder_inner_content et_pb_gutters3"> <div class="et_pb_with_border et_pb_section et_pb_section_0 et_pb_with_background et_section_regular" > <div class="et_pb_row et_pb_row_0"> <div class="et_pb_column et_pb_column_4_4 et_pb_column_0 et_pb_css_mix_blend_mode_passthrough et-last-child"> <div class="et_pb_module et_pb_text et_pb_text_0 yoastBC et_pb_text_align_center et_pb_bg_layout_light"> <div class="et_pb_text_inner"><span><span><a href="https://www.tolkienestate.com/fr/">Home</a></span> / <span><a href="https://www.tolkienestate.com/fr/savoir/">Savoir</a></span> / <span class="breadcrumb_last" aria-current="page">Tom Shippey, Traductions et Éditions Savantes de Textes Médiévaux</span></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="et_pb_section et_pb_section_1 et_pb_with_background et_section_regular" > <div class="et_pb_row et_pb_row_1"> <div class="et_pb_column et_pb_column_4_4 et_pb_column_1 et_pb_css_mix_blend_mode_passthrough et-last-child"> <div class="et_pb_module et_pb_text et_pb_text_1 et_pb_text_align_center et_pb_bg_layout_light"> <div class="et_pb_text_inner"><p>SCHOLARSHIP</p></div> </div><div class="et_pb_module et_pb_text et_pb_text_2 et_pb_text_align_left et_pb_bg_layout_light"> <div class="et_pb_text_inner"><h1>Tom Shippey, Traductions et Éditions Savantes de Textes Médiévaux</h1></div> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="et_pb_section et_pb_section_2 et_pb_with_background et_section_regular" > <div class="et_pb_row et_pb_row_2"> <div class="et_pb_column et_pb_column_4_4 et_pb_column_2 et_pb_css_mix_blend_mode_passthrough et-last-child"> <div class="et_pb_module et_pb_text et_pb_text_3 et_animated et_pb_text_align_left et_pb_bg_layout_light"> <div class="et_pb_text_inner"><p>Tom Shippey, médiéviste et philologue, commente la manière dont Tolkien abordait la lecture et l’interprétation des textes médiévaux, avec une référence particulière aux textes en moyen anglais ; <em>Sire Gauvain et le Chevalier Vert</em>, <em>La Perle</em> et <em>Sire Orfée</em> et les textes en vieil anglais, <em>Ancrene Wisse</em>, <em>Exodus</em> et <em>Finn and Hengest</em>.</p></div> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="et_pb_section et_pb_section_3 et_section_regular" > <div class="et_pb_row et_pb_row_3"> <div class="et_pb_column et_pb_column_4_4 et_pb_column_3 et_pb_css_mix_blend_mode_passthrough et-last-child"> <div class="et_pb_module et_pb_text et_pb_text_4 et_animated et_pb_text_align_left et_pb_bg_layout_light"> <div class="et_pb_text_inner"><p><span>Cet article ne présente pas les travaux de J.R.R. Tolkien sur <em>Beowulf</em>, puisque l’ouvrage publié cette année (2015) en France par les éditions Bourgois est présenté plus extensivement dans nos articles : <em>« Beowulf</em> : Commentaire sur la traduction » et « Comprendre <em>Beowulf</em> ». L’auteur a aussi développé sa pensée sur le poème et sa traduction dans <em>Les Monstres et les Critiques</em>.</span></p> <p><span></span></p> <p><strong>Publier une édition d’un texte ancien et poétique</strong><span> </span>requiert une combinaison particulière de talents. Une connaissance de la langue est essentielle, mais non suffisante. Souvent, et presque toujours dans le cas des textes dont J.R.R. Tolkien s’est occupé, l’œuvre poétique n’existe que dans un seul manuscrit et contient des termes que l’on ne retrouve nulle part ailleurs. Ce sont des termes qui (en outre) ont pu déconcerter le scribe lui-même, à l’époque, alors qu’il écrivait peut-être des siècles après la composition de l’œuvre orale. Parvenir à les expliquer exige donc une sorte d’imagination littéraire, une sensibilité au contexte du poème, ce qui peut demander d’interpréter des problèmes relatifs à des cultures anciennes et même à des<span> </span><span>mythologies</span><span> </span>disparues.</p> <p>La langue, la littérature, la culture, le mythe : il faut prendre en compte ces trois éléments.