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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Establishment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_of_exotic_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_of_exotic_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Trade of exotic animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_of_exotic_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Ports</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ports-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ports subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roman_ports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_ports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Roman ports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_ports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arsinoe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arsinoe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Arsinoe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arsinoe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myos_Hormos_and_Berenice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myos_Hormos_and_Berenice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Myos Hormos and Berenice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Myos_Hormos_and_Berenice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_regional_ports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_regional_ports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Major regional ports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_regional_ports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Barigaza" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barigaza"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Barigaza</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barigaza-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muziris" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muziris"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Muziris</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muziris-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arikamedu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arikamedu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Arikamedu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arikamedu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_exchanges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_exchanges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Cultural exchanges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_exchanges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Decline and aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Decline_and_aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Decline and aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Decline_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roman_decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Roman decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ravaging_of_the_Gupta_Empire_by_the_Huns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ravaging_of_the_Gupta_Empire_by_the_Huns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Ravaging of the Gupta Empire by the Huns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ravaging_of_the_Gupta_Empire_by_the_Huns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Arab expansion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Indo-Roman trade relations</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="العلاقات التجارية الهندية الرومانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العلاقات التجارية الهندية الرومانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8B-%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95" title="ইন্দো-রোমান বাণিজ্য সম্পর্ক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইন্দো-রোমান বাণিজ্য সম্পর্ক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relacions_entre_l%27Imperi_Rom%C3%A0_i_l%27%C3%8Dndia" title="Relacions entre l'Imperi Romà i l'Índia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Relacions entre l'Imperi Romà i l'Índia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misch-indische_Beziehungen" title="Römisch-indische Beziehungen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Römisch-indische Beziehungen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%BF-%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%B5%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%87%CE%AD%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%82" title="Ινδο-Ρωμαϊκές εμπορικές σχέσεις – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ινδο-Ρωμαϊκές εμπορικές σχέσεις" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comercio_de_la_Antigua_Roma_con_India" title="Comercio de la Antigua Roma con India – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Comercio de la Antigua Roma con India" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B7_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D9%88_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF" title="روابط بازرگانی روم و هند – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روابط بازرگانی روم و هند" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89changes_commerciaux_entre_la_Rome_antique_et_l%27Inde" title="Échanges commerciaux entre la Rome antique et l'Inde – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Échanges commerciaux entre la Rome antique et l'Inde" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88-%EC%9D%B8%EB%8F%84_%EB%AC%B4%EC%97%AD_%EA%B4%80%EA%B3%84" title="로마-인도 무역 관계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로마-인도 무역 관계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="भारत और रोम के व्यापारिक सम्बन्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भारत और रोम के व्यापारिक सम्बन्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubungan_dagang_India_dengan_Romawi" title="Hubungan dagang India dengan Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hubungan dagang India dengan Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercio_romano_con_l%27India" title="Commercio romano con l'India – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Commercio romano con l'India" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betrekkingen_van_het_Indisch_Subcontinent_met_de_Grieks-Romeinse_wereld" title="Betrekkingen van het Indisch Subcontinent met de Grieks-Romeinse wereld – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Betrekkingen van het Indisch Subcontinent met de Grieks-Romeinse wereld" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_handel_med_India" title="Romersk handel med India – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Romersk handel med India" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="ہند رومی تجارتی تعلقات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہند رومی تجارتی تعلقات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rela%C3%A7%C3%B5es_indo-romanas" title="Relações indo-romanas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Relações indo-romanas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE-%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Индо-римская торговля – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Индо-римская торговля" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimska_trgovska_povezava_z_Indijo" title="Rimska trgovska povezava z Indijo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimska trgovska povezava z Indijo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF-%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AE_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="இந்திய-உரோம வர்த்தக உறவுகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இந்திய-உரோம வர்த்தக உறவுகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%84%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="การค้าระหว่างโรมันกับอินเดีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การค้าระหว่างโรมันกับอินเดีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Trade between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-Roman_trade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Indo-Roman_trade.jpg/440px-Indo-Roman_trade.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Indo-Roman_trade.jpg/660px-Indo-Roman_trade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Indo-Roman_trade.jpg/880px-Indo-Roman_trade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2499" data-file-height="1413" /></a><figcaption>Roman trade in the subcontinent according to the <i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_Maris_Erythraei" class="mw-redirect" title="Periplus Maris Erythraei">Periplus Maris Erythraei</a></i> 1st century CE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_gold_coins_excavated_in_Pudukottai_India_one_coin_of_Caligula_31_41_and_two_coins_of_Nero_54_68.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Roman_gold_coins_excavated_in_Pudukottai_India_one_coin_of_Caligula_31_41_and_two_coins_of_Nero_54_68.jpg/440px-Roman_gold_coins_excavated_in_Pudukottai_India_one_coin_of_Caligula_31_41_and_two_coins_of_Nero_54_68.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Roman_gold_coins_excavated_in_Pudukottai_India_one_coin_of_Caligula_31_41_and_two_coins_of_Nero_54_68.jpg/660px-Roman_gold_coins_excavated_in_Pudukottai_India_one_coin_of_Caligula_31_41_and_two_coins_of_Nero_54_68.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Roman_gold_coins_excavated_in_Pudukottai_India_one_coin_of_Caligula_31_41_and_two_coins_of_Nero_54_68.jpg/880px-Roman_gold_coins_excavated_in_Pudukottai_India_one_coin_of_Caligula_31_41_and_two_coins_of_Nero_54_68.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1334" data-file-height="449" /></a><figcaption>Roman gold coins excavated in <a href="/wiki/Pudukottai" class="mw-redirect" title="Pudukottai">Pudukottai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. One coin of <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> (37–41 CE), and two coins of <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> (54–68). <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg/220px-Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg/330px-Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg/440px-Kushan_ring_with_Septimus_Severus_and_Julia_Domna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="918" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a> ring with portraits of <a href="/wiki/Septimus_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Septimus Severus">Septimus Severus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Indo-Roman trade relations</b> (see also the <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Incense_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Incense road">incense road</a>) was trade between the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. Trade through the overland caravan routes via <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, though at a relative trickle compared to later times, preceded the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Mediterranean" title="Indo-Mediterranean">southern trade route</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> which started around the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a> (CE) following the reign of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">his conquest</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Egypt</a> in 30 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The southern route so helped enhance trade between the ancient <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> and the Indian subcontinent, that Roman politicians and historians are on record decrying the loss of silver and gold to buy silk to pamper Roman wives, and the southern route grew to eclipse and then totally supplant the overland trade route.<sup id="cite_ref-Young1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman and Greek traders frequented the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Tamil_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Tamil country">ancient Tamil country</a>, present day <a href="/wiki/Southern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern India">Southern India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, securing trade with the seafaring <a href="/wiki/Tamil_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamil people">Tamil</a> states of the <a href="/wiki/Pandyan_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandyan Empire">Pandyan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chera_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera Empire">Chera</a> dynasties and <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Tamil_country#Foreign_trade" title="Economy of ancient Tamil country">establishing trading settlements</a> which secured trade with the Indian subcontinent by the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> since the time of the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a><sup id="cite_ref-Lindsay1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindsay1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a few decades before the start of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a> and remained long after the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Curtin1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curtin1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_relations" title="Indo-Roman relations">Indo-Roman relations</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diadochen1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Diadochen1.png/500px-Diadochen1.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Diadochen1.png/750px-Diadochen1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Diadochen1.png/1000px-Diadochen1.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="961" /></a><figcaption>The Seleucid and the Ptolemaic dynasties controlled trade networks to India before the establishment of Roman Egypt. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#787CAD; color:black;"> </span> Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#C3B933; color:black;"> </span> Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucus</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_dynasty" title="Seleucid dynasty">Seleucid dynasty</a> controlled a developed network of trade with the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian Subcontinent</a> which had previously existed under the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>. The Greek-<a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a>, controlling the western and northern end of other trade routes to <a href="/wiki/Southern_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Arabia">Southern Arabia</a> and the Indian Subcontinent,<sup id="cite_ref-Potter1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Potter1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had begun to exploit trading opportunities in the region prior to the Roman involvement but, according to the historian <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, the volume of commerce between Indians and the Greeks was not comparable to that of later Indo-Roman trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Young1_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Periplus_Maris_Erythraei" class="mw-redirect" title="Periplus Maris Erythraei">Periplus Maris Erythraei</a> mentions a time when sea trade between Egypt and the subcontinent did not involve direct sailings.<sup id="cite_ref-Young1_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cargo under these situations was shipped to <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-Young1_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Aden – Arabia Eudaimon was called the fortunate, being once a city, when, because ships neither came from India to <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> nor did those from Egypt dare to go further but only came as far as this place, it received the cargoes from both, just as <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> receives goods brought from outside and from Egypt.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Gary Keith Young, Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The Ptolemaic dynasty had developed trade with Indian kingdoms using the Red Sea ports.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>, the Romans took over and further developed the already existing trade using these ports.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Classical geographers such as <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> were generally slow to incorporate new information into their works and, from their positions as <a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">esteemed scholars</a>, were seemingly prejudiced against lowly merchants and their <a href="/wiki/Topographical" class="mw-redirect" title="Topographical">topographical</a> accounts.<sup id="cite_ref-parker_2008_p118_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parker_2008_p118-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">Geography</a></i> represents somewhat of a break from this since he demonstrated an openness to their accounts and would not have been able to chart the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal" title="Bay of Bengal">Bay of Bengal</a> so accurately had it not been for the input of traders.<sup id="cite_ref-parker_2008_p118_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parker_2008_p118-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is perhaps no surprise then that Marinus and Ptolemy relied on the testimony of a Greek sailor named Alexander for how to reach "<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>" (most likely <a href="/wiki/Oc_Eo" class="mw-redirect" title="Oc Eo">Oc Eo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Antonine" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonine">Antonine</a>-period <a href="/wiki/Sino-Roman_relations" title="Sino-Roman relations">Roman artefacts</a> have been discovered) in the <i><a href="/wiki/Magnus_Sinus" title="Magnus Sinus">Magnus Sinus</a></i> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Thailand" title="Gulf of Thailand">Gulf of Thailand</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_China_Sea" title="South China Sea">South China Sea</a>) located east of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Chersonese" title="Golden Chersonese">Golden Chersonese</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-young_2001_29_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-young_2001_29-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1st-century CE <i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i>, its anonymous Greek-speaking author, a merchant of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>, provides such vivid accounts of trade cities in Arabia and India, including <a href="/wiki/Guide_book" title="Guide book">travel times from rivers and towns</a>, where to drop <a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">anchor</a>, the locations of royal courts, lifestyles of the locals and goods found in their markets, and favorable times of year to sail from Egypt to these places in order to catch the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> winds, that it is clear he visited many of these locations.<sup id="cite_ref-schoff_1912_web_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schoff_1912_web-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Establishment">Establishment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Establishment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AugustusCoinPudukottaiHoardIndia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/AugustusCoinPudukottaiHoardIndia.jpg/220px-AugustusCoinPudukottaiHoardIndia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/AugustusCoinPudukottaiHoardIndia.jpg/330px-AugustusCoinPudukottaiHoardIndia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/AugustusCoinPudukottaiHoardIndia.jpg/440px-AugustusCoinPudukottaiHoardIndia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1496" data-file-height="1479" /></a><figcaption>Coin of the Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> found at the <a href="/wiki/Pudukottai" class="mw-redirect" title="Pudukottai">Pudukottai</a> hoard. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_copy_of_an_aureaus_of_Faustina_2nd_century_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Indian_copy_of_an_aureaus_of_Faustina_2nd_century_CE.jpg/220px-Indian_copy_of_an_aureaus_of_Faustina_2nd_century_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Indian_copy_of_an_aureaus_of_Faustina_2nd_century_CE.jpg/330px-Indian_copy_of_an_aureaus_of_Faustina_2nd_century_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Indian_copy_of_an_aureaus_of_Faustina_2nd_century_CE.jpg/440px-Indian_copy_of_an_aureaus_of_Faustina_2nd_century_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="485" /></a><figcaption>Indian copy of an <a href="/wiki/Aureus" title="Aureus">aureus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Faustina_Major" class="mw-redirect" title="Faustina Major">Faustina Major</a>, 2nd century CE. British Museum.</figcaption></figure> <p>The replacement of Greek kingdoms by the Roman Empire as the administrator of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">eastern Mediterranean</a> basin led to the strengthening of direct maritime trade with the east and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen of various land based trading routes.<sup id="cite_ref-Lach1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lach1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo's</a> mention of the vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt indicates that monsoon was known from his time.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The trade started by <a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a> in 130 BCE kept increasing according to Strabo (II.5.12.):<sup id="cite_ref-Strabo1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strabo1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>At any rate, when <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Gallus" title="Cornelius Gallus">Gallus</a> was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> as far as <a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Syene</a> and the frontiers of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>), and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from <a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a> to the subcontinent, whereas formerly, under the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemies</a>, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Strabo</cite></div></blockquote> <p>By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from <a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a> to India.<sup id="cite_ref-Strabo1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strabo1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> (Kushans) for their own coinage, that <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million <a href="/wiki/Sesterce" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesterce">sesterces</a> from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what fraction of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.</cite></div></blockquote> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_coin_of_Claudius_50_51CE_excavated_in_South_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gold coin of Claudius (50–51 CE) excavated in South India."><img alt="Gold coin of Claudius (50–51 CE) excavated in South India." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Gold_coin_of_Claudius_50_51CE_excavated_in_South_India.jpg/118px-Gold_coin_of_Claudius_50_51CE_excavated_in_South_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Gold_coin_of_Claudius_50_51CE_excavated_in_South_India.jpg/177px-Gold_coin_of_Claudius_50_51CE_excavated_in_South_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Gold_coin_of_Claudius_50_51CE_excavated_in_South_India.jpg/236px-Gold_coin_of_Claudius_50_51CE_excavated_in_South_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1919" data-file-height="1952" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gold coin of <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> (50–51 CE) excavated in South India.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gold_coin_of_Justinian_I_527CE_565CE_excavated_in_India_probably_in_the_south.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gold coin of Justinian I (527–565 CE) excavated in India probably in the south."><img alt="Gold coin of Justinian I (527–565 CE) excavated in India probably in the south." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Gold_coin_of_Justinian_I_527CE_565CE_excavated_in_India_probably_in_the_south.jpg/119px-Gold_coin_of_Justinian_I_527CE_565CE_excavated_in_India_probably_in_the_south.jpg" decoding="async" width="119" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Gold_coin_of_Justinian_I_527CE_565CE_excavated_in_India_probably_in_the_south.jpg/179px-Gold_coin_of_Justinian_I_527CE_565CE_excavated_in_India_probably_in_the_south.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Gold_coin_of_Justinian_I_527CE_565CE_excavated_in_India_probably_in_the_south.jpg/238px-Gold_coin_of_Justinian_I_527CE_565CE_excavated_in_India_probably_in_the_south.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1412" data-file-height="1423" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Gold coin of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> (527–565 CE) excavated in India probably in the south.