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href="#Samarkand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Samarkand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samarkand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gurganj" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gurganj"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Gurganj</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gurganj-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Khorasan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khorasan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Khorasan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khorasan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jalal_al-Din" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jalal_al-Din"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Jalal al-Din</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jalal_al-Din-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B2%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الغزو المغولي للدولة الخوارزمية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الغزو المغولي للدولة الخوارزمية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monqollar%C4%B1n_Xar%C9%99zm%C9%99_y%C3%BCr%C3%BC%C5%9F%C3%BC" title="Monqolların Xarəzmə yürüşü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Monqolların Xarəzmə yürüşü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%87_%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%88" title="موغوللارین خارزمه یوروشو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="موغوللارین خارزمه یوروشو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Мангольскае заваяванне Харэзма – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мангольскае заваяванне Харэзма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasi%C3%B3_mongola_de_Cor%C3%A0smia" title="Invasió mongola de Coràsmia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Invasió mongola de Coràsmia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasionen_af_Khwarezmia" title="Invasionen af Khwarezmia – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Invasionen af Khwarezmia" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasi%C3%B3n_mongola_de_Corasmia" title="Invasión mongola de Corasmia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Invasión mongola de Corasmia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolaj_invadoj_de_%C4%A4orezmo" title="Mongolaj invadoj de Ĥorezmo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mongolaj invadoj de Ĥorezmo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86" title="حمله مغول به امپراتوری خوارزمشاهیان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حمله مغول به امپراتوری خوارزمشاهیان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_mongole_de_l%27Empire_khwarezmien" title="Invasion mongole de l'Empire khwarezmien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Invasion mongole de l'Empire khwarezmien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasi_Mongol_ke_Kwarezmia" title="Invasi Mongol ke Kwarezmia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Invasi Mongol ke Kwarezmia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasione_mongola_della_Corasmia" title="Invasione mongola della Corasmia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Invasione mongola della Corasmia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%96%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%99" title="הפלישה המונגולית לאזור הים הכספי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הפלישה המונגולית לאזור הים הכספי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol%C5%B3_invazija_%C4%AF_Chorezm%C4%85" title="Mongolų invazija į Chorezmą – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mongolų invazija į Chorezmą" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_hadj%C3%A1rat_Hv%C3%A1rezm_ellen" title="Mongol hadjárat Hvárezm ellen – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mongol hadjárat Hvárezm ellen" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%87%D1%83%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D1%80%D2%AF%D2%AF_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Монголчуудын Хорезм рүү хийсэн дайралт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Монголчуудын Хорезм рүү хийсэн дайралт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A2%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B4%E3%83%AB%E3%81%AE%E3%83%9B%E3%83%A9%E3%82%BA%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A3%E3%83%BC%E6%9C%9D%E5%BE%81%E6%9C%8D" title="モンゴルのホラズム・シャー朝征服 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="モンゴルのホラズム・シャー朝征服" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xorazmshohlar_imperiyasiga_mo%CA%BBg%CA%BBul_bosqini" title="Xorazmshohlar imperiyasiga moʻgʻul bosqini – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xorazmshohlar imperiyasiga moʻgʻul bosqini" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88_%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7_%D8%AF_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%8D_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%87(%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%87)" title="د مغولو له خوا د خوارزمي سترواکۍ سوبه(فتحه) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د مغولو له خوا د خوارزمي سترواکۍ سوبه(فتحه)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_mongol_do_Imp%C3%A9rio_Cor%C3%A1smio" title="Conquista mongol do Império Corásmio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Conquista mongol do Império Corásmio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Монгольское завоевание Хорезма – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Монгольское завоевание Хорезма" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolien_hy%C3%B6kk%C3%A4ykset_Kovaresmiaan" title="Mongolien hyökkäykset Kovaresmiaan – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mongolien hyökkäykset Kovaresmiaan" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolernas_invasion_av_Khwarezm" title="Mongolernas invasion av Khwarezm – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mongolernas invasion av Khwarezm" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="மங்கோலியர்களின் குவாரசமியப் படையெடுப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மங்கோலியர்களின் குவாரசமியப் படையெடுப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B2_%E0%B0%96%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0" title="మంగోలుల