CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Evidentiality - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"decc7f18-03ec-4985-ba43-0ca297f189ad","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Evidentiality","wgTitle":"Evidentiality","wgCurRevisionId":1252390197,"wgRevisionId":1252390197,"wgArticleId":1592807,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Wikipedia references cleanup from June 2019","All articles needing references cleanup","Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from June 2019","All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles containing Spanish-language text","Articles containing Dutch-language text","Articles containing Danish-language text","Articles containing German-language text", "Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text","Articles containing Eastern Pomo-language text","Articles containing Nanti-language text","Articles containing French-language text","Articles containing Portuguese-language text","Articles containing Turkish-language text","Articles containing Shipibo-language text","All self-contradictory articles","Self-contradictory articles from July 2024","Articles containing Western Apache-language text","CS1 Bulgarian-language sources (bg)","Wikipedia external links cleanup from September 2020","Webarchive template archiveis links","Grammatical moods","Pragmatics","Semantics","Evidence","Formal semantics (natural language)"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Evidentiality","wgRelevantArticleId":1592807,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia", "wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q12223979","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false, "wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader", "ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Evidentiality - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentiality"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentiality"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Evidentiality rootpage-Evidentiality skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Evidentiality" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Evidentiality" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Evidentiality" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Evidentiality" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Introduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Introduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Introduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Introduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_according_to_Aikhenvald" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_according_to_Aikhenvald"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types according to Aikhenvald</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_according_to_Aikhenvald-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types according to Aikhenvald subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_according_to_Aikhenvald-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indirectivity_(type_I)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indirectivity_(type_I)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Indirectivity (type I)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indirectivity_(type_I)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidentiality_(type_II)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidentiality_(type_II)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Evidentiality (type II)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidentiality_(type_II)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Typology_of_evidentiality_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typology_of_evidentiality_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Typology of evidentiality systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typology_of_evidentiality_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidentiality_marking_and_other_categories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidentiality_marking_and_other_categories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Evidentiality marking and other categories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evidentiality_marking_and_other_categories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evidentiality marking and other categories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evidentiality_marking_and_other_categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Tense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epistemic_modality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemic_modality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Epistemic modality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemic_modality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_type" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_type"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Clause type</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clause_type-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_English_(not_grammaticalized)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_English_(not_grammaticalized)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In English (not grammaticalized)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_English_(not_grammaticalized)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In English (not grammaticalized) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_English_(not_grammaticalized)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possible_exceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_exceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Possible exceptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_exceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_history_of_the_concept" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_history_of_the_concept"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Western history of the concept</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_history_of_the_concept-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Evidentiality</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Эвідэнцыйнасць – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эвідэнцыйнасць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentialit%C3%A4t" title="Evidentialität – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Evidentialität" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentsiaalsus" title="Evidentsiaalsus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Evidentsiaalsus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidencialidad" title="Evidencialidad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Evidencialidad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="گواه‌نمایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گواه‌نمایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89videntialit%C3%A9" title="Évidentialité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Évidentialité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidensialitas" title="Evidensialitas – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Evidensialitas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="ראייתיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ראייתיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentialiteit" title="Evidentialiteit – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Evidentialiteit" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%BC%E6%8B%A0%E6%80%A7_(%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E5%AD%A6)" title="証拠性 (言語学) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="証拠性 (言語学)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidensialitet" title="Evidensialitet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Evidensialitet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidencialidade_(lingu%C3%ADstica)" title="Evidencialidade (linguística) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Evidencialidade (linguística)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Эвиденциальность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эвиденциальность" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidencijalnost" title="Evidencijalnost – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Evidencijalnost" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentiaalisuus" title="Evidentiaalisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Evidentiaalisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentialitet" title="Evidentialitet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Evidentialitet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%93%9A%E7%94%B1" title="據由 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="據由" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E6%93%9A%E6%80%A7" title="言據性 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="言據性" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12223979#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Evidentiality" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Evidentiality"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Evidentiality"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Evidentiality" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Evidentiality" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&oldid=1252390197" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Evidentiality&id=1252390197&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEvidentiality"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEvidentiality"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Evidentiality&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Evidence" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12223979" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Citation_style plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-citation_style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>has an unclear <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Citation_style" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citation style</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Help:Footnotes" title="Help:Footnotes">footnoting</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2019</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Linguistic notion of claims' support</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:18em"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;font-size:110%"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_category" title="Grammatical category">Grammatical features</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related to nouns</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">Case</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dative_construction" title="Dative construction">Dative construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dative_shift" title="Dative shift">Dative shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quirky_subject" title="Quirky subject">Quirky subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nominative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comitative_case" title="Comitative case">Comitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifier</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Measure_word" title="Measure word">Measure word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">Construct state</a></li> <li>Countability <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Count_noun" title="Count noun">Count noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">Mass noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">Collective noun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genitive_construction" title="Genitive construction">Genitive construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">Possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffixaufnahme" title="Suffixaufnahme">Suffixaufnahme (case stacking)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">Noun class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Number</a> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Singular</li><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">Dual</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">Plural</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singulative_number" title="Singulative number">Singulative-Collective-Plurative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specificity_(linguistics)" title="Specificity (linguistics)">Specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related to verbs</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Associated_motion" title="Associated motion">Associated motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">Clusivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">Conjugation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(semantics)" title="Modality (semantics)">Modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">Grammatical aspect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_aspect" title="Lexical aspect">Lexical aspect (Aktionsart)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">Mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">Tense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_(grammar)" title="Voice (grammar)">Voice</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General features</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(linguistics)" title="Affect (linguistics)">Affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundedness_(linguistics)" title="Boundedness (linguistics)">Boundedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_(grammar)" title="Comparison (grammar)">Comparison (degree)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egophoricity" title="Egophoricity">Egophoricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluractionality" title="Pluractionality">Pluractionality</a> (verbal