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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frankincense_kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frankincense_kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Frankincense kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frankincense_kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Somalia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Somalia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Somalia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Somalia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aksum_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aksum_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Aksum Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aksum_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rhapta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rhapta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Rhapta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rhapta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rufiji_(Tanzania)_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rufiji_(Tanzania)_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Rufiji (Tanzania) theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rufiji_(Tanzania)_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quelimane_(Mozambique)_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quelimane_(Mozambique)_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.2</span> <span>Quelimane (Mozambique) theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quelimane_(Mozambique)_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Himyaro-Sabaean_suzerainty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Himyaro-Sabaean_suzerainty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.3</span> <span>Himyaro-Sabaean suzerainty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Himyaro-Sabaean_suzerainty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bharuch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bharuch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Bharuch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bharuch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Chera,_Pandyan,_and_Chola_kingdoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Chera,_Pandyan,_and_Chola_kingdoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Early Chera, Pandyan, and Chola kingdoms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Chera,_Pandyan,_and_Chola_kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian–Chinese_border" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian–Chinese_border"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Indian–Chinese border</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian–Chinese_border-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remains_of_the_Indo-Greek_kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remains_of_the_Indo-Greek_kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Remains of the Indo-Greek kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remains_of_the_Indo-Greek_kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manuscripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manuscripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Manuscripts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manuscripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Editions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Editions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Editions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Editions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%81_%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A_(%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8)" title="الطواف حول البحر الإرتري (كتاب) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الطواف حول البحر الإرتري (كتاب)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8" title="এরিথ্রীয় সাগরের পেরিপ্লুস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="এরিথ্রীয় সাগরের পেরিপ্লুস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%8A%D0%BB_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%95%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Перипъл на Еритрейското море – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Перипъл на Еритрейското море" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periple_de_la_Mar_Eritrea" title="Periple de la Mar Eritrea – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Periple de la Mar Eritrea" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_Maris_Erythraei" title="Periplus Maris Erythraei – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Periplus Maris Erythraei" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%95%CF%81%CF%85%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%82_%CE%98%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Περίπλους της Ερυθράς Θάλασσας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Περίπλους της Ερυθράς Θάλασσας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplo_del_mar_Eritreo" title="Periplo del mar Eritreo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Periplo del mar Eritreo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplo_de_la_Eritrea_maro" title="Periplo de la Eritrea maro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Periplo de la Eritrea maro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%87" title="رهنامه دریای اریتره – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رهنامه دریای اریتره" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9riple_de_la_mer_%C3%89rythr%C3%A9e" title="Périple de la mer Érythrée – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Périple de la mer Érythrée" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_fan_de_Erytreyske_See" title="Periplus fan de Erytreyske See – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Periplus fan de Erytreyske See" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplo_do_Mar_Eritreo" title="Periplo do Mar Eritreo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Periplo do Mar Eritreo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%91%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80" title="पेरिप्लस ऑव दि एरिथ्रीयन सी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पेरिप्लस ऑव दि एरिथ्रीयन सी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perjalanan_Laut_Eritrea" title="Perjalanan Laut Eritrea – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perjalanan Laut Eritrea" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_Maris_Erythraei" title="Periplus Maris Erythraei – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Periplus Maris Erythraei" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%95%D7%98_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%90%D7%99" title="השיוט בים האריתריאי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="השיוט בים האריתריאי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mzunguko_wa_Bahari_Nyekundu" title="Mzunguko wa Bahari Nyekundu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mzunguko wa Bahari Nyekundu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_maris_Erythraei" title="Periplus maris Erythraei – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Periplus maris Erythraei" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eritr%C4%97jos_j%C5%ABros_periplas" title="Eritrėjos jūros periplas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Eritrėjos jūros periplas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%93%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%80" title="പെരിപ്ലസ് ഓഫ് ദി എറിത്രിയൻ സീ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പെരിപ്ലസ് ഓഫ് ദി എറിത്രിയൻ സീ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_van_de_Erythre%C3%AFsche_Zee" title="Periplus van de Erythreïsche Zee – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Periplus van de Erythreïsche Zee" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AA%E3%83%A5%E3%83%88%E3%82%A5%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E6%B5%B7%E6%A1%88%E5%86%85%E8%A8%98" title="エリュトゥラー海案内記 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エリュトゥラー海案内記" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_Maris_Erythraei" title="Periplus Maris Erythraei – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Periplus Maris Erythraei" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periple_de_la_mar_Eritr%C3%A8a" title="Periple de la mar Eritrèa – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Periple de la mar Eritrèa" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_Morza_Erytrejskiego" title="Periplus Morza Erytrejskiego – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Periplus Morza Erytrejskiego" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9riplo_do_Mar_Eritreu" title="Périplo do Mar Eritreu – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Périplo do Mar Eritreu" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BB_%D0%AD%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8F" title="Перипл Эритрейского моря – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Перипл Эритрейского моря" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%BF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%86%DA%8A_%D8%AC%D9%88_%D8%B1%DA%BE%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88" title="اريٿرين سمنڊ جو رھبرنامو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اريٿرين سمنڊ جو رھبرنامو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_Maris_Erythraei" title="Periplus Maris Erythraei – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Periplus Maris Erythraei" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_ee_badda_Eryta" title="Periplus ee badda Eryta – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Periplus ee badda Eryta" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punaisenmeren_periplus" title="Punaisenmeren periplus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Punaisenmeren periplus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_Maris_Erythraei" title="Periplus Maris Erythraei – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Periplus Maris Erythraei" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="செங்கடல் செலவு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="செங்கடல் செலவு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B6%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99" title="บันทึกเส้นทางการเดินเรือในทะเลอีริทเธรียน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="บันทึกเส้นทางการเดินเรือในทะเลอีริทเธรียน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periplus_Maris_Erythraei" title="Periplus