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class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Emergency settlements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergency_settlements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergency_healthcare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergency_healthcare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Emergency healthcare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergency_healthcare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Challenges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Management and technical processes required to provide sanitation in emergency situations</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raised_toilet_in_Haiti_(7281252188).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Raised_toilet_in_Haiti_%287281252188%29.jpg/220px-Raised_toilet_in_Haiti_%287281252188%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Raised_toilet_in_Haiti_%287281252188%29.jpg/330px-Raised_toilet_in_Haiti_%287281252188%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Raised_toilet_in_Haiti_%287281252188%29.jpg/440px-Raised_toilet_in_Haiti_%287281252188%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Emergency toilet in Haiti, suitable for areas where digging <a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">pit latrines</a> is not possible</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Emergency sanitation</b> is the management and technical processes required to provide <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> in emergency situations. Emergency sanitation is required during <a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">humanitarian relief</a> operations for <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugees</a>, people affected by <a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">natural disasters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Internally_displaced_person" title="Internally displaced person">internally displaced persons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harveybook_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harveybook-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are three phases of emergency response: Immediate, short term and long term.<sup id="cite_ref-Harveybook_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harveybook-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the immediate phase, the focus is on managing <a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">open defecation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Toilet" title="Toilet">toilet</a> technologies might include very basic <a href="/wiki/Latrine" title="Latrine">latrines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pit_latrines" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit latrines">pit latrines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bucket_toilet" title="Bucket toilet">bucket toilets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Container-based_sanitation" title="Container-based sanitation">container-based toilets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_toilet" title="Chemical toilet">chemical toilets</a>. The short term phase might also involve technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Urine-diverting_dry_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Urine-diverting dry toilets">urine-diverting dry toilets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">septic tanks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decentralized_wastewater_system" title="Decentralized wastewater system">decentralized wastewater systems</a>. Providing <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">handwashing</a> facilities and <a href="/wiki/Fecal_sludge_management" title="Fecal sludge management">management of fecal sludge</a> are also part of emergency sanitation. </p><p>The immediate sanitation phase focuses on the provision of proper waste management resources. The main course of action during this stage is reducing <a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">open defecation</a>. It is implemented as a course of initial action in emergency situations and it lasts from one to three months. Toilets provided might include very basic <a href="/wiki/Latrine" title="Latrine">Latrines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pit_latrines" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit latrines">pit latrines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bucket_toilet" title="Bucket toilet">Bucket toilets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Container-based_sanitation" title="Container-based sanitation">container-based toilets</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chemical_toilet" title="Chemical toilet">Chemical toilets</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sphere_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphere Project">Sphere Project</a> handbook provides protection principles and core standards for sanitation to put in place after a disaster or conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The short term sanitation phase provides technology to contain <a href="/wiki/Fecal_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Fecal matter">fecal matter</a> for as long as six months. 75% of the affected population have access to such resources and 75% of the collected waste is disposed of properly. One waste bin that is around 100 liters is provided for the use of 100 people.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bins are placed at a maximum walking distance of 50 metres from where people are housed or camped. </p><p>Waste management bins installed during the long-term phase are sustainable to use for three years. During this phase, 95% of the population have access to the bins and 95% of the waste is properly disposed of. Bins are placed at a maximum distance of 15 metres from living areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fecal_sludge_management" title="Fecal sludge management">Fecal sludge management</a> becomes a priority during the long-term emergency management phase. Providing showers and <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">handwashing</a> facilities is part of emergency sanitation during all phases. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergency_sanitation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Open_defecation_along_the_river_bank_(6908382463).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Open_defecation_along_the_river_bank_%286908382463%29.jpg/220px-Open_defecation_along_the_river_bank_%286908382463%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Open_defecation_along_the_river_bank_%286908382463%29.jpg/330px-Open_defecation_along_the_river_bank_%286908382463%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Open_defecation_along_the_river_bank_%286908382463%29.jpg/440px-Open_defecation_along_the_river_bank_%286908382463%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a> along the river bank in <a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The term "Emergency" is perceived differently by different people and organizations. In a general sense, an emergency may be considered to be a phenomenon originating from a man-made and/or <a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">natural disaster</a> which results in a serious, usually sudden threat to the health or well-being of the affected community which relies on external assistance to easily cope up with the situation.<sup id="cite_ref-Harveybook_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harveybook-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are different categories of emergency depending on its time frame, whether it lasts for few weeks, several months or years.<sup id="cite_ref-Harveybook_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harveybook-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of people who are and will be affected by catastrophes (human crisis and natural disasters), which are increasing in magnitude and frequency, is rapidly increasing. The affected people are subjected to such dangers as temporary homelessness and risks to life and health.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emergency <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> is put into place to create suitable living conditions for populations who lack proper water resources and to decrease the spread of <a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">waterborne illnesses.</a> In June 2012, a conference was held with various relief agencies and government officials in order to address proper management of human <a href="/wiki/Fecal_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Fecal matter">fecal matter</a> along with the public health of people struck with disaster.