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id="toc-Definition_and_measures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Blue_water_footprint" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blue_water_footprint"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Blue water footprint</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blue_water_footprint-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Green_water_footprint" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Green_water_footprint"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Green water footprint</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Green_water_footprint-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grey_water_footprint" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grey_water_footprint"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Grey water footprint</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grey_water_footprint-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calculation_for_different_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculation_for_different_factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Calculation for different factors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculation_for_different_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Water_Footprint_Network_(WFN)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_Footprint_Network_(WFN)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Water Footprint Network (WFN)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_Footprint_Network_(WFN)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_standard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_standard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>International standard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_standard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life-cycle_assessment_of_water_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life-cycle_assessment_of_water_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Life-cycle assessment of water use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life-cycle_assessment_of_water_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_positive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_positive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Water positive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_positive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_availability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_availability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Water availability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_availability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_footprint_of_products_(agricultural_sector)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_footprint_of_products_(agricultural_sector)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Water footprint of products (agricultural sector)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_footprint_of_products_(agricultural_sector)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_footprint_of_companies_(industrial_sector)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_footprint_of_companies_(industrial_sector)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Water footprint of companies (industrial sector)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_footprint_of_companies_(industrial_sector)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_footprint_of_individual_consumers_(domestic_sector)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_footprint_of_individual_consumers_(domestic_sector)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Water footprint of individual consumers (domestic sector)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_footprint_of_individual_consumers_(domestic_sector)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_footprint_of_nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_footprint_of_nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Water footprint of nations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Water_footprint_of_nations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Water footprint of nations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Water_footprint_of_nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Production_or_consumption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production_or_consumption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Production or consumption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production_or_consumption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Absolute_or_per_capita" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absolute_or_per_capita"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Absolute or per capita</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absolute_or_per_capita-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_or_external" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_or_external"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Internal or external</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_or_external-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_use_in_continents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_use_in_continents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Water use in continents</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Water_use_in_continents-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Water use in continents subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Water_use_in_continents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_water_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_water_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Environmental water use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_water_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Insufficient_consideration_of_consequences_of_proposed_water_saving_policies_to_farm_households" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insufficient_consideration_of_consequences_of_proposed_water_saving_policies_to_farm_households"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Insufficient consideration of consequences of proposed water saving policies to farm households</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insufficient_consideration_of_consequences_of_proposed_water_saving_policies_to_farm_households-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_water_scarcity_should_be_taken_into_account_when_interpreting_water_footprint" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_water_scarcity_should_be_taken_into_account_when_interpreting_water_footprint"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Regional water scarcity should be taken into account when interpreting water footprint</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_water_scarcity_should_be_taken_into_account_when_interpreting_water_footprint-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sustainable_water_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sustainable_water_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sustainable water use</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sustainable_water_use-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sustainable water use subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sustainable_water_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sustainability_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sustainability_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Sustainability assessment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sustainability_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sectoral_distributions_of_withdrawn_water_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sectoral_distributions_of_withdrawn_water_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Sectoral distributions of withdrawn water use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sectoral_distributions_of_withdrawn_water_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Water footprint</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an 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Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B5%D9%85%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="بصمة مائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بصمة مائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consum_d%27aigua" title="Consum d'aigua – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Consum d'aigua" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodn%C3%AD_stopa" title="Vodní stopa – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vodní stopa" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huella_h%C3%ADdrica" title="Huella hídrica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Huella hídrica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur-aztarna" title="Ur-aztarna – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ur-aztarna" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%A8" title="ردپای آب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ردپای