</p> <p>La fiction de J.R.R. Tolkien témoigne souvent de leur association ; mais on en retrouve aussi la trace dans ses éditions des textes<span> </span><strong><em>Sire Gauvain et le Chevalier Vert</em></strong>, du poème<span> </span><strong><em>Pearl</em></strong>, d’<em><strong>Ancrene Wisse</strong><span> </span></em>et d’<strong><em>Exodus</em></strong><span> </span>– des deux premiers, il a aussi donné une traduction.</p> <p>L’un des buts de Tolkien en littérature, celui qu’il poursuivait dans ses premiers poèmes publiés, ou encore dans ceux du<span> </span><em><span>Seigneur des Anneaux</span></em><span> </span>ainsi que dans les vastes entreprises poétiques que constituent les textes parus dans<span> </span><em>Les Lais du Beleriand</em><span> </span>(le troisième des douze volumes de<span> </span><em><span>L’Histoire de la Terre du Milieu</span></em>), était de restaurer ce qu’il considérait comme la tradition poétique anglaise véritable et authentique, oubliée depuis si longtemps.</p> <p>Dans cette tâche, trois de ses modèles principaux sont les poèmes qu’il a traduits, et qui ont été finalement publiés en anglais moderne par Christopher Tolkien, en 1975 : les<span> </span><em>romances</em><span> </span>médiévaux intitulés<span> </span><em>Sire Gauvain et le Chevalier Vert</em><span> </span>et<span> </span><em>Sir Orfeo</em>, avec la vision poétique qu’est<span> </span><em>Pearl</em><span> </span>– tous trois datent de la fin du XIV<sup>e</sup><span> </span>siècle.</p> <p><strong><em>Sire Gauvain et le Chevalier Vert</em></strong></p> <p><span>[Voir aussi sur notre site cet article de Tom Shippey sur le recueil <em>Les Monstres et les Critiques</em>, et présentant entre autres la conférence donnée par J.R.R. Tolkien en 1953 sur <em>Sire Gauvain et le Chevalier vert.</em>]</span></p> <p>L’édition qui a fait reconnaitre Tolkien, et lui a valu un poste à Oxford, est celle de<span> </span><em>Sire Gauvain et le Chevalier Vert</em>, publiée en 1925 en collaboration avec son collègue de l’université de Leeds, E.V. Gordon.<span> </span><em>Sire Gauvain</em><span> </span>ne nous est parvenu que par un seul manuscrit, et on connaissait mal ce texte avant que Tolkien et Gordon proposent leur édition, qui a constitué un véritable tournant.</p> <p>On ne peut pas déterminer avec certitude la répartition du travail entre les deux universitaires, mais cette édition porte la marque distinctive d’une méthode dont Tolkien a sans doute hérité au fil de ses années de formation par Kenneth Sisam, lorsqu’il était étudiant à Oxford. Dans ce livre, non seulement chaque mot du poème est glosé (c’est-à-dire que son sens est expliqué), mais son étymologie est indiquée, précisant la langue dont il dérive – le vieil anglais, le norrois ou l’anglo-normand.</p> <p>L’une des difficultés posées par le poème est en effet son recours à un dialecte très composite, éloigné de ce qui deviendra l’anglais standard : il contient nombre d’éléments manifestement nordiques, mais aussi des termes spécialisés, propres à l’élite sociale de l’époque et dérivés du français. La plupart des éléments nordiques sont parvenus jusqu’à nous – comme les énigmes, les problèmes et les contes – mais seulement dans l’anglais populaire ; et ce qui se révèle particulièrement séduisant, c’est la manière dont ce poème associe une sorte d’assurance dans son discours et l’usage d’un dialecte parfois très éloigné de la langue standard.</p> <p>Comme le montrent leurs notes dans cette édition, Tolkien et Gordon ont également été sensibles à un autre aspect : à savoir la manière dont le poète concilie une dévotion religieuse, chrétienne, et une attention très aiguë aux mythes et folkores anciens, tout comme à une forme d’idéal social aristocratique, celui de la<span> </span><em>courtoisie</em>, en particulier à l’égard des femmes.</p> <p>Révisée en 1967 par Norman Davis, le Professeur qui a succédé à J.R.R. Tolkien à Oxford, cette édition demeure la référence depuis neuf décennies ; elle a joué un rôle très important dans les programmes universitaires, en Angleterre.