Maris Erythraei – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Periplus Maris Erythraei" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%BB_%D0%95%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8F" title="Періпл Еритрейського моря – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Періпл Еритрейського моря" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%88%B1%E5%88%A9%E8%84%B1%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E6%B5%B7%E5%91%A8%E8%88%AA%E8%AE%B0" title="爱利脱利亚海周航记 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="爱利脱利亚海周航记" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Map_of_the_Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.jpg/450px-Map_of_the_Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Map_of_the_Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.jpg/675px-Map_of_the_Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Map_of_the_Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.jpg/900px-Map_of_the_Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3507" data-file-height="1921" /></a><figcaption>Names, routes and locations of the <i>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The <i><b>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Περίπλους τῆς Ἐρυθρᾶς Θαλάσσης</span>, <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">Períplous tē̂s Erythrâs Thalássēs</i></span></i>), also known by its <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> name as the <span class="nowrap"><b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Periplus Maris Erythraei</i></span></b></span>, is a <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Periplus" title="Periplus">periplus</a> written in Koine Greek that describes navigation and <a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">trading opportunities</a> from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egyptian</a> ports like <a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a> along the coast of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> and others along the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, including the modern-day <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and southwestern regions of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. </p><p>The text has been ascribed to different dates between the first and third centuries, but a mid-first-century date is now the most commonly accepted. While the author is unknown, it is a first-hand description by someone familiar with the area and is nearly unique in providing accurate insights into what the ancient Hellenic world knew about the lands around the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Periplus" title="Periplus">Periplus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erythraean_Sea" title="Erythraean Sea">Erythraean Sea</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Periplus" title="Periplus">periplus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">περίπλους</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Koinē Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">períplous</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'a sailing-around') is a <a href="/wiki/Logbook" title="Logbook">logbook</a> recording sailing <a href="/wiki/Itinerarium" title="Itinerarium">itineraries</a> and commercial, political, and ethnological details about the ports visited. In an era before <a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">maps</a> were in general use, it functioned as a combination of <a href="/wiki/Atlas" title="Atlas">atlas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guide_book" title="Guide book">traveller's handbook</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Erythraean_Sea" title="Erythraean Sea">Erythraean Sea</a> (<a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Koinē Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Erythrà Thálassa</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'Red Sea') was an ancient geographical designation that always included the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden" title="Gulf of Aden">Gulf of Aden</a> between <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Felix" title="Arabia Felix">Arabia Felix</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> and was often extended (as in this periplus) to include the present-day <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> as a single maritime area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Date_and_authorship">Date and authorship</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Date and authorship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 10th-century <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> manuscript which forms the basis of present knowledge of the <i>Periplus</i> attributes the work to <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a>, but apparently for no better reason than its position beside Arrian's much later <i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Euxine_Sea" title="Periplus of the Euxine Sea">Periplus of the Euxine Sea</a></i>. </p><p>One historical analysis, published by <a href="/wiki/Wilfred_Harvey_Schoff" title="Wilfred Harvey Schoff">Wilfred Harvey Schoff</a> in 1912, narrowed the date of the text to AD<span class="nowrap"> </span>59–62,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff19127–15_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff19127–15-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in agreement with present-day estimates of the middle of the 1st century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Schoff additionally provides a historical analysis as to the text's original authorship,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff191215–16_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff191215–16-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and arrives at the conclusion that the author was a "<a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Greeks" title="Egyptian Greeks">Greek in Egypt</a>, a Roman subject".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff19126_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff19126-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By Schoff's calculations, this would have been during the time of <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Claudius_Balbilus" title="Tiberius Claudius Balbilus">Tiberius Claudius Balbilus</a>, who coincidentally also was an Egyptian Greek. </p><p>Schoff continues by noting that the author could not have been "a highly educated man" as "is evident from his frequent confusion of Greek and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> words and his clumsy and sometimes ungrammatical constructions".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff191216_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff191216-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of "the absence of any account of the journey up the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Hammamat" title="Wadi Hammamat">across the desert</a> from <a href="/wiki/Qift" title="Qift">Coptos</a>", Schoff prefers to pinpoint the author's residence to "<a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff191216_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff191216-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John Hill maintains that "the Periplus can now be confidently dated to between AD 40 and 70 and, probably, between AD 40 and 50."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2009p._xvi_&_notes_on_pp._244-245_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2009p._xvi_&_notes_on_pp._244-245-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This dating corresponds with the argumentation of L. Casson ("between A.D. 40 and 70") in his key book <i>The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1989p._xvi_&_notes_on_pp._6-7_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1989p._xvi_&_notes_on_pp._6-7-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Synopsis">Synopsis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Synopsis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PeriplusAncientMap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/PeriplusAncientMap.jpg/220px-PeriplusAncientMap.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/PeriplusAncientMap.jpg/330px-PeriplusAncientMap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/PeriplusAncientMap.jpg/440px-PeriplusAncientMap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1524" data-file-height="1198" /></a><figcaption>1597 map depicting the locations of the <i>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The work consists of 66 sections, most of them about the length of a long paragraph. For instance, the short section 9 reads in its entirety: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>From Malao (<a href="/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a>) it is two courses to the mart of Moundou, where ships anchor more safely by an island lying very close to the land. The imports to this are as aforesaid [Chapter 8 mentions iron, gold, silver, drinking cups, etc.], and from it likewise are exported the same goods [Chapter 8 mentions myrrh, douaka, makeir, and slaves], and fragrant gum called <i>mokrotou</i> (cf. <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <a href="/wiki/Macaranga_indica" title="Macaranga indica">makaranda</a>). The inhabitants who trade here are more stubborn.