<sup id="cite_ref-iwaponline.com_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iwaponline.com-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They concluded that the current sanitation solutions were not up to date nor the best of quality. The decision to utilize technology to track human feces collection along with the creation of emergency sanitation coordination centers and the use of smart toilets were among a few of the implemented policies.<sup id="cite_ref-iwaponline.com_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iwaponline.com-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergency_sanitation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emergencysan_unhcr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Emergency pit latrines" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Emergencysan_unhcr.jpg/220px-Emergencysan_unhcr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Emergencysan_unhcr.jpg/330px-Emergencysan_unhcr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Emergencysan_unhcr.jpg/440px-Emergencysan_unhcr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1450" data-file-height="913" /></a><figcaption>Emergency pit latrines with bathing shelters built in the <a href="/wiki/Bidi_Bidi_Refugee_Settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Bidi Bidi Refugee Settlement">Bidi Bidi Refugee Settlement</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>To address the problem of <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> and the spread of dangerous diseases that come as a result of lack of <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">open defecation</a>, humanitarian actors focus on the construction of, for example, <a href="/wiki/Pit_latrines" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit latrines">pit latrines</a> and the implementation of <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a> promotion programs.<sup id="cite_ref-Grange_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grange-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The supply of <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> during an emergency in an urban-setting has been improved by the introduction of standardised, rapid deployment kits. Alternatively, germ-infected water can be sanitized by adding <a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">disinfectants</a>, boiling and/or filtering. If the water supply contains toxic chemicals it cannot be made safe to drink.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the immediate emergency phase, the focus is on managing open defecation, and toilet technologies might include very basic <a href="/wiki/Latrine#Trench_latrine" title="Latrine">trench latrines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pit_latrines" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit latrines">pit latrines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bucket_toilet" title="Bucket toilet">bucket toilets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Container-based_sanitation" title="Container-based sanitation">container-based toilets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_toilet" title="Chemical toilet">chemical toilets</a>. For short-term emergencies there should be an approximate of 1 latrine or toilet for every 50 people, and work should be done with the goal of eventually reducing this amount to 20 people per latrine/toilet if possible.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The short term phase might also involve technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Urine-diverting_dry_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Urine-diverting dry toilets">urine-diverting dry toilets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">septic tanks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decentralized_wastewater_system" title="Decentralized wastewater system">decentralized wastewater systems</a>. </p><p>In urban emergencies, the main focus is usually on a quick rehabilitation and extension of existing services such as <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sewer-lines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">waste-water treatment plants</a>. This can also include the installation of <a href="/wiki/Sewage_pumping" title="Sewage pumping">sewerage pumping</a> stations to improve or extend services. </p><p>The creation of provisional <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">hand washing</a> stations or the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Hand_sanitizer" title="Hand sanitizer">hand sanitizer</a> (that contains 60% of alcohol or more) are put into practice so that people keep their hands clean and thus eliminate the propagation of germs.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Information on health care can be provided to the affected population in their respective languages, including instructions on how to use latrines efficiently. Further efforts can be made to help educate individuals who are not able to read the <a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">health communication</a> materials.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standards">Standards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergency_sanitation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The handbook by <a href="/wiki/Sphere_(organization)" title="Sphere (organization)">Sphere</a> on "Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response" describes minimum standards in four "key response sectors" in <a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">humanitarian response</a> situations. This places "Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion" (<a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a>) alongside the other response sectors which are: Food security and <a href="/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">nutrition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shelter_(building)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shelter (building)">shelter</a> and settlement and health.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> Within the "Water supply, sanitation, and hygiene promotion standards" the handbook describes standards in the following areas: <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> promotion, <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a>, excreta management, <a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">vector control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">solid waste management</a> and WASH in <a href="/wiki/Disease_outbreak" title="Disease outbreak">disease outbreaks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">healthcare</a> settings.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 91">: 91 </span></sup> </p><p>With regards to excreta management, standards relate to: "(1) Environment free from human excreta, (2) Access to and use of <a href="/wiki/Toilet" title="Toilet">toilets</a>, (3) Management and maintenance of excreta collection, transport, disposal and treatment" (<a href="/wiki/Fecal_sludge_management" title="Fecal sludge management">fecal sludge management</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 90">: 90 </span></sup> </p><p>Some key indicators include: </p> <ul><li>"Ratio of shared toilets": Minimum 1 per 20 people<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 114">: 114 </span></sup></li> <li>"Distance between dwelling and shared toilet": Maximum 50 meters<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 114">: 114 </span></sup></li> <li>"Number of handwashing stations at healthcare facilities": Minimum one station for every ten inpatients<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 134">: 134 </span></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manhole_toilet">Manhole toilet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergency_sanitation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Manhole toilet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temporary_Manhole_toilet_for_Disaster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Temporary_Manhole_toilet_for_Disaster.jpg/220px-Temporary_Manhole_toilet_for_Disaster.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Temporary_Manhole_toilet_for_Disaster.jpg/330px-Temporary_Manhole_toilet_for_Disaster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Temporary_Manhole_toilet_for_Disaster.jpg/440px-Temporary_Manhole_toilet_for_Disaster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Historical Museum of Waterworks and Sewerage. Chikusa-ku, Nagoya city, Aichi Prefecture, Japan.