number)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorifics_(linguistics)" title="Honorifics (linguistics)">Honorifics (politeness)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirmation_and_negation" title="Affirmation and negation">Polarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_construction" title="Reciprocal construction">Reciprocity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive pronoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">Reflexive verb</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Syntax relationships</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_(linguistics)" title="Argument (linguistics)">Argument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transitivity_(grammar)" title="Transitivity (grammar)">Transitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)" title="Valency (linguistics)">Valency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branching_(linguistics)" title="Branching (linguistics)">Branching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_verb_construction" title="Serial verb construction">Serial verb construction</a></li> <li>Traditional grammar <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">Predicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adjunct_(grammar)" title="Adjunct (grammar)">Adjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicative_expression" title="Predicative expression">Predicative</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Semantics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contrast_(linguistics)" title="Contrast (linguistics)">Contrast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_relation" title="Thematic relation">Thematic relation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_(grammar)" title="Agent (grammar)">Agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_(grammar)" title="Patient (grammar)">Patient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topic_and_comment" title="Topic and comment">Topic and Comment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volition_(linguistics)" title="Volition (linguistics)">Volition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Phenomena</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polypersonal_agreement" title="Polypersonal agreement">Polypersonal agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">Declension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_category" title="Empty category">Empty category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_(linguistics)" title="Incorporation (linguistics)">Incorporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">Inflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markedness" title="Markedness">Markedness</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Grammatical_categories" title="Template:Grammatical categories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Grammatical_categories" title="Template talk:Grammatical categories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Grammatical_categories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Grammatical categories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <b>evidentiality</b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2012_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2012-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2003_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is, broadly, the indication of the nature of evidence for a given statement; that is, whether <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> exists for the statement and if so, what kind. An <b>evidential</b> (also <b>verificational</b> or <b>validational</b>) is the particular <a href="/wiki/Grammatical" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical">grammatical</a> element (<a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affix</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">particle</a>) that indicates evidentiality. Languages with only a single evidential have had terms such as <b>mediative</b>, <b>médiatif</b>, <b>médiaphorique</b>, and <b>indirective</b> used instead of <i>evidential</i>. </p><p>Evidentiality may be direct or indirect: <b>direct evidentials</b> are used to describe information directly perceived by the speaker through <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">vision</a> as well as other <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensory experiences</a> while <b>indirect evidentials</b> consist of the other grammatical markers for evidence such as <a href="/wiki/Quotative" title="Quotative">quotatives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inferential_mood" title="Inferential mood">inferentials</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2013_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Introduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All languages have some means of specifying the source of information. European languages (such as <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>) often indicate evidential-type information through <a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">modal verbs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es">deber de</i>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i lang="nl">zouden</i>, <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>: <i lang="da">skulle</i>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">sollen</i>) or other <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexical</a> words (<a href="/wiki/Adverbial" title="Adverbial">adverbials</a>, English: <span lang="en">reportedly</span>) or phrases (English: <i>it seems to me</i>). </p><p>Some languages have a distinct <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_category" title="Grammatical category">grammatical category</a> of evidentiality that is required to be expressed at all times. The elements in European languages indicating the information source are optional and usually do not indicate evidentiality as their primary function; thus, they do not form a grammatical category. The obligatory elements of grammatical evidentiality systems may be translated into English, variously, as <i>I hear that</i>, <i>I see that</i>, <i>I think that</i>, <i>as I hear</i>, <i>as I can see</i>, <i>as far as I understand</i>, <i>they say</i>, <i>it is said</i>, <i>it seems</i>, <i>it seems to me that</i>, <i>it looks like</i>, <i>it appears that</i>, <i>it turns out that</i>, <i>alleged</i>, <i>stated</i>, <i>allegedly</i>, <i>reportedly</i>, <i>obviously</i>, etc. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Aikhenvald" title="Alexandra Aikhenvald">Alexandra Aikhenvald</a> (2004)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reports that about a quarter of the world's languages have some type of grammatical evidentiality. She also reports that, to her knowledge, no research has been conducted on grammatical evidentiality in <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign languages</a>. Laura Mazzoni has since conducted a preliminary study on evidentiality in <a href="/wiki/Italian_Sign_Language" title="Italian Sign Language">Italian Sign Language (LIS)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMazzoni2008_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMazzoni2008-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many languages with grammatical evidentiality mark evidentiality independently from <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>-<a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> or <a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">epistemic modality</a>, which is the speaker's evaluation of the information, i.e. whether it is reliable, uncertain, probable. </p><p>Grammatical evidentiality may be expressed in different forms depending on the language, such as through <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitics</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">particles</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> has inferential evidentials and reportive markers that are realized as suffixes on a variety of mainly verbal predicates, and as grammaticalized nouns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarrogYang2018_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarrogYang2018-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another example, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Pomo_language" title="Eastern Pomo language">Eastern Pomo</a> has four evidential <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">suffixes</a> that are added to verbs: <span title="Eastern Pomo-language text"><i lang="peb">-ink’e</i></span> (nonvisual sensory), <span title="Eastern Pomo-language text"><i lang="peb">-ine</i></span> (inferential), <span title="Eastern Pomo-language text"><i lang="peb">-·le</i></span> (hearsay), and <span title="Eastern Pomo-language text"><i lang="peb">-ya</i></span> (direct knowledge). </p> <table class="wikitable" align="center"> <caption>Evidentials in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Pomo" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Pomo">Eastern Pomo</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLendon2003_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLendon2003-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Evidential type </th> <th>Example verb </th> <th>Gloss </th></tr> <tr> <td>nonvisual sensory </td> <td><span title="Eastern Pomo-language text"><i lang="peb">pʰa·békʰ<b>-ink’e</b></i></span> </td> <td>"burned"<br />[speaker felt the sensation] </td></tr> <tr> <td>inferential </td> <td><span title="Eastern Pomo-language text"><i lang="peb">pʰa·bék<b>-ine</b></i></span> </td> <td>"must have burned"<br />[speaker saw circumstantial evidence] </td></tr> <tr> <td>hearsay (reportative) </td> <td><span title="Eastern Pomo-language text"><i lang="peb">pʰa·békʰ<b>-·le</b></i></span> </td> <td>"burned, they say"<br />[speaker is reporting what was told] </td></tr> <tr> <td>direct knowledge </td> <td><span title="Eastern Pomo-language text"><i lang="peb">pʰa·bék<b>-a</b></i></span> </td> <td>"burned"<br />[speaker has direct evidence, probably visual] </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The use of evidentiality has <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatic</a> implications in languages that do not mark evidentiality distinctly from epistemic modality. For example, a person who makes a false statement qualified as a belief may be considered mistaken; a person who makes a false statement qualified as a personally observed fact will probably be considered to have lied. </p><p>In some languages, evidential markers also serve other purposes, such as indicating the speaker's attitude towards, or belief in, the statement. Usually a direct evidential marker may serve to indicate that the speaker is certain about the event stated. Using an indirect evidential marker, such as one for hearsay or reported information, may indicate that the speaker is uncertain about the statement, or doesn't want to take responsibility for its truth. A "hearsay" evidential may then have the undertone of "that's what they say; whether or not it's true is nothing I can take responsibility for". In other languages, this is not the case. Therefore one should distinguish between such evidential markers that only mark source of knowledge, and such evidential markers that serve other functions, such as marking epistemic modality. </p><p>Evidentials can also be used to "deflect culpability"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael2008_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichael2008-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in a statement. In his dissertation on <a href="/wiki/Nanti_language" title="Nanti language">Nanti</a>, a Peruvian Amazonian language, Lev Michael refers to an example in which a young girl is accidentally burned, and a community member questions her mother about how it happened. Her mother uses the evidential marker <span title="Nanti-language text"><i lang="cox">ka</i></span> which translates to "presumably," to deflect responsibility for the girl's mistake.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael2008_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichael2008-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some languages are borderline cases. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> are mostly like English in not having grammatical evidentiality, but do have a <a href="/wiki/Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">conditional mood</a> which has three uses: conditions, future-in-the-past, and hearsay. Thus in journalistic <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, there is frequently a distinction between <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Il <b>a</b> reconnu sa culpabilité</i></span> and <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Il <b>aurait</b> reconnu sa culpabilité</i></span>: both translate to "He has admitted his guilt," but with an implication of certainty with the first, and the idea of "reportedly" with the second. The same happens in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> (<span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">Él <b>ha</b> reconocido su culpa</i></span> vs. <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">Él <b>habría</b> reconocido su culpa</i></span>) and in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> (<span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">Ele <b>reconheceu</b> sua culpa</i></span> vs. <span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">Ele <b>teria reconhecido</b> sua culpa</i></span>). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Aikhenvald" title="Alexandra Aikhenvald">Alexandra Aikhenvald</a> identified five semantic categories that recurrently occur across languages of the world:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald200463–64_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald200463–64-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald201812_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald201812-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">Visual Sensory</span></b></li> <li><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Non-Visual Sensory</span></b></li> <li><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Inferentials</span></b></li> <li><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Hearsay Reportatives</span></b></li> <li><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">Quotative Reportatives</span></b></li></ul> <p>No language has been reported to have special forms for smell, taste or feeling although these may be covered by non-visual evidentials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald200464_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald200464-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald201813_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald201813-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_according_to_Aikhenvald">Types according to Aikhenvald</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types according to Aikhenvald"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">typology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Aikhenvald" title="Alexandra Aikhenvald">Alexandra Aikhenvald</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2006_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2006-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there are two broad types of evidential marking: </p> <ol><li>indirectivity marking ("type I")</li> <li>evidential marking ("type II")</li></ol> <p>The first type (<i>indirectivity</i>) indicates whether evidence exists for a given statement, but does not specify what kind of evidence. The second type (<i>evidentiality proper</i>) specifies the kind of evidence (such as whether the evidence is visual, reported, or inferred). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indirectivity_(type_I)"><span id="Indirectivity_.28type_I.29"></span>Indirectivity (type I)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Indirectivity (type I)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Indirectivity</i> (also known as <i>inferentiality</i>) systems are common in <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic languages</a>. These languages indicate whether evidence exists for a given source of information; thus, they contrast <i>direct</i> information (reported directly) and <i>indirect</i> information (reported indirectly, focusing on its reception by the speaker/recipient). Unlike the other <i>evidential "type II"</i> systems, an indirectivity marking does not indicate information about the source of knowledge: it is irrelevant whether the information results from hearsay, inference, or perception; however, some Turkic languages distinguish between <i>reported indirect</i> and <i>non-reported indirect</i>, see Johanson 2003, 2000 for further elaboration. This can be seen in the following <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> verbs: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gel-di</p><p style="margin: 0px;">come-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">gel-di</p><p style="display: none;">come-PAST</p><p style="clear: left;">"came"</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="tr" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gel-miş</p><p style="margin: 0px;">come-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="indirect evidential" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INDIR</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">gel-miş</p><p style="display: none;">come-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="indirect evidential" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INDIR</abbr>.PAST</p><p style="clear: left;">"obviously came, came (as far as understood)"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohanson2003275_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohanson2003275-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>In the word <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">geldi</i></span>, the <a href="/wiki/Markedness" title="Markedness">unmarked</a> suffix <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">-di</i></span> indicates <a href="/wiki/Past_tense" title="Past tense">past tense</a>. In the second word <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">gelmiş</i></span>, the suffix <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">-miş</i></span> also indicates past tense but <i>indirectly</i>. It may be translated into English with the added phrases 'obviously', 'apparently' or 'as far as I understand'. The direct past tense marker <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">-di</i></span> is unmarked (or neutral) in the sense that whether or not evidence exists supporting the statement is not specified. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evidentiality_(type_II)"><span id="Evidentiality_.28type_II.29"></span>Evidentiality (type II)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Evidentiality (type II)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The other broad type of evidentiality systems ("type II") specifies the nature of the evidence supporting a statement. These kinds of evidence can be divided into such categories as: </p> <dl><dd><ul><li>Sensory <ul><li>Visual</li> <li>Non-visual</li></ul></li> <li>Inferential</li> <li>Assumed</li> <li>Reportative <ul><li>Hearsay</li> <li>Quotative</li></ul></li></ul></dd></dl> <p><i>Sensory</i> evidentials can often be divided into different types. Some languages mark <i>visual</i> evidence differently from <i>nonvisual</i> evidence that is heard, smelled, or felt. The <a href="/wiki/Kashaya_language" title="Kashaya language">Kashaya language</a> has a separate <i>auditory</i> evidential. </p><p>An <i>inferential</i> evidential indicates information was not personally experienced but was inferred from indirect evidence. Some languages have different types of inferential evidentials. Some of the inferentials found indicate: </p> <dl><dd><ol><li>Information inferred by direct physical evidence</li> <li>Information inferred by general knowledge</li> <li>Information inferred/assumed because of speaker's experience with similar situations</li> <li>Past deferred realization</li></ol></dd></dl> <p>In many cases, different inferential evidentials also indicate epistemic modality, such as uncertainty or probability (see <a href="#Epistemic_modality">epistemic modality</a> below). For example, one evidential may indicate that the information is inferred but of uncertain validity, while another indicates that the information is inferred but unlikely to be true. </p><p><i>Reportative</i> evidentials indicate that the information was reported to the speaker by another person. A few languages distinguish between <i>hearsay</i> evidentials and <i>quotative</i> evidentials. Hearsay indicates reported information that may or may not be accurate. A quotative indicates the information is accurate and not open to interpretation, i.e., is a direct quotation. An example of a reportative from <a href="/wiki/Shipibo_language" title="Shipibo language">Shipibo</a> (<span title="Shipibo-language text"><i lang="shp">-ronki</i></span>): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div><span title="Shipibo-language text"><i lang="shp">Aronkiai.</i></span></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="shp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a-</p><p style="margin: 0px;">do-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="shp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>ronki</b>-</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REPRT</span></b>-</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="shp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ai</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><span class="gloss-abbr" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INCOMPL</span></p></div><p style="display: none;">a- <b>ronki</b>- ai</p><p style="display: none;">do- <b>REPRT</b>- INCOMPL</p><p style="clear: left;">"It is said that she will do it." / "She says that she will do it."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEValenzuela200339_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEValenzuela200339-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Typology_of_evidentiality_systems">Typology of evidentiality systems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Typology of evidentiality systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following is a brief survey of evidential systems found in the languages of the world as identified in Aikhenvald (2004).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some languages only have two evidential markers while others may have six or more. The system types are organized by the number of evidentials found in the language. For example, a two-term system (<i>A</i>) will have two different evidential markers; a three-term system (<i>B</i>) will have three different evidentials. The systems are further divided by the type of evidentiality that is indicated (e.g. <i>A1</i>, <i>A2</i>, <i>A3</i>, etc.). Languages that exemplify each type are listed in parentheses. </p><p>The most common system found is the A3 type. </p><p>Two-term systems: </p> <ul><li>A1. witness, nonwitness (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Jarawara" class="mw-redirect" title="Jarawara">Jarawara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Mỹky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Godoberi_language" title="Godoberi language">Godoberi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalasha-mun_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalasha-mun language">Kalasha-mun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khowar_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Khowar language">Khowar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yanam_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yanam language">Yanam</a>)</li> <li>A2. nonfirsthand, everything else (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_language" title="Abkhaz language">Abkhaz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mansi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mansi language">Mansi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khanty_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Khanty language">Khanty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nenets_languages" title="Nenets languages">Nenets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enets_language" title="Enets language">Enets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selkup_language" title="Selkup language">Selkup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian languages</a>)</li> <li>A3. reported, everything else (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enga_language" title="Enga language">Enga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tauya" class="mw-redirect" title="Tauya">Tauya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lezgian_language" title="Lezgian language">Lezgian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kham_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kham language">Kham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Livonian_language" title="Livonian language">Livonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman languages</a>, several <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas#South_America" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">South American languages</a>)</li></ul> <p>Three-term systems: </p> <ul><li>B1. visual sensory, inferential, reportative (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Aymara_language" title="Aymara language">Aymara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shastan_languages" title="Shastan languages">Shastan languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qiang_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Qiang languages">Qiang languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maidu_language" title="Maidu language">Maidu</a>, most <a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan languages</a>, Northern <a href="/wiki/Embera_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Embera languages">Embera languages</a>)</li> <li>B2. visual sensory, nonvisual sensory, inferential (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Washo_language" title="Washo language">Washo</a>)</li> <li>B3. nonvisual sensory, inferential, reportative (e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Retuar%C3%A3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Retuarã (page does not exist)">Retuarã</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Pomo" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Pomo">Northern Pomo</a>)</li> <li>B4. witness (direct), nonwitness (indirect), inferential, reportative <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Category:All_self-contradictory_articles" title="Category:All self-contradictory articles"><span title="four terms in three term section (July 2024)">contradictory</span></a></i>]</sup> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tsezic_languages" title="Tsezic languages">Tsezic</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalilova2011_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhalilova2011-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Dagestanian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Dagestanian languages">Dagestanian languages</a>)</li></ul> <p>Four-term systems: </p> <ul><li>C1. visual sensory, nonvisual sensory, inferential, reportative (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tariana_language" title="Tariana language">Tariana</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Xamatauteri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xamatauteri (page