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuntingford198024_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuntingford198024-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In many cases, the description of places is sufficiently accurate to identify their present locations; for others, there is considerable debate. For instance, "<a href="/wiki/Rhapta" title="Rhapta">Rhapta</a>" is mentioned as the farthest market down the African coast of "<a href="/wiki/Azania" title="Azania">Azania</a>", but there are at least five locations matching the description, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Tanga,_Tanzania" title="Tanga, Tanzania">Tanga</a> to south of the <a href="/wiki/Rufiji_River" title="Rufiji River">Rufiji River</a> delta. The description of the Indian coast mentions the <a href="/wiki/Ganges_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges River">Ganges River</a> clearly, yet after that it is ambiguous, describing China as a "great inland city <a href="/wiki/Thinae" title="Thinae">Thina</a>" that is a source of raw <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>. </p><p>The <i>Periplus</i> says that a direct sailing route from the Red Sea to the Indian peninsula across the open ocean was discovered by <a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a> (1st century<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC). </p><p>Many trade goods are mentioned in the <i>Periplus</i>, but some of the words naming trade goods are found nowhere else in ancient literature, leading to guesswork as to what they might be. For example, one trade good mentioned is <i>"lakkos chromatinos"</i>. The name <i>lakkos</i> appears nowhere else in ancient Greek or Roman literature. The name re-surfaces in late medieval Latin as <i>lacca</i>, borrowed from medieval Arabic <i>lakk</i> in turn borrowed from Sanskritic <i>lakh</i>, meaning <a href="/wiki/Lac_(resin)" title="Lac (resin)">lac</a> i.e. a red-coloured resin native to India used as a lacquer and used also as a red colourant.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some other named trade goods remain obscure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Himyarite_kingdom_and_Saba">Himyarite kingdom and Saba</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Himyarite kingdom and Saba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyarite Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Sabaeans</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SouthArabianCoin1stCenturyCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/SouthArabianCoin1stCenturyCE.jpg/220px-SouthArabianCoin1stCenturyCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/SouthArabianCoin1stCenturyCE.jpg/330px-SouthArabianCoin1stCenturyCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/SouthArabianCoin1stCenturyCE.jpg/440px-SouthArabianCoin1stCenturyCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="902" data-file-height="446" /></a><figcaption>Coin of the <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyarite Kingdom</a>, southern coast of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, in which ships stopped when passing between Egypt and India. This is an imitation of a coin of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, 1st century</figcaption></figure> <p>Ships from <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyar</a> regularly travelled the East African coast. The <i>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</i> describes the trading empire of Himyar and <a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Saba</a>, regrouped under a single ruler, "<a href="/wiki/Charibael" title="Charibael">Charibael</a>" (probably Karab'il Watar Yuhan'em II), who is said to have been on friendly terms with <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>23. And after nine days more there is Saphar, the metropolis, in which lives Charibael, lawful king of two tribes, the Homerites and those living next to them, called the Sabaites; through continual embassies and gifts, he is a friend of the Emperors.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §23.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§23_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§23-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frankincense_kingdom">Frankincense kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Frankincense kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">Frankincense</a> kingdom is described further east along the southern coast of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, with the harbour of Cana (South Arabic <i>Qana</i>, modern <a href="/wiki/Bi%27r_Ali" class="mw-redirect" title="Bi'r Ali">Bi'r Ali</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hadramaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadramaut">Hadramaut</a>). The ruler of this kingdom is named <a href="/wiki/Eleazus" title="Eleazus">Eleazus</a>, or Eleazar, thought to correspond to King Iliazz Yalit I: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>27. After Eudaemon Arabia there is a continuous length of coast, and a bay extending two thousand stadia or more, along which there are Nomads and Fish-Eaters living in villages; just beyond the cape projecting from this bay there is another market-town by the shore, Cana, of the Kingdom of Eleazus, the Frankincense Country; and facing it there are two desert islands, one called Island of Birds, the other Dome Island, one hundred and twenty stadia from Cana. Inland from this place lies the metropolis Sabbatha, in which the King lives. All the <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a> produced in the country is brought by <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camels</a> to that place to be stored, and to Cana on rafts held up by inflated skins after the manner of the country, and in boats. And this place has a trade also with the far-side ports, with <a href="/wiki/Barygaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Barygaza">Barygaza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ommana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ommana (page does not exist)">Ommana</a> and the neighboring coast of <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §27</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Somalia">Somalia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Somalia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ras_Hafun" title="Ras Hafun">Ras Hafun</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> is believed to be the location of the ancient trade centre of <a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opōnē</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> pottery has been recovered from the site by an <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> team from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>. Opōnē is in the thirteenth entry of the <i>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</i>, which in part states: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>And then, after sailing four hundred <a href="/wiki/Stadion_(unit)" title="Stadion (unit)">stadia</a> along a promontory, toward which place the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">current</a> also draws you, there is another market-town called Opone, into which the same things are imported as those already mentioned, and in it the greatest quantity of <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a> is produced, (the arebo and moto), and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slaves</a> of the better sort, which are brought to Egypt in increasing numbers; and a great quantity of <a href="/wiki/Tortoiseshell" title="Tortoiseshell">tortoiseshell</a>, better than that found elsewhere.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §13<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§13_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§13-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In ancient times, Opōnē operated as a port of call for merchants from <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nabataea" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataea">Nabataea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azania" title="Azania">Azania</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, and elsewhere, as it possessed a strategic location along the coastal route from Azania to the Red Sea. Merchants from as far afield as <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> passed through Opōnē, trading spices, silks and other goods, before departing south for Azania or north to South Arabia or Egypt on the <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade routes</a> that spanned the length of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>'s rim. As early as AD<span class="nowrap"> </span>50, Opōnē was well known as a center for the cinnamon trade, along with the trading of <a href="/wiki/Clove" title="Clove">cloves</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>, exotic animal skins and <a href="/wiki/Incense" title="Incense">incense</a>. </p><p>The ancient port city of <a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a>, situated in present-day <a href="/wiki/Berbera" title="Berbera">Berbera</a> in northern Somalia, is also mentioned in the Periplus: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>After Avalites there is another market-town, better than this, called Malao, distant a sail of about eight hundred stadia. The anchorage is an open roadstead, sheltered by a spit running out from the east. Here the natives are more peaceable. There are imported into this place the things already mentioned, and many tunics, cloaks from Arsinoe, dressed and dyed; drinking-cups, sheets of soft copper in small quantity, iron, and gold and silver coin, not much. There are exported from these places myrrh, a little frankincense, (that known as far-side), the harder cinnamon, duaca, Indian copal and macir, which are imported into Arabia; and slaves, but rarely.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §8<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§8_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§8-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aksum_Empire">Aksum Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Aksum Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg/220px-KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg/330px-KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg/440px-KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1283" data-file-height="652" /></a><figcaption>Coins of king <a href="/wiki/Endybis" class="mw-redirect" title="Endybis">Endybis</a>, AD<span class="nowrap"> </span>227–235. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>. The left one reads in Greek "ΑΞΩΜΙΤΩ ΒΑϹΙΛΕΥϹ", "King of Axum". The right one reads in Greek: "ΕΝΔΥΒΙϹ ΒΑϹΙΛΕΥϹ", "King Endybis".</figcaption></figure> <p>Aksum is mentioned in the <i>Periplus</i> as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>From that place to the city of the people called Auxumites there is a five days' journey more; to that place all the ivory is brought from the country beyond the Nile through the district called Cyeneum, and thence to Adulis.