</figcaption></figure> <p>Manhole toilet is simple toilet setup on <a href="/wiki/Sewer_manhole" class="mw-redirect" title="Sewer manhole">sewer manhole</a> used for disaster time. </p><p>Bathrooms are one of the biggest issues of evacuation facilities after a disaster like a big earthquake. The water supply comes relatively quick but bathroom issue will be handled not so well. There are many municipal governments encourage Twin Bucket Toilet for residential house and evacuation sites. We need pretty big facilities for long-term evacuation. It is also called "disaster toilet", "toilet for disaster" and "disaster preventative toilet". </p><p>Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism started using manhole toilets by putting a simple toilet over a public sewage manhole. There were many problems because manholes are located on public roads. </p><p>There are several types of manhole toilets that are directly connected to the sewerage system, and it is necessary to consider their adoption depending on the environment. The main types are 1. Flow type (sewer main connection), 2. Storage type (sewer main connection) and 3. Toilet tank type. </p><p>Japan Trying to Spread Use of "Manhole Toilets" in Disasters.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Locations">Locations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergency_sanitation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Locations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mass_shelter">Mass shelter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergency_sanitation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mass shelter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mass shelter settings where the displaced population is housed in existing but often re-purposed building-complexes such as schools, <a href="/wiki/Community_centres" class="mw-redirect" title="Community centres">community centres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Places_of_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Places of worship">places of worship</a>, malls, <a href="/wiki/Warehouse" title="Warehouse">warehouses</a> and sport stadiums. Jurisdictional governments are primarily responsible for ensuring that people are directed to clear evacuation routes and zones. In some disaster prone countries, dedicated large <a href="/wiki/Emergency_shelter" title="Emergency shelter">emergency shelters</a> are built for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Existing sanitation facilities are usually inadequate for full-time stay of a high number of people, and the non-emergency management structures are typically unable or unwilling to continue their services. Legal issues over the re-purposing are also fairly common, especially if occupation continues for a longer time. </p><p>Due to usually cramped living conditions there is a high risk of conflict and often also cases of sexual violence, both of which often are in some relation to the sanitation facilities. Mortality rates are high among large groups of internally displaced people.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergency_settlements">Emergency settlements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergency_sanitation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Emergency settlements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergency settlements (formal or informal) where previously sparsely populated areas are newly occupied by the displaced population in large numbers. <a href="/wiki/Refugee_camp" title="Refugee camp">Refugee camps</a> fall into this category. Typically these are set up by governments, the UN and <a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">humanitarian aid</a> organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the typically short time frame of arrivals and the non-existing infrastructure, these kind of encampments pose maybe the greatest challenge in regards to providing adequate emergency sanitation facilities. The immediate demand for basic supplies and health services, having to account for the injured, dead, and survivors of man-made and/or natural disasters also aggravates these issues.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergency_healthcare">Emergency healthcare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergency_sanitation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Emergency healthcare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Infection prevention and control (IPC) is an important activity in disease prevention in any emergency situation. It is critical for the patients and the healthcare worker to ensure Minimum Standards are met in healthcare settings during emergency situations, but doing so often requires structured collaboration and support from emergency response teams, including WASH actors.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All healthcare settings should maintain minimum WASH infection prevention and Control standards. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges">Challenges</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergency_sanitation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Challenges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emergency_pit_lining_kits_by_Evenproducts_(6619616743).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Emergency_pit_lining_kits_by_Evenproducts_%286619616743%29.jpg/220px-Emergency_pit_lining_kits_by_Evenproducts_%286619616743%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Emergency_pit_lining_kits_by_Evenproducts_%286619616743%29.jpg/330px-Emergency_pit_lining_kits_by_Evenproducts_%286619616743%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Emergency_pit_lining_kits_by_Evenproducts_%286619616743%29.jpg/440px-Emergency_pit_lining_kits_by_Evenproducts_%286619616743%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Emergency pit lining kits, suitable for areas with high water table</figcaption></figure> <p>The provision of sanitation programmes is usually more challenging than <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a> as it provides a limited choice of technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-Grange_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grange-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Briantj_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Briantj-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is exacerbated by the overwhelming and diverse needs of <a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Briantj_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Briantj-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> recognises that the emergency setting is a challenging situation with respect to access to sanitation, and therefore recognises shared or public toilets that safely contain excreta under this setting as safe sanitation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Challenges with excreta disposal in emergencies building <a href="/wiki/Latrines" class="mw-redirect" title="Latrines">Latrines</a> in areas where pits cannot be dug, desludging latrines, no-toilet options and the final treatment or disposal of the <a href="/wiki/Fecal_sludge_management" title="Fecal sludge management">fecal sludge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bastable_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bastable-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergency_sanitation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-supply_of_water_and_sanitation" title="Self-supply of water and sanitation">Self-supply of water and sanitation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergency_sanitation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Harveybook-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harveybook_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harveybook_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harveybook_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harveybook_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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aria-labelledby="Public_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health" title="Template talk:Public health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Medical Officer">Chief Medical Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and<br />epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic<br />disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and<br />safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral<br />sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations,<br />education<br />and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" 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