ఖ్వారెజ్మియా దండయాత్ర – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మంగోలుల ఖ్వారెజ్మియా దండయాత్ర" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harezm%C5%9Fahlar%27%C4%B1n_Mo%C4%9Follar_taraf%C4%B1ndan_istilas%C4%B1" title="Harezmşahlar'ın Moğollar tarafından istilası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Harezmşahlar'ın Moğollar tarafından istilası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1219–1221 military campaign</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> conquest of Khwarezmia</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Central Asia">Mongol invasion of Central Asia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Persia_and_Mesopotamia" title="Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia">Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:300px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:300px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:300px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire is located in Continental Asia"><img alt="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire is located in Continental Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/300px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/450px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/600px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" /></a></span><div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire_and_the_Mongol_Federation_circa_1200_CE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Map_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire_and_the_Mongol_Federation_circa_1200_CE.png/300px-Map_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire_and_the_Mongol_Federation_circa_1200_CE.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Map_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire_and_the_Mongol_Federation_circa_1200_CE.png/450px-Map_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire_and_the_Mongol_Federation_circa_1200_CE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Map_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire_and_the_Mongol_Federation_circa_1200_CE.png/600px-Map_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire_and_the_Mongol_Federation_circa_1200_CE.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" /></a></span></div><div id="annotation_270x05" style="position:absolute; left:270px; top:05px; font-size:10px; font-weight:bold; font-size:10; line-height:12px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/1215_CE" class="mw-redirect" title="1215 CE"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">1215</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_70x80" style="position:absolute; left:70px; top:80px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">KHWARAZMIAN<br />EMPIRE</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_40x45" style="position:absolute; left:40px; top:45px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Cumania" title="Cumania"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">CUMAN KHANATES</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_20x25" style="position:absolute; left:20px; top:25px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">KIEVAN<br />RUS'</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_200x40" style="position:absolute; left:200px; top:40px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Khamag_Mongol" title="Khamag Mongol"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">MONGOL<br />CONFEDERATION</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_115x40" style="position:absolute; left:115px; top:40px; font-size:6.5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6.5; line-height:8.5px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Kimek%E2%80%93Kipchak_confederation" title="Kimek–Kipchak confederation"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">KIPCHACKS</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_130x57" style="position:absolute; left:130px; top:57px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">QARA KHITAI</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_162x70" style="position:absolute; left:162px; top:70px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Qocho" title="Qocho"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">QOCHO</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_123x103" style="position:absolute; left:123px; top:103px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Ghurid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghurid Empire"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">GHURIDS</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_35x82" style="position:absolute; left:35px; top:82px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Zengids" class="mw-redirect" title="Zengids"><span 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href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">JIN<br />DYNASTY</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_210x70" style="position:absolute; left:210px; top:70px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">XI XIA</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_230x100" style="position:absolute; left:230px; top:100px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Song_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Song Dynasty"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">SONG<br />DYNASTY</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_193x135" style="position:absolute; left:193px; top:135px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">PAGAN</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_205x120" style="position:absolute; left:205px; top:120px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Dali_Kingdom" title="Dali Kingdom"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">DALI</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_210x145" style="position:absolute; left:210px; top:145px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">KHMER</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_2x100" style="position:absolute; left:2px; top:100px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">AYYUBID<br />SULTANATE</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_5x73" style="position:absolute; left:5px; top:73px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">SULTANATE<br />OF RUM</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_280x74" style="position:absolute; left:280px; top:74px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo"><span style="color:#4F311CFF">GO-<br />RYEO</span></a></span></div></div></div></div></div><br /><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">The <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Khamag_Mongol" title="Khamag Mongol">Mongol homeland</a> in continental Asia <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1215</span>, five years before the Mongol invasion</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>1219–1221</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Mongol victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> Khwarezmia annexed to the Mongol Empire</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chaghatai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebe" title="Jebe">Jebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigi_Qutuqu" title="Shigi Qutuqu">Shigi Qutuqu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarachar_Noyan" title="Qarachar Noyan">Qarachar Noyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuqachar_Barlas" title="Tuqachar Barlas">Tuqachar Barlas</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarazm" title="Muhammad II of Khwarazm">Muhammad II of Khwarazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalal_ad-Din_Mingburnu" class="mw-redirect" title="Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu">Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inalchuq" title="Inalchuq">Inalchuq</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timur_Malik" title="Timur Malik">Timur Malik</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li> <li>Qaracha <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Units involved</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mounted_archery" title="Mounted archery">Horse archers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_cavalry" title="Heavy cavalry">Heavy cavalry</a> <a href="/wiki/Lancer" title="Lancer">lancers</a></li> <li>Auxiliaries, <a href="/wiki/Sapper" title="Sapper">engineers</a>, and specialists</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">Siege engines</a>, including <a href="/wiki/History_of_gunpowder#Chinese_beginnings" title="History of gunpowder">Chinese gunpowder weapons</a></li> <li>Drafted Khwarizmian civilians</li></ul> </div></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Predominantly city <a href="/wiki/Garrison" title="Garrison">garrisons</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p>Disputed (see below). Estimates include: </p> <ul><li>75,000</li> <li>100,000</li> <li>120,000</li> <li>150,000</li> <li>700,000</li> <li>800,000</li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p>Disputed (see below). Estimates include: </p> <ul><li>40,000</li> <li>200,000</li> <li>400,000</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="width:100%"> Possibly as high as 10–15 million people</td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Template:Campaignbox Mongol invasions and conquests"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Mongol invasions and conquests"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Mongol invasions and conquests"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mongol_invasions_andconquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Mongol invasions and<br />conquests</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:lightsteelblue;">Asia</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaigns_in_Central_Asia" title="Mongol campaigns in Central Asia">Central Asia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Qara_Khitai" title="Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khwarezm</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia" title="Mongol invasions of Georgia">Caucassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Anatolia" title="Mongol conquest of Anatolia">Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Persia_and_Mesopotamia" title="Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia">Persia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaign_against_the_Nizaris" title="Mongol campaign against the Nizaris">Nizari state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Levant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_raids_into_Palestine" title="Mongol raids into Palestine">Palestine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China" title="Mongol conquest of China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Western_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Western Xia">Western Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Eastern_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Eastern Xia">Eastern Xia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">Song</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Tibet" title="Mongol invasions of Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Sakhalin" title="Mongol invasions of Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">Japan</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li>Burma (<a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="First Mongol invasion of Burma">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">Second</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Java" title="Mongol invasion of Java">Java</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#d4dfed;text-align:right;font-weight:normal; line-height:130%; padding:0.2em; width:5em; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid;">Other invasions</th><td class="infobox-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_India" title="Mongol invasions of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaigns_in_Siberia" title="Mongol campaigns in Siberia">Siberia</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:lightsteelblue;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="vertical-align:middle;padding-left:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Volga_Bulgaria" title="Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumans#Mongol_invasions" title="Cumans">Cumania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Durdzuketi" title="Mongol invasions of Durdzuketi">Durdzuketi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Circassia" title="Mongol