آب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empreinte_eau" title="Empreinte eau – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empreinte eau" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%BC_%EB%B0%9C%EC%9E%90%EA%B5%AD" title="물 발자국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="물 발자국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D6%80%D6%85%D5%A3%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%AE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Ջրօգտագործում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջրօգտագործում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impronta_idrica" title="Impronta idrica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impronta idrica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="पाणी पदभार – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="पाणी पदभार" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watervoetafdruk" title="Watervoetafdruk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Watervoetafdruk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BF%E3%83%BC%E3%83%95%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E3%83%97%E3%83%AA%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88" title="ウォーターフットプリント – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ウォーターフットプリント" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vannfotavtrykk" title="Vannfotavtrykk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vannfotavtrykk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegada_h%C3%ADdrica" title="Pegada hídrica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pegada hídrica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amprenta_de_ap%C4%83" title="Amprenta de apă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Amprenta de apă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint" title="Water footprint – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Water footprint" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Водени отисак – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Водени отисак" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Extent of water use in relation to consumption by people</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Water consumption" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Daily_consumption_of_drinking_water" title="Daily consumption of drinking water">Daily consumption of drinking water</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Water_Footprint.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/World_Water_Footprint.png/310px-World_Water_Footprint.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/World_Water_Footprint.png/465px-World_Water_Footprint.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/World_Water_Footprint.png/620px-World_Water_Footprint.png 2x" data-file-width="1141" data-file-height="1205" /></a><figcaption>Infographic of water footprints around the world</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>water footprint</b> shows the extent of water use in relation to <a href="/wiki/Consumption_(economics)" title="Consumption (economics)">consumption</a> by people.<sup id="cite_ref-nations_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nations-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The water footprint of an individual, community, or business is defined as the total volume of <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (<a href="/wiki/Evaporated" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaporated">evaporated</a>) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of <a href="/wiki/Consumer" title="Consumer">consumers</a> (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state, or nation) or <a href="/wiki/Production_(economics)" title="Production (economics)">producers</a> (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise, or economic sector), for a single <a href="/wiki/Process" title="Process">process</a> (such as growing rice) or for any <a href="/wiki/Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">product</a> or <a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">service</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-waterfootprintorg_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waterfootprintorg-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditionally, water use has been approached from the production side, by quantifying the following three columns of water use: water withdrawals in the <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">industrial</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Home" title="Home">domestic</a> sector. While this does provide valuable data, it is a limited way of looking at water use in a <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalised</a> world, in which products are not always consumed in their country of origin. International trade of agricultural and industrial products in effect creates a global flow of <a href="/wiki/Virtual_water" title="Virtual water">virtual water</a>, or <i>embodied water</i> (akin to the concept of <a href="/wiki/Embodied_energy" title="Embodied energy">embodied energy</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-nations_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nations-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2002, the water footprint concept was introduced in order to have a consumption-based <a href="/wiki/Economic_indicator" title="Economic indicator">indicator</a> of water use, that could provide useful information in addition to the traditional production-sector-based indicators of water use. It is analogous to the <a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">ecological footprint</a> concept introduced in the 1990s. The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also the locations.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The global issue of water footprinting underscores the importance of fair and sustainable resource management. Due to increasing water shortages, climate change, and environmental concerns, transitioning towards a fair impact of water use is critical. The water footprint concept offers detailed insights for adequate and equitable water resource management. It advocates for a balanced and sustainable water-use approach, aiming to tackle global challenges. This approach is essential for responsible and equitable water resource utilization globally. Thus, it gives a grasp on how economic choices and processes influence the availability of adequate water resources and other ecological realities across the globe (and vice versa). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_measures">Definition and measures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and measures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are many different aspects to water footprint and therefore different definitions and measures to describe them. Blue water footprint refers to groundwater or surface water usage, green water footprint refers to rainwater, and grey water footprint refers to the amount of water needed to dilute pollutants.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blue_water_footprint">Blue water footprint</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Blue water footprint"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <i>blue water footprint</i> refers to the volume of water that has been sourced from <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface</a> or <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> resources (lakes, rivers, wetlands and <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a>) and has either evaporated (for example while <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigating</a> crops), or been incorporated into a product or taken from one body of water and returned to another, or returned at a different time. Irrigated agriculture, industry and domestic water use can each have a blue water footprint.<sup id="cite_ref-whatis_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatis-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Green_water_footprint">Green water footprint</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Green water footprint"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <i>green water footprint</i> refers to the amount of water from <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> that, after having been stored in the root zone of the soil (green water), is either lost by <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a> or incorporated by plants. It is particularly relevant for agricultural, <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> products.<sup id="cite_ref-whatis_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatis-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grey_water_footprint">Grey water footprint</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Grey water footprint"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <i>grey water footprint</i> refers to the volume of water that is required to dilute <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">pollutants</a> (industrial discharges, seepage from tailing ponds at mining operations, untreated municipal wastewater, or <a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">nonpoint source pollution</a> such as agricultural runoff or <a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">urban runoff</a>) to such an extent that the quality of the water meets agreed water quality standards.