</p> <p>Deux traits propres à ce poème ont très certainement plu tout particulièrement à Tolkien : en premier lieu, l’usage du dialecte des Midlands du nord-ouest (Angleterre). Un dialecte très différent, on l’a dit, de l’anglais standard tel qu’il est pratiqué de nos jours, mais pas si éloigné de la langue parlée dans les couches populaires, à l’époque de Tolkien, dans cette région. En second lieu, on pense à la manière explicite dont le poème insiste sur son caractère vénérable et sa permanence.</p> <p>Assez tôt dans le texte, le poète dit (je donne ici le texte original en moyen anglais) :</p> <blockquote> <p><em>if ye wyl lysten this laye bot on little quile,<br />I schal telle hit astit, as I in toun herde,<br />with tonge ,</em><em>as hit is stad and stoken<br />in stori stif and stronge,</em><em><br />with lel letteres loken,</em><em><br />in londe so hatz bene longe.</em></p> </blockquote> <p>On peut facilement traduire l’essentiel. Le poète demande à son auditoire d’écouter (<em>lysten</em> :<span> </span><em>to</em><span> </span><em>listen</em>, en anglais moderne) son histoire, pour qu’il puisse la raconter (<em>telle</em> :<span> </span><em>to tell</em>) comme il l’a entendue (<em>herde</em> :<span> </span><em>heard</em>), et d’une manière conforme à la tradition poétique qui a cours depuis longtemps (<em>longe</em>) en Angleterre ([Eng]<em>land</em>).</p> <p>L’art du poète est à la fois oral et traditionnel ; et c’est la forme poétique elle-même qui, selon lui, garantit son caractère ancien et son authenticité. L’histoire qu’il raconte est « ferme et forte », peu sujette aux variations : elle est<span> </span><em>stad</em><span> </span>et<span> </span><em>stoken</em><span> </span>et<span> </span><em>loken</em>… ces mots ne nous sont plus familiers, mais ils rappellent des termes modernes, comme<span> </span><em>steady</em><span> </span>et<span> </span><em>stock</em><span> </span>ou<span> </span><em>lock</em><span> </span>(fixée, figée, close). L’histoire est en outre contenue dans des « mots fidèles » qui assurent sa cohérence, et empêchent eux aussi toute altération.</p> <p>Il n’est pas besoin de prendre au pied de la lettre une telle déclaration, pour bien sentir le souci très vif de rester dans la droite ligne d’une tradition ancienne et bien ancrée.</p> <p>Ces mêmes vers montrent également que le poème semble à la fois correspondre à ce que l’on pourrait dire aujourd’hui, et s’en écarter. En effet, les mots employés sont très transparents en anglais moderne, et paraissent faciles à traduire, bien qu’ils aient une forme inhabituelle pour nous. J.R.R. Tolkien a traduit ces vers de la manière suivante (je suis leur disposition tels qu’ils ont été publiés):</p> <blockquote> <p><em>If you will listen to this lay but a little while now,<br />I will tell it at once as I in town have heard it told,<br /></em><em>as it is fixed and fettered</em><em><br />in story brave and bold,</em><em><br />thus linked and truly lettered,<br />as was loved in this land of old.*</em></p> </blockquote> <p>Ces vers révèlent aussi quelques-uns des traits formels essentiels du poème, que la traduction de Tolkien a conservés aussi proches que possible de l’original.</p> <p>Le poème est formé de 101 strophes, de longueur irrégulière. Pour la plupart, les vers sont de longs vers allitérés : autrement dit – et cela est vrai également de poèmes en vieil anglais tel<span> </span><em>Beowulf<span> </span></em>– chaque vers est composé de deux parties qui possèdent chacune deux accents forts ; et chacune de ces parties doit comporter, au moins un mot accentué commençant par le même son. Le<span> </span><em>deux</em><span> </span>mots accentués dans la première partie du vers peuvent comporter des allitérations, c’est-à-dire commencer par le même son ; en revanche, dans la seconde partie du vers, cela n’est possible que pour le<span> </span><em>premier</em><span> </span>mot accentué et lui seul : on a ainsi<em><span> </span>LISTen … LAY … LITTle,</em><span> </span>puis<em><span> </span>TELL … TOWN</em>.