invasion of Circassia">Circassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alania#Mongol_conquest_and_aftermath_(13th–14th_centuries)" title="Alania">Alania</a></li> <li>Poland and Bohemia (<a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="First Mongol invasion of Poland">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Second Mongol invasion of Poland">Second</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Third Mongol invasion of Poland">Third</a>)</li> <li>Hungary and Croatia (<a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="First Mongol invasion of Hungary">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="Second Mongol invasion of Hungary">Second</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_incursions_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Mongol incursions in the Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Bulgaria_and_Serbia" title="Mongol invasion of Bulgaria and Serbia">Bulgaria and Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Latin_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Lithuania" title="Mongol invasions of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Byzantine_Thrace" title="Mongol invasion of Byzantine Thrace">Byzantine Thrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_conflict_with_the_Nogai_Horde" title="Serbian conflict with the Nogai Horde">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese%E2%80%93Mongol_Wars" title="Genoese–Mongol Wars">Gazaria</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mongol_invasion_of_Khwarazmia" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Template:Campaignbox Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mongol_invasion_of_Khwarazmia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="wrap">Mongol invasion of Khwarazmia</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irghiz_River_skirmish" title="Irghiz River skirmish">Irghiz River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otrar_Catastrophe" title="Otrar Catastrophe">Otrar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bukhara" title="Siege of Bukhara">Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Samarkand_(1220)" title="Siege of Samarkand (1220)">Samarkand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gurganj" title="Siege of Gurganj">Gurganj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Khorasan" title="Mongol invasion of Khorasan">Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Merv_(1221)" title="Siege of Merv (1221)">Merv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waliyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Waliyan">Waliyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Parwan" title="Battle of Parwan">Parwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Indus" title="Battle of the Indus">Indus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Between 1219 and 1221,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol forces</a> under <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> invaded the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. The campaign, which followed <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Qara_Khitai" title="Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai">the annexation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a> Khanate, saw <a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">widespread devastation and atrocities</a>. The invasion marked the completion of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of Central Asia">Mongol conquest of Central Asia</a>, and began the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of Persia">Mongol conquest of Persia</a>. </p><p>Both belligerents, although large, had been formed recently: the <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarazmian dynasty</a> had expanded from <a href="/wiki/Khwarazm" title="Khwarazm">their homeland</a> to replace the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a> in the late 1100s and early 1200s; nearly simultaneously, <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Rise of Genghis Khan">had unified</a> the <a href="/wiki/Mongolic_peoples" title="Mongolic peoples">Mongolic peoples</a> and conquered the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Western_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Western Xia">Western Xia</a> dynasty. Although relations were initially cordial, Genghis was angered by a series of diplomatic provocations. When a senior Mongol diplomat was executed by <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmshah" title="Khwarazmshah">Khwarazmshah</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarazm" title="Muhammad II of Khwarazm">Muhammed II</a>, the Khan mobilized his forces, estimated to be between 90,000 and 200,000 men, and invaded. The Shah's forces were widely dispersed and probably outnumbered—realizing his disadvantage, he decided to garrison his cities individually to bog the Mongols down. However, through <a href="/wiki/Mongol_military_tactics_and_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol military tactics and organization">excellent organization</a> and planning, the Mongols were able to isolate and conquer the <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxianan</a> cities of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bukhara" title="Siege of Bukhara">Bukhara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Samarkand_(1220)" title="Siege of Samarkand (1220)">Samarkand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gurganj" title="Siege of Gurganj">Gurganj</a>. Genghis and his youngest son <a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui</a> then laid waste to <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, destroying <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>, three of the largest cities in the world. Meanwhile, Muhammed II was forced into flight by the forces of Mongol generals <a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jebe" title="Jebe">Jebe</a>; unable to reach any bastions of support, he died destitute on an island in the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>. His son and heir <a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Din_Mangburni" title="Jalal al-Din Mangburni">Jalal-al Din</a> managed to mobilize substantial forces, defeating a