<sup id="cite_ref-whatis_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatis-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is calculated as: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {L}{c_{\text{max}}-c_{\text{nat}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>L</mi> <mrow> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>max</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>nat</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {L}{c_{\text{max}}-c_{\text{nat}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1e67c94885b19f31656f7a97fbdee24dc95f51ca" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:11.589ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {L}{c_{\text{max}}-c_{\text{nat}}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>L</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Measures_of_pollutant_concentration" title="Measures of pollutant concentration">pollutant load</a> (as <a href="/wiki/Mass_flux" title="Mass flux">mass flux</a>), <i>c</i><sub>max</sub> the maximum allowable concentration and <i>c</i><sub>nat</sub> the natural concentration of the pollutant in the receiving water body (both expressed in mass/volume).<sup id="cite_ref-TheWaterFootprintAssessmentManual_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheWaterFootprintAssessmentManual-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calculation_for_different_factors">Calculation for different factors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Calculation for different factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The water footprint of a process is expressed as <a href="/wiki/Volumetric_flow_rate" title="Volumetric flow rate">volumetric flow rate</a> of water. That of a product is the whole footprint (sum) of processes in its complete supply chain divided by the number of product units. For consumers, businesses and geographic area, water footprint is indicated as volume of water per time, in particular:<sup id="cite_ref-TheWaterFootprintAssessmentManual_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheWaterFootprintAssessmentManual-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>That of a consumer is the sum of footprint of all consumed products.</li> <li>That of a community or a nation is the sum for all of its members resp. inhabitants.</li> <li>That of a business is the footprint of all produced goods.</li> <li>That of a geographically delineated area is the footprint of all processes undertaken in this area. The virtual change in water of an area is the net import of virtual water <i>V<sub>i, net</sub></i>, defined as the difference of the gross import <i>V<sub>i</sub></i> of virtual water from its gross export <i>V<sub>e</sub></i>. The water footprint of national consumption <i>WF<sub>area,nat</sub></i> results from this as the sum of the water footprint of national area and its virtual change in water.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of a <i>water footprint</i> was coined in 2002, by <a href="/wiki/Arjen_Hoekstra" title="Arjen Hoekstra">Arjen Hoekstra</a>, Professor in <a href="/wiki/Water_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Water management">water management</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Twente" title="University of Twente">University of Twente</a>, <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, and co-founder and scientific director of the Water Footprint Network, whilst working at the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO-IHE" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO-IHE">UNESCO-IHE</a> Institute for Water Education, as a <a href="/wiki/System_of_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="System of measurement">metric</a> to measure the amount of water consumed and polluted to produce goods and services along their full supply chain.<sup id="cite_ref-aims_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aims-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water footprint is one of a family of <a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">ecological footprint</a> indicators, which also includes <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a> and <a href="/wiki/Land_footprint" title="Land footprint">land footprint</a>. The water footprint concept is further related to the idea of <a href="/wiki/Virtual_water" title="Virtual water">virtual water</a> trade introduced in the early 1990s by Professor <a href="/wiki/John_Anthony_Allan" title="John Anthony Allan">John Allan</a> (2008 <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_Water_Prize" title="Stockholm Water Prize">Stockholm Water Prize Laureate</a>). The most elaborate publications on how to estimate water footprints are a 2004 report on the <i>Water footprint of nations</i> from UNESCO-IHE,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 2008 book <i>Globalization of Water</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the 2011 manual <i>The water footprint assessment manual: Setting the global standard</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoekstra-2011_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoekstra-2011-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cooperation between global leading institutions in the field has led to the establishment of the Water Footprint Network in 2008. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_Footprint_Network_(WFN)"><span id="Water_Footprint_Network_.28WFN.29"></span>Water Footprint Network (WFN)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Water Footprint Network (WFN)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The Water Footprint Network is an international learning community (a <a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">non-profit foundation</a> under <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Law">Dutch law</a>) which serves as a platform for sharing knowledge, tools and innovations among governments, businesses and communities concerned about growing <a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water scarcity</a> and increasing <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> levels, and their impacts on people and nature. The network consists of around 100 partners from all sectors – producers, investors, suppliers and regulators – as well as <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-governmental organisation">non-governmental organisations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Academic_staff" title="Academic staff">academics</a>. It describes its mission as follows: </p><blockquote><p> To provide <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">science-based</a>, practical solutions and strategic insights that empower companies, governments, individuals and small-scale producers to transform the way we use and share fresh water within earth's limits.<sup id="cite_ref-aims_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aims-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_standard">International standard</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: International standard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In February 2011, the Water Footprint Network, in a global collaborative effort of environmental organizations, companies, research institutions and the UN, launched the <i>Global Water Footprint Standard</i>. In July 2014, the <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">International Organization for Standardization</a> issued <i>ISO 14046:2014, Environmental management—Water footprint—Principles, requirements and guidelines</i>, to provide practical guidance to practitioners from various backgrounds, such as large companies, public authorities, non-governmental organizations, academic and research groups as well as small and medium enterprises, for carrying out a water footprint assessment. The ISO standard is based on <a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment" title="Life-cycle assessment">life-cycle assessment</a> (LCA) principles and can be applied for different sorts of assessment of products and companies.<sup id="cite_ref-ISO14046_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISO14046-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Life-cycle_assessment_of_water_use">Life-cycle assessment of water use</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Life-cycle assessment of water use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment" title="Life-cycle assessment">Life-cycle assessment</a> (LCA) is a systematic, phased approach to assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts that are associated with a product, process or service. "Life cycle" refers to the major activities connected with the product's life-span, from its manufacture, use, and maintenance, to its final disposal, and also including the acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">raw material</a> required to manufacture the product.