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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Some_basic_examples_and_questions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Some_basic_examples_and_questions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Some basic examples and questions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Some_basic_examples_and_questions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Binding_domains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Binding_domains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Binding domains</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Binding_domains-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Binding domains subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Binding_domains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reflexive_and_reciprocal_pronouns_("anaphors")" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reflexive_and_reciprocal_pronouns_("anaphors")"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns ("anaphors")</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reflexive_and_reciprocal_pronouns_("anaphors")-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Personal pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linear_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linear_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Linear order</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Linear_order-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Linear order subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Linear_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linear_order_is_a_factor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linear_order_is_a_factor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Linear order is a factor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linear_order_is_a_factor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linear_order_is_not_the_only_factor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linear_order_is_not_the_only_factor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Linear order is not the only factor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linear_order_is_not_the_only_factor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Configuration_vs._function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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href="#Function_(rank)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Function (rank)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Function_(rank)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_traditional_binding_theory:_Conditions_A,_B,_and_C" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_traditional_binding_theory:_Conditions_A,_B,_and_C"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The traditional binding theory: Conditions A, B, and C</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_traditional_binding_theory:_Conditions_A,_B,_and_C-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" 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href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bindungstheorie_(Sprachwissenschaft)" title="Bindungstheorie (Sprachwissenschaft) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bindungstheorie (Sprachwissenschaft)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_du_liage" title="Théorie du liage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Théorie du liage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bindingsteori" title="Bindingsteori – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bindingsteori" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bindingsteori" title="Bindingsteori – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Bindingsteori" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%A4" title="ਬਾਈਂਡਿੰਗ ਸਿਧਾਂਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਾਈਂਡਿੰਗ ਸਿਧਾਂਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_da_liga%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Teoria da ligação – 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href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a> are grammatically associated with their <a href="/wiki/Antecedent_(grammar)" title="Antecedent (grammar)">antecedents</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> For instance in the English sentence "Mary saw herself", the <a href="/wiki/Anaphor" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaphor">anaphor</a> "herself" is bound by its antecedent "Mary". Binding can be licensed or blocked in certain contexts or syntactic configurations, e.g. the pronoun "her" cannot be bound by "Mary" in the English sentence "Mary saw her". While all languages have binding, restrictions on it vary even among closely related languages. Binding has been a major area of research in <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">semantics</a> since the 1970s and, as the name implies, is a core component of <a href="/wiki/Government_and_binding_theory" title="Government and binding theory">government and binding theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Some_basic_examples_and_questions">Some basic examples and questions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Some basic examples and questions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following sentences illustrate some basic facts of binding. The words that bear the index i should be construed as referring to the same person or thing.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> is impressed with <b>himself<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading obligatory</small></dd> <dd>b. *<b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> is impressed with <b>him<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading impossible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. *<b>Susan<sub>i</sub></b> asked Arthur to help <b>herself<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading impossible, sentence ungrammatical</small></dd> <dd>b. <b>Susan<sub>i</sub></b> asked Arthur to help <b>her<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Sue<sub>i</sub></b> said <b>she<sub>i</sub></b> was tired. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. *<b>She<sub>i</sub></b> said <b>Sue<sub>i</sub></b> was tired. <small>– Indicated reading impossible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Fred's<sub>i</sub></b> friends venerate <b>him<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. <sup>?</sup><b>His<sub>i</sub></b> friends venerate <b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading unlikely</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>These sentences illustrate some aspects of the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">reflexive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal</a> pronouns. In the first pair of sentences, the reflexive pronoun must appear for the indicated reading to be possible. In the second pair, the personal pronoun must appear for the indicated reading to be possible. The third pair shows that at times a personal pronoun must follow its antecedent, and the fourth pair further illustrates the same point, although the acceptability judgement is not as robust. Based on such data, one sees that reflexive and personal pronouns differ in their distribution and that linear order (of a pronoun in relation to its antecedent or postcedent) is a factor influencing where at least some pronouns can appear. A theory of binding should be capable of predicting and explaining the differences in distribution seen in sentences like these. It should be able to answer questions like: What explains where a reflexive pronoun must appear as opposed to a personal pronoun? When does linear order play a role in determining where pronouns can appear? What other factor (or factors) beyond linear order help predict where pronouns can appear? </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Binding_domains">Binding domains</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Binding domains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following three subsections consider the binding domains that are relevant for the distribution of pronouns and nouns in English. The discussion follows the outline provided by the traditional binding theory (see below), which divides nominals into three basic categories: reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, personal pronouns, and nouns (<a href="/wiki/Common_noun" class="mw-redirect" title="Common noun">common</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proper_noun" title="Proper noun">proper</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reflexive_and_reciprocal_pronouns_("anaphors")"><span id="Reflexive_and_reciprocal_pronouns_.28.22anaphors.22.29"></span>Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns ("anaphors")</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns ("anaphors")"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When one examines the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">reflexive pronouns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_pronoun" title="Reciprocal pronoun">reciprocal</a> pronouns (which are often subsumed under the general category of "anaphor"), one sees that there are certain domains that are relevant, a "domain" being a syntactic unit that is <a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">clause</a>-like. Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns often seek their antecedent close by, in a binding domain that is local, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> praises <b>himself<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading obligatory</small></dd> <dd>b. *<b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> praises <b>him<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading impossible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>The girls<sub>i</sub></b> like <b>each other<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading obligatory</small></dd> <dd>b. *<b>The girls<sub>i</sub></b> like <b>them<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading impossible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>These examples illustrate that there is a domain within which a reflexive or reciprocal pronoun should find its antecedent. The a-sentences are fine because the reflexive or reciprocal pronoun has its antecedent within the clause. The b-sentences, in contrast, do not allow the indicated reading, a fact illustrating that personal pronouns have a distribution that is different from that of reflexive and reciprocal pronouns. A related observation is that a reflexive and reciprocal pronoun often cannot seek its antecedent in a superordinate clause, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. Susan thinks that <b>Jill<sub>i</sub></b> should praise <b>herself<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading (almost) obligatory</small></dd> <dd>b. <sup>??</sup><b>Susan<sub>i</sub></b> thinks that Jill should praise <b>herself<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading very unlikely</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. They asked whether <b>the girls<sub>i</sub></b> like <b>each other<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading (almost) obligatory</small></dd> <dd>b. <sup>??</sup><b>They<sub>i</sub></b> asked whether the girls like <b>each other<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading very unlikely</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>When the reflexive or reciprocal pronoun attempts to find an antecedent outside of the immediate clause containing it, it fails. In other words, it can hardly seek its antecedent in the superordinate clause. The binding domain that is relevant is the immediate clause containing it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_pronouns">Personal pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Personal pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Personal pronouns have a distribution that is different from reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, a point that is evident with the first two b-sentences in the previous section. The local binding domain that is decisive for the distribution of reflexive and reciprocal pronouns is also decisive for personal pronouns, but in a different way. Personal pronouns seek their antecedent outside of the local binding domain containing them, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> asked whether Jim mentioned <b>him<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. *Fred asked whether <b>Jim<sub>i</sub></b> mentioned <b>him<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading impossible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Gina<sub>i</sub></b> hopes that Wilma will mention <b>her<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. *Gina hopes that <b>Wilma<sub>i</sub></b> will mention <b>her<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading impossible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>In these cases, the pronoun has to look outside of the embedded clause containing it to the matrix clause to find its antecedent. Hence based on such data, the relevant binding domain appears to be the clause. Further data illustrate, however, that the clause is actually not the relevant domain: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> likes the picture of <b>him<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading possible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>b. <b>Gina<sub>i</sub></b> has heard the rumor about <b>her<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading possible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Since the pronouns appear within the same minimal clause containing their antecedents in these cases, one cannot argue that the relevant binding domain is the clause. The most one can say based on such data is that the domain is "clause-like". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The distribution of common and proper nouns is unlike that of reflexive, reciprocal, and personal pronouns. The relevant observation in this regard is that a noun is often reluctantly coreferential with another nominal that is within its binding domain or in a superordinate binding domain, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Susan<sub>i</sub></b> admires <b>herself<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading obligatory</small></dd> <dd>b. #<b>Susan<sub>i</sub></b> admires <b>Susan<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading possible, but special context necessary</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> thinks that <b>he<sub>i</sub></b> is the best. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. #<b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> thinks that <b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> is the best. <small>– Indicated reading possible, but special context necessary</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The readings indicated in the a-sentences are natural, whereas the b-sentences are very unusual. Indeed, sentences like these b-sentences were judged to be impossible in the traditional binding theory according to Condition C (see below). Given a contrastive context, however, the b-sentences can work, e.g. <i>Susan does not admire Jane, but rather Susan<sub>i</sub> admires Susan<sub>i</sub></i>. One can therefore conclude that nouns are not sensitive to binding domains in the same way that reflexive, reciprocal, and personal pronouns are. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linear_order">Linear order</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Linear order"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following subsections illustrate the extent to which pure linear order impacts the distribution of pronouns. While linear order is clearly important, it is not the only factor influencing where pronouns can appear. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linear_order_is_a_factor">Linear order is a factor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Linear order is a factor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A simple hypothesis concerning the distribution of many anaphoric elements, of personal pronouns in particular, is that linear order plays a role. In most cases, a pronoun follows its antecedent, and in many cases, the coreferential reading is impossible if the pronoun precedes its antecedent. The following sentences suggest that pure linear can indeed be important for the distribution of pronouns: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Jim's<sub>i</sub></b> grade upsets <b>him<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. <sup>?</sup><b>His<sub>i</sub></b> grade upsets <b>Jim<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading unlikely</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Larry's<sub>i</sub></b> family avoids <b>him<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. <sup>?</sup><b>His<sub>i</sub></b> family avoids <b>Larry<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading unlikely</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. We spoke to <b>Tina's<sub>i</sub></b> mother about <b>her<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. <sup>?</sup>We spoke to <b>her<sub>i</sub></b> mother about <b>Tina<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading unlikely</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>While the coreferential readings indicated in these b-sentences are possible, they are unlikely. The order presented in the a-sentences is strongly preferred. The following, more extensive data sets further illustrate that linear order is important: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Sam<sub>i</sub></b> mentioned twice that <b>he<sub>i</sub></b> was hungry. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. *<b>He<sub>i</sub></b> mentioned twice that <b>Sam<sub>i</sub></b> was hungry. <small>– Indicated reading impossible</small></dd> <dd>c. That <b>Sam<sub>i</sub></b> was hungry, <b>he<sub>i</sub></b> mentioned twice. <small>– Indicated reading possible</small></dd> <dd>d. <sup>?</sup>That <b>he<sub>i</sub></b> was hungry, <b>Sam<sub>i</sub></b> mentioned twice. <small>– Indicated reading unlikely</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. You asked <b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> twice when <b>he<sub>i</sub></b> would study. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. *You asked <b>him<sub>i</sub></b> twice when <b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> would study. <small>– Indicated reading impossible</small></dd> <dd>c. When <b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> would study, you asked <b>him<sub>i</sub></b> twice. <small>– Indicated reading possible</small></dd> <dd>d. <sup>?