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §4</cite></div></blockquote> <p>According to the <i>Periplus</i>, the ruler of Aksum was <a href="/wiki/Zoscales" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoscales">Zoscales</a>, who, besides ruling in Aksum also held under his sway two harbours on the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>: <a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a> (near <a href="/wiki/Massawa" title="Massawa">Massawa</a>) and Avalites (<a href="/wiki/Assab" title="Assab">Assab</a>). He is also said to have been familiar with Greek literature: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>These places, from the Calf-Eaters to the other Berber country, are governed by Zoscales; who is miserly in his ways and always striving for more, but otherwise upright, and acquainted with Greek literature.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §5<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§5_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rhapta">Rhapta</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rhapta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rhapta" title="Rhapta">Rhapta</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rufiji_(Tanzania)_theory"><span id="Rufiji_.28Tanzania.29_theory"></span>Rufiji (Tanzania) theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Rufiji (Tanzania) theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px"><div style="position:relative;width:250px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa_relief_location_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rhapta (Dar es Salaam) is located in Africa"><img alt="Rhapta (Dar es Salaam) is located in Africa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Africa_relief_location_map.jpg/250px-Africa_relief_location_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Africa_relief_location_map.jpg/375px-Africa_relief_location_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Africa_relief_location_map.jpg/500px-Africa_relief_location_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1525" data-file-height="1440" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:60.316%;left:78.597%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Rhapta (Dar es Salaam)"><img alt="Rhapta (Dar es Salaam)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pl" style="width:6em;right:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Rhapta" title="Rhapta">Rhapta</a><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam" title="Dar es Salaam">Dar es Salaam</a>)</small></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa_relief_location_map.jpg" title="File:Africa relief location map.jpg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>One possible location of <a href="/wiki/Rhapta" title="Rhapta">Rhapta</a> in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></div></div></div> <p>Research by the <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzanian</a> archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Felix_A._Chami" title="Felix A. Chami">Felix A. Chami</a> has uncovered remains of Roman trade items near the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Rufiji_River" title="Rufiji River">Rufiji River</a> and the nearby <a href="/wiki/Mafia_Island" title="Mafia Island">Mafia island</a>, and makes a case that the ancient port of <a href="/wiki/Rhapta" title="Rhapta">Rhapta</a> was situated on the banks of the Rufiji River just south of <a href="/wiki/Dar_es_Salaam" title="Dar es Salaam">Dar es Salaam</a>. </p><p>The <i>Periplus</i> informs us that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Two runs beyond this island [Menuthias = <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a>?] comes the very last port of trade on the coast of Azania, called <a href="/wiki/Rhapta" title="Rhapta">Rhapta</a> ["sewn"], a name derived from the aforementioned sewn boats, where there are great quantities of ivory and tortoise shell.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson198961_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson198961-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Chami summarizes the evidence for Rhapta's location as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The actual location of the Azanian capital, Rhapta, remains unknown. However, archaeological indicators reported above suggest that it was located on the coast of Tanzania, in the region of the Rufiji River and Mafia Island. It is in this region where the concentration of Panchaea/Azanian period settlements has been discovered. If the island of Menuthias mentioned in the Periplus was <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a>, a short voyage south would land one in the Rufiji region. The 2nd-century geographer <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Ptolemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudius Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> locates Rhapta at latitude 8° south, which is the exact latitude of the Rufiji Delta and Mafia Island. The metropolis was on the mainland about one degree west of the coast near a large river and a bay with the same name. While the river should be regarded as the modern Rufiji River, the bay should definitely be identified with the calm waters between the island of Mafia and the Rufiji area. The peninsula east of Rhapta would have been the northern tip of Mafia Island. The southern part of the bay is protected from the deep sea by numerous deltaic small islets separated from Mafia Island by shallow and narrow channels. To the north the bay is open to the sea and any sailor entering the waters from that direction would feel as if he were entering a bay. Even today the residents identify these waters as a bay, referring to it as a 'female sea', as opposed to the more violent open sea on the other side of the island of Mafia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChami200220_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChami200220-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Felix Chami has found archaeological evidence for extensive Roman trade on Mafia Island and, not far away, on the mainland, near the mouth of the Rufiji River, which he dated to the first few centuries. Furthermore, <a href="/w/index.php?title=J._Innes_Miller&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J. Innes Miller (page does not exist)">J. Innes Miller</a> points out that Roman coins have been found on <a href="/wiki/Pemba_Island" title="Pemba Island">Pemba island</a>, just north of Rhapta.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1969_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1969-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quelimane_(Mozambique)_theory"><span id="Quelimane_.28Mozambique.29_theory"></span>Quelimane (Mozambique) theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Quelimane (Mozambique) theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nevertheless, Carl Peters has argued that Rhapta was near modern-day <a href="/wiki/Quelimane" title="Quelimane">Quelimane</a> in Mozambique,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> citing the fact that (according to the <i>Periplus</i>) the coastline there ran down towards the southwest. Peters also suggests that the description of the "Pyralaoi" (i.e., the "Fire people") – "situated at the entry to the [Mozambique] Channel" – indicates that they were the inhabitants of the volcanic Comoro Islands. He also maintains that Menuthias (with its abundance of rivers and crocodiles) cannot have been Zanzibar; i.e., Madagascar seems more likely. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Himyaro-Sabaean_suzerainty">Himyaro-Sabaean suzerainty</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Himyaro-Sabaean suzerainty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Periplus</i> informs us that Rhapta, was under the firm control of a governor appointed by <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arabian</a> king of Musa, taxes were collected, and it was serviced by "merchant craft that they staff mostly with Arab skippers and agents who, through continual intercourse and intermarriage, are familiar with the area and its language".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson198961_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson198961-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Periplus explicitly states that Azania (which included Rhapta) was subject to "<a href="/wiki/Charibael" title="Charibael">Charibael</a>", the king of both the <a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Sabaeans</a> and Homerites in the southwest corner of Arabia. The kingdom is known to have been a Roman ally at this period. Charibael is stated in the Periplus to be "a friend of the (Roman) emperors, thanks to continuous embassies and gifts" and, therefore, Azania could fairly be described as a vassal or dependency of Rome, just as Zesan is described in the 3rd-century Chinese history, the <i><a href="/wiki/Weil%C3%BCe" title="Weilüe">Weilüe</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§23_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§23-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2004§15_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2004§15-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bharuch">Bharuch</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bharuch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Bharuch</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px"><div style="position:relative;width:250px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:India_relief_location_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Barygaza (Bharuch) is located in India"><img alt="Barygaza (Bharuch) is located in India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/India_relief_location_map.jpg/250px-India_relief_location_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/India_relief_location_map.jpg/375px-India_relief_location_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/India_relief_location_map.jpg/500px-India_relief_location_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1615" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:48.585%;left:18.719%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Barygaza (Bharuch)"><img alt="Barygaza (Bharuch)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Barygaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Barygaza">Barygaza</a><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Bharuch</a>)</small></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:India_relief_location_map.jpg" title="File:India relief location map.jpg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Location of <a href="/wiki/Barygaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Barygaza">Barygaza</a> in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.