</p> <p>Une différence, toutefois, avec<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em>, est que les vers de<span> </span><em>Sir Gawain</em>, sont plus longs et un peu plus souples. L’explication, toute simple, est que le vieil anglais a perdu ses terminaisons grammaticales ; et cette perte a été compensée par l’introduction de petits mots « chevilles », comme des prépositions, si bien que les poètes traditionnels ont accepté des unités poétiques plus longues, et des règles de scansion un peu différentes – même si elles sont restées strictes.</p> <p>Un élément qui atteste du caractère ininterrompu de cette tradition, et qui a également attiré Tolkien, est l’usage que fait le poète de<span> </span><em>Sire Gauvain</em><span> </span>de nombreux mots poétiques très spécialisés, bien connus en vieil anglais, mais de plus en plus tombés en désuétude dans le langage courant.</p> <p>Enfin, un dernier trait caractéristique du poème<span> </span><em>Sire Gauvain</em>, lui aussi bien rendu par Tolkien, est ce court vers de deux syllabes (le<span> </span><em>bob</em>) à la fin de chaque strophe, suivi d’un court quatrain (le<span> </span><em>wheel</em>), dont les vers à la fois allitèrent (« BRAVE and BOLD »), et riment (« BOLD … OLD »). Cet ensemble, que l’on nomme parfois pendelogue et coda, donne à la strophe une conclusion dynamique, surprenante et au ton parfois inquiétant.</p> <p>Le poème est remarquable de par sa diversité stylistique, associant des passages d’une puissance rageuse (comme dans les trois scènes de chasse, ou les descriptions du mauvais temps) et des passages calmes, plus subtils, comme les conversations entre Gauvain et sa belle tentatrice.</p> <p>Pourquoi donc la poésie anglaise n’a pu rester dans cette veine, au lieu d’imiter des modèles français, comme l’a fait Chaucer ?</p> <p><strong><em>Pearl</em></strong></p> <p>L’édition de<span> </span><em>Sire Gauvain<span> </span></em>devait être suivie d’une seconde collaboration sur le poème<span> </span><em>Pearl</em>, qui figure dans le même manuscrit, est écrit dans le même dialecte, et presque certainement par le même poète ; mais l’élection de J.R.R. Tolkien à Oxford et la mort prématurée de Gordon ont contrarié ce projet.</p> <p>C’est finalement la veuve de Gordon, Ida, qui a achevé cette édition, publiée sous le nom de son mari en 1953. Elle remercie J.R.R. Tolkien dans sa « Préface » et il apparaît probable que certaines notes et gloses de cette édition reprennent ses idées, voire ses mots mêmes.</p> <p>Le poème, à la fois élégie et récit d’une vision onirique, a été apparemment écrit en souvenir d’une petite fille disparue. Il comporte lui aussi 101 strophes, mais chaque strophe compte 12 vers, qui possèdent un schéma rimique compliqué et des allitérations plus irrégulières.</p> <p>J.R.R. Tolkien admirait la structure, qu’il a reprise fidèlement dans son poème daté de 1927, « Le Pays sans nom » (publié dans<span> </span><em>La Route Perdue</em>, cinquième volume de<span> </span><em>L’Histoire de la Terre du Milieu</em>).</p> <p>Ici aussi, sa traduction suit étroitement les traits formels de l’original, ce qui lui donne parfois des airs assez énigmatiques, du fait de la concision – dans ce poème, les choses ne sont pas ce qu’elles ont l’air d’être.</p> <p>Lorsqu’il a créé la Lothlórien, Tolkien n’a pas pu ne pas repenser à la description que donne le poète de<span> </span><em>Pearl</em><span> </span>de ce jardin où il aperçoit sa fille disparue, jardin onirique où d’étranges arbres brillent :</p> <blockquote> <p><em>The leaves did as burnished silver slide<br />That thick upon twigs there trembling grew.<br />When glades let light upon them glide</em><em><br />They shone with a shimmer of dazzling hue.