</sup>When <b>he<sub>i</sub></b> would study, you asked <b>Fred<sub>i</sub></b> twice. <small>– Indicated reading unlikely</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>While the acceptability judgements here are nuanced, one can make a strong case that pure linear order is at least in part predictive of when the indicated reading is available. The a- and c-sentences allow the coreferential reading more easily than their b- and d-counterparts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linear_order_is_not_the_only_factor">Linear order is not the only factor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Linear order is not the only factor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While linear order is an important factor influencing the distribution of pronouns, it is not the only factor. The following sentences are similar to the c- and d-sentences in the previous section insofar as an embedded clause is present. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. When <b>the boys<sub>i</sub></b> are at home, <b>they<sub>i</sub></b> play video games. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. When <b>they<sub>i</sub></b> are at home, <b>the boys<sub>i</sub></b> play video games. <small>– Indicated reading possible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. If <b>Susan<sub>i</sub></b> tries, <b>she<sub>i</sub></b> will succeed. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible </small></dd> <dd>b. If <b>she<sub>i</sub></b> tries, <b>Susan<sub>i</sub></b> will succeed. <small>– Indicated reading possible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>While there may be a mild preference for the order in the a-sentences here, the indicated reading in the b-sentences is also available. Hence linear order is hardly playing a role in such cases. The relevant difference between these sentences and the c- and d-sentences in the previous section is that the embedded clauses here are <a href="/wiki/Adjunct_(grammar)" title="Adjunct (grammar)">adjunct</a> clauses, whereas they are <a href="/wiki/Argument_(linguistics)" title="Argument (linguistics)">argument</a> clauses above. The following examples involve adjunct phrases:<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Rosa<sub>i</sub></b> found a scratch in Ben's picture of <b>her<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. *<b>She<sub>i</sub></b> found a scratch in Ben's picture of <b>Rosa<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading impossible</small></dd> <dd>c. <sup>?</sup>In Ben's picture of <b>Rosa<sub>i</sub></b>, <b>she<sub>i</sub></b> found a scratch. <small>– Indicated reading unlikely</small></dd> <dd>d. In Ben's picture of <b>her<sub>i</sub></b>, <b>Rosa<sub>i</sub></b> found a scratch. <small>– Indicated reading possible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Zelda<sub>i</sub></b> spent her sweetest hours in <b>her<sub>i</sub></b> bed.<small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd> <dd>b. *<b>She<sub>i</sub></b> spent her sweetest hours in <b>Zelda's<sub>i</sub></b> bed. <small>– Indicated reading impossible</small></dd> <dd>c. <sup>??</sup>In <b>Zelda's<sub>i</sub></b> bed, <b>she<sub>i</sub></b> spent her sweetest hours. – <small>Indicated reading very unlikely</small></dd> <dd>d. In <b>her<sub>i</sub></b> bed, <b>Zelda<sub>i</sub></b> spent her sweetest hours. <small>– Indicated reading possible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The fact that the c-sentences marginally allow the indicated reading whereas the b-sentences do not at all allow this reading further demonstrates that linear order is important. But in this regard, the d-sentences are telling, since if linear order were the entire story, one would expect the d-sentences to be less acceptable than they are. The conclusion that one can draw from such data is that there are one or more other factors beyond linear order that are impacting the distribution of pronouns. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Configuration_vs._function">Configuration vs. function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Configuration vs. function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Given that linear order is not the only factor influencing the distribution of pronouns, the question is what other factor or factors might also be playing a role. The traditional binding theory (see below) took <a href="/wiki/C-command" title="C-command">c-command</a> to be the all important factor, but the importance of c-command for syntactic theorizing has been extensively criticized in recent years.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary alternative to c-command is functional rank. These two competing concepts (c-command vs. rank) have been debated extensively and they continue to be debated. C-command is a configurational notion; it is defined over concrete syntactic configurations. Syntactic rank, in contrast, is a functional notion that resides in the lexicon; it is defined over the ranking of the arguments of <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicates</a>. Subjects are ranked higher than objects, first objects are ranked higher than second objects, and prepositional objects are ranked lowest. The following two subsections briefly consider these competing notions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Configuration_(c-command)"><span id="Configuration_.28c-command.29"></span>Configuration (c-command)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Configuration (c-command)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>C-command is a configurational notion that acknowledges the syntactic configuration as primitive. Basic <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>-<a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a> asymmetries, which are numerous in many languages, are explained by the fact that the subject appears outside of the finite verb phrase (VP) constituent, whereas the object appears inside it. Subjects therefore c-command objects, but not vice versa. C-command is defined as follows: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><b>C-command</b></dd> <dd>Node A c-commands node B if every node dominating A also dominates B, and neither A nor B dominates the other.