</div></div></div> <p>Trade with the Indian harbour of <a href="/wiki/Barygaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Barygaza">Barygaza</a> is described extensively in the <i>Periplus</i>. <a href="/wiki/Nahapana" title="Nahapana">Nahapana</a>, ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythian" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Scythian">Indo-Scythian</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_Satraps" title="Western Satraps">Western Satraps</a> is mentioned under the name <i>Nambanus</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as ruler of the area around <a href="/wiki/Barigaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Barigaza">Barigaza</a>: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_coin_of_Nahapana_British_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Silver_coin_of_Nahapana_British_Museum.jpg/220px-Silver_coin_of_Nahapana_British_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Silver_coin_of_Nahapana_British_Museum.jpg/330px-Silver_coin_of_Nahapana_British_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Silver_coin_of_Nahapana_British_Museum.jpg/440px-Silver_coin_of_Nahapana_British_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1267" data-file-height="1233" /></a><figcaption>Coin of <a href="/wiki/Nahapana" title="Nahapana">Nahapana</a> (AD<span class="nowrap"> </span>119–124).<br /><i>Obv</i>: Bust of king Nahapana with a legend in Greek script "ΡΑΝΝΙΩ ΞΑΗΑΡΑΤΑϹ ΝΑΗΑΠΑΝΑϹ", transliteration of the Prakrit <i>Raño Kshaharatasa Nahapanasa</i>: "King Kshaharata Nahapana".</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>41. Beyond the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Kutch" title="Gulf of Kutch">gulf of Baraca</a> is that of <a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a> and the coast of the country of Ariaca, which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus and of all India. That part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia is called <a href="/wiki/Abiria" title="Abiria">Abiria</a>, but the coast is called <a href="/wiki/Syrastrene" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrastrene">Syrastrene</a>. It is a fertile country, yielding wheat and rice and sesame oil and clarified butter, cotton and the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the coarser sorts. Very many cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature and black in color. The metropolis of this country is <a href="/wiki/Minnagara" title="Minnagara">Minnagara</a>, from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §41<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§41_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§41-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the main centres of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Roman trade in the subcontinent</a>. The <i>Periplus</i> describes the many goods exchanged: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>49. There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, also <a href="/wiki/Laodicea_ad_Mare" class="mw-redirect" title="Laodicea ad Mare">Laodicean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabian</a>; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, <a href="/wiki/Realgar" title="Realgar">realgar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a>, gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places <a href="/wiki/Spikenard" title="Spikenard">spikenard</a>, costus [<a href="/wiki/Saussurea_costus" class="mw-redirect" title="Saussurea costus">Saussurea costus</a>], <a href="/wiki/Bdellium" title="Bdellium">bdellium</a>, ivory, agate and <a href="/wiki/Carnelian" title="Carnelian">carnelian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycium" title="Lycium">lycium</a>, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §49.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§49_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§49-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Goods were also brought down in quantity from <a href="/wiki/Ujjain" title="Ujjain">Ujjain</a>, the capital of the Western Satraps: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>48. Inland from this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §48.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§48_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§48-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Chera,_Pandyan,_and_Chola_kingdoms"><span id="Early_Chera.2C_Pandyan.2C_and_Chola_kingdoms"></span>Early Chera, Pandyan, and Chola kingdoms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Early Chera, Pandyan, and Chola kingdoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chera_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera Dynasty">Chera Dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Pandyan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Pandyan Kingdom">Early Pandyan Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Tamil_country" title="Economy of ancient Tamil country">Economy of ancient Tamil country</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px"><div style="position:relative;width:250px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:India_relief_location_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Muziris (Kodungallur) is located in India"><img alt="Muziris (Kodungallur) is located in India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/India_relief_location_map.jpg/250px-India_relief_location_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/India_relief_location_map.jpg/375px-India_relief_location_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/India_relief_location_map.jpg/500px-India_relief_location_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1615" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:84.708%;left:29%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Muziris (Kodungallur)"><img alt="Muziris (Kodungallur)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Kodungallur" title="Kodungallur">Kodungallur</a>)</small></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:India_relief_location_map.jpg" title="File:India relief location map.jpg">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Location of <a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a> in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.</div></div></div> <p>The lost port city of <a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a> (near present day <a href="/wiki/Kodungallur" title="Kodungallur">Kodungallur</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Chera_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Chera Dynasty">Chera kingdom</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Early_Pandyan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Pandyan Kingdom">Early Pandyan Kingdom</a> are mentioned in the <i>Periplus</i> as major centres of trade, pepper and other spices, metal work and <a href="/wiki/Semiprecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiprecious">semiprecious</a> stones, between <a href="/wiki/Damirica" class="mw-redirect" title="Damirica">Damirica</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. </p><p>According to the <i>Periplus</i>, numerous Greek seamen managed an intense trade with Muziris: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Then come Naura (<a href="/wiki/Kannur" title="Kannur">Kannur</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a>, the first markets of <a href="/wiki/Damirica" class="mw-redirect" title="Damirica">Damirica</a> or <a href="/wiki/Limyrike" title="Limyrike">Limyrike</a>, and then Muziris and <a href="/wiki/Nelcynda" title="Nelcynda">Nelcynda</a>, which are now of leading importance. <a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a> is of the <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Kingdom of Cerobothra</a>; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, and by the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>; it is located on a river (River <a href="/wiki/Kaveri_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaveri River">Periyar</a>), distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia. Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/Early_Pandyan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Pandyan Kingdom">the Pandian</a>. This place also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea ...</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 53–54</cite></div></blockquote> <p>According to the <i>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</i> (53:17:15-27), Limyrike began at <a href="/wiki/Kannur" title="Kannur">Naura</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> (7.1.8) mentions only Tyndis as its starting point. The region probably ended at <a href="/wiki/Kanyakumari" title="Kanyakumari">Kanyakumari</a>; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar Coast</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELionel_Casson2012213_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELionel_Casson2012213-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, this area served as a hub for trade with the interior, in the Gangetic plain: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Besides this there are ex-ported great quantities of fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, spikenard from the Ganges, malabathrum from the places in the interior, transparent stones of all kinds, diamonds and sapphires, and tortoise-shell; that from Chryse Island, and that taken among the islands along the coast of Damirica (Limyrike). They make the voyage to this place in a favorable season who set out from Egypt about the month of July, that is Epiphi.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 56</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian–Chinese_border"><span id="Indian.E2.80.93Chinese_border"></span>Indian–Chinese border</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Indian–Chinese border"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Periplus</i> also describes the annual fair in present-day Northeast India, on the border with China. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Every year there turns up at the border of Thina, a certain tribe, short in body and very flat-faced ... called Sêsatai ... They come with their wives and children bearing great packs resembling mats of green leaves and then remain at some spot on the border between them and those on the Thina side, and they hold a festival for several days, spreading out the mats under them, and then take off for their own homes in the interior.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus, §65<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson198951–93_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson198951–93-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Sêsatai are the source of <i><a href="/wiki/Malabathron" class="mw-redirect" title="Malabathron">malabathron</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1989241–242_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1989241–242-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Schoff's translation mentions them as <i>Besatae</i>: they are a people similar to Kirradai and they lived in the region between "<a href="/wiki/Assam" title="Assam">Assam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>". </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The [? locals], counting on this, then turn up in the area, collect what the Sêsatai had spread out, extract the fibers from the reeds, which are called <i>petroi</i>, and lightly doubling over the leaves and rolling them into ball-like shapes, they string them on the fibers from the reeds. There are three grades: what is called big-ball malabathron from the bigger leaves; medium-ball from the lesser leaves; and small-ball from the smaller. Thus three grades of malabathron are produced, and then they are transported into India by the people who make them.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus, §65<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson198951–93_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson198951–93-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remains_of_the_Indo-Greek_kingdom">Remains of the Indo-Greek kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Remains of the Indo-Greek kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MenanderAndReverse.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/MenanderAndReverse.JPG/220px-MenanderAndReverse.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/MenanderAndReverse.JPG/330px-MenanderAndReverse.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/MenanderAndReverse.JPG/440px-MenanderAndReverse.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1893" data-file-height="949" /></a><figcaption>The <i>Periplus</i> explains that coins of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greek">Indo-Greek</a> king <a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a> were current in Barigaza.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>Periplus</i> claims that Greek buildings and wells exist in <a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barigaza</a>, falsely attributing them to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, who never went this far south. This account of a kingdom tracing its beginnings to Alexander's campaigns and the Hellenistic <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid empire">Seleucid empire</a> that followed: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The metropolis of this country is Minnagara, from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza. In these places there remain even to the present time signs of the expedition of Alexander, such as ancient shrines, walls of forts and great wells.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus, §41</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The <i>Periplus</i> further claims to the circulation of Indo-Greek coinage in the region: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>To the present day ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_drachma" title="Ancient drachma">drachmae</a> are current in Barygaza, coming from this country, bearing inscriptions in Greek letters, and the devices of those who reigned after Alexander, <a href="/wiki/Apollodotus_II" title="Apollodotus II">Apollodorus</a>  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] and <a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander</a>.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus, §47<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§47_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§47-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The Greek city of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Bucephalous" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandria Bucephalous">Alexandria Bucephalous</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Jhelum_River" title="Jhelum River">Jhelum River</a> is mentioned in the <i>Periplus</i>, as well as in the Roman <a href="/wiki/Peutinger_Table" class="mw-redirect" title="Peutinger Table">Peutinger Table</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The country inland of <a href="/wiki/Barigaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Barigaza">Barigaza</a> is inhabited by numerous tribes, such as the Arattii, the Arachosii, the Gandaraei and the people of Poclais, in which is Bucephalus Alexandria</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §47<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§47_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§47-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manuscripts">Manuscripts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Manuscripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Periplus</i> was originally known only through a single manuscript dating from the 14th or 15th century, now held by the <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This manuscript proved to be a corrupt and error-ridden copy of a 10th-century Byzantine manuscript in minuscule hand. The 10th-century manuscript placed it beside <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Euxine_Sea" title="Periplus of the Euxine Sea">Periplus of the Euxine Sea</a></i> and (apparently mistakenly) also credited Arrian with writing it as well. The Byzantine manuscript was taken from <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg" title="Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a> to <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648), then to <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> under <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> after his army's conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> in the late 1790s, then returned to Heidelberg's <a href="/wiki/University_Library_Heidelberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University Library Heidelberg">University Library</a> in 1816<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff19127,_17_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff19127,_17-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where it remains.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Editions">Editions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Editions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The British manuscript was edited by <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Gelen" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigmund Gelen">Sigmund Gelen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>: <i lang="cs">Zikmund Hruby z Jeleni</i>) in <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and first published by <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Froben" title="Hieronymus Froben">Hieronymus Froben</a> in 1533. This error-ridden text served as the basis for other editions and translations for three centuries,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVincent1800_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVincent1800-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until the restoration of the original manuscript to Heidelberg in 1816.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff19127,_17_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff19127,_17-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDittrich1849_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDittrich1849-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüller1855_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüller1855-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDittrich1883_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDittrich1883-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Wilfred_Harvey_Schoff" title="Wilfred Harvey Schoff">Schoff</a>'s heavily annotated 1912 English translation<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was itself based on a defective original;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEggermont196096_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEggermont196096-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as late as the 1960s, the only trustworthy scholarly edition was <a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Frisk" title="Hjalmar Frisk">Frisk</a>'s 1927 French study.