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus a method for assessing the environmental impacts of freshwater consumption was developed. It specifically looks at the damage to three areas of protection: human health, ecosystem quality, and resources. The consideration of water consumption is crucial where water-intensive products (for example agricultural goods) are concerned that need to therefore undergo a life-cycle assessment.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, regional assessments are equally as necessary as the impact of water use depends on its location. In short, LCA is important as it identifies the impact of water use in certain products, consumers, companies, nations, etc. which can help reduce the amount of water used.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_positive">Water positive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Water positive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Water_Positive" class="mw-redirect" title="Water Positive">Water Positive</a> initiative can be defined as the concept where an entity, such as a company, community, or individual, goes beyond simply conserving water and actively contributes to the sustainable management and restoration of water resources. A commercial or residential development is considered water positive when it generates more water than it consumes. This involves implementing practices and technologies that reduce water consumption, improve water quality, and enhance water availability. The goal of being water positive is to leave a positive impact on water <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> and ensure that more water is conserved and restored than is used or depleted.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_availability">Water availability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Water availability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Total_Renewable_Water_Resources_Per_Capita_(2020).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Total_Renewable_Water_Resources_Per_Capita_%282020%29.svg/220px-Total_Renewable_Water_Resources_Per_Capita_%282020%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Total_Renewable_Water_Resources_Per_Capita_%282020%29.svg/330px-Total_Renewable_Water_Resources_Per_Capita_%282020%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Total_Renewable_Water_Resources_Per_Capita_%282020%29.svg/440px-Total_Renewable_Water_Resources_Per_Capita_%282020%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption>Total renewable water resources per capita in 2020</figcaption></figure> <p>Globally, about 4 percent of <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> falling on land each year (about 117,000 km<sup>3</sup> (28,000 cu mi)),<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is used by rain-fed agriculture and about half is subject to evaporation and transpiration in <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a> and other natural or quasi-natural landscapes.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remainder, which goes to <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> replenishment and <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a>, is sometimes called "total actual renewable freshwater resources". Its magnitude was in 2012 estimated at 52,579 km<sup>3</sup> (12,614 cu mi)/year.<sup id="cite_ref-Frenken2012_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frenken2012-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It represents water that can be used either in-stream or after withdrawal from surface and groundwater sources. Of this remainder, about 3,918 km<sup>3</sup> (940 cu mi) were withdrawn in 2007, of which 2,722 km<sup>3</sup> (653 cu mi), or 69 percent, were used by agriculture, and 734 km<sup>3</sup> (176 cu mi), or 19 percent, by other industry.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most agricultural use of withdrawn water is for <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>, which uses about 5.1 percent of total actual renewable <a href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> resources.<sup id="cite_ref-Frenken2012_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frenken2012-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> World water use has been growing rapidly in the last hundred years.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_footprint_of_products_(agricultural_sector)"><span id="Water_footprint_of_products_.28agricultural_sector.29"></span>Water footprint of products (agricultural sector)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Water footprint of products (agricultural sector)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The water footprint of a product is the total volume of freshwater used to produce the product, summed over the various steps of the production chain. The water footprint of a product refers not only to the total volume of water used; it also refers to where and when the water is used.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Water Footprint Network maintains a global database on the water footprint of products: WaterStat.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nearly over 70% of the water supply worldwide is used in the agricultural sector.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The phrase "nearly over 70%" is confusing, as those first two words are contradictory. Since access to the source is restricted by a paywall, it is not clear whether this term has been taken directly from the source, or whether it is an error that was made after the fact. (April 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The water footprints involved in various diets vary greatly, and much of the variation tends to be associated with levels of meat consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following table gives examples of estimated global average water footprints of popular agricultural products.<sup id="cite_ref-Mekonnen2010a_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mekonnen2010a-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Danwatch2019_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Danwatch2019-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Product</th> <th>Global average water footprint, L/kg </th></tr> <tr> <td>almonds, shelled</td> <td>16,194 </td></tr> <tr> <td>apple </td> <td>822 </td></tr> <tr> <td>avocado </td> <td>283 </td></tr> <tr> <td>banana </td> <td>790 </td></tr> <tr> <td>beef</td> <td>15,415 </td></tr> <tr> <td>bread, wheat </td> <td>1,608 </td></tr> <tr> <td>butter </td> <td>5,553 </td></tr> <tr> <td>cabbage </td> <td>237 </td></tr> <tr> <td>cheese </td> <td>3,178 </td></tr> <tr> <td>chicken </td> <td>4,325 </td></tr> <tr> <td>chocolate</td> <td>17,196 </td></tr> <tr> <td>cotton lint</td> <td>9,114 </td></tr> <tr> <td>cucumber </td> <td>353 </td></tr> <tr> <td>dates </td> <td>2,277 </td></tr> <tr> <td>eggs </td> <td>3,300 </td></tr> <tr> <td>groundnuts, shell </td> <td>2,782 </td></tr> <tr> <td>leather (bovine) </td> <td>17,093 </td></tr> <tr> <td>lettuce</td> <td>238 </td></tr> <tr> <td>maize </td> <td>1,222 </td></tr> <tr> <td>mango/guava </td> <td>1,800 </td></tr> <tr> <td>milk</td> <td>1,021 </td></tr> <tr> <td>olive oil</td> <td>14,430 </td></tr> <tr> <td>orange </td> <td>560 </td></tr> <tr> <td>pasta (dry) </td> <td>1,849 </td></tr> <tr> <td>peach/nectarine </td> <td>910 </td></tr> <tr> <td>pork </td> <td>5,988 </td></tr> <tr> <td>potato </td> <td>287 </td></tr> <tr> <td>pumpkin </td> <td>353 </td></tr> <tr> <td>rice </td> <td>2,497 </td></tr> <tr> <td>tomatoes, fresh</td> <td>214 </td></tr> <tr> <td>tomatoes, dried</td> <td>4,275 </td></tr> <tr> <td>vanilla beans</td> <td>126,505 </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>(For more product water footprints: see the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waterfootprint.org/?page=files/productgallery">Product Gallery of the Water Footprint Network</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200730100009/https://www.waterfootprint.org/en/">Archived</a> 2020-07-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_footprint_of_companies_(industrial_sector)"><span id="Water_footprint_of_companies_.28industrial_sector.29"></span>Water footprint of companies (industrial sector)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Water footprint of companies (industrial sector)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The water footprint of a business, the 'corporate water footprint', is defined as the total volume of freshwater that is used directly or indirectly to run and support a business. It is the total volume of water use to be associated with the use of the business outputs. The water footprint of a business consists of water used for producing/manufacturing or for supporting activities and the indirect water use in the producer's supply chain. </p><p><a href="/wiki/The_Carbon_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="The Carbon Trust">The Carbon Trust</a> argue that a more robust approach is for businesses to go beyond simple volumetric measurement to assess the full range of water impact from all sites. Its work with leading global pharmaceutical company <a href="/wiki/GlaxoSmithKline" class="mw-redirect" title="GlaxoSmithKline">GlaxoSmithKline</a> (GSK) analysed four key categories: water availability, water quality, health impacts, and licence to operate (including reputational and regulatory risks) in order to enable GSK to quantitatively measure, and credibly reduce, its year-on-year water impact.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Coca-Cola_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Coca-Cola Company">Coca-Cola Company</a> operates over a thousand manufacturing plants in about 200 countries. Making its drink uses a lot of water. Critics say its water footprint has been large. Coca-Cola has started to look at its <a href="/wiki/Water_sustainability" class="mw-redirect" title="Water sustainability">water sustainability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has now set out goals to reduce its water footprint such as treating the water it uses so it goes back into the environment in a clean state. Another goal is to find sustainable sources for the raw materials it uses in its drinks, such as <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orange_(fruit)" title="Orange (fruit)">oranges</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>. By making its water footprint better, the company can reduce costs, improve the environment, and benefit the communities in which it operates.<sup id="cite_ref-naumann_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-naumann-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_footprint_of_individual_consumers_(domestic_sector)"><span id="Water_footprint_of_individual_consumers_.28domestic_sector.29"></span>Water footprint of individual consumers (domestic sector)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Water footprint of individual consumers (domestic sector)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The water footprint of an individual refers to the sum of their direct and indirect freshwater use. The direct water use is the water used at home, while the indirect water use relates to the total volume of freshwater that is used to produce the goods and services consumed. </p><p>The average global water footprint of an individual is 1,385 m<sup>3</sup> per year. Residents of some example nations have water footprints as shown in the table: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Nation</th> <th>annual water footprint </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td> <td>1,071 m<sup>3</sup><sup id="cite_ref-WF-CN-IN-Hoekstra_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WF-CN-IN-Hoekstra-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></td> <td>1,733 m<sup>3</sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (June 2024)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></td> <td>1,089 m<sup>3</sup><sup id="cite_ref-WF-CN-IN-Hoekstra_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WF-CN-IN-Hoekstra-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> <td>1,695 m<sup>3</sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td>2,842 m<sup>3</sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_footprint_of_nations">Water footprint of nations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Water footprint of nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_Footprint_per_capita.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Water_Footprint_per_capita.jpg/400px-Water_Footprint_per_capita.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="655" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Water_Footprint_per_capita.jpg/600px-Water_Footprint_per_capita.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Water_Footprint_per_capita.jpg/800px-Water_Footprint_per_capita.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2457" /></a><figcaption>Global view of national per capita water footprints</figcaption></figure> <p>The water footprint of a nation is the amount of water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of that nation. Analysis of the water footprint of nations illustrates the global dimension of water consumption and pollution, by showing that several countries rely heavily on foreign water resources and that (consumption patterns in) many countries significantly and in various ways impact how, and how much, water is being consumed and polluted elsewhere on Earth. International water dependencies are substantial and are likely to increase with continued global <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">trade liberalisation</a>. The largest share (76%) of the virtual water flows between countries is related to international trade in crops and derived crop products. Trade in animal products and industrial products contributed 12% each to the global virtual water flows. The four major direct factors determining the water footprint of a country are: volume of consumption (related to the <a href="/wiki/Gross_national_income" title="Gross national income">gross national income</a>); consumption pattern (e.g. high versus low <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_meat_consumption" title="List of countries by meat consumption">meat consumption</a>); climate (growth conditions); and agricultural practice (water use efficiency).<sup id="cite_ref-nations_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nations-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production_or_consumption">Production or consumption</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Production or consumption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The assessment of total water use in connection to consumption can be approached from both ends of the <a href="/wiki/Supply_chain" title="Supply chain">supply chain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The water footprint of <b>production</b> estimates how much water from local sources is used or polluted in order to provide the goods and services produced in that country. The water footprint of <b>consumption</b> of a country looks at the amount of water used or polluted (locally, or in the case of imported goods, in other countries) in connection with all the goods and services that are consumed by the inhabitants of that country. The water footprint of production and that of consumption, can also be estimated for any administrative unit such as a city, province, river basin or the entire world.<sup id="cite_ref-nations_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nations-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Absolute_or_per_capita">Absolute or per capita</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Absolute or per capita"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The absolute water footprint is the total sum of water footprints of all people. A country's <a href="/wiki/Per_capita" title="Per capita">per capita</a> water footprint (that nation's water footprint divided by its number of inhabitants) can be used to compare its water footprint with those of other nations. </p><p>The global water footprint in the period 1996–2005 was 9.087 Gm<sup>3</sup>/yr (Billion Cubic Metres per year, or 9.087.000.000.000.000 liters/year), of which 74% was and green, 11% blue, 15% grey. This is an average amount per capita of 1.385 Gm<sup>3</sup>/yr., or 3.800 liters per person per day.<sup id="cite_ref-Morelli_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morelli-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On average 92% of this is embedded in agricultural products consumed, 4.4% in industrial products consumed, and 3.6% is domestic water use. The global water footprint related to producing goods for export is 1.762 Gm<sup>3</sup>/y.<sup id="cite_ref-humanity_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-humanity-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In absolute terms, India is the country with the largest water footprint in the world, a total of 987 Gm<sup>3</sup>/yr. In relative terms (i.e. taking population size into account), the people of the USA have the largest water footprint, with 2480 m<sup>3</sup>/yr per capita, followed by the people in south European countries such as Greece, Italy and Spain (2300–2400 m<sup>3</sup>/yr per capita). High water footprints can also be found in Malaysia and Thailand. In contrast, the Chinese people have a relatively low per capita water footprint with an average of 700 m<sup>3</sup>/yr.<sup id="cite_ref-nations_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nations-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (These numbers are also from the period 1996-2005.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_or_external">Internal or external</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Internal or external"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GlobalWaterFootprint_by_sector.1500.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/GlobalWaterFootprint_by_sector.1500.jpg/560px-GlobalWaterFootprint_by_sector.1500.jpg" decoding="async" width="560" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/GlobalWaterFootprint_by_sector.1500.jpg/840px-GlobalWaterFootprint_by_sector.1500.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/GlobalWaterFootprint_by_sector.1500.jpg/1120px-GlobalWaterFootprint_by_sector.1500.