does not exist)">Xamatauteri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Pomo" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Pomo">Eastern Pomo</a>, East <a href="/wiki/Tucanoan_languages" title="Tucanoan languages">Tucanoan languages</a>)</li> <li>C2. visual sensory, inferential #1, inferential #2, reportative (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tsafiki" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsafiki">Tsafiki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_language" title="Pawnee language">Pawnee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancash_Quechua" title="Ancash Quechua">Ancash Quechua</a>)</li> <li>C3. nonvisual sensory, inferential #1, inferential #2, reportative (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Wintu_language" title="Wintu language">Wintu</a>)</li> <li>C4. visual sensory, inferential, reportative #1, reportative #2 (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Tepehuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Tepehuan">Southeastern Tepehuan</a>)</li> <li>C5. witness (non-subjective, non-renarrative), inferential (subjective, non-renarrative), renarrative (non-subjective, renarrative), dubitative (subjective, renarrative) (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_verbs#Evidentials" title="Bulgarian verbs">Bulgarian</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerdzhikov1984_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerdzhikov1984-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Five-plus term systems: </p> <ul><li>visual sensory, nonvisual sensory, inferential, reportative, assumed (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tuyuca" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuyuca">Tuyuca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tucano_language" title="Tucano language">Tucano</a>)</li> <li>witness, inferential, reportative, assumed, "internal support" (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" title="Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran languages</a>)</li> <li>visual sensory, nonvisual sensory, inferential, reported, heard from known source, direct participation (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Fasu_language" title="Fasu language">Fasu</a>)</li> <li>nonvisual sensory, inferential #1, inferential #2, inferential #3, reportative (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Western_Apache_language" title="Western Apache language">Western Apache</a>)</li> <li>inferential, anticipation, performative, deduction, induction, hearsay, direct observation, opinion, assumed, "to know by culture", "to know by internal" (<a href="/wiki/Lojban" title="Lojban">Lojban</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evidentiality_marking_and_other_categories">Evidentiality marking and other categories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Evidentiality marking and other categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidential systems in many languages are often marked simultaneously with other linguistic categories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergqvistKittilä2020_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergqvistKittilä2020-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, according to Aikhenvald, a given language may use the same element to mark both evidentiality and <a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">mirativity</a>, i.e., unexpected information. She claims that this is the case of <a href="/wiki/Western_Apache" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Apache">Western Apache</a> where the post-verbal particle <span title="Western Apache-language text"><i lang="apw">lą̄ą̄</i></span> primarily functions as a mirative but also has a secondary function as an inferential evidential. This phenomenon of evidentials developing secondary functions, or other grammatical elements such as miratives and <a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">modal verbs</a> developing evidential functions is fairly widespread. The following types of mixed systems have been reported: </p> <dl><dd><ul><li>evidentiality with mirativity</li> <li>evidentiality with <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>-<a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a></li> <li>evidentiality with <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">modality</a> (this is discussed in the next section below)</li></ul></dd></dl> <p>In addition to the interactions with tense, modality, and mirativity, the usage of evidentials in some languages may also depend on the <a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">clause</a> type, <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a> structure, and/or linguistic <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genre</a>. </p><p>However, despite the intersection of evidentiality systems with other <a href="/wiki/Semantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic">semantic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatic</a> systems (through grammatical categories), Aikhenvald believes that several languages do mark evidentiality without any grammatical connection to these other semantic/pragmatic systems. More explicitly stated, she believes that there are modal systems which do not express evidentiality, and evidential systems which do not express modality. Likewise, there are mirative systems which do not express evidentiality, and evidential systems which do not express mirativity. </p><p>Aside from those, <a href="/wiki/Egophoricity" title="Egophoricity">egophoricity</a> may interact with evidentiality as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald201812–13_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald201812–13-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tense">Tense</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Tense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some languages may only distinguish between direct and indirect evidentials in the past tense.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004261_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004261-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the case for <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a>), <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>), <a href="/wiki/Komi_language" title="Komi language">Komi-Zyrian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Finno-Ugric_languages" title="Finno-Ugric languages">Finno-Ugric</a>), <a href="/wiki/Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolate</a> in <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Arhuaco_language" title="Arhuaco language">Ika</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2013_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemic_modality">Epistemic modality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Epistemic modality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidentiality is often considered to be a sub-type of <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemic</a> modality (see, for example, Palmer 1986, Kiefer 1994). Other linguists consider evidentiality (marking the source of information in a statement) to be distinct from epistemic modality (marking the degree of confidence in a statement). An English example: </p> <dl><dd><b>I see</b> that he is coming. (evidential)</dd> <dd><b>I know</b> that he is coming. (epistemic)</dd></dl> <p>For instance, de Haan<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan1999_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Haan1999-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2001_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2001-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2005_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2005-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> states that evidentiality <i>asserts</i> evidence while epistemic modality <i>evaluates</i> evidence and that evidentiality is more akin to a <a href="/wiki/Deictic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deictic">deictic</a> category marking the relationship between speakers and events/actions (like the way <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstratives</a> mark the relationship between speakers and objects; see also Joseph 2003). Aikhenvald (2003)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2003_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2003-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> finds that evidentials may indicate a speaker's attitude about the validity of a statement but this is not a required feature of evidentials. Additionally, she finds that evidential-marking may co-occur with epistemic-marking, but it may also co-occur with aspectual/tense or mirative marking. </p><p>Considering evidentiality as a type of epistemic modality may only be the result of analyzing non-European languages in terms of the systems of modality found in European languages. For example, the modal verbs in Germanic languages are used to indicate both evidentiality and epistemic modality (and are thus ambiguous when taken out of context). Other (non-European) languages clearly mark these differently. De Haan (2001)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2001_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2001-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> finds that the use of modal verbs to indicate evidentiality is comparatively rare (based on a sample of 200 languages). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clause_type">Clause type</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Clause type"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidential categories are more likely to be marked in a main declarative <a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">clause</a> than in the other types of clauses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004242_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004242-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some languages, however, evidential forms may appear in questions or commands as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004242_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004242-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology">Terminology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although some linguists have proposed that evidentiality should be considered separately from epistemic modality, other linguists conflate the two. Because of this conflation, some researchers use the term <i>evidentiality</i> to refer both to the marking of the knowledge source and the commitment to the truth of the knowledge. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_English_(not_grammaticalized)"><span id="In_English_.28not_grammaticalized.29"></span>In English (not grammaticalized)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: In English (not grammaticalized)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidentiality is not considered a grammatical category in English because it is expressed in diverse ways and is always optional. In contrast, many other languages (including <a href="/wiki/Quechua_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Quechua languages">Quechua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aymara_language" title="Aymara language">Aymara</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir</a>) require the speaker to mark the main verb or the sentence as a whole for evidentiality, or offer an optional set of affixes for indirect evidentiality, with direct experience being the default assumed mode of evidentiality. </p><p>Consider these <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> sentences: </p> <dl><dd>I am hungry.</dd> <dd>Bob is hungry.</dd></dl> <p>We are unlikely to say the second unless someone (perhaps Bob himself) has told us that Bob is hungry. (We might still say it for someone incapable of speaking for themself, such as a baby or a pet.) If we are simply assuming that Bob is hungry based on the way he looks or acts, we are more likely to say something like: </p> <dl><dd>Bob <u>looks</u> hungry.</dd> <dd>Bob <u>seems</u> hungry.</dd> <dd>Bob <u>would be</u> hungry by now.</dd> <dd>Bob <u>must be</u> hungry by now.</dd></dl> <p>Here, the fact that we are relying on sensory evidence, rather than direct experience, is conveyed by our use of the word <i>look</i> or <i>seem</i>. </p><p>Another situation in which the evidential modality is expressed in English is in certain kinds of predictions, namely those based on the evidence at hand. These can be referred to as "predictions with evidence". Examples: </p> <dl><dd>Look at those clouds! It's <b>going to</b> rain! (Compare "It will rain!").</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_exceptions">Possible exceptions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Possible exceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The suffix "-ish" can be considered to be a <a href="/wiki/Grammaticalized" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammaticalized">grammaticalized</a> marker of uncertainty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Western_history_of_the_concept">Western history of the concept</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Western history of the concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The notion of evidentiality as obligatory grammatical information was first made apparent in 1911 by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a> in his introduction to <i>The Handbook of American Indian Languages</i> in a discussion of <a href="/wiki/Kwak%27wala" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwak'wala">Kwakiutl</a> and in his grammatical sketch of <a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsimshianic">Tsimshianic</a>. The term <i>evidential</i> was first used in the current linguistic sense by <a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a> in 1957 in reference to <a href="/wiki/Balkan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan languages">Balkan</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a> (Jacobsen 1986:4; Jakobson 1990) with the following definition: </p> <dl><dd>"E<sup>n</sup>E<sup>ns</sup>/E<sup>s</sup> evidential is a tentative label for the verbal category which takes into account three events — a narrated event (E<sup>n</sup>), a speech event (E<sup>s</sup>), and a narrated speech event (E<sup>ns</sup>). The speaker reports an event on the basis of someone else's report (quotative, i.e. hearsay evidence), of a dream (revelative evidence), of a guess (presumptive evidence) or of his own previous experience (memory evidence)."