Mongol general at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Parwan" title="Battle of Parwan">Battle of Parwan</a>, but these were crushed by Genghis at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Indus" title="Battle of the Indus">Battle of the Indus</a> a few months later. </p><p>After clearing up any remaining resistance, Genghis returned to his <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">war against the Jin dynasty</a> in 1223. The war was one of the bloodiest in human history, with total casualties estimated to be between two and fifteen million people. The subjugation of the Khwarazmian lands provided a base for the Mongols' later assaults on <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Georgia">Georgia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of Persia">the rest of Persia</a>; when the empire later <a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">divided into separate khanates</a>, the Persian lands formerly ruled by the Khwarazmids would be governed by the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>, while the northern cities would be ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a>. The campaign, which saw the Mongols engage and defeat a non-<a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinicized</a> state for the first time, was a pivotal moment in the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The dominant force in late twelfth-century <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Qara-Khitai" class="mw-redirect" title="Qara-Khitai">Qara-Khitai</a> <a href="/wiki/Khanate" title="Khanate">Khanate</a>, which had been founded by <a href="/wiki/Yel%C3%BC_Dashi" title="Yelü Dashi">Yelü Dashi</a> in the 1130s. <a href="/wiki/Khwarezmian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarezmian Empire">Khwarazm</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Qarakhanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Qarakhanids">Qarakhanids</a> were nominally <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassals</a> of the Qara-Khitai, but in practice, due to their large population and extent, they were allowed to operate almost autonomously.<sup id="cite_ref-Golden_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golden-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 12">: 12 </span></sup>Of these two major vassals, the Qarakhanids were by far the more prestigious; they had ruled in the area for two centuries, and controlled many of the richest cities in the region, such as <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fergana" title="Fergana">Fergana</a>. By comparison, Khwarazm had only one major city in <a href="/wiki/Urganj" class="mw-redirect" title="Urganj">Urgench</a>, and had only come to prominence after 1150 under <a href="/wiki/Il-Arslan" title="Il-Arslan">Il-Arslan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Golden_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golden-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 13–14">: 13–14 </span></sup> </p><p>However, as the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a> slowly fractured after the death of <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Sanjar" title="Ahmad Sanjar">Ahmad Sanjar</a> in 1154, the Khwarazmids were able to take advantage of the chaos due to their geographical proximity; Il-Arslan's son <a href="/wiki/Ala_al-Din_Tekish" title="Ala al-Din Tekish">Tekish</a> captured large cities such as <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> in the nearby region of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, gaining enough power to declare himself a fully-fledged sovereign in 1189.<sup id="cite_ref-Buniyatov_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buniyatov-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 32–33">: 32–33 </span></sup> Allying with the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid caliph">Abbasid caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">Al-Nasir</a>, he overthrew the last Seljuk emperor, <a href="/wiki/Toghrul_III" title="Toghrul III">Toghrul III</a>, in 1194, and usurped the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate">sultanate</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hamadan" title="Hamadan">Hamadan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tekish now ruled a great swathe of territory stretching from <a href="/wiki/Hamadan" title="Hamadan">Hamadan</a> in the west to <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a> in the east; drawing on his newfound strength, he threatened war with the caliph, who reluctantly accepted him as Sultan of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khorasan_province" title="Khorasan province">Khorasan</a> in 1198.<sup id="cite_ref-Buniyatov_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buniyatov-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 44–48">: 44–48 </span></sup> The rapid expansion of what was now the Khwarazmian Empire greatly destabilized the Qara-Khitai, which was nominally the overlord. In the early thirteenth century, the khanate would be destabilized further by refugees fleeing the conquests of <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Genghis_Khan" title="Rise of Genghis Khan">had begun to establish hegemony</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongol</a> <a href="/wiki/Nomadic_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomadic tribes">tribes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Biran_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biran-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khwarezmian_Empire_1190_-_1220_(AD).