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3690" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Global average numbers and composition of all national water footprints, internal and external</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>internal water footprint</b> is the amount of water used from domestic water resources; the <b>external water footprint</b> is the amount of water used in other countries to produce goods and services imported and consumed by the inhabitants of the country. When assessing the water footprint of a nation, it is crucial to take into account the international flows of <a href="/wiki/Virtual_water" title="Virtual water">virtual water</a> (also called <i>embodied water</i>, i.e. the water used or polluted in connection to all agricultural and industrial commodities) leaving and entering the country. When taking the use of domestic water resources as a starting point for calculating a nation's water footprint, one should subtract the virtual water flows that leave the country and add the virtual water flows that enter the country.<sup id="cite_ref-nations_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nations-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The external part of a nation's water footprint varies strongly from country to country. Some African nations, such as Sudan, Mali, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Malawi and Chad have hardly any external water footprint, simply because they have little import. Some European countries on the other hand—e.g. Italy, Germany, the UK and the Netherlands—have external water footprints that constitute 50–80% of their total water footprint. The agricultural products that on average contribute most to the external water footprints of nations are: bovine meat, soybean, wheat, cocoa, rice, cotton and maize.<sup id="cite_ref-nations_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nations-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The top 10 gross virtual water exporting nations, which together account for more than half of the global virtual water export, are the United States (314 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), China (143 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), India (125 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), Brazil (112 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), Argentina (98 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), Canada (91 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), Australia (89 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), Indonesia (72 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), France (65 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), and Germany (64 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year).<sup id="cite_ref-humanity_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-humanity-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The top 10 gross virtual water importing nations are the United States (234 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), Japan (127 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), Germany (125 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), China (121 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), Italy (101 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), Mexico (92 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), France (78 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), the United Kingdom (77 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year), and The Netherlands (71 Gm<sup>3</sup>/year).<sup id="cite_ref-humanity_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-humanity-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_use_in_continents">Water use in continents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Water use in continents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Droughts_in_Europe" title="Category:Droughts in Europe">Category:Droughts in Europe</a></div> <p>Each <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_European_Union" title="Demographics of the European Union">EU citizen</a> consumes 4,815 litres of water per day on average; 44% is used in power production primarily to cool thermal plants or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_European_Union" title="Nuclear power in the European Union">nuclear power</a> plants. Energy production annual water consumption in the EU 27 in 2011 was, in billion m<sup>3</sup>: for gas 0.53, coal 1.54 and nuclear 2.44. <a href="/wiki/Wind_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind energy">Wind energy</a> avoided the use of 387 million cubic metres (mn m<sup>3</sup>) of water in 2012, avoiding a cost of €743 million.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In south India the state Tamil Nadu is one of the main agricultural producers in India and it relies largely in groundwater for irrigation. In ten years, from 2002 to 2012, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment calculated that the groundwater reduced in 1.4 m yr−1, which "is nearly 8% more than the annual recharge rate."<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_water_use">Environmental water use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Environmental water use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although agriculture's water use includes provision of important terrestrial environmental values (as discussed in the "<a href="#Water_footprint_of_products_(agricultural_sector)">Water footprint of products</a>" section above), and much "green water" is used in maintaining forests and wild lands, there is also direct environmental use (e.g. of surface water) that may be allocated by governments. For example, in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, where water use issues are sometimes severe because of drought, about 48 percent of "dedicated water use" in an average water year is for the environment (somewhat more than for agriculture).<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such environmental water use is for keeping streams flowing, maintaining aquatic and riparian habitats, keeping wetlands wet, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insufficient_consideration_of_consequences_of_proposed_water_saving_policies_to_farm_households">Insufficient consideration of consequences of proposed water saving policies to farm households</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Insufficient consideration of consequences of proposed water saving policies to farm households"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Dennis Wichelns of the <a href="/wiki/International_Water_Management_Institute" title="International Water Management Institute">International Water Management Institute</a>: "Although one goal of virtual water analysis is to describe opportunities for improving <a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">water security</a>, there is almost no mention of the potential impacts of the prescriptions arising from that analysis on farm households in industrialized or developing countries. It is essential to consider more carefully the inherent flaws in the virtual water and water footprint perspectives, particularly when seeking guidance regarding policy decisions."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_water_scarcity_should_be_taken_into_account_when_interpreting_water_footprint">Regional water scarcity should be taken into account when interpreting water footprint</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Regional water scarcity should be taken into account when interpreting water footprint"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The application and interpretation of water footprints may sometimes be used to promote industrial activities that lead to facile criticism of certain products. For example, the 140 litres required for coffee production for one cup<sup id="cite_ref-waterfootprintorg_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waterfootprintorg-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> might be of no harm to water resources if its cultivation occurs mainly in humid areas, but could be damaging in more arid regions. Other factors such as hydrology, climate, geology, topography, population and demographics should also be taken into account. Nevertheless, high water footprint calculations do suggest that environmental concern may be appropriate. </p><p>Many of the criticisms, including the above ones, compare the description of the water footprint of a <a href="/wiki/Water_system_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Water system (disambiguation)">water system</a> to generated impacts, which is about its performance. Such a comparison between descriptive and performance factors and indicators is basically flawed.<sup id="cite_ref-Haie-2018_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haie-2018-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of the term <i>footprint</i> can also confuse people familiar with the notion of a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a>, because the water footprint concept includes sums of water quantities without necessarily evaluating related impacts. This is in contrast to the carbon footprint, where carbon emissions are not simply summarized but normalized by CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, which are globally identical, to account for the environmental harm. The difference is due to the somewhat more complex nature of water; while involved in the global hydrological cycle, it is expressed in conditions both local and regional through various forms like river basins, watersheds, on down to groundwater (as part of larger <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a> systems). Furthermore, looking at the definition of the footprint itself, and comparing <a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">ecological footprint</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a> and water footprint, we realize that the three terms are indeed legitimate.