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrisk1927_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrisk1927-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEggermont196096_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEggermont196096-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agatharchides" title="Agatharchides">Agatharchides</a>, author of <i>On the Erythraean Sea</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece%E2%80%93Ancient_India_relations" title="Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations">Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_relations" title="Indo-Roman relations">Indo-Roman relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff19127–15-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff19127–15_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, pp. 7–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff191215–16-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff191215–16_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, pp. 15–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff19126-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff19126_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff191216-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff191216_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff191216_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2009p._xvi_&_notes_on_pp._244-245-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2009p._xvi_&_notes_on_pp._244-245_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2009">Hill (2009)</a>, p. xvi & notes on pp. 244-245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1989p._xvi_&_notes_on_pp._6-7-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1989p._xvi_&_notes_on_pp._6-7_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCasson1989">Casson (1989)</a>, p. xvi & notes on pp. 6-7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuntingford198024-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuntingford198024_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuntingford1980">Huntingford (1980)</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/sinoiranicachine00laufrich#page/476/mode/1up"><i>Sino-Iranica</i></a> by Berthold Laufer, year 1919, page 476, footnote 9. Also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/499/mode/1up"><i>A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases</i></a>, by Yule and Burnell, year 1903, page 499.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§23-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§23_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§23_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, §23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§13-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§13_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, §13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§8-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§8_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, §8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§5-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§5_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, §5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson198961-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson198961_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson198961_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCasson1989">Casson (1989)</a>, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChami200220-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChami200220_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChami2002">Chami (2002)</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1969-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1969_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiller1969">Miller (1969)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peters, C., 1902. "The Eldorado of the Ancients", pages 312–319, 347. London: Pearson and Bell</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2004§15-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2004§15_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2004">Hill (2004)</a>, §15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://igmlnet.uohyd.ernet.in:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf">"History of the Andhras"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070313210732/http://igmlnet.uohyd.ernet.in:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf">Archived</a> 2007-03-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Durga Prasad</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§41-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§41_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, §41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§49-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§49_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, §49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§48-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§48_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, §48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELionel_Casson2012213-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELionel_Casson2012213_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLionel_Casson2012">Lionel Casson 2012</a>, p. 213.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFLionel_Casson2012 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson198951–93-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson198951–93_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson198951–93_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCasson1989">Casson (1989)</a>, pp. 51–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECasson1989241–242-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECasson1989241–242_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCasson1989">Casson (1989)</a>, pp. 241–242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§47-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§47_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912§47_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, §47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Add_MS_19391">British Library Add MS 19391</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230827143306/http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?ref=Add_MS_19391">Archived</a> 2023-08-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 9r-12r.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff19127,_17-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff19127,_17_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff19127,_17_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>, pp. 7, 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">CPG 398: 40v-54v.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vialibri.net/552display/year_1532_1.html">"viaLibri Resources for Bibliophiles"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130222104527/http://www.vialibri.net/552display/year_1532_1.html">Archived</a> 2013-02-22 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVincent1800-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVincent1800_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVincent1800">Vincent (1800)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDittrich1849-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDittrich1849_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDittrich1849">Dittrich (1849)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMüller1855-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMüller1855_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMüller1855">Müller (1855)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDittrich1883-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDittrich1883_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDittrich1883">Dittrich (1883)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchoff1912-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchoff1912_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchoff1912">Schoff (1912)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEggermont196096-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEggermont196096_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEggermont196096_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEggermont1960">Eggermont (1960)</a>, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrisk1927-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrisk1927_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrisk1927">Frisk (1927)</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCasson1989" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Casson, Lionel</a>, ed. (1989), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qQWYkSs51rEC"><i>The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text With Introduction, Translation, and Commentary</i></a>, Princeton: Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-04060-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-04060-5"><bdi>0-691-04060-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Periplus+Maris+Erythraei%3A+Text+With+Introduction%2C+Translation%2C+and+Commentary&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-691-04060-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqQWYkSs51rEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChami2002" class="citation cs2">Chami, Felix A. (2002), "The Graeco-Romans and Paanchea/Azania: Sailing in the Erythraean Sea", <i>Red Sea Trade and Travel</i>, London: The British Museum</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Graeco-Romans+and+Paanchea%2FAzania%3A+Sailing+in+the+Erythraean+Sea&rft.btitle=Red+Sea+Trade+and+Travel&rft.place=London&rft.pub=The+British+Museum&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Chami&rft.aufirst=Felix+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDittrich1849" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Theodor_Dittrich" title="Heinrich Theodor Dittrich">Dittrich, Heinrich Theodor</a>, under the pseudonym B. Fabricius, ed. (1849), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arrianialexandr00dietgoog"><i>Arriani Alexandrini Periplus Maris Erythraei</i></a> (in Latin), Dresden: H.M. Gottschalk</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arriani+Alexandrini+Periplus+Maris+Erythraei&rft.place=Dresden&rft.pub=H.M.+Gottschalk&rft.date=1849&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farrianialexandr00dietgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDittrich1883" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Theodor_Dittrich" title="Heinrich Theodor Dittrich">Dittrich, Heinrich Theodor</a>, under the pseudonym B. Fabricius, ed. (1883), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jW8CAAAAQAAJ"><i>Der Periplus des Erythräischen Meeres von einem Unbekannten</i></a> (in Greek and German), Leipzig: Veit & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Der+Periplus+des+Erythr%C3%A4ischen+Meeres+von+einem+Unbekannten&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Veit+%26+Co.&rft.date=1883&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjW8CAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEggermont1960" class="citation cs2">Eggermont, Pierre Herman Leonard (1968), "The Date of the <i>Periplus Maris Erythraei</i>", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ks4UAAAAIAAJ"><i>Papers on the Date of Kaniṣka Submitted to the Conference on the Date of Kaniṣka, London, 20–22 April, 1960</i></a>, <i>Oriental Monograph Series</i>, Vol. IV, Leiden: Brill, pp. 94–96</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Date+of+the+Periplus+Maris+Erythraei&rft.btitle=Papers+on+the+Date+of+Kani%E1%B9%A3ka+Submitted+to+the+Conference+on+the+Date+of+Kani%E1%B9%A3ka%2C+London%2C+20%E2%80%9322+April%2C+1960&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=%27%27Oriental+Monograph+Series%27%27%2C+Vol.