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Khwarezmian_Empire_1190_-_1220_%28AD%29.PNG/220px-Khwarezmian_Empire_1190_-_1220_%28AD%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Khwarezmian_Empire_1190_-_1220_%28AD%29.PNG/330px-Khwarezmian_Empire_1190_-_1220_%28AD%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Khwarezmian_Empire_1190_-_1220_%28AD%29.PNG/440px-Khwarezmian_Empire_1190_-_1220_%28AD%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Khwarazmian Empire (1190–1220), on the eve of the Mongol conquests</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarazm" title="Muhammad II of Khwarazm">Muhammad II</a> became <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmshah" title="Khwarazmshah">Khwarazmshah</a> after his father Tekish died in 1200. Despite a troubled early start to his reign, which saw conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, he followed his predecessor's expansionist policies by subjugating the <a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Qarakhanids</a> and taking their cities, including <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Abazov_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abazov-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1211, <a href="/wiki/Kuchlug" title="Kuchlug">Kuchlug</a>, a prince of the <a href="/wiki/Naimans" title="Naimans">Naimans</a>, managed to usurp the Qara-Khitai Empire from his father-in-law <a href="/wiki/Yel%C3%BC_Zhilugu" title="Yelü Zhilugu">Yelü Zhilugu</a> with Muhammad's help, but alienated both his subjects and the Khwarazmshah with anti-Muslim measures.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 30–31">: 30–31 </span></sup> As a Mongol detachment led by <a href="/wiki/Jebe" title="Jebe">Jebe</a> hunted him down, Kuchlug fled; meanwhile, Muhammad was able to vassalize the territories of <a href="/wiki/Balochistan" title="Balochistan">Balochistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makran</a>, and to gain the allegiance of the <a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Eldiguzids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Abazov_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abazov-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Mongol-Khwarazmian_relationship_deterioration"></span> Following the defeat of Kuchlug, their shared enemy, relations between the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongols</a> and the Khwarazmids were initially strong; however, the Shah soon grew apprehensive regarding his new eastern enemy. The chronicler <a href="/wiki/Shihab_al-Din_Muhammad_al-Nasawi" title="Shihab al-Din Muhammad al-Nasawi">Al-Nasawi</a> attributes this change in attitude to the memory of <a href="/wiki/Battle_on_the_Irghiz_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle on the Irghiz River">an unintended earlier encounter</a> with Mongol troops, whose speed and mobility frightened the Shah.<sup id="cite_ref-Nasawi_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nasawi-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also likely that the Shah had grown in pride — like his father, he was now embroiled in a dispute with the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid</a> caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">Al-Nasir</a>, and even went so far as to march on <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> with an army, but was repulsed by a blizzard in the <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Abazov_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abazov-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some historians have speculated that the caliph tried to ally with <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>, especially after Mongol-Khwarazmid relations deteriorated. Mongol historians are adamant that Genghis at that time had no intention of invading the Khwarazmian Empire, and was only interested in trade and even a potential alliance.<sup id="cite_ref-Hildinger_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hildinger-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They cite the fact he was already bogged down in <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">his war against the Jin</a> in China, and that he had to deal with the <i>Hoi-yin Irgen</i> (<a href="/wiki/Tumed" title="Tumed">Tumed</a>) rebellion in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> in 1216.<sup id="cite_ref-Timothy_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timothy-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Otrar_caravan_execution"></span> In 1218, the Khan sent a large <a href="/wiki/Camel_train" title="Camel train">caravan</a> of Mongol merchants to Khwarazmia; it seems probable that a large proportion of the Mongol elite had invested in the expedition, and thus had a personal interest in its success. However, <a href="/wiki/Inalchuq" title="Inalchuq">Inalchuq</a>, the governor of the Khwarazmian city of <a href="/wiki/Otrar" title="Otrar">Otrar</a>, seized the caravan's goods and executed its members on charges of espionage.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The validity of the accusations has been debated, as has the Shah's involvement; it is certain, though, that he rejected the Khan's subsequent demands that Inalchuq be punished, going so far as to kill one Mongol envoy and humiliate the other two. This was seen as a grave affront to the Khan himself, who considered ambassadors "as sacred and inviolable" as the Great Khan himself.<sup id="cite_ref-Juvani_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juvani-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 80">: 80 </span></sup> He abandoned his war against the Jin, leaving only a small army to pursue it, and gathered as many men as possible to invade Khwarazmia.<sup id="cite_ref-Timothy_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timothy-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opposing_forces">Opposing forces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Opposing forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Size_of_armies_in_Mongol_conquest_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turkic_guard_in_Preaching_scene_at_Rayy_in_maq%C4%81ma_21_(fols._58v%E2%80%9359r,_douvle-page_spread_as_a_unit),_Maqamat_al-Harari_1237.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Turkic_guard_in_Preaching_scene_at_Rayy_in_maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_douvle-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari_1237.jpg/330px-Turkic_guard_in_Preaching_scene_at_Rayy_in_maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_douvle-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari_1237.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Turkic_guard_in_Preaching_scene_at_Rayy_in_maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_douvle-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari_1237.jpg/495px-Turkic_guard_in_Preaching_scene_at_Rayy_in_maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_douvle-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari_1237.