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade_of_exotic_animals">Trade of exotic animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Trade of exotic animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sri_Lankan_imitations_of_4th_century_Roman_coins_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sri_Lankan_imitations_of_4th_century_Roman_coins_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg/220px-Sri_Lankan_imitations_of_4th_century_Roman_coins_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sri_Lankan_imitations_of_4th_century_Roman_coins_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg/330px-Sri_Lankan_imitations_of_4th_century_Roman_coins_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sri_Lankan_imitations_of_4th_century_Roman_coins_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg/440px-Sri_Lankan_imitations_of_4th_century_Roman_coins_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1167" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lankan</a> imitations of 4th-century Roman coins, 4th–8th century CE.</figcaption></figure> <p>There is evidence of animal trade between Indian Ocean harbours and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>. This can be seen in the <a href="/wiki/Mosaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaics">mosaics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frescoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Frescoes">frescoes</a> of the remains of <a href="/wiki/Roman_villas" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman villas">Roman villas</a> in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Villa_Romana_del_Casale" title="Villa Romana del Casale">Villa del Casale</a> has mosaics depicting the capture of animals in India, Indonesia and Africa. The intercontinental trade of animals was one of the sources of wealth for the owners of the villa. In the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.villadelcasale.it/ambulacro-grande-caccia.html?lang=en">Ambulacro della Grande Caccia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the hunting and capture of animals is represented in such detail that it is possible to identify the species. There is a scene that shows a technique to distract a <a href="/wiki/Tiger" title="Tiger">tiger</a> with a shimmering ball of <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mirror" title="Mirror">mirror</a> in order to take her cubs. Tiger hunting with red ribbons serving as a distraction is also shown. In the mosaic there are also numerous other animals such as <a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">rhinoceros</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Indian_elephant" title="Indian elephant">Indian elephant</a> (recognized from the ears) with his Indian conductor, and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_peafowl" title="Indian peafowl">Indian peafowl</a>, and other exotic birds. There are also numerous animals from <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>. Tigers, <a href="/wiki/Leopard" title="Leopard">leopards</a> and Asian and African <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lions</a> were used in the <a href="/wiki/Arena" title="Arena">arenas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Circus" title="Circus">circuses</a>. The <a href="/wiki/European_lion" class="mw-redirect" title="European lion">European lion</a> was already extinct at that time. Probably the last lived in the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan Peninsula">Balkan Peninsula</a> and were hunted to stock arenas. The birds and monkeys entertained the guests of many villas. Also in the <a href="/wiki/Villa_Romana_del_Tellaro" title="Villa Romana del Tellaro">Villa Romana del Tellaro</a> there is a mosaic with a tiger in the jungle attacking a man with Roman clothes, probably a careless hunter. The animals were transported in cages by ship.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ports">Ports</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_ports">Roman ports</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Roman ports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The three main Roman ports involved with eastern trade were <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice</a> and Myos Hormos. Arsinoe was one of the early trading centers but was soon overshadowed by the more easily accessible Myos Hormos and Berenice. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arsinoe">Arsinoe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Arsinoe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egypt-region-map-cities-2.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Egypt-region-map-cities-2.gif/260px-Egypt-region-map-cities-2.gif" decoding="async" width="260" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Egypt-region-map-cities-2.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="373" /></a><figcaption>Sites of Egyptian Red Sea ports, including <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Ptolemaic dynasty exploited the strategic position of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> to secure trade with the subcontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindsay1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindsay1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The course of trade with the east then seems to have been first through the harbor of Arsinoe, the present day <a href="/wiki/Suez" title="Suez">Suez</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindsay1_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindsay1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goods from the <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East African</a> trade were landed at one of the three main Roman ports, Arsinoe, Berenice or Myos Hormos.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Romans repaired and cleared out the silted up canal from the Nile to harbor center of Arsinoe on the Red Sea.<sup id="cite_ref-Fayle1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fayle1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was one of the many efforts the Roman administration had to undertake to divert as much of the trade to the maritime routes as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Fayle1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fayle1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arsinoe was eventually overshadowed by the rising prominence of Myos Hormos.<sup id="cite_ref-Fayle1_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fayle1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The navigation to the northern ports, such as Arsinoe-Clysma, became difficult in comparison to Myos Hormos due to the northern winds in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Suez" title="Gulf of Suez">Gulf of Suez</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Venturing to these northern ports presented additional difficulties such as <a href="/wiki/Shoals" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoals">shoals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reef" title="Reef">reefs</a> and treacherous <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">currents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman1_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Myos_Hormos_and_Berenice">Myos Hormos and Berenice</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Myos Hormos and Berenice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berenike_Buddha_(drawing).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Berenike_Buddha_%28drawing%29.jpg/170px-Berenike_Buddha_%28drawing%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Berenike_Buddha_%28drawing%29.jpg/255px-Berenike_Buddha_%28drawing%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Berenike_Buddha_%28drawing%29.jpg/340px-Berenike_Buddha_%28drawing%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="429" data-file-height="839" /></a><figcaption>The <i><a href="/wiki/Berenike_Buddha" title="Berenike Buddha">Berenike Buddha</a></i>, discovered in <a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice</a>, Egypt, in 2022.</figcaption></figure> <p>Myos Hormos and Berenice appear to have been important ancient trading ports, possibly used by the <a href="/wiki/Pharaonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharaonic">Pharaonic</a> traders of ancient Egypt and the Ptolemaic dynasty before falling into Roman control.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw1_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The site of Berenice, since its discovery by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Belzoni" class="mw-redirect" title="Giovanni Battista Belzoni">Belzoni</a> (1818), has been equated with the ruins near <a href="/wiki/Ras_Banas" title="Ras Banas">Ras Banas</a> in Southern Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw1_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the precise location of Myos Hormos is disputed with the latitude and longitude given in <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Geographia_(Ptolemy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographia (Ptolemy)">Geography</a></i> favoring Abu Sha'ar and the accounts given in <a href="/wiki/Classical_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical literature">classical literature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satellite_images" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite images">satellite images</a> indicating a probable identification with Quseir el-Quadim at the end of a fortified road from <a href="/wiki/Koptos" class="mw-redirect" title="Koptos">Koptos</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw1_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Quseir el-Quadim site has further been associated with Myos Hormos following the excavations at <a href="/wiki/El_Zarqa" title="El Zarqa">el-Zerqa</a>, halfway along the route, which have revealed <a href="/wiki/Ostraca" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostraca">ostraca</a> leading to the conclusion that the port at the end of this road may have been Myos Hormos.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw1_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Berenike in March 2022 an American-Polish archaeological mission excavating the main early Roman period temple dedicated to the <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Goddess Isis</a> uncovered in the forecourt of the temple a marble statue of a <a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Berenike_Buddha" title="Berenike Buddha">Berenike Buddha</a></i>, suggesting the presence of Buddhist merchants from India in Egypt at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_regional_ports">Major regional ports</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Major regional ports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ArikameduRomanCeramic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/ArikameduRomanCeramic.jpg/220px-ArikameduRomanCeramic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/ArikameduRomanCeramic.jpg/330px-ArikameduRomanCeramic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/ArikameduRomanCeramic.jpg/440px-ArikameduRomanCeramic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="896" /></a><figcaption>Roman piece of pottery from <a href="/wiki/Arezzo" title="Arezzo">Arezzo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a>, found at Virampatnam, <a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> (1st century CE). <a href="/wiki/Musee_Guimet" class="mw-redirect" title="Musee Guimet">Musee Guimet</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period,_London,_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period%2C_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_%28detail%29.jpg/220px-Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period%2C_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period%2C_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_%28detail%29.jpg/330px-Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period%2C_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period%2C_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_%28detail%29.jpg/440px-Etched_carnelian_beads_Egypt_Ptolemaic_Period%2C_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology_UC51264_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2595" data-file-height="1180" /></a><figcaption>Characteristic Indian etched <a href="/wiki/Carnelian" title="Carnelian">carnelian</a> bead, found in Ptolemaic Period excavations at <a href="/wiki/Saft_el-Hinna" title="Saft el-Hinna">Saft el Henna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Petrie_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrie Museum">Petrie Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The regional ports of <a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbaricum</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a>), <a href="/wiki/Wari-Bateshwar" class="mw-redirect" title="Wari-Bateshwar">Sounagoura</a> (central <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a> (Bharuch in <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>), <a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a> (present day <a href="/wiki/Kodungallur" title="Kodungallur">Kodungallur</a>), <a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaveripattinam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaveripattinam">Kaveripattinam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>) on the southern tip of present-day India were the main centers of this trade, along with <a href="/wiki/Kodumanal" title="Kodumanal">Kodumanal</a>, an inland city. The <a href="/wiki/Periplus_Maris_Erythraei" class="mw-redirect" title="Periplus Maris Erythraei">Periplus Maris Erythraei</a> describes Greco-Roman merchants selling in Barbaricum "thin clothing, figured linens, <a href="/wiki/Topaz" title="Topaz">topaz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Storax" class="mw-redirect" title="Storax">storax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a>, vessels of glass, silver and gold plate, and a little wine" in exchange for "<a href="/wiki/Saussurea_costus" class="mw-redirect" title="Saussurea costus">costus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bdellium" title="Bdellium">bdellium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boxthorn" class="mw-redirect" title="Boxthorn">lycium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spikenard" title="Spikenard">nard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turquoise" title="Turquoise">turquoise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silk#Clothing" title="Silk">Seric skins</a>, cotton cloth, <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a> yarn, and <a href="/wiki/Indigo_dye" title="Indigo dye">indigo</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Periplus1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Periplus1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Barygaza, they would buy wheat, rice, sesame oil, cotton and cloth.<sup id="cite_ref-Periplus1_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Periplus1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Barigaza">Barigaza</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Barigaza"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trade with Barigaza, under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythian" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Scythian">Indo-Scythian</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_Satrap" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Satrap">Western Satrap</a> <a href="/wiki/Nahapana" title="Nahapana">Nahapana</a> ("Nambanus"), was especially flourishing:<sup id="cite_ref-Periplus1_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Periplus1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There are imported into this market-town (<a href="/wiki/Barigaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Barigaza">Barigaza</a>), wine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored <a href="/wiki/Girdles" class="mw-redirect" title="Girdles">girdles</a> a cubit wide; storax, <a href="/wiki/Sweetclover" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweetclover">sweetclover</a>, flint glass, <a href="/wiki/Realgar" title="Realgar">realgar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a>, gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places <a href="/wiki/Spikenard" title="Spikenard">spikenard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costus" title="Costus">costus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bdellium" title="Bdellium">bdellium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agate" title="Agate">agate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carnelian" title="Carnelian">carnelian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycium" title="Lycium">lycium</a>, cotton cloth of all kinds, <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a> cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, <a href="/wiki/Long_pepper" title="Long pepper">long pepper</a> and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (paragraph 49).</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Muziris">Muziris</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Muziris"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg/300px-TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg/450px-TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="457" data-file-height="373" /></a><figcaption>Muziris, as shown in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Peutingeriana" title="Tabula Peutingeriana">Tabula Peutingeriana</a></i>, with a "Templum Augusti"</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a> is a lost port city on the south-western coast of India which was a major center of trade in the ancient Tamil land between the Chera kingdom and the Roman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its location is generally identified with modern-day <a href="/wiki/Cranganore" class="mw-redirect" title="Cranganore">Cranganore</a> (central Kerala).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large hoards of coins and innumerable shards of <a href="/wiki/Amphora" title="Amphora">amphorae</a> found at the town of <a href="/wiki/Pattanam" title="Pattanam">Pattanam</a> (near Cranganore) have elicited recent archeological interest in finding a probable location of this port city.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Periplus" title="Periplus">Periplus</a>, numerous Greek seamen managed an intense trade with Muziris:<sup id="cite_ref-Periplus1_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Periplus1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Then come Naura and Tyndis, the first markets of <a href="/wiki/Damirica" class="mw-redirect" title="Damirica">Damirica</a> (Limyrike), and then Muziris and Nelcynda, which are now of leading importance. Tyndis is of the <a href="/wiki/Chera_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera Dynasty">Kingdom of Cerobothra</a>; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same Kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia"</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (53–54)</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Arikamedu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Periplus_Maris_Erythraei" class="mw-redirect" title="Periplus Maris Erythraei">Periplus Maris Erythraei</a> mentions a marketplace named Poduke (ch. 60), which <a href="/wiki/G.W.B._Huntingford" class="mw-redirect" title="G.W.B. Huntingford">G.W.B. Huntingford</a> identified as possibly being <a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>, a centre of <a href="/wiki/Early_Cholas" title="Early Cholas">early Chola</a> trade (now part of <a href="/wiki/Ariyankuppam" title="Ariyankuppam">Ariyankuppam</a>), about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the modern <a href="/wiki/Pondicherry_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pondicherry (city)">Pondicherry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Huntingford1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huntingford1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Huntingford further notes that Roman pottery was found at Arikamedu in 1937, and <a href="/wiki/Archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology">archeological</a> excavations between 1944 and 1949 showed that it was "a trading station to which goods of Roman manufacture were imported during the first half of the 1st century AD".<sup id="cite_ref-Huntingford1_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huntingford1-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_exchanges">Cultural exchanges</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cultural exchanges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AugustusIndianImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/AugustusIndianImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg/220px-AugustusIndianImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/AugustusIndianImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg/330px-AugustusIndianImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/AugustusIndianImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg/440px-AugustusIndianImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1431" data-file-height="1403" /></a><figcaption>A 1st century CE Indian imitation of a coin of Augustus, <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_imitation_of_Roman_coin_Sri_Lanka_South_India_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Bronze_imitation_of_Roman_coin_Sri_Lanka_South_India_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg/220px-Bronze_imitation_of_Roman_coin_Sri_Lanka_South_India_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Bronze_imitation_of_Roman_coin_Sri_Lanka_South_India_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg/330px-Bronze_imitation_of_Roman_coin_Sri_Lanka_South_India_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Bronze_imitation_of_Roman_coin_Sri_Lanka_South_India_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg/440px-Bronze_imitation_of_Roman_coin_Sri_Lanka_South_India_4th_to_8th_century_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1148" data-file-height="1112" /></a><figcaption>Bronze imitation of a Roman coin, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, 4th–8th century CE</figcaption></figure> <p>The Rome-subcontinental trade also saw several cultural exchanges which had a lasting effect on both the civilizations and others involved in the trade. The <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopian</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Aksum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksum">Aksum</a> was involved in the Indian Ocean trade network and was influenced by Roman culture and Indian architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-Curtin1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curtin1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traces of Indian influences are visible in Roman works of silver and ivory, or in Egyptian cotton and silk fabrics used for sale in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lach2_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lach2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indian presence in Alexandria may have influenced the culture but little is known about the manner of this influence.<sup id="cite_ref-Lach2_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lach2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> mentions the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a> in his writings and other <a href="/wiki/Indian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian religion">Indian religions</a> find mentions in other texts of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-Lach2_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lach2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Han_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Han China">Han China</a> was perhaps also <a href="/wiki/Sino-Roman_relations" title="Sino-Roman relations">involved in the Roman trade</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Daqin" title="Daqin">Roman embassies</a> recorded for the years 166, 226, and 284 that allegedly landed in <a href="/wiki/Rinan" title="Rinan">Rinan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Jiaozhi</a>) in northern <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/Twenty-Four_Histories" title="Twenty-Four Histories">Chinese histories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-young_2001_29_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-young_2001_29-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ball_2016_152_153_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ball_2016_152_153-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Roman_coin" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman coin">Roman coins</a> and goods <a href="/wiki/Roman_glass" title="Roman glass">such as glasswares</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">silverwares</a> have been found in China,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as Roman coins, bracelets, glass beads, a bronze lamp, and <a href="/wiki/Antonine" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonine">Antonine</a>-period medallions in Vietnam, especially at <a href="/wiki/Oc_Eo" class="mw-redirect" title="Oc Eo">Oc Eo</a> (belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Funan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Funan Kingdom">Funan Kingdom</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-young_2001_29_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-young_2001_29-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ball_2016_152_153_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ball_2016_152_153-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1st-century <i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus</a></i> notes how a country called <i>This</i>, with a great city called <i>Thinae</i> (comparable to <i><a href="/wiki/Sinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinae">Sinae</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">Ptolemy's <i>Geography</i></a>), <a href="/wiki/History_of_silk" title="History of silk">produced silk</a> and exported it to <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> before it traveled overland to <a href="/wiki/Barygaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Barygaza">Barygaza</a> in India and down the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges River">Ganges River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While <a href="/wiki/Marinus_of_Tyre" title="Marinus of Tyre">Marinus of Tyre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> provided vague accounts of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Thailand" title="Gulf of Thailand">Gulf of Thailand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Alexandrian Greek monk and former merchant <a href="/wiki/Cosmas_Indicopleustes" title="Cosmas Indicopleustes">Cosmas Indicopleustes</a>, in his <i><a href="/wiki/Christian_Topography" title="Christian Topography">Christian Topography</a></i> (c. 550), spoke clearly about China, how to sail there, and how it was involved in the <a href="/wiki/Clove" title="Clove">clove</a> trade stretching to <a href="/wiki/Ceylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceylon">Ceylon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comparing the small amount of Roman coins found in China as opposed to India, <a href="/wiki/Warwick_Ball" title="Warwick Ball">Warwick Ball</a> asserts that most of the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a> purchased by the Romans was done so in India, with <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">the land route</a> through <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Persia">ancient Persia</a> playing a secondary role.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jewish</a> settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the decline in bilateral trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Curtin1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curtin1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large hoards of Roman coins have been found throughout India, and especially in the busy maritime trading centers of the south.<sup id="cite_ref-Curtin1_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curtin1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakkam</a> kings reissued Roman coinage in their own name after defacing the coins in order to signify their sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-Kulke1_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kulke1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mentions of the traders are recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> <a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a> of India.<sup id="cite_ref-Kulke1_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kulke1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such mention reads: "The beautifully built ships of the Yavanas came with gold and returned with pepper, and Muziris resounded with the noise." (from poem no. 149 of '<a href="/wiki/Akana%E1%B9%89%C5%AB%E1%B9%9Fu" title="Akanaṉūṟu">Akananuru</a>' of Sangam Literature)"<sup id="cite_ref-Kulke1_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kulke1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decline_and_aftermath">Decline and aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Decline and aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Road:_How_Ancient_India_Transformed_the_World" title="The Golden Road: How Ancient India Transformed the World">The Golden Road: How Ancient India Transformed the World</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_decline">Roman decline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Roman decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ajanta_Theodosius_II_402-450.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Ajanta_Theodosius_II_402-450.jpg/220px-Ajanta_Theodosius_II_402-450.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Ajanta_Theodosius_II_402-450.jpg/330px-Ajanta_Theodosius_II_402-450.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Ajanta_Theodosius_II_402-450.jpg/440px-Ajanta_Theodosius_II_402-450.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1416" data-file-height="710" /></a><figcaption>Coin of Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a>, found in the excavation of a monastery in <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Trade declined from the mid-3rd century during <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">a crisis in the Roman Empire</a>, but recovered in the 4th century until the early 7th century, when <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a>, Shah of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628#Persian_ascendancy" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">occupied the Roman parts of the Fertile Crescent and Egypt</a> until <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(627)" title="Battle of Nineveh (627)">being defeated</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Emperor">Eastern Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the end of 627, after which the lost territories were returned to the Eastern Romans. <a href="/wiki/Cosmas_Indicopleustes" title="Cosmas Indicopleustes">Cosmas Indicopleustes</a> ('Cosmas who sailed to India') was a Greek-Egyptian trader, and later monk, who wrote about his trade trips to India and Sri Lanka in the 6th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ravaging_of_the_Gupta_Empire_by_the_Huns">Ravaging of the Gupta Empire by the Huns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ravaging of the Gupta Empire by the Huns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Asia_historical_AD450_EN.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/South_Asia_historical_AD450_EN.svg/280px-South_Asia_historical_AD450_EN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/South_Asia_historical_AD450_EN.svg/420px-South_Asia_historical_AD450_EN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/South_Asia_historical_AD450_EN.svg/560px-South_Asia_historical_AD450_EN.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1330" data-file-height="1250" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> (c.319-560 CE)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap 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.locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:282px;border:none"><div style="position:relative;width:280px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Asia_non_political,_with_rivers.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indo-Roman trade relations is located in South Asia"><img alt="Indo-Roman trade relations is located in South Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/South_Asia_non_political%2C_with_rivers.jpg/280px-South_Asia_non_political%2C_with_rivers.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/South_Asia_non_political%2C_with_rivers.jpg/420px-South_Asia_non_political%2C_with_rivers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/South_Asia_non_political%2C_with_rivers.jpg/560px-South_Asia_non_political%2C_with_rivers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2324" data-file-height="2151" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:53.751%;left:49.87%;font-size:0%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-135px;top:-135px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Indo-Roman trade relations"><img alt="Indo-Roman trade relations" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Map_of_the_Southern_Hunas_%28territory%29.png/270px-Map_of_the_Southern_Hunas_%28territory%29.png" decoding="async" width="270" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Map_of_the_Southern_Hunas_%28territory%29.png/405px-Map_of_the_Southern_Hunas_%28territory%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Map_of_the_Southern_Hunas_%28territory%29.png/540px-Map_of_the_Southern_Hunas_%28territory%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2324" data-file-height="2151" /></span></span></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:45.77%;left:37.532%;font-size:70%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Sanjeli"><img alt="Sanjeli" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Sanjeli_inscriptions" title="Sanjeli inscriptions"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">Sanjeli</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:46.701%;left:47.688%;font-size:70%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Eran"><img alt="Eran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Eran_boar_inscription_of_Toramana" title="Eran boar inscription of Toramana"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">Eran</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:39.03%;left:47.714%;font-size:70%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Gwalior"><img alt="Gwalior" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Gwalior_inscription_of_Mihirakula" title="Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">Gwalior</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:45.093%;left:39.688%;font-size:70%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Sondani"><img alt="Sondani" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Sondani_inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Sondani inscription"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">Sondani</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:44.219%;left:38.701%;font-size:70%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Choti Sadri"><img alt="Choti Sadri" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Choti_Sadri" class="mw-redirect" title="Choti Sadri"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">Choti Sadri</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:21.602%;left:32.909%;font-size:70%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Kura"><img alt="Kura" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;bottom:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Salt_Range" title="Salt Range"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">Kura</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:41.54%;left:56.078%;font-size:70%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Kausambi (Toramana seals)"><img alt="Kausambi (Toramana seals)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:5px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/Kausambi" class="mw-redirect" title="Kausambi"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">Kausambi</span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Toramana" title="Toramana"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">(Toramana seals)</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:50.619%;left:40.269%;font-size:70%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-0px;top:-0px"></div><div class="pv" style="width:6em;top:1px;left:-3em"><div><a href="/wiki/R%C4%ABsthal_inscription" title="Rīsthal inscription"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">Rīsthal</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:26.923%;left:31.25%;font-size:85%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-0px;top:-0px"></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:1px"><div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>ALCHON<br />HUNS</b></div></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:4.615%;left:0%;font-size:80%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-0px;top:-0px"></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:1px"><div><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites"><span style="color:#006400FF">HEPHTHALITES</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:16.923%;left:15.625%;font-size:70%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-0px;top:-0px"></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:1px"><div><a href="/wiki/Nezak_Huns" title="Nezak Huns"><span style="color:#006400FF">NEZAK<br />HUNS</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:23.077%;left:0%;font-size:80%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-0px;top:-0px"></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:1px"><div><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire"><span style="color:#006400FF">SASA-<br />NIANS</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:38.462%;left:18.75%;font-size:80%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-0px;top:-0px"></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:1px"><div><a