+IV&rft.pages=94-96&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Eggermont&rft.aufirst=Pierre+Herman+Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dks4UAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrisk1927" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Frisk" title="Hjalmar Frisk">Frisk, Hjalmar</a>, ed. (1927), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fisk-1927-le-periple-de-la-mer-erythree"><i>Le Périple de la Mer Erythrée suivi d'une Étude sur la Tradition et la Langue</i></a>, <i>Göteborgs Högskolas Årsskrift</i>, No. 33, Göteborg</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+P%C3%A9riple+de+la+Mer+Erythr%C3%A9e+suivi+d%27une+%C3%89tude+sur+la+Tradition+et+la+Langue&rft.place=G%C3%B6teborg&rft.series=%27%27G%C3%B6teborgs+H%C3%B6gskolas+%C3%85rsskrift%27%27%2C+No.+33&rft.date=1927&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffisk-1927-le-periple-de-la-mer-erythree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span>. <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2004" class="citation cs2">Hill, John E. (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html#section15"><i>"The Peoples of the West" from the </i>Weilüe<i>, Section 15</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22The+Peoples+of+the+West%22+from+the+Weil%C3%BCe%2C+Section+15&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fsilkroad%2Ftexts%2Fweilue%2Fweilue.html%23section15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2009" class="citation cs2">Hill, John E. (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G0AJQgAACAAJ"><i>Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty 1st to 2nd Centuries CE</i></a>, BookSurge Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4392-2134-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4392-2134-1"><bdi>978-1-4392-2134-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Through+the+Jade+Gate+to+Rome%3A+A+Study+of+the+Silk+Routes+during+the+Later+Han+Dynasty+1st+to+2nd+Centuries+CE&rft.pub=BookSurge+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4392-2134-1&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG0AJQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntingford1980" class="citation book cs1">Huntingford, G.W.B., ed. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vpoN9PDYKC4C&q=mokrotou&pg=PA24"><i>The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, by an unknown author: With some Extracts from Agatharkhides 'On the Erythraean Sea'<span></span></i></a>. London: Hakluyt Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-904180-05-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-904180-05-3"><bdi>978-0-904180-05-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Periplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea%2C+by+an+unknown+author%3A+With+some+Extracts+from+Agatharkhides+%27On+the+Erythraean+Sea%27&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hakluyt+Society&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-904180-05-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvpoN9PDYKC4C%26q%3Dmokrotou%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1969" class="citation cs2">Miller, J. Innes (1969), "The Cinnamon Route", <i>The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814264-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-814264-1"><bdi>0-19-814264-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Cinnamon+Route&rft.btitle=The+Spice+Trade+of+The+Roman+Empire%3A+29+B.C.+to+A.D.+641&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-19-814264-1&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=J.+Innes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüller1855" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Ludwig_M%C3%BCller" title="Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Müller">Müller, Karl</a>, as Carolus Mullerus, ed. (1855), "Anonymi Periplus Maris Erythraei", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MT4OAAAAYAAJ"><i>Geographi Graeci Minores</i></a>, vol. I, Paris: Ambrose Firmin Didot, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MT4OAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR97">xcv–cxi</a> & <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MT4OAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA257">257–305</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anonymi+Periplus+Maris+Erythraei&rft.btitle=Geographi+Graeci+Minores&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=xcv-cxi+%26+257-305&rft.pub=Ambrose+Firmin+Didot&rft.date=1855&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMT4OAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span>. <span class="languageicon">(in Greek)</span><span class="nowrap"> </span>& <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoff1912" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Wilfred_Harvey_Schoff" title="Wilfred Harvey Schoff">Schoff, Wilfred Harvey</a>, ed. (1912), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html"><i>The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century</i></a>, New York: Longmans, Green, & Co., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-215-0699-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-215-0699-1"><bdi>978-81-215-0699-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Periplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea%3A+Travel+and+Trade+in+the+Indian+Ocean+by+a+Merchant+of+the+First+Century&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+%26+Co.&rft.date=1912&rft.isbn=978-81-215-0699-1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fsilkroad%2Ftexts%2Fperiplus%2Fperiplus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVincent1800" class="citation cs2">Vincent, William, ed. (1800), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d1dBAAAAcAAJ"><i>The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Containing an Account of the Navigation of the Ancients, from the Sea of Suez to the Coast of Zanguebar</i></a>, vol. I, London</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Periplus+of+the+Erythrean+Sea%2C+Containing+an+Account+of+the+Navigation+of+the+Ancients%2C+from+the+Sea+of+Suez+to+the+Coast+of+Zanguebar&rft.place=London&rft.date=1800&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd1dBAAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APeriplus+of+the+Erythraean+Sea" class="Z3988"></span> Also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lldBAAAAcAAJ">Volume II</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Special:Search/Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/periplus/periplus.html">Schoff's 1912 text</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a>, emended with additional commentary, spellings, and translations from Casson's edition</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html">Schoff's 1912 text</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140814160845/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html">Archived</a> 2014-08-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at Fordham University's Ancient History Sourcebook</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55054">1879 text</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Watson_McCrindle" class="mw-redirect" title="John Watson McCrindle">John Watson McCrindle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalmapsoftheancientworld.com/digital-maps/trade/the-periplus-of-the-erythraean-sea/">Interactive map</a> from Digital Maps of the Ancient World</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_seafaring" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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seafaring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_seafaring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient seafaring">Ancient seafaring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Vessels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">Fire ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Sakman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_ships" title="Ancient Egyptian royal ships">Solar ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru_(boat)" title="Uru (boat)">Uru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">by region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels#History" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Propulsion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">Fire ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portolan_chart" title="Portolan chart">Portolan chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutter_(nautical)" title="Rutter (nautical)">Rutter (nautical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and<br />harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> (Podouke)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (Canton)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> (Kadaram)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and<br />exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Mediterranean:</b>   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo–Mesopotamia relations">Indo–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Early_historical_era" title="History of Southeast Asia">Austronesian network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece%E2%80%93Ancient_India_relations#Trade" title="Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations">Greco–Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo–Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br />and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks<br />and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental<br />archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl"><i>Ra</i> and <i>Ra II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li>Austronesian replicas <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa#Canoe" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa canoe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)"><i>Ivlia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and <br />conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and<br />memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" 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