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Turkic_guard_in_Preaching_scene_at_Rayy_in_maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_douvle-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari_1237.jpg/660px-Turkic_guard_in_Preaching_scene_at_Rayy_in_maq%C4%81ma_21_%28fols._58v%E2%80%9359r%2C_douvle-page_spread_as_a_unit%29%2C_Maqamat_al-Harari_1237.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4307" data-file-height="1974" /></a><figcaption>Prince of the region of <a href="/wiki/Rayy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rayy">Rayy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The precise sizes of each force have been heavily disputed; the one certainty is that the Mongol army numbered more than the Shah's.<sup id="cite_ref-Sverdrup1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sverdrup1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 113">: 113 </span></sup> The medieval chronicler <a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din Hamadani</a> attested that the Mongol army numbered over 600,000 strong, and that they were opposed by 400,000 total Khwarazmians;<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his contemporary <a href="/wiki/Minhaj-i_Siraj_Juzjani" title="Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani">Juzjani</a> gives an even greater estimate of 800,000 for the Khan.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These numbers are regarded as greatly inflated by modern historians; the only contemporary source regarded as near-reliable is <i><a href="/wiki/The_Secret_History_of_the_Mongols" class="mw-redirect" title="The Secret History of the Mongols">The Secret History of the Mongols</a></i>, which gives totals of between 100,000 and 135,000 for the Mongol army, although these totals may have been deflated by a pro-Mongol chronicler.<sup id="cite_ref-Sverdrup1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sverdrup1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 109">: 109 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kim_Stubbs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kim Stubbs (page does not exist)">Stubbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morris_Rossabi" title="Morris Rossabi">Rossabi</a> indicate that the total Mongol invasion force cannot have been more than 200,000, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Sverdrup&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carl Sverdrup (page does not exist)">Sverdrup</a>, who hypothesizes that a <a href="/wiki/Tumen_(unit)" title="Tumen (unit)">tumen</a> had often been overestimated in size, gives a minimum figure of 75,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Sverdrup1_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sverdrup1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 109, 113">: 109, 113 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stubbs_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stubbs-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rossabi_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rossabi-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most historians have given figures between these two extremes: <a href="/wiki/Frank_McLynn" title="Frank McLynn">McLynn</a> estimates the Mongol force at around 120,000;<sup id="cite_ref-McLynn_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLynn-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 268">: 268 </span></sup> while <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Masson_Smith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Masson Smith (page does not exist)">Smith</a> follows the <i>Secret History</i> with a figure of 130,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The uncertainty is made worse by the high flexibility and efficiency of <a href="/wiki/Mongol_military_tactics_and_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol military tactics and organization">the Mongol force's operational structure</a>, allowing it to separate and coalesce at will.<sup id="cite_ref-Owen_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Owen-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As for the Khwarazmians, there is no similarly reliable contemporary source; Sverdrup, taking the proportional exaggeration of the Muslim forces as equal to that of the Mongols, has estimated a total of around 40,000 soldiers, excluding certain town militias.<sup id="cite_ref-Sverdrup1_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sverdrup1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 113">: 113 </span></sup> Mclynn however provides a much greater figure of 200,000.<sup id="cite_ref-McLynn_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McLynn-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 263">: 263 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dispositions">Dispositions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Dispositions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmshah" title="Khwarazmshah">Khwarazmshah</a> faced many problems. His empire was vast and newly formed, with a still-developing administration.<sup id="cite_ref-Barthold_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barthold-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 373–380">: 373–380 </span></sup> It is known that in 1218 he had overhauled the Seljuk-era administration, replacing it with a streamlined, loyal bureaucracy; the ongoing change may have contributed to disorder during the Mongol invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-Bosworth_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bosworth-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 174">: 174 </span></sup> In addition, his mother <a href="/wiki/Terken_Khatun_(wife_of_Ala_ad-Din_Tekish)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terken Khatun (wife of Ala ad-Din Tekish)">Terken Khatun</a> still wielded substantial power in the realm; one historian termed the relationship between the Shah and his mother as 'an uneasy diarchy', which often acted to Muhammad's disadvantage.<sup id="cite_ref-Golden_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golden-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 14–15">: 14–15 </span></sup> </p><p>Additionally, many of the areas that Muhammad charged his troops to defend had been devastated recently by Khwarazmian forces; when later passing through <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a>, he urged the citizens to repair the fortifications his father had broken down, while <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a> had been sacked by Muhammad only eight years earlier, in 1212.