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Given the binary division of the clause (S → NP + VP) associated with most <a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">phrase structure grammars</a>, this definition sees a typical subject c-commanding everything inside the <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrase</a> (VP), whereas everything inside the VP is incapable of c-commanding anything outside of the VP. Some basic binding facts are explained in this manner, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Larry<sub>i</sub></b> promoted <b>himself<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading obligatory</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>b. *<b>Himself<sub>i</sub></b> promoted <b>Larry<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading impossible; sentence ungrammatical</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Sentence a is fine because the subject <i>Larry</i> c-commands the object <i>himself</i>, whereas sentence b does not work because the object <i>Larry</i> does not c-command the subject <i>himself</i>. The assumption has been that within its binding domain, a reflexive pronoun must be c-commanded by its antecedent. While this approach based on c-command makes a correct prediction much of the time, there are other cases where it fails to make the correct prediction, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>The picture of <b>himself<sub>i</sub></b> upsets <b>Larry<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading possible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The reading indicated is acceptable in this case, but if c-command were the key notion helping to explain where the reflexive can and must appear, then the reading should be impossible since <i>himself</i> is not c-commanded by <i>Larry</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As reflexive and personal pronouns occur in complementary distribution, the notion of c-command can also be used to explain where personal pronouns can appear. The assumption is that personal pronouns <i>cannot</i> c-command their antecedent, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. When <b>Alice<sub>i</sub></b> felt tired, <b>she<sub>i</sub></b> lay down. <small>– Indicated reading easily possible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>b When <b>she<sub>i</sub></b> felt tired, <b>Alice<sub>i</sub></b> lay down. <small>– Indicated reading possible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>In both examples, the personal pronoun <i>she</i> does not c-command its antecedent <i>Alice</i>, resulting in the grammaticality of both sentences despite reversed linear order. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Function_(rank)"><span id="Function_.28rank.29"></span>Function (rank)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Function (rank)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The alternative to a c-command approach posits a ranking of syntactic functions (SUBJECT > FIRST OBJECT > SECOND OBJECT > PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subject-object asymmetries are addressed in terms of this ranking. Since subjects are ranked higher than objects, an object can have the subject as its antecedent, but not vice versa. With basic cases, this approach makes the same prediction as the c-command approach. The first two sentences from the previous section are repeated here: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Larry<sub>i</sub></b> promoted <b>himself<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading obligatory</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>b. *<b>Himself<sub>i</sub></b> promoted <b>Larry<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading impossible; sentence ungrammatical</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Since the subject outranks the object, sentence a is predictably acceptable, the subject <i>Larry</i> outranking the object <i>himself</i>. Sentence b, in contrast, is bad because the subject reflexive pronoun <i>himself</i> outranks its postcedent <i>Larry</i>. In other words, this approach in terms of rank is assuming that within its binding domain, a reflexive pronoun may not outrank its antecedent (or postcedent). Consider the third example sentence from the previous section in this regard: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>The picture of <b>himself<sub>i</sub></b> upset <b>Larry<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Indicated reading possible</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The approach based on rank does not require a particular configurational relationship to hold between a reflexive pronoun and its antecedent. In other words, it makes no prediction in this case, and hence does not make an incorrect prediction. The reflexive pronoun <i>himself</i> is embedded within the subject noun phrase, which means that it is not the subject and hence does not outrank the object <i>Larry</i>. </p><p>A theory of binding that acknowledges both linear order and rank can at least begin to predict many of the marginal readings.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When both linear order and rank combine, acceptability judgments are robust, e.g. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Barbara<sub>i</sub></b> hopes that <b>she<sub>i</sub></b> will be promoted. <small>– Linear order and rank combine to make the indicated reading easily possible.</small></dd> <dd>b. *<b>She<sub>i</sub></b> hopes that <b>Barbara<sub>i</sub></b> will be promoted. <small>– Linear order and rank combine to make the indicated reading impossible.</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>a. <b>Bill's<sub>i</sub></b> grade upset <b>him<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Linear order alone makes the indicated reading possible; rank is not involved.</small></dd> <dd>b. <sup>?</sup><b>His<sub>i</sub></b> grade upset <b>Bill<sub>i</sub></b>. <small>– Linear order alone makes the indicated reading unlikely; rank is not involved.