href="/wiki/Rai_dynasty" title="Rai dynasty"><span style="color:#006400FF">RAIS</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:41.538%;left:87.5%;font-size:80%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-0px;top:-0px"></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:1px"><div><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">GUPTAS</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:60%;left:34.375%;font-size:80%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-0px;top:-0px"></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:1px"><div><a href="/wiki/Vakataka_dynasty" title="Vakataka dynasty"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">VAKATAKAS</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:20%;left:71.875%;font-size:70%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-0px;top:-0px"></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:1px"><div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Zhangzhung" title="Zhangzhung"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">ZHANGZHUNG<br />KINGDOM</span></a></div></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:3.077%;left:96.875%;font-size:80%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-0px;top:-0px"></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:1px"><div><a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei"><span style="color:#006400FF">Northern Wei</span></a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:3.077%;left:71.875%;font-size:80%"><div class="id" title="N" style="left:-0px;top:-0px"></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:1px"><div><a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians"><span style="color:#006400FF">TOCHARIANS</span></a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Asia_non_political,_with_rivers.jpg" title="File:South Asia non political, with rivers.jpg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Find_spot" class="mw-redirect" title="Find spot">Find spots</a> of epigraphic inscriptions (red dots) indicating local control by the Alchon Huns in India between 500-530 CE,<sup id="cite_ref-Bakker_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bakker-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with neighbouring polities,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and territorial extent of the Alchon Huns (brown).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> had greatly benefited from Indo-Roman trade through the export of numerous luxury products such as <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>, leather goods, fur, iron products, <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pearl" title="Pearl">pearl</a> or pepper from the ports of <a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Bharutkutccha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalyan" title="Kalyan">Kalyan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Port_Qasim" title="Port Qasim">Sind</a> and the city of <a href="/wiki/Ujjain" title="Ujjain">Ujjaini</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a>' invasions (496–534 CE) are said to have seriously damaged the Gupta's (c.319-560 CE) trade with <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eraly_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eraly-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers, ended as well.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_expansion">Arab expansion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Arab expansion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/350px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/525px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/700px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>Egypt under the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ummayad" class="mw-redirect" title="Ummayad">Ummayad</a> Caliphates, drawn on the modern state borders.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Arabs, led by <a href="/wiki/%27Amr_ibn_al-%27As" class="mw-redirect" title="'Amr ibn al-'As">'Amr ibn al-'As</a>, crossed into Egypt in late 639 or early 640 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Meri1_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meri1-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This advance marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Egypt">Islamic conquest of Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Meri1_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meri1-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The capture of Alexandria and the rest of the country<sup id="cite_ref-Holl1_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holl1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> brought an end to 670 years of Roman trade with the subcontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindsay1_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindsay1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tamil speaking south India turned to <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> for international trade where Indian culture <a href="/wiki/Indianization_of_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Indianization of Southeast Asia">influenced the native culture</a> to a greater degree than the sketchy impressions made on Rome seen in the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and then Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, knowledge of the Indian subcontinent and its trade was preserved in Byzantine books and it is likely that the court of the Emperor still maintained some form of diplomatic relation to the region up until at least the time of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine VII</a>, seeking an ally against the rising influence of the Islamic states in the Middle East and Persia, appearing in a work on ceremonies called <a href="/wiki/De_Ceremoniis" title="De Ceremoniis">De Ceremoniis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a> <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">conquered</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> in the 15th century (1453), marking the beginning of Turkish control over the most direct trade routes between Europe and Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ottomans initially cut off eastern trade with Europe, leading in turn to the attempt by Europeans to find a sea route around Africa, spurring the European <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>, and the eventual rise of European <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece%E2%80%93Ancient_India_relations" title="Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations">Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_European_exploration_of_Asia" title="Chronology of European exploration of Asia">Chronology of European exploration of Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_India" title="Economic history of India">Economic history of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_by_past_GDP_(PPP)#Indian" title="List of regions by past GDP (PPP)">Historic GDP of India (1-1947 CE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">Indian maritime history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_relations" title="Indo-Roman relations">Indo-Roman relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha#Trade_with_Sumer" title="Meluhha">Meluhha trade with Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Roman_relations" title="Sino-Roman relations">Sino-Roman relations</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Shaw1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shaw1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaw1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaw1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaw1_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaw1_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaw1_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaw1_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shaw 2003: 426</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Young1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Young1_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young1_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young1_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young1_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Young 2001: 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lindsay1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lindsay1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindsay1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindsay1_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindsay1_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindsay 2006: 101</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Curtin1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Curtin1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtin1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtin1_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Curtin1_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Curtin 1984: 100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Potter1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Potter1_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Potter 2004: 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-parker_2008_p118-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a 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a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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Calcutta (Kolkata): The Telegraph. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.telegraphindia.com/1090803/jsp/frontpage/story_11313800.jsp">the original</a> on 4 August 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=telegraphindia.com&rft.atitle=Signs+of+ancient+port+in+Kerala&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraphindia.com%2F1090803%2Fjsp%2Ffrontpage%2Fstory_11313800.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huntingford1-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huntingford1_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huntingford1_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Huntingford 1980: 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lach2-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lach2_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lach2_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lach2_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lach 1994: 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ball_2016_152_153-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ball_2016_152_153_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ball_2016_152_153_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ball 2016: 152–53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill 2009: 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yule 1915: 53–54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An 2002: 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harper 2002: 99–100, 106–07</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Reilly 2007: 97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schoff 2004 [1912]: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html">paragraph #64</a>. Retrieved 24 September 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suárez (1999): 90–92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yule 1915: 25–28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lieu 2009: 227</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ball 2016: 153–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kulke1-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kulke1_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kulke1_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kulke1_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulke 2004: 108</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Farrokh 2007: 252</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bakker-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bakker_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakker2017" class="citation book cs1">Bakker, Hans (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/834197"><i>Monuments of Hope, Gloom, and Glory in the Age of the Hunnic Wars. 50 years that changed India</i></a>. Amsterdam: J. Gonda Fund Foundation of the KNAW. pp. 484–534. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9069847153" title="Special:BookSources/978-9069847153"><bdi>978-9069847153</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Monuments+of+Hope%2C+Gloom%2C+and+Glory+in+the+Age+of+the+Hunnic+Wars.+50+years+that+changed+India&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=484-534&rft.pub=J.