<sup id="cite_ref-Haie-2018_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haie-2018-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sustainable_water_use">Sustainable water use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sustainable water use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sustainable" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable">Sustainable</a> water use involves the rigorous assessment of all source of clean water to establish the current and future rates of use, the impacts of that use both downstream and in the wider area where the water may be used and the impact of contaminated water streams on the environment and economic well being of the area. It also involves the implementation of <a href="/wiki/Social_policy" title="Social policy">social policies</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Water_pricing" title="Water pricing">water pricing</a> in order to manage water demand.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some localities, water may also have spiritual relevance and the use of such water may need to take account of such interests. For example, the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Maori</a> believe that water is the source and foundation of all life and have many spiritual associations with water and places associated with water.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a national and global scale, water sustainability requires strategic and long term planning to ensure appropriate sources of clean water are identified and the environmental and economic impact of such choices are understood and accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The re-use and reclamation of water is also part of sustainability including downstream impacts on both surface waters and <a href="/wiki/Ground_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground water">ground waters</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-naumann_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-naumann-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sustainability_assessment">Sustainability assessment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Sustainability assessment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Water footprint accounting has advanced substantially in recent years, however, water footprint analysis also needs <a href="/wiki/Sustainability_assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainability assessment">sustainability assessment</a> as its last phase.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoekstra-2011_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoekstra-2011-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the developments is to employ sustainable efficiency and equity ("Sefficiency in Sequity"), which present a comprehensive approach to assessing the sustainable use of water.<sup id="cite_ref-Haie-2018_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haie-2018-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sectoral_distributions_of_withdrawn_water_use">Sectoral distributions of withdrawn water use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Sectoral distributions of withdrawn water use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several nations estimate sectoral distribution of use of water withdrawn from surface and groundwater sources. For example, in Canada, in 2005, 42 billion m<sup>3</sup> of withdrawn water were used, of which about 38 billion m<sup>3</sup> were freshwater. Distribution of this use among sectors was: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation#Water_usage" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">thermoelectric power generation</a> 66.2%, manufacturing 13.6%, residential 9.0%, agriculture 4.7%, commercial and institutional 2.7%, water treatment and distribution systems 2.3%, mining 1.1%, and oil and gas extraction 0.5%. The 38 billion m<sup>3</sup> of freshwater withdrawn in that year can be compared with the nation's annual freshwater yield (estimated as streamflow) of 3,472 billion m<sup>3</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sectoral distribution is different in many respects in the US, where agriculture accounts for about 39% of fresh water withdrawals, thermoelectric power generation 38%, industrial 4%, residential 1%, and mining (including oil and gas) 1%.<sup id="cite_ref-Maupin2014_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maupin2014-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within the agricultural sector, withdrawn water use is for irrigation and for livestock. Whereas all irrigation in the US (including loss in conveyance of irrigation water) is estimated to account for about 38 percent of US withdrawn freshwater use,<sup id="cite_ref-Maupin2014_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maupin2014-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the irrigation water used for production of livestock feed and forage has been estimated to account for about 9 percent,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other withdrawn freshwater use for the livestock sector (for drinking, washdown of facilities, etc.) is estimated at about 0.7 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-Maupin2014_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maupin2014-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because agriculture is a major user of withdrawn water, changes in the magnitude and efficiency of its water use are important. In the US, from 1980 (when agriculture's withdrawn water use peaked) to 2010, there was a 23 percent reduction in agriculture's use of withdrawn water,<sup id="cite_ref-Maupin2014_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maupin2014-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while US agricultural output increased by 49 percent over that period.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the US, irrigation water application data are collected in the quinquennial Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey, conducted as part of the Census of Agriculture. Such data indicate great differences in irrigation water use within various agricultural sectors. For example, about 14 percent of corn-for-grain land and 11 percent of soybean land in the US are irrigated, compared with 66 percent of vegetable land, 79 percent of orchard land and 97 percent of rice land.<sup id="cite_ref-USDA2009_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDA2009-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/48px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/64px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/48px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/64px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deficit_irrigation" title="Deficit irrigation">Deficit irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoff_footprint" title="Runoff footprint">Runoff footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_metabolism" title="Social metabolism">Social metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_water" title="Virtual water">Virtual water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Water resource management">Water resource management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Water resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_positive" title="Water positive">Water positive</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output 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q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180417110409/http://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Hoekstra_and_Chapagain_2007.pdf">"Water footprints of nations: Water use by people as a function of their consumption pattern"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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(2008) Globalization of water: Sharing the planet's freshwater resources, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2210-7886_asc-16030">"16030, 1841-01-13, PERROT (fabrique)"</a>. <i>Art Sales Catalogues Online</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2210-7886_asc-16030">10.1163/2210-7886_asc-16030</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Water+Footprint+Network+-+Aims+%26+history&rft.pub=Water+Footprint+Network&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwaterfootprint.org%2Fen%2Fabout-us%2Faims-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+footprint" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jayne M. Godfrey, Keryn Chalmers. 2012 Water Accounting: International Approaches to Policy and Decision-making. Edward Elgar Publishing. page222</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoekstra, A.Y. 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AC-07-A-51. 