</small></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>This ability to address marginal readings is something that an approach combining linear order and rank can accomplish, whereas an approach that acknowledges only c-command cannot do the same. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_traditional_binding_theory:_Conditions_A,_B,_and_C"><span id="The_traditional_binding_theory:_Conditions_A.2C_B.2C_and_C"></span>The traditional binding theory: Conditions A, B, and C</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The traditional binding theory: Conditions A, B, and C"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The exploration of binding phenomena got started in the 1970s and interest peaked in the 1980s with <a href="/wiki/Government_and_Binding_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Government and Binding Theory">Government and Binding Theory</a>, a grammar framework in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Generative_syntax" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative syntax">generative syntax</a> that is still prominent today.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theory of binding that became widespread at that time serves now merely as reference point (since it is no longer believed to be correct). This theory distinguishes between 3 different binding conditions: A, B, and C. The theory classifies nominals according to two features, [±anaphor] and [±pronominal], which are binary. The binding characteristics of a nominal are determined by the values of these features, either plus or minus. Thus, a nominal that is [-anaphor, -pronominal] is an R-expression (referring expression), such as a <a href="/wiki/Common_noun" class="mw-redirect" title="Common noun">common noun</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Proper_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper name">proper name</a>. A nominal that is [-anaphor, +pronominal] is a pronoun, such as <i>he</i> or <i>they</i>, and a nominal that is [+anaphor, -pronominal] is a reflexive pronoun, such as <i>himself</i> or <i>themselves</i>. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="There is no example for [+anaphor, +pronominal]. (January 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Note that the term <i>anaphor</i> here is being used in a specialized sense; it essentially means "reflexive". This meaning is specific to the Government and Binding framework and has not spread beyond this framework.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on the classifications according to these two features, three conditions are formulated: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><b>Condition A</b></dd> <dd>An anaphor (reflexive) must have a local (nearby) antecedent. Thus, <i>John<sub>i</sub> washed himself<sub>i</sub></i> obeys Condition A: the antecedent of <i>himself</i>, which is <i>John</i>, is nearby. In contrast, *<i>John<sub>i</sub> asked Mary to wash himself<sub>i</sub></i> is unacceptable, because the reflexive and its antecedent are too far away from each other.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><b>Condition B</b></dd> <dd>A pronoun can have an antecedent as long as the antecedent is not local or does not c-command the pronoun. Thus <i>John<sub>i</sub> asked Mary to wash him<sub>i</sub></i> obeys Condition B; <i>John</i> is the antecedent of <i>him</i>, and <i>him</i> is sufficiently far away. <i>He<sub>i</sub> washed himself<sub>i</sub></i> also obeys Condition B; the antecedent <i>himself</i> is local but does not c-command the pronoun <i>He</i>. On the other hand, *<i>John<sub>i</sub> washed him<sub>i</sub></i> is unacceptable; the antecedent <i>John</i> is local and c-commands the pronoun <i>him</i>.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><b>Condition C</b></dd> <dd>An R-expression cannot be the antecedent of an anaphor or pronoun that c-commands it. Thus *<i>He<sub>i</sub> asked Mary to wash John<sub>i</sub></i> is unacceptable; the pronoun <i>He</i> c-commands its antecedent, the R-expression <i>John</i>.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>While the theory of binding that these three conditions represent is no longer held to be valid, as mentioned above, the associations with the three conditions are so firmly anchored in the study of binding that one often refers to, for example, "Condition A effects" or "Condition B effects" when describing binding phenomena. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">Anaphora (linguistics)</a> – Use of an expression whose interpretation depends on context</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent_(grammar)" title="Antecedent (grammar)">Antecedent</a> – Expression that gives its meaning to a pro-form in grammar</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-command" title="C-command">C-command</a> – binary relation between nodes in a parse tree, in which a node c-commands its sister node and all of its sister’s descendants<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coreference" title="Coreference">Coreference</a> – Two or more expressions in a text with the same referent</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_and_binding_theory" title="Government and binding theory">Government and binding theory</a> – Theory of syntax</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-form" title="Pro-form">Proform</a> – Word or form that substitutes for another word</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raising_(syntax)" title="Raising (syntax)">Raising</a> – in linguistics, the movement of an argument from an embedded or subordinate clause to a matrix or main clause<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hornstein (2018) gives a good overview of government & binding theory (GB) and how its mechanics gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Minimalist_program" title="Minimalist program">minimalist program</a>. This includes the how titular "binding" plays a major role in the GB framework. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Examples like the ones given here that illustrate aspects of binding can be found in most accounts of binding phenomena. See for instance Radford (2004:85f) and Carnie (2013:153f.).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The three-way division between reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, personal pronouns, and nouns is discussed, for instance, in Carnie (2013:147ff.). Note, however, that the terminology varies depending on the author.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i>Mary</i>- and <i>Zelda</i>-examples given here appear originally in Reinhart's (1983) book on the distribution of anaphors. Note, however, that many of Reinhart's original acceptability judgments were inaccurate, hence the acceptability judgments given here do not match Reinhart's examples.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruening (2014) produces an extensive criticism of the validity of c-command for syntactic theorizing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The definition of c-command is taken from Carnie (2013:127).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The insight that the reflexive pronoun can be embedded inside a subject NP and at the same time be coreferential with the object NP is one of the main insights presented in Pollard and Sag's (1992) account of what has become known as "exempt anaphors", i.e. reflexive pronouns that are not bound by their antecedent.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A number of approaches to binding build on a hierarchy of syntactic functions, although the terminology they employ usually varies. In particular, the HPSG and LFG frameworks posit a basic hierarhcy of syntactic functions. See Pollard and Sag (1994:121), who build on the notion of o-command, and see Bresnan (2001:212), who employs the "rank" terminology used here.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Langacker's study (1969), which is one of the earliest explorations of binding phenomena, combined two factors to predict binding possibilities. Hence the concept that a combination of factors influences binding data has a long tradition.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For presentations of the traditional binding theory, see for instance Radford (2004:85ff) and Carnie (2013:147ff.).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Most syntax textbooks on generative grammar use the term in this way. See for instance Carnie (2013:148).</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Bresnan, Joan. 2001. Lexical–Functional Syntax. Oxford: Blackwell.</li> <li>Bruening, B. 2014. Precede-and-command revisited. Language 90(1).</li> <li>Carnie, C. 2013. Syntax: A generative introduction, 3rd edition. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.</li> <li>Hornstein, N. 2018. The Minimalist Program After 25 Years. Annual Review of Linguistics 4, 49-65.</li> <li>Langacker, R. 1969. On pronominalization and the chain of command. Modern Studies in English, eds. D. Reibel & S. Schane, 160-186. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</li> <li>Pollard, C. and I. Sag. 1992. Reflexives in English and the scope of binding theory. Linguistic Inquiry 23, 261-303.</li> <li>Pollard, C. and I. Sag. 1994. Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar. University of Chicago Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Radford_(linguist)" title="Andrew Radford (linguist)">Radford, A.</a> (2004) English syntax: An introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Reinhart, T. 1983. Anaphora and semantic interpretation. London: Croom Helm.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Binding_(linguistics)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Büring, D. 2005. Binding Theory. New York: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Chomsky, N.1981. Lectures on Government and Binding. Dordrecht: Foris Publications.</li> <li>Crystal, D. 1997. A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. 4th edition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.</li> <li>Heim, I., and A. Kratzer. 1988. Semantics in Generative Grammar. Malden, MA: Blackwell.</li> <li>Hornstein, N. Nunes, J. Grohmann, K. 2005. Understanding Minimalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Reinhart, T. and E. Reuland. 1993. Reflexivity. Linguistic Inquiry 24, 657-720.</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Formal_semantics" title="Template:Formal semantics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Formal_semantics" title="Template talk:Formal semantics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Formal_semantics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Formal semantics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denotation" title="Denotation">Denotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entailment" class="mw-redirect" title="Entailment">Entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extension_(semantics)" title="Extension (semantics)">Extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Generalized quantifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form_(linguistics)" title="Logical form (linguistics)">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scope_(formal_semantics)" title="Scope (formal semantics)">Scope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-conditional_semantics" title="Truth-conditional semantics">Truth conditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">Anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_sentence" title="Conditional sentence">Conditionals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Disjunction">Disjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indexicality" title="Indexicality">Indexicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">Lexical semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">Negation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional attitudes">Propositional attitudes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">Quantification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent-contained_deletion" title="Antecedent-contained deletion">Antecedent-contained deletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataphora" title="Cataphora">Cataphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion_(linguistics)" title="Coercion (linguistics)">Coercion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservativity" title="Conservativity">Conservativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactuals">Counterfactuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossover_effects" title="Crossover