+Gonda+Fund+Foundation+of+the+KNAW&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-9069847153&rft.aulast=Bakker&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F834197&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartzberg1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Schwartzberg" title="Joseph E. Schwartzberg">Schwartzberg, Joseph E.</a> (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=062"><i>A Historical atlas of South Asia</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226742210" title="Special:BookSources/0226742210"><bdi>0226742210</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Historical+atlas+of+South+Asia&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0226742210&rft.aulast=Schwartzberg&rft.aufirst=Joseph+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdsal.uchicago.edu%2Freference%2Fschwartzberg%2Fpager.html%3Fobject%3D062&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartzberg1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Schwartzberg" title="Joseph E. Schwartzberg">Schwartzberg, Joseph E.</a> (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182"><i>A Historical atlas of South Asia</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 145, map XIV.1 (k). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226742210" title="Special:BookSources/0226742210"><bdi>0226742210</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Historical+atlas+of+South+Asia&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=145%2C+map+XIV.1+%28k%29&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0226742210&rft.aulast=Schwartzberg&rft.aufirst=Joseph+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdsal.uchicago.edu%2Freference%2Fschwartzberg%2Fpager.html%3Fobject%3D182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Longman History & Civics ICSE 9 by Singh <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EXPouL4BYTMC&pg=PA81">p. 81</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eraly-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eraly_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The First Spring: The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA48">pp. 48 sq</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA221">p. 221</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA174">p. 174</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meri1-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meri1_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meri1_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Meri 2006: 224</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holl1-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Holl1_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holl 2003: 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kulke 2004: 106</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luttwak 2009: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cUVJKJejPY8C&pg=PA167">167–68</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Encyclopedia Americana 1989: 176</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAn2002" class="citation book cs1">An, Jiayao (2002). "When Glass Was Treasured in China". In Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (ed.). <i>Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road</i>. Brepols Publishers. pp. 79–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-503-52178-9" title="Special:BookSources/2-503-52178-9"><bdi>2-503-52178-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=When+Glass+Was+Treasured+in+China&rft.btitle=Silk+Road+Studies+VII%3A+Nomads%2C+Traders%2C+and+Holy+Men+Along+China%27s+Silk+Road&rft.pages=79-94&rft.pub=Brepols+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=2-503-52178-9&rft.aulast=An&rft.aufirst=Jiayao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBall2016" class="citation book cs1">Ball, Warwick (2016). <i>Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire</i> (2nd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-72078-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-72078-6"><bdi>978-0-415-72078-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome+in+the+East%3A+Transformation+of+an+Empire&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-415-72078-6&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=Warwick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtinel_al.1984" class="citation book cs1">Curtin, Philip DeArmond; el al. (1984). <i>Cross-Cultural Trade in World History</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-26931-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-26931-8"><bdi>0-521-26931-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cross-Cultural+Trade+in+World+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-521-26931-8&rft.aulast=Curtin&rft.aufirst=Philip+DeArmond&rft.au=el+al.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">The Encyclopedia Americana</a> (1989)</i>. Grolier. 1989. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7172-0120-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7172-0120-1"><bdi>0-7172-0120-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+Americana+%281989%29&rft.pub=Grolier&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-7172-0120-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrokh2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kaveh_Farrokh" title="Kaveh Farrokh">Farrokh, Kaveh</a> (2007). <i>Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War</i>. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-108-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-108-3"><bdi>978-1-84603-108-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shadows+in+the+Desert%3A+Ancient+Persia+at+War&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84603-108-3&rft.aulast=Farrokh&rft.aufirst=Kaveh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFayle2006" class="citation book cs1">Fayle, Charles Ernest (2006). <i>A Short History of the World's Shipping Industry</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-28619-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-28619-0"><bdi>0-415-28619-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+World%27s+Shipping+Industry&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-415-28619-0&rft.aulast=Fayle&rft.aufirst=Charles+Ernest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2003" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Donald B. (2003). <i>The Straits of Malacca: Gateway Or Gauntlet?</i>. McGill-Queen's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7735-2515-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7735-2515-7"><bdi>0-7735-2515-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Straits+of+Malacca%3A+Gateway+Or+Gauntlet%3F&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7735-2515-7&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Donald+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper2002" class="citation book cs1">Harper, P.O. (2002). "Iranian Luxury Vessels in China From the Late First Millennium B.C.E. to the Second Half of the First Millennium C.E.". In Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (ed.). <i>Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road</i>. Brepols Publishers. pp. 95–113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-503-52178-9" title="Special:BookSources/2-503-52178-9"><bdi>2-503-52178-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iranian+Luxury+Vessels+in+China+From+the+Late+First+Millennium+B.C.E.+to+the+Second+Half+of+the+First+Millennium+C.E.&rft.btitle=Silk+Road+Studies+VII%3A+Nomads%2C+Traders%2C+and+Holy+Men+Along+China%27s+Silk+Road&rft.pages=95-113&rft.pub=Brepols+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=2-503-52178-9&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=P.O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2009" class="citation book cs1">Hill, John E. (2009). <i>Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE</i>. BookSurge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4392-2134-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4392-2134-1"><bdi>978-1-4392-2134-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Through+the+Jade+Gate+to+Rome%3A+A+Study+of+the+Silk+Routes+during+the+Later+Han+Dynasty%2C+First+to+Second+Centuries+CE&rft.pub=BookSurge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4392-2134-1&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoll2003" class="citation book cs1">Holl, Augustin F. C. (2003). <i>Ethnoarchaeology of Shuwa-Arab Settlements</i>. Lexington Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-0407-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-0407-1"><bdi>0-7391-0407-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnoarchaeology+of+Shuwa-Arab+Settlements&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7391-0407-1&rft.aulast=Holl&rft.aufirst=Augustin+F.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntingford1980" class="citation book cs1">Huntingford, G.W.B. (1980). <i>The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</i>. Hakluyt Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Periplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea&rft.pub=Hakluyt+Society&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Huntingford&rft.aufirst=G.W.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulkeDietmar_Rothermund2004" class="citation book cs1">Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). <i>A History of India</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-32919-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-32919-1"><bdi>0-415-32919-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+India&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-415-32919-1&rft.aulast=Kulke&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rft.au=Dietmar+Rothermund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLach1994" class="citation book cs1">Lach, Donald Frederick (1994). <i>Asia in the Making of Europe: The Century of Discovery. Book 1</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-46731-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-46731-7"><bdi>0-226-46731-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia+in+the+Making+of+Europe%3A+The+Century+of+Discovery.+Book+1.&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-226-46731-7&rft.aulast=Lach&rft.aufirst=Donald+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieu2009" class="citation book cs1">Lieu, Samuel N.C. (2009). "Epigraphica Nestoriana Serica". <i>Exegisti monumenta Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams</i>. Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 227–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05937-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05937-4"><bdi>978-3-447-05937-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epigraphica+Nestoriana+Serica&rft.btitle=Exegisti+monumenta+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-Williams&rft.pages=227-46&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-447-05937-4&rft.aulast=Lieu&rft.aufirst=Samuel+N.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindsay2006" class="citation book cs1">Lindsay, W S (2006). <i>History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce</i>. Adamant Media Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-543-94253-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-543-94253-8"><bdi>0-543-94253-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Merchant+Shipping+and+Ancient+Commerce&rft.pub=Adamant+Media+Corporation&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-543-94253-8&rft.aulast=Lindsay&rft.aufirst=W+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuttwak2009" class="citation book cs1">Luttwak, Edward (2009). <i>The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03519-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03519-5"><bdi>978-0-674-03519-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grand+Strategy+of+the+Byzantine+Empire&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03519-5&rft.aulast=Luttwak&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMawer2013" class="citation book cs1">Mawer, Granville Allen (2013). "The Riddle of Cattigara". In Nichols, Robert and Martin Woods (ed.). <i>Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia</i>. National Library of Australia. pp. 38–39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780642278098" title="Special:BookSources/9780642278098"><bdi>9780642278098</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Riddle+of+Cattigara&rft.btitle=Mapping+Our+World%3A+Terra+Incognita+to+Australia&rft.pages=38-39&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Australia&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780642278098&rft.aulast=Mawer&rft.aufirst=Granville+Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeriJere_L._Bacharach2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Josef_W._Meri" title="Josef W. Meri">Meri, Josef W.