</dd></dl> <p>Jakobson also was the first to clearly separate evidentiality from <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">grammatical mood</a>. By the middle of the 1960s, <i>evidential</i> and <i>evidentiality</i> were established terms in linguistic literature. </p><p>Systems of evidentiality have received focused linguistic attention only relatively recently. The first major work to examine evidentiality cross-linguistically is Chafe & Nichols (1986). A more recent <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">typological</a> comparison is Aikhenvald (2004).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (linguistics)">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egophoricity" title="Egophoricity">Egophoricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">Grammatical mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2012-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2012_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Haan2012">de Haan 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2003-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2003_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2003_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAikhenvald2003">Aikhenvald 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2013-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2013_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2013_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Haan2013">de Haan 2013</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAikhenvald2004">Aikhenvald 2004</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMazzoni2008-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMazzoni2008_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMazzoni2008">Mazzoni 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENarrogYang2018-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarrogYang2018_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNarrogYang2018">Narrog & Yang 2018</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLendon2003-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLendon2003_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLendon2003">McLendon 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichael2008-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael2008_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael2008_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichael2008">Michael 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald200463–64-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald200463–64_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAikhenvald2004">Aikhenvald 2004</a>, pp. 63–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald201812-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald201812_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAikhenvald2018">Aikhenvald 2018</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald200464-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald200464_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAikhenvald2004">Aikhenvald 2004</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald201813-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald201813_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAikhenvald2018">Aikhenvald 2018</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2006-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2006_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAikhenvald2006">Aikhenvald 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohanson2003275-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohanson2003275_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohanson2003">Johanson 2003</a>, p. 275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEValenzuela200339-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEValenzuela200339_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFValenzuela2003">Valenzuela 2003</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhalilova2011-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhalilova2011_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKhalilova2011">Khalilova 2011</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerdzhikov1984-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerdzhikov1984_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerdzhikov1984">Gerdzhikov 1984</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mw.lojban.org/papri/BPFK_Section:_Evidentials">"BPFK Section: Evidentials - La Lojban"</a>. <i>mw.lojban.org</i>. Baupla Fuzykamni<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-08-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mw.lojban.org&rft.atitle=BPFK+Section%3A+Evidentials+-+La+Lojban&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmw.lojban.org%2Fpapri%2FBPFK_Section%3A_Evidentials&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergqvistKittilä2020-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergqvistKittilä2020_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBergqvistKittilä2020">Bergqvist & Kittilä 2020</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald201812–13-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald201812–13_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAikhenvald2018">Aikhenvald 2018</a>, pp. 12–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004261-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004261_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAikhenvald2004">Aikhenvald 2004</a>, p. 261.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Haan1999-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan1999_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Haan1999">de Haan 1999</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2001-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2001_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2001_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Haan2001">de Haan 2001</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2005-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Haan2005_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Haan2005">de Haan 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004242-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004242_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAikhenvald2004242_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAikhenvald2004">Aikhenvald 2004</a>, p. 242.</span> </li> </ol></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerdzhikov1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gerdzhikov, Georgi (1984). <i>Преизказаването на глаголното действие в българския език</i> [<i>Renarration of the Verb Action in Bulgarian</i>] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: St. Kliment Ohridksi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/954-07-1834-1" title="Special:BookSources/954-07-1834-1"><bdi>954-07-1834-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE+%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B2+%D0%B1%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA&rft.place=Sofia&rft.pub=St.+Kliment+Ohridksi&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=954-07-1834-1&rft.aulast=Gerdzhikov&rft.aufirst=Georgi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFY._AikhenvaldDixon2003" class="citation book cs1">Y. Aikhenvald, Alexandra; Dixon, R. M. W., eds. (2003). <i>Studies in Evidentiality</i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027296856" title="Special:BookSources/9789027296856"><bdi>9789027296856</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Evidentiality&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9789027296856&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAikhenvald2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Aikhenvald" title="Alexandra Aikhenvald">Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GWk9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">"Evidentiality in typological perspective"</a>. <i></i>. Typological Studies in Language. Vol. 54. pp. 1–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Ftsl.54.04aik">10.1075/tsl.54.04aik</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2962-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2962-5"><bdi>978-90-272-2962-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evidentiality+in+typological+perspective&rft.btitle=%26%238203%3B&rft.series=Typological+Studies+in+Language&rft.pages=1-31&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Ftsl.54.04aik&rft.isbn=978-90-272-2962-5&rft.aulast=Aikhenvald&rft.aufirst=Alexandra+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGWk9AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValenzuela2003" class="citation book cs1">Valenzuela, Pilar M. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GWk9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA33">"Evidentiality in Shipibo-Konibo, with a comparative overview of the category in Panoan"</a>. <i></i>. Typological Studies in Language. Vol. 54. pp. 33–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Ftsl.54.05val">10.1075/tsl.54.05val</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2962-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2962-5"><bdi>978-90-272-2962-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evidentiality+in+Shipibo-Konibo%2C+with+a+comparative+overview+of+the+category+in+Panoan&rft.btitle=%26%238203%3B&rft.series=Typological+Studies+in+Language&rft.pages=33-61&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Ftsl.54.05val&rft.isbn=978-90-272-2962-5&rft.aulast=Valenzuela&rft.aufirst=Pilar+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGWk9AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLendon2003" class="citation book cs1">McLendon, Sally (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GWk9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA101">"Evidentials in Eastern Pomo with a comparative survey of the category in other Pomoan languages"</a>. <i></i>. Typological Studies in Language. Vol. 54. pp. 101–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Ftsl.54.08mcl">10.1075/tsl.54.08mcl</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2962-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2962-5"><bdi>978-90-272-2962-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evidentials+in+Eastern+Pomo+with+a+comparative+survey+of+the+category+in+other+Pomoan+languages&rft.btitle=%26%238203%3B&rft.series=Typological+Studies+in+Language&rft.pages=101-129&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Ftsl.54.08mcl&rft.isbn=978-90-272-2962-5&rft.aulast=McLendon&rft.aufirst=Sally&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGWk9AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohanson2003" class="citation book cs1">Johanson, Lars (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GWk9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA273">"Evidentiality in Turkic"</a>. <i></i>. Typological Studies in Language. Vol. 54. pp. 273–290. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Ftsl.54.15joh">10.1075/tsl.54.15joh</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2962-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2962-5"><bdi>978-90-272-2962-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evidentiality+in+Turkic&rft.btitle=%26%238203%3B&rft.series=Typological+Studies+in+Language&rft.pages=273-290&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Ftsl.54.15joh&rft.isbn=978-90-272-2962-5&rft.aulast=Johanson&rft.aufirst=Lars&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGWk9AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAikhenvald2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Aikhenvald" title="Alexandra Aikhenvald">Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.</a> (2004). <i>Evidentiality</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199204330" title="Special:BookSources/0199204330"><bdi>0199204330</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evidentiality&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0199204330&rft.aulast=Aikhenvald&rft.aufirst=Alexandra+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAikhenvald2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Aikhenvald" title="Alexandra Aikhenvald">Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.</a> (2006). "Evidentiality in Grammar". In Brown, Keith (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285070867"><i>Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics</i></a> (2 ed.). Elsevier. pp. 320–325. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F00252-2">10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00252-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-044854-1"><bdi>978-0-08-044854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evidentiality+in+Grammar&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+%26+Linguistics&rft.pages=320-325&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB0-08-044854-2%2F00252-2&rft.isbn=978-0-08-044854-1&rft.aulast=Aikhenvald&rft.aufirst=Alexandra+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F285070867&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Haan2012" class="citation journal cs1">de Haan, Ferdinand (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6049471">"Evidentiality and Mirativity"</a>. <i>The Oxford Handbook of Tense and Aspect</i>: 1020–1046. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780195381979.013.0036">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195381979.013.0036</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Tense+and+Aspect&rft.atitle=Evidentiality+and+Mirativity&rft.pages=1020-1046&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780195381979.013.0036&rft.aulast=de+Haan&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F6049471&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Haan2013" class="citation cs2">de Haan, Ferdinand (2013), "Semantic Distinctions of Evidentiality", in Dryer, Matthew S.; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wals.info/chapter/77"><i>WALS Online (v2020.3)</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 3,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Semantic+Distinctions+of+Evidentiality&rft.btitle=WALS+Online+%28v2020.3%29&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=de+Haan&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwals.info%2Fchapter%2F77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAikhenvald,_Alexandra_Y.2018" class="citation book cs1">Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y., ed. (2018). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Evidentiality</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198759515" title="Special:BookSources/9780198759515"><bdi>9780198759515</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Evidentiality&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780198759515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAikhenvald2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Aikhenvald" title="Alexandra Aikhenvald">Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.</a> (2018). "Evidentiality: The Framework". <i></i>. pp. 1–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780198759515.013.1">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198759515.013.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evidentiality%3A+The+Framework&rft.btitle=%26%238203%3B&rft.pages=1-44&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780198759515.013.1&rft.aulast=Aikhenvald&rft.aufirst=Alexandra+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNarrogYang2018" class="citation book cs1">Narrog, Heiko; Yang, Wenjiang (2018). "Evidentiality in Japanese". <i></i>. pp. 709–724. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780198759515.013.34">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198759515.013.34</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875951-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875951-5"><bdi>978-0-19-875951-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evidentiality+in+Japanese&rft.btitle=%26%238203%3B&rft.pages=709-724&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780198759515.013.34&rft.isbn=978-0-19-875951-5&rft.aulast=Narrog&rft.aufirst=Heiko&rft.au=Yang%2C+Wenjiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Haan1999" class="citation journal cs1">de Haan, Ferdinand (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926151703/http://www.u.arizona.edu/~fdehaan/papers/SWJL99.pdf">"Evidentiality and Epistemic Modality: Setting Boundaries"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Southwest Journal of Linguistics</i>. <b>18</b>: 83–101. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.u.arizona.edu/~fdehaan/papers/SWJL99.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on Sep 26, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southwest+Journal+of+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Evidentiality+and+Epistemic+Modality%3A+Setting+Boundaries&rft.volume=18&rft.pages=83-101&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=de+Haan&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.u.arizona.edu%2F~fdehaan%2Fpapers%2FSWJL99.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Haan2001" class="citation book cs1">de Haan, Ferdinand (2001). "The Relation Between Modality and Evidentiality". In Müller, Reimar; <a href="/wiki/Marga_Reis" title="Marga Reis">Reis, Marga</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926151702/http://www.u.arizona.edu/~fdehaan/papers/lb01.pdf"><i>Modalität und Modalverben im Deutschen</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-87548-254-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-87548-254-9"><bdi>3-87548-254-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.u.arizona.edu/~fdehaan/papers/lb01.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on Sep 26, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Relation+Between+Modality+and+Evidentiality&rft.btitle=Modalit%C3%A4t+und+Modalverben+im+Deutschen&rft.place=Hamburg&rft.pub=Helmut+Buske+Verlag&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=3-87548-254-9&rft.aulast=de+Haan&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.u.arizona.edu%2F~fdehaan%2Fpapers%2Flb01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Haan2005" class="citation book cs1">de Haan, Ferdinand (2005). "Encoding speaker perspective: Evidentials". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Hodges, Adam; Rood, David S. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926151704/http://www.u.arizona.edu/~fdehaan/papers/boulder.pdf"><i>Linguistic Diversity and Language Theories</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 379–397. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fslcs.72.18haa">10.1075/slcs.72.18haa</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.u.arizona.edu/~fdehaan/papers/boulder.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on Sep 26, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Encoding+speaker+perspective%3A+Evidentials&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Diversity+and+Language+Theories&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=379-397&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fslcs.72.18haa&rft.aulast=de+Haan&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.u.arizona.edu%2F~fdehaan%2Fpapers%2Fboulder.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael2008" class="citation thesis cs1">Michael, Lev David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240402034424/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/706f27f3-293f-4c99-b90c-a30f34b7aefb/content"><i>Nanti evidential practice: language, knowledge, and social action in an Amazonian society</i></a> (Ph.D. thesis). University of Texas at Austin. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/706f27f3-293f-4c99-b90c-a30f34b7aefb/content">the original</a> on April 2, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Nanti+evidential+practice%3A+language%2C+knowledge%2C+and+social+action+in+an+Amazonian+society&rft.degree=Ph.D.&rft.inst=University+of+Texas+at+Austin&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Michael&rft.aufirst=Lev+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepositories.lib.utexas.edu%2Fserver%2Fapi%2Fcore%2Fbitstreams%2F706f27f3-293f-4c99-b90c-a30f34b7aefb%2Fcontent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergqvistKittilä2020" class="citation book cs1">Bergqvist, Henrik; Kittilä, Seppo (2020). "Epistemic perspectives: Evidentiality, egophoricity, and engagement". In Bergqvist, Henrik; Kittilä, Seppo (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220812072919/https://langsci-press.org/catalog/view/261/2270/1919-1"><i>Evidentiality, egophoricity and engagement</i></a>. Berlin: Language Science Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.3968344">10.5281/zenodo.3968344</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-96110-270-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-96110-270-9"><bdi>978-3-96110-270-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://langsci-press.org/catalog/view/261/2270/1919-1">the original</a> on Aug 12, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epistemic+perspectives%3A+Evidentiality%2C+egophoricity%2C+and+engagement&rft.btitle=Evidentiality%2C+egophoricity+and+engagement&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Language+Science+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5281%2Fzenodo.3968344&rft.isbn=978-3-96110-270-9&rft.aulast=Bergqvist&rft.aufirst=Henrik&rft.au=Kittil%C3%A4%2C+Seppo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flangsci-press.org%2Fcatalog%2Fview%2F261%2F2270%2F1919-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhalilova2011" class="citation journal cs1">Khalilova, Zaira (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.dartmouth.edu/cgi-bin/WebObjects/Journals.woa/1/xmlpage/1/article/393?htmlOnce=yes">"Evidentiality in Tsezic Languages"</a>. <i>Linguistic Discovery</i>. <b>9</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1349%2FPS1.1537-0852.A.393">10.1349/PS1.1537-0852.A.393</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistic+Discovery&rft.atitle=Evidentiality+in+Tsezic+Languages&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1349%2FPS1.1537-0852.A.393&rft.aulast=Khalilova&rft.aufirst=Zaira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.dartmouth.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2FWebObjects%2FJournals.woa%2F1%2Fxmlpage%2F1%2Farticle%2F393%3FhtmlOnce%3Dyes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazzoni2008" class="citation conference cs1">Mazzoni, Laura (2008). "Impersonamento ed evidenzialità in LIS". In L. Bertone (ed.). <i>La grammatica della lingua dei segni italiana</i>. Study meeting, Venice, 16-17 May 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Impersonamento+ed+evidenzialit%C3%A0+in+LIS&rft.btitle=La+grammatica+della+lingua+dei+segni+italiana&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Mazzoni&rft.aufirst=Laura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.; & Dixon, R. M. W. (1998). Evidentials and areal typology: A case-study from Amazonia. <i>Language Sciences</i>, <i>20</i>, 241-257.</li> <li>Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.; & Dixon, R. M. W. (Eds.). (2003). <i>Studies in evidentiality</i>. Typological studies in language (Vol. 54). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-2962-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-2962-7">90-272-2962-7</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58811-344-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-58811-344-2">1-58811-344-2</a>.</li> <li>Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.; & Dixon, R. M. W. (Eds.). (2014) <i>The Grammar of Knowledge: A Cross-Linguistic Typology.</i> Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870131-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-870131-6">978-0-19-870131-6</a></li> <li>Blakemore, D. (1994). Evidence and modality. In R. E. Asher (Ed.), <i>The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics</i> (pp. 1183–1186). Oxford: Pergamon Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-035943-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-08-035943-4">0-08-035943-4</a>.</li> <li>Chafe, Wallace L.; & <a href="/wiki/Johanna_Nichols" title="Johanna Nichols">Nichols, Johanna</a>. (Eds.). (1986). <i>Evidentiality: The linguistic encoding of epistemology</i>. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.</li> <li>Comrie, Bernard. (2000). Evidentials: Semantics and history. In L. Johanson & B. Utas (Eds.).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Haan2013b" class="citation cs2">de Haan, Ferdinand (2013b), "Coding of Evidentiality", in Dryer, Matthew S.; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wals.info/chapter/78"><i>WALS Online (v2020.3)</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 3,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Coding+of+Evidentiality&rft.btitle=WALS+Online+%28v2020.3%29&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=de+Haan&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwals.info%2Fchapter%2F78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Faust, Norma. (1973). <i>Lecciones para el aprendizaje del idioma shipibo-conibo</i> [<i>Lessons for learning the Shipibo-Conibo language</i>]. Lima: Summer Institute of Linguistics.</li> <li>Guentchéva, Zlatka. (1996a). Introduction. In Z. Guentchéva (Ed.) (pp. 11–18).</li> <li>Guentchéva, Zlatka (Ed.). (1996b). <i>L’Énonciation médiatisée</i>. Bibliothèque de l’information grammaticale. Louvain: Éditions Peeters. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-6831-861-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-6831-861-6">90-6831-861-6</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-87723-244-1" title="Special:BookSources/2-87723-244-1">2-87723-244-1</a>.</li> <li>Johanson, Lars. (2000). Turkic indirectives. In L. Johanson & B. Utas (Eds.) (pp. 61–87).</li> <li>Jacobsen, W. H., Jr. (1986). The heterogeneity of evidentials in Makah. In W. L. Chafe & J. Nichols (Eds.) (pp. 3–28).</li> <li>Jakobson, Roman. (1990). Shifters and verbal categories. In <i>On language</i> (pp. 386–392). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1957).</li> <li>Johanson, Lars. (2003). Evidentiality in Turkic. In A. Y. Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon (Eds.) (pp. 273–290).</li> <li>Johanson, Lars; & Utas, Bo (Eds.). (2000). <i>Evidentials: Turkic, Iranian and neighboring languages</i>. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-016158-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-016158-3">3-11-016158-3</a>.</li> <li>Joseph, Brian D. (2003). Evidentials: Summation, questions, prospects. In A. Y. Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon (Eds.) (pp. 307–327).</li> <li>Kiefer, Ferenc. (1994). Modality. In R. E. Asher (Ed.), <i>The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics</i> (pp. 2515–2520). Oxford: Pergamon Press.</li> <li>LaPolla, Randy J. (2003). Evidentiality in Qiang. In A. Y. Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon (Eds.) (pp. 63–78).