effects">Crossover effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumulativity_(linguistics)" title="Cumulativity (linguistics)">Cumulativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">De dicto and de re</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_se" title="De se">De se</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">Deontic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_relation" title="Discourse relation">Discourse relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_anaphora" class="mw-redirect" title="Donkey anaphora">Donkey anaphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaustivity" title="Exhaustivity">Exhaustivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faultless_disagreement" title="Faultless disagreement">Faultless disagreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_choice_inference" title="Free choice inference">Free choice inferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Givenness" title="Givenness">Givenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homogeneity_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneity (linguistics)">Homogeneity (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurford_disjunction" title="Hurford disjunction">Hurford disjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inalienable_possession" title="Inalienable possession">Inalienable possession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logophoricity" title="Logophoricity">Logophoricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_subordination" title="Modal subordination">Modal subordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opaque_context" title="Opaque context">Opaque contexts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">Performatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarity_item" title="Polarity item">Polarity items</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privative_adjective" title="Privative adjective">Privative adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantificational_variability_effect" title="Quantificational variability effect">Quantificational variability effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsive_predicate" title="Responsive predicate">Responsive predicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rising_declarative" title="Rising declarative">Rising declaratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalar_implicature" title="Scalar implicature">Scalar implicature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloppy_identity" title="Sloppy identity">Sloppy identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsective_modifier" title="Subsective modifier">Subsective modification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtrigging" title="Subtrigging">Subtrigging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature_paradox" title="Temperature paradox">Temperature paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formal systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_semantics" title="Alternative semantics">Alternative semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorial_grammar" title="Categorial grammar">Categorial grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatory_categorial_grammar" title="Combinatory categorial grammar">Combinatory categorial grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_representation_theory" title="Discourse representation theory">Discourse representation theory (DRT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glue_semantics" title="Glue semantics">Glue semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensional_logic" title="Intensional logic">Intensional logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_calculus" title="Lambda calculus">Lambda calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montague_grammar" title="Montague grammar">Montague grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmented_discourse_representation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmented discourse representation theory">Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervaluationism" title="Supervaluationism">Supervaluationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory_with_records" title="Type theory with records">TTR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Context set">Context set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuation" title="Continuation">Continuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversational_scoreboard" title="Conversational scoreboard">Conversational scoreboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downward_entailing" title="Downward entailing">Downward entailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_closure" title="Existential closure">Existential closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_application" title="Function application">Function application</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_postulate" title="Meaning postulate">Meaning postulate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monad_(functional_programming)" title="Monad (functional programming)">Monads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plural_quantification" title="Plural quantification">Plural quantification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_raising" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier raising">Quantifier raising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantization_(linguistics)" title="Quantization (linguistics)">Quantization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_under_discussion" title="Question under discussion">Question under discussion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squiggle_operator" title="Squiggle operator">Squiggle operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strawson_entailment" title="Strawson entailment">Strawson entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_conditional" title="Strict conditional">Strict conditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_shifter" title="Type shifter">Type shifter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">Cognitive semantics</a></li> 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