</a>; Jere L. Bacharach (2006). <i>Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-96690-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-96690-6"><bdi>0-415-96690-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+Civilization%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-415-96690-6&rft.aulast=Meri&rft.aufirst=Josef+W.&rft.au=Jere+L.+Bacharach&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Leary2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/De_Lacy_O%27Leary" title="De Lacy O'Leary">O'Leary, De Lacy</a> (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/BuddhistBirthStories"><i>Arabia Before Muhammad</i></a></span>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-23188-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-23188-4"><bdi>0-415-23188-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabia+Before+Muhammad&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-23188-4&rft.aulast=O%27Leary&rft.aufirst=De+Lacy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FBuddhistBirthStories&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Reilly2007" class="citation book cs1">O'Reilly, Dougald J.W. (2007). <i>Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia</i>. AltaMira Press, Division of Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0279-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0279-8"><bdi>978-0-7591-0279-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Civilizations+of+Southeast+Asia&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press%2C+Division+of+Rowman+and+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-0279-8&rft.aulast=O%27Reilly&rft.aufirst=Dougald+J.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker2008" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Grant (2008). <i>The Making of Roman India</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85834-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85834-2"><bdi>978-0-521-85834-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Roman+India&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85834-2&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Grant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter2004" class="citation book cs1">Potter, David Stone (2004). <i>The Roman Empire at Bay: Ad 180–395</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-10058-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-10058-5"><bdi>0-415-10058-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire+at+Bay%3A+Ad+180%E2%80%93395&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-415-10058-5&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=David+Stone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoff,_Williamm_H.2004" class="citation web cs1">Schoff, Williamm H. (2004) [1912]. Lance Jenott (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century" in The Voyage around the Erythraean Sea"</a>. <i>Depts.washington.edu</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Depts.washington.edu&rft.atitle=%22The+Periplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea%3A+Travel+and+Trade+in+the+Indian+Ocean+by+a+Merchant+of+the+First+Century%22+in+The+Voyage+around+the+Erythraean+Sea&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Schoff%2C+Williamm+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fsilkroad%2Ftexts%2Fperiplus%2Fperiplus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Shaw_(Egyptologist)" title="Ian Shaw (Egyptologist)">Shaw, Ian</a> (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw"><i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280458-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280458-8"><bdi>0-19-280458-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-19-280458-8&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordhistoryofa00shaw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuresh2004" class="citation book cs1">Suresh, S. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imperium-romana.org/uploads/5/9/3/3/5933147/suresh_s._symbols_of_trade_roman_and_pseudo-roman_objects_found_in_india._2004.pdf"><i>SYMBOLS OF TRADE Roman and Pseudo-Roman Objects found in India</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Manohar.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SYMBOLS+OF+TRADE+Roman+and+Pseudo-Roman+Objects+found+in+India&rft.pub=Manohar&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Suresh&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imperium-romana.org%2Fuploads%2F5%2F9%2F3%2F3%2F5933147%2Fsuresh_s._symbols_of_trade_roman_and_pseudo-roman_objects_found_in_india._2004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2001" class="citation book cs1">Young, Gary Keith (2001). <i>Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC–AD 305</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-24219-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-24219-3"><bdi>0-415-24219-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%27s+Eastern+Trade%3A+International+Commerce+and+Imperial+Policy%2C+31+BC%E2%80%93AD+305&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-24219-3&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Gary+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYule1915" class="citation book cs1">Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.). <i>Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route</i>. Vol. 1. Hakluyt Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cathay+and+the+Way+Thither%3A+Being+a+Collection+of+Medieval+Notices+of+China%2C+Vol+I%3A+Preliminary+Essay+on+the+Intercourse+Between+China+and+the+Western+Nations+Previous+to+the+Discovery+of+the+Cape+Route&rft.pub=Hakluyt+Society&rft.date=1915&rft.aulast=Yule&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndo-Roman+trade+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Lionel Casson, <i>The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text With Introduction, Translation, and Commentary</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 1989. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-04060-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-04060-5">0-691-04060-5</a>.</li> <li>Chakrabarti D.K. (1990). The External Trade of the Indus Civilization. Delhi: Manoharlal Publishers Private Limited</li> <li>Chami, F. A. 1999. “The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland.” <i>Azania</i> Vol. XXXIV.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Dalrymple" title="William Dalrymple">Darymple, William</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Road:_How_Ancient_India_Transformed_the_World" title="The Golden Road: How Ancient India Transformed the World">The Golden Road: How Ancient India Transformed the World</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury Publishing</a>, 2024.</li> <li>McLaughlin, Raoul. (2010). <i>Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China</i>. Continuum, London and New York. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-235-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-235-7">978-1-84725-235-7</a>.</li> <li>Miller, J. Innes. 1969. <i>The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641</i>. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814264-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-814264-1">0-19-814264-1</a>.</li> <li>Raith, M. – Hoffbauer, R. – Euler, H. – Yule, P. – Damgaard, K. (2013). “The view from Ẓafār –An archaeometric study of the Aqaba late Roman period pottery complex and distribution in the 1st millennium CE”. <i>Zeitschrift für Orient-Archäologie</i> 6, 320–50. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-019704-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-019704-4">978-3-11-019704-4</a></li> <li>Sidebotham, Steven E. (2011). <i>Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route</i>. University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24430-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24430-6">978-0-520-24430-6</a>.</li> <li>Van der Veen, Marijke (2011). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wruovzCWdBsC">Consumption, Trade and Innovation. Exploring the Botanical Remains from the Roman and Islamic Ports at Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt</a></i>. Frankfurt: Africa Magna Verlag. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-937248-23-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-937248-23-3">978-3-937248-23-3</a></li></ul> <p>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Roman_trade_relations&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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trade network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_canoe_routes" title="Canadian canoe routes">Canadian canoe routes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaravati%E2%80%93Kamboja_route" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvaravati–Kamboja route">Dvaravati–Kamboja route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Trunk_Road" title="Grand Trunk Road">Grand Trunk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A6rvejen" title="Hærvejen">Hærvejen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiri_trade_cycle" title="Hiri trade cycle">Hiri trade cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_Highway_(ancient)" title="King's Highway (ancient)">King's Highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kula_ring" title="Kula ring">Kula ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" 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title="Siberian Route">Siberian Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brouwer_Route" title="Brouwer Route">Brouwer Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_Horse_Road" title="Tea Horse Road">Tea Horse Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">Trans-Saharan trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trepanging" title="Trepanging">Trepanging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangular_trade" title="Triangular trade">Triangular trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_Maris" title="Via Maris">Via Maris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga trade route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" title="Route from the Varangians to the Greeks">Varangians to the Greeks</a></li> <li><a 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vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Propulsion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portolan_chart" title="Portolan chart">Portolan chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutter_(nautical)" title="Rutter (nautical)">Rutter (nautical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and<br />harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> (Podouke)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (Canton)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> (Kadaram)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and<br />exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Mediterranean:</b>   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age#Economy_of_Iron_Age_Britain" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indo-Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br />and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks<br />and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental<br />archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl"><i>Ra</i> and <i>Ra II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesian replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Maritime_Museum#Seaworthy_ships" title="New Zealand Maritime Museum">Aotearoa One</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)"><i>Ivlia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and <br />conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and<br />memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Legend_and_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Legend and literature</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">Legend</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ark_of_bulrushes" title="Ark of bulrushes">Ark of bulrushes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flood_myths" title="List of flood myths">Flood myths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative" title="Genesis flood narrative">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh_flood_myth" title="Gilgamesh flood myth">Gilgamesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_flood_myths" title="Ancient Greek flood myths">Greek</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)"><i>The Histories</i> (Herodotus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Ocean_(Pytheas)" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Ocean (Pytheas)">On the Ocean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argonautica" title="Argonautica">Argonautica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)"><i>The Histories</i> (Polybius)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" 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