</li> <li>Maslova, Elena. (2003). Evidentiality in Yukaghir. In A. Y. Aikhenvald & R. M. W. Dixon (Eds.) (pp. 237–241).</li> <li>Noël, Dirk. (2001). The passive matrices of English infinitival complement clauses: Evidentials on the road to auxiliarihood? <i>Studies in Language</i>, <i>25</i>, 255-296.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_R._Palmer" title="Frank R. Palmer">Palmer, F. R.</a> (1986). <i>Mood and modality</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-26516-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-26516-9">0-521-26516-9</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-31930-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-31930-7">0-521-31930-7</a>. (2nd ed. published 2001).</li> <li>Palmer, F. R. (1994). Mood and modality. In R. E. Asher (Ed.), <i>The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics</i> (pp. 2535–2540). Oxford: Pergamon Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlobinAksu1982" class="citation book cs1">Slobin, Dan Isaac; Aksu, Ayhan A. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240402043917/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dan-Slobin/publication/289665247_Tense_Aspect_and_Modality_in_the_Use_of_the_Turkish_Evidential/links/59710c80a6fdcc64d065dcac/Tense-Aspect-and-Modality-in-the-Use-of-the-Turkish-Evidential.pdf?origin=publicationDetail&_sg%5B0%5D=PebLyfDk-wIrzVZTMzYl6O0BdydgAuOpZXYjfiDT99on3KeQTMVFoS5XHejn-9bspVI3Tg7hE_2tI1M4EYy_bg.hWw-o4Kkehzetn543xRGz28N__GcYYsOpdfQBTVrhSxea6kmtnM8dqEx7DWeTjZ0X9HUpkr8G1N2oT44i1rJ5A&_sg%5B1%5D=9iBz6q7hYTkomJVoAxPaZzCDzXI8gqQLBwdlzEta4KkyNI8cOndNPg14Gboa7nvkpABBT1rSD0p94evkohhBQAE_xgUYsK1u1fZysMN2pRrQ.hWw-o4Kkehzetn543xRGz28N__GcYYsOpdfQBTVrhSxea6kmtnM8dqEx7DWeTjZ0X9HUpkr8G1N2oT44i1rJ5A&_iepl=&_rtd=eyJjb250ZW50SW50ZW50IjoibWFpbkl0ZW0ifQ%3D%3D&_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIiwicGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIiwicG9zaXRpb24iOiJwYWdlSGVhZGVyIn19">"Tense, Aspect and Modality in the Use of the Turkish Evidential"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Hopper, Paul J. (ed.). <i>Tense-Aspect: Between semantics & pragmatics</i>. Typological Studies in Language. Vol. 1. John Benjamins. p. 185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Ftsl.1.13slo">10.1075/tsl.1.13slo</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2865-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2865-9"><bdi>978-90-272-2865-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289665247">the original</a> on April 2, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tense%2C+Aspect+and+Modality+in+the+Use+of+the+Turkish+Evidential&rft.btitle=Tense-Aspect%3A+Between+semantics+%26+pragmatics&rft.series=Typological+Studies+in+Language&rft.pages=185&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Ftsl.1.13slo&rft.isbn=978-90-272-2865-9&rft.aulast=Slobin&rft.aufirst=Dan+Isaac&rft.au=Aksu%2C+Ayhan+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F289665247&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidentiality" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peggy_Speas" title="Peggy Speas">Speas, Peggy</a>. (2010) 'Evidentials as Generalized Functional Heads.' in A.M. diScuillo, ed. Interface Legibility at the Edge. Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Willet, Thomas L. (1988). A cross-linguistic survey of the grammaticalization of evidentiality. <i>Studies in Language</i>, <i>12</i>, 51-97.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-External_links plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-external_links" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <b>use of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a> may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&action=edit">improve this article</a> by removing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_mirror_or_a_repository_of_links,_images,_or_media_files" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">excessive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">inappropriate</a> external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">footnote references</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060917025820/http://www.linguistics.ucsb.edu/faculty/cumming/ling50/evidentiality.htm">Language & Power (Evidentiality)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605015907/http://www.u.arizona.edu/~fdehaan/papers/">Ferdinand de Haan's research on evidentiality</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080906163946/http://www.u.arizona.edu/~fdehaan/papers/evidbib.html">Evidentiality bibliography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926151704/http://www.u.arizona.edu/~fdehaan/papers/evidsem.jpg">world map of the language distribution of evidentiality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051220125553/http://www.hku.hk/linguist/program/semantics6.html">Semantics: Modality and Evidentiality</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050529042033/http://www.faculty.uaf.edu/ffgmh1/docs/den-evid.pdf">Evidentiality in Dena’ina Athabascan</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://old.linguistlist.org/cfdocs/new-website/LL-WorkingDirs/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?SubID=12044">review of Aikhenvald & Dixon (2003)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130112230102/http://cf.linguistlist.org/cfdocs/new-website/LL-WorkingDirs/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?SubID=12044">Archived</a> 2013-01-12 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a> (Linguist List)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cf.linguistlist.org/cfdocs/new-website/LL-WorkingDirs/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?SubID=59434">review of Aikhenvald (2004)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130113045938/http://cf.linguistlist.org/cfdocs/new-website/LL-WorkingDirs/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?SubID=59434">Archived</a> 2013-01-13 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a> (Linguist List)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Linguistic_modalities_and_grammatical_moods" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Grammatical_moods" title="Template:Grammatical moods"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Grammatical_moods" title="Template talk:Grammatical moods"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Grammatical_moods" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Grammatical moods"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Linguistic_modalities_and_grammatical_moods" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modalities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">grammatical moods</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Realis_mood" title="Realis mood">Realis</a><br /><i>(what is)</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Realis_mood#Other" title="Realis mood">Indicative/declarative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aggressive_mood" title="Aggressive mood">Aggressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realis_mood#Other" title="Realis mood">Energetic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evidential</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sensory_evidential_mood" title="Sensory evidential mood">Sensory</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnomic_aspect" title="Gnomic aspect">Generic/gnomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirative" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirative">Mirative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irrealis_mood" title="Irrealis mood">Irrealis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">Deontic</a><br /><i>(what should be)</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benedictive" title="Benedictive"> Benedictive</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Commissive" class="mw-redirect" title="Commissive">Commissive</a></b> <i>(promises, threats)</i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Directive_moods" class="mw-redirect" title="Directive moods">Directive</a></b> <i>(commands, requests, requirements)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debitive" title="Debitive">Debitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_mood" title="Deliberative mood">Deliberative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_modality" title="Dynamic modality">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hortative" title="Hortative">Hortative (+ subtypes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">Imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injunctive_mood" title="Injunctive mood">Injunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussive_mood" title="Jussive mood">Jussive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessitative_mood" title="Necessitative mood">Necessitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permissive_mood" title="Permissive mood">Permissive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Precative mood">Precative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prohibitive_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibitive mood">Prohibitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositive_mood" title="Propositive mood">Propositive</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Volitive_modality" title="Volitive modality">Volitive</a></b> <i>(hopes, wishes, fears)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderative_mood" title="Desiderative mood">Desiderative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprecative_mood" title="Imprecative mood">Imprecative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optative_mood" title="Optative mood">Optative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic</a><br /><i>(what may be)</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>(inferences, possibilities, questions, etc.)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alethic_modality" title="Alethic modality">Alethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assumptive_mood" title="Assumptive mood">Assumptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_mood" title="Deductive mood">Deductive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubitative_mood" title="Dubitative mood">Dubitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_mood" title="Hypothetical mood">Hypothetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferential_mood" title="Inferential mood">Inferential/renarrative/oblique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative" title="Interrogative">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Potential mood">Potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_mood" title="Speculative mood">Speculative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">Subjunctive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependent circumstances<br /><i>(what would be)</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">Conditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eventive_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Eventive mood">Eventive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Formal_semantics" title="Template:Formal semantics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Formal_semantics" title="Template talk:Formal semantics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Formal_semantics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Formal semantics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denotation" title="Denotation">Denotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entailment" class="mw-redirect" title="Entailment">Entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extension_(semantics)" title="Extension (semantics)">Extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Generalized quantifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form_(linguistics)" title="Logical form (linguistics)">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scope_(formal_semantics)" title="Scope (formal semantics)">Scope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-conditional_semantics" title="Truth-conditional semantics">Truth conditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">Anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binding_(linguistics)" title="Binding (linguistics)">Binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_sentence" title="Conditional sentence">Conditionals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Disjunction">Disjunction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indexicality" title="Indexicality">Indexicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">Lexical semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">Negation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional attitudes">Propositional attitudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">Quantification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent-contained_deletion" title="Antecedent-contained deletion">Antecedent-contained deletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataphora" title="Cataphora">Cataphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_(linguistics)" title="Coercion (linguistics)">Coercion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservativity" title="Conservativity">Conservativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactuals">Counterfactuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossover_effects" title="Crossover effects">Crossover effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumulativity_(linguistics)" title="Cumulativity (linguistics)">Cumulativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">De dicto and de re</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_se" title="De se">De se</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">Deontic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_relation" title="Discourse relation">Discourse relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_anaphora" class="mw-redirect" title="Donkey