</em></p> </blockquote> <p><strong><em>Sir Orfeo</em></strong></p> <p>Le dernier poème que J.R.R. Tolkien a décidé de traduire,<span> </span><em>Sire Orfeo</em>, fait partie de ce genre particulier de<span> </span><em><span>romance</span></em><span> </span>médiéval que l’on désigne sous le nom de « lai breton ». Il nous en est parvenu plus d’une trentaine en ancien français, mais aussi huit en moyen anglais, dont le plus réussi est certainement<span> </span><em>Sir Orfeo</em>, malgré de sérieux rivaux comme le<span> </span><em>Conte du Franklin</em><span> </span>par Chaucer.</p> <p>Les<span> </span><em>lais<span> </span></em> bretons sont des histoires d’amour, comportant une bonne dose de merveilleux, et qui peuvent avoir une fin heureuse, comme<span> </span><em>Sir Orfeo</em>, ou malheureuse, comme le lai composé par Tolkien lui-même, le <em>Lai d’Aotrou & Itroun</em><span> </span>(1945). Presque tous sont écrits en strophes rimées et brèves.</p> <p>Les scènes de<em><span> </span>Sir Orfeo<span> </span></em>que Tolkien a sans doute admirées le plus sont celles où le personnage principal, perdu dans les lieux sauvages, rendu fou par la perte de sa femme qui lui a été enlevée par magie, aperçoit le cortège du roi elfe parti à la chasse :</p> <blockquote> <p><em>The king of Faërie with his rout<br />came hunting in the woods about</em><br /><em>with blowing far and crying dim,<br />and barking hounds that were with him…</em></p> </blockquote> <p>Pas plus que Bilbo et les Nains dans<span> </span><em>Le Hobbit</em>, Orfeo ne peut rattraper ce cortège. Mais l’amour et sa harpe vont permettre à Orfeo de regagner la dame qu’il a perdue, Heurodis. Le mythe antique d’Orphée descendant aux Enfers pour retrouver Eurydice a été adapté dans ce poème, et transformé en conte de fées.</p> <p><strong><em>Ancrene Wisse</em>,<span> </span><em>Exodus</em>,<span> </span><em>Finn and Hengest</em></strong></p> <p>Après avoir pris sa retraite en 1959, J.R.R. Tolkien a également achevé l’édition, sur laquelle il travaillait depuis des années, d’un manuscrit que ce l’on nomme<span> </span><strong><em>Ancrene Wisse</em></strong>, un texte en prose du XIIIe siècle qui nous est parvenu (pour une fois) en plusieurs versions.</p> <p>Contrairement à l’édition de<span> </span><em>Sire Gauvain</em>, celle-ci ne contient cependant ni notes ni glossaire : il s’agit d’une simple transcription. Et une bonne partie du travail sur le texte, proprement dit, a pu être assuré par deux étudiantes devenues des collègues : Simone d’Ardenne, qui a publié une description (qui fait autorité) de la langue dans laquelle ce texte a été écrit ; et Mary Salu, qui a réalisé une traduction du manuscrit édité par Tolkien précédée d’une brève « Préface » où Tolkien commente une nouvelle fois la combinaison frappante, dans ce texte, d’une « vivacité familière » et de références lettrées, exprimées dans un dialecte manifestement non-standard.</p> <p>Avant sa retraite, les conférences données par J.R.R. Tolkien à Oxford ont souvent traité de problèmes d’édition des textes ; et après sa mort, ses notes ont été publiées, sous la forme d’éditions de deux poèmes vieil-anglais :<span> </span><strong><em>Exodus</em></strong><span> </span>(édité par Joan Turville-Petre en 1981) et<span> </span><strong><em>Finn and Hengest</em></strong><span> </span>(édité par Alan Bliss en 1982). Cependant, ils ont peu été cités par les critiques modernes, car ces volumes suivent des principes qui peuvent apparaître désormais « peu à la mode ».</p> <p>La conviction de Tolkien est que ces trois textes –<span> </span><em>Finn and Hengest</em><span> </span>compte pour deux, même si aucun ne constitue de poème complet – ont été copiés des siècles après leur première composition, par des scribes anglo-saxons, qui les ont trouvés presque aussi déconcertants que nous. Par conséquent, se contenter de les retranscrire ne convient pas : il faut aussi les corriger, ou les modifier pour rétablir le sens ; cela revient à dire que l’éditeur moderne considère son comme plus fiable que celui du copiste anglo-saxon… et cela peut effaroucher les critiques timorés.</p> <p>Pour donner un exemple parmi d’autres : au vers 202 d’<strong><em>Exodus</em></strong>, on lit<span> </span><em>weredon wælnet</em>, qui semble signifier “portant des filets de mort” – et c’est bien ce que les éditeurs modernes ont compris, ce qui les obligés à des circonvolutions pour trouver un sens dans le passage qui décrit le franchissement de la Mer Rouge par les Israélites. Tolkien, lui, a corrigé le terme<span> </span><em>weredon<span> </span></em>en<span> </span><em>wyrgdon</em>, un verbe rare que (pensait-il) le copiste du Xe siècle avait oublié : signifiant « étranglés », il est lié dans la vieille poésie germanique à une paralysie due à la peur du combat ; Tolkien suggère que le terme<em><span> </span>wælnet<span> </span></em>montre les Israélites pris dans les « rets mortels » de l’indécision. Il estimait, sur la foi d’éléments linguistiques, que le poème<span> </span><em>Exodus<span> </span></em>était même plus ancien que<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em> : si l’on pense à « l’allégorie de la tour » qu’il raconte dans sa conférence de 1936 consacrée à ce même<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em>, alors le poème<span> </span><em>Exodus<span> </span></em>correspondrait à ces « vieilles pierres » utilisées par le constructeur de la tour pour édifier la maison dans laquelle il vit, comme la civilisation chrétienne est construite sur des fondations païennes. Les commentaires et notes accompagnant ce poème témoignent d’une grande familiarité avec la mythologie païenne la plus ancienne, et une propension à la percevoir sous la forme de traces, même dans un poème aussi manifestement biblique que celui-ci.</p> <p><strong><em>Finn and Hengest</em></strong>, enfin, propose deux récits de ce qui semble constituer un seul et même événement, la bataille de Finnsburg, que l’on connait dans le « Fragment de Finnsburg » très partiel ainsi que dans la paraphrase (proposée dans<span> </span><em>Beowulf</em>) d’un poème qui est chanté dans la grand’salle de Hrothgar, et que l’on connait comme « L’épisode de Finnsburg ». La relation entre les deux textes a longtemps été une énigme pour les critiques.</p> <p>J.R.R. Tolkien a édité et traduit ces deux textes avec son audace habituelle, mais l’essentiel de son travail consiste en un « Glossaire des Noms » extrêmement détaillé et un « Commentaire du texte ». Sa thèse sous-jacente est que « La bataille de Finnsburg » est restée dans les mémoires parce qu’elle relate rien moins que la fondation de l’Angleterre.</p> <p>En effet, quittant leurs îles natales pour émigrer, des Danois en sont venus aux mains avec des Jutes du Jutland (qui est désormais une partie du Danemark), ce qui a entrainé une situation rappelant celle de la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Certains des Jutes, dont Hengest, ont rejoint les conquérants danois ; d’autres ont créé une sorte de « Jutland libre en exil », résidant à la cour de Finn, roi de Frise. Les deux camps se détestaient, bien sûr, et ont provoqué un affrontement à Finnsburg qui a poussé leurs alliés danois et frisons à intervenir. Ce sont les « quasi-Danois » (<em>Healf-Danes</em>, dans la traduction française d’André Crépin) qui ont gagné ; par traitrise, ont dit certains. Et Hengest, le collaborateur, le traitre, le parjure, s’en est allé fonder le royaume de Kent, et l’Angleterre elle-même.</p> <p>On comprend que la théorie de J.R.R. Tolkien n’ait jamais rencontré beaucoup de succès – avec ce Hengest maléfique, présenté comme le fondateur de l’Angleterre. Mais il faut dire qu’il n’est pas facile d’extraire une thèse comme celle qui vient d’être exposée du commentaire extraordinairement détaillé que propose J.R.R. Tolkien.</p> <p>Et pourtant, ces deux éditions du vieil anglais méritent bien plus d’attention qu’elles n’en ont reçu. De la même manière, les traductions qu’il a proposées montrent ce que la poésie anglaise devrait être, selon lui : simple, forte, subtile, merveilleuse, à la fois réaliste et visionnaire. 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