639 pp. + appendices.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_footprint&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waterfootprint.org/">Water Footprint Network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://waterfootprint.org/en/resources/interactive-tools/personal-water-footprint-calculator/">Personal Water Footprint Calculator</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aermotorwindmill.com/pages/windmills-and-water-needs">Amount of water needed per day for livestock and household use</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Water_(data_page)" title="Water (data page)">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_model" title="Water model">Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Properties_of_water" title="Properties of water">Properties</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_drop_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Water droplet"><img alt="Water droplet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Water_drop_001.jpg/70px-Water_drop_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Water_drop_001.jpg/105px-Water_drop_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Water_drop_001.jpg/140px-Water_drop_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3714" data-file-height="2475" /></a><figcaption>Water droplet</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">Vapor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">Steam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superheated_steam" title="Superheated steam">superheated</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium-depleted_water" title="Deuterium-depleted water">Deuterium-depleted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiheavy_water" title="Semiheavy water">Semiheavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">Heavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritiated_water" title="Tritiated water">Tritiated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubly_labeled_water" title="Doubly labeled water">Doubly labeled water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronium" title="Hydronium">Hydronium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_distribution_on_Earth" title="Water distribution on Earth">Distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Water resource management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extraterrestrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">Extraterrestrial liquid water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroidal_water" title="Asteroidal water">Asteroidal water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_oceanography" title="Planetary oceanography">Planetary oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_world" title="Ocean world">Ocean world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hycean_planet" title="Hycean planet">Hycean planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extrasolar_candidates_for_liquid_water" title="List of extrasolar candidates for liquid water">List of Candidates</a></li></ul></li> <li>Specific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)#Subsurface_ocean" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_on_Mars" title="Water on Mars">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_water" title="Lunar water">Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus#Subsurface_water_ocean" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical parameters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratification_(water)" title="Stratification (water)">Stratification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Ocean stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Water" title="Portal:Water">Portal</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Water" title="Category:Water">Category</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Water" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Water">Commons</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wiktionary page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/water" class="extiw" title="wikt:water">Wiktionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_resources" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_resources" title="Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_resources" title="Template talk:Natural resources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_resources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_resources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Pollution / quality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">Ambient standards <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airshed" title="Airshed">Airshed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Deforestation (REDD)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy resources">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_coal" title="Peak coal">peak coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_gas" title="Peak gas">peak gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(shadow)" title="Shade (shadow)">shade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">Agricultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_farmland" title="Peak farmland">peak farmland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(agriculture)" title="Field (agriculture)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">Landscape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seascape" title="Seascape">seascape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundscape" title="Soundscape">soundscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewshed" title="Viewshed">viewshed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining_law" title="Mining law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">sand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">peak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_copper" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak copper">copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_phosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak phosphorus">phosphorus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushfood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushfood">Bushfood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber products</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">Meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant Treaty">FAO Plant Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_bank" title="Gene bank">gene banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">herbal medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPOV" class="mw-redirect" title="UPOV">UPOV Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Types / location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer_storage_and_recovery" title="Aquifer storage and recovery">storage and recovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Fresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">remediation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">bergs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">huerta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_resources" title="Marine resources">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">harvesting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Watershed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_efficiency" title="Water efficiency">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_water" title="Peak water">Peak water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">Exploitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">adaptive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">Natural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital_accounting" title="Natural capital accounting">accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_good" title="Environmental good">good</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_heritage" title="Natural heritage">Natural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">Nature reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remnant_natural_area" title="Remnant natural area">remnant natural area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">Resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict <span style="font-size:85%;">(perpetuation)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">Curse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_nationalism" title="Resource nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">Renewable</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_resources" title="Category:Natural resources">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health" title="Template talk:Public health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Medical Officer">Chief Medical Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and<br />epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic<br />disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and<br />safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral<br />sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations,<br />education<br />and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" 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