anaphora">Donkey anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaustivity" title="Exhaustivity">Exhaustivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faultless_disagreement" title="Faultless disagreement">Faultless disagreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_choice_inference" title="Free choice inference">Free choice inferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Givenness" title="Givenness">Givenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homogeneity_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneity (linguistics)">Homogeneity (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurford_disjunction" title="Hurford disjunction">Hurford disjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inalienable_possession" title="Inalienable possession">Inalienable possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logophoricity" title="Logophoricity">Logophoricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_subordination" title="Modal subordination">Modal subordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opaque_context" title="Opaque context">Opaque contexts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">Performatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarity_item" title="Polarity item">Polarity items</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privative_adjective" title="Privative adjective">Privative adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantificational_variability_effect" title="Quantificational variability effect">Quantificational variability effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsive_predicate" title="Responsive predicate">Responsive predicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rising_declarative" title="Rising declarative">Rising declaratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalar_implicature" title="Scalar implicature">Scalar implicature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloppy_identity" title="Sloppy identity">Sloppy identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsective_modifier" title="Subsective modifier">Subsective modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtrigging" title="Subtrigging">Subtrigging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature_paradox" title="Temperature paradox">Temperature paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formal systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_semantics" title="Alternative semantics">Alternative semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorial_grammar" title="Categorial grammar">Categorial grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatory_categorial_grammar" title="Combinatory categorial grammar">Combinatory categorial grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_representation_theory" title="Discourse representation theory">Discourse representation theory (DRT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glue_semantics" title="Glue semantics">Glue semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensional_logic" title="Intensional logic">Intensional logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_calculus" title="Lambda calculus">Lambda calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montague_grammar" title="Montague grammar">Montague grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmented_discourse_representation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmented discourse representation theory">Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervaluationism" title="Supervaluationism">Supervaluationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory_with_records" title="Type theory with records">TTR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Context set">Context set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation" title="Continuation">Continuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversational_scoreboard" title="Conversational scoreboard">Conversational scoreboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downward_entailing" title="Downward entailing">Downward entailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_closure" title="Existential closure">Existential closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_application" title="Function application">Function application</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_postulate" title="Meaning postulate">Meaning postulate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monad_(functional_programming)" title="Monad (functional programming)">Monads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plural_quantification" title="Plural quantification">Plural quantification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_raising" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier raising">Quantifier raising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantization_(linguistics)" title="Quantization (linguistics)">Quantization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_under_discussion" title="Question under discussion">Question under discussion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squiggle_operator" title="Squiggle operator">Squiggle operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strawson_entailment" title="Strawson entailment">Strawson entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_conditional" title="Strict conditional">Strict conditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_shifter" title="Type shifter">Type shifter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">Cognitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Computational semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributional_semantics" title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">Formal grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferentialism">Inferentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_translation" title="Logic translation">Logic translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics_wars" title="Linguistics wars">Linguistics wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&oldid=1252390197">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&oldid=1252390197</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grammatical_moods" title="Category:Grammatical moods">Grammatical moods</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pragmatics" title="Category:Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Semantics" title="Category:Semantics">Semantics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Evidence" title="Category:Evidence">Evidence</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Category:Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_references_cleanup_from_June_2019" title="Category:Wikipedia references cleanup from June 2019">Wikipedia references cleanup from June 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_references_cleanup" title="Category:All articles needing references cleanup">All articles needing references cleanup</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_covered_by_WikiProject_Wikify_from_June_2019" title="Category:Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from June 2019">Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from June 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_covered_by_WikiProject_Wikify" title="Category:All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify">All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Spanish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Spanish-language text">Articles containing Spanish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Dutch-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Dutch-language text">Articles containing Dutch-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Danish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Danish-language text">Articles containing Danish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_German-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing German-language text">Articles containing German-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_explicitly_cited_English-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text">Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Eastern_Pomo-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Eastern Pomo-language text">Articles containing Eastern Pomo-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Nanti-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Nanti-language text">Articles containing Nanti-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Portuguese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Portuguese-language text">Articles containing Portuguese-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Turkish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Turkish-language text">Articles containing Turkish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Shipibo-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Shipibo-language text">Articles containing Shipibo-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_self-contradictory_articles" title="Category:All self-contradictory articles">All self-contradictory articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Self-contradictory_articles_from_July_2024" title="Category:Self-contradictory articles from July 2024">Self-contradictory articles from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Western_Apache-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Western Apache-language text">Articles containing Western Apache-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Bulgarian-language_sources_(bg)" title="Category:CS1 Bulgarian-language sources (bg)">CS1 Bulgarian-language sources (bg)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_external_links_cleanup_from_September_2020" title="Category:Wikipedia external links cleanup from September 2020">Wikipedia external links cleanup from September 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_archiveis_links" title="Category:Webarchive template archiveis links">Webarchive template archiveis links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 October 2024, at 03:47<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evidentiality&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-795c86c559-ffwsw","wgBackendResponseTime":180,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.841","walltime":"1.010","ppvisitednodes":{"value":6579,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":145757,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":5517,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":5,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":122841,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 870.831 1 -total"," 13.89% 120.945 5 Template:Langx"," 12.90% 112.358 32 Template:Sfn"," 11.36% 98.956 1 Template:Reflist"," 10.59% 92.251 1 Template:Grammatical_categories"," 10.36% 90.248 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 9.18% 79.971 1 Template:Cite_web"," 9.13% 79.541 15 Template:Cite_book"," 7.40% 64.423 1 Template:Citation_style"," 6.09% 53.028 2 Template:Ambox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.539","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19702470,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAikhenvald,_Alexandra_Y.2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAikhenvald2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAikhenvald2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAikhenvald2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAikhenvald2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergqvistKittilä2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerdzhikov1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohanson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhalilova2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMazzoni2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLendon2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarrogYang2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlobinAksu1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValenzuela2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFY._AikhenvaldDixon2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Haan1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Haan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Haan2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Haan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Haan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Haan2013b\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation style\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-2\"] = 2,\n [\"Col-begin\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-end\"] = 1,\n [\"Contradictory inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Formal semantics\"] = 1,\n [\"Gcl\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books URL\"] = 4,\n [\"Grammatical categories\"] = 1,\n [\"Grammatical moods\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 9,\n [\"Interlinear\"] = 3,\n [\"Lang\"] = 23,\n [\"Langx\"] = 5,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 32,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Smallcaps\"] = 5,\n [\"Toomanylinks\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"Zero width space\"] = 6,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-67876799fc-dln9t","timestamp":"20241127202142","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Evidentiality","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evidentiality","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q12223979","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q12223979","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-03-11T04:54:23Z","dateModified":"2024-10-21T03:47:02Z","headline":"linguistic indication of the nature of evidence for a given statement, often using modal verbs"}</script> </body> </html>