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Shah also distrusted most of his commanders, with the only exception being his eldest son and heir <a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Din_Mangburni" title="Jalal al-Din Mangburni">Jalal al-Din</a>, whose military acumen had been critical <a href="/wiki/Battle_on_the_Irghiz_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle on the Irghiz River">on the Irghiz River</a> the previous year.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 31">: 31 </span></sup> If he had sought open battle, as many of his commanders wished, he would certainly have been greatly outmatched in quantity of troops, let alone quality.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Shah thus made the decision to distribute his forces as garrison troops inside his most important towns, such as <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Timothy_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timothy-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Genghis' army was commanded by his most able generals, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Muqali" title="Muqali">Muqali</a>, who was left behind to continue <a href="/wiki/Mongol-Jin_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol-Jin War">the war against the Jin</a>. Genghis also brought a large body of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese</a> siege and construction experts, including several Chinese who were familiar with <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians have suggested that the Mongol invasion had brought Chinese gunpowder weapons, such as the <a href="/wiki/Huochong" title="Huochong">huochong</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Campaign">Campaign</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_movements">Early movements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early movements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genghis_Khan%27s_Middle_Eastern_campaigns_1216-1224.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Genghis_Khan%27s_Middle_Eastern_campaigns_1216-1224.jpg/400px-Genghis_Khan%27s_Middle_Eastern_campaigns_1216-1224.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Genghis_Khan%27s_Middle_Eastern_campaigns_1216-1224.jpg/600px-Genghis_Khan%27s_Middle_Eastern_campaigns_1216-1224.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Genghis_Khan%27s_Middle_Eastern_campaigns_1216-1224.jpg/800px-Genghis_Khan%27s_Middle_Eastern_campaigns_1216-1224.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3745" data-file-height="1983" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>'s invasion of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> from 1216 to 1224</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmshah" title="Khwarazmshah">Khwarazmshah</a> and his advisers assumed that the Mongols would invade through the <a href="/wiki/Dzungarian_Gate" title="Dzungarian Gate">Dzungarian Gate</a>, the natural mountain pass in between their (now conquered) <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara-Khitai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian</a> empires. One option for the Khwarazmian defence was to advance beyond the towns of the <a href="/wiki/Syr_Darya" title="Syr Darya">Syr Darya</a> and block the Dzungarian Gate with an army, since it would take <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> many months to gather his army in Mongolia and advance through the pass after winter had passed.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Mongol force under <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei</a> soon descended onto <a href="/wiki/Otrar" title="Otrar">Otrar</a> from either the <a href="/wiki/Altai_Mountains" title="Altai Mountains">Altai Mountains</a> to the north or the <a href="/wiki/Dzungarian_Gate" title="Dzungarian Gate">Dzungarian Gate</a> and immediately <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Otrar" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Otrar">started laying siege to it</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid Al-Din</a> stated that Otrar had a garrison of 20,000 while <a href="/wiki/Ata-Malik_Juvayni" title="Ata-Malik Juvayni">Juvayni</a> claimed 60,000 (horsemen and militia), though like the army figures given in most <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> chronicles, these numbers should be treated with caution and are probably exaggerated by an order of magnitude considering the size of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kyzyl-Kala_under_restoration_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Kyzyl-Kala_under_restoration_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Kyzyl-Kala_under_restoration_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Kyzyl-Kala_under_restoration_%28cropped%29.jpg/450px-Kyzyl-Kala_under_restoration_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Kyzyl-Kala_under_restoration_%28cropped%29.jpg/600px-Kyzyl-Kala_under_restoration_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="1808" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Khorezm_fortresses" class="mw-redirect" title="Khorezm fortresses">Khwarazmian fortress</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kyzyl-Kala" title="Kyzyl-Kala">Kyzyl-Kala</a> participated to the resistance to the Mongol invasion.</figcaption></figure> <p>Unlike most of the other cities, <a href="/wiki/Otrar" title="Otrar">Otrar</a> did not surrender after little fighting, nor did its governor march its army out into the field to be destroyed by the numerically superior Mongols. Instead the garrison remained on the walls and resisted stubbornly, holding out against many attacks. The siege proceeded for five months without results, until a traitor within the walls (Qaracha) who felt no loyalty to the <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarazm" title="Muhammad II of Khwarazm">Shah</a> or <a href="/wiki/Inalchuq" title="Inalchuq">Inalchuq</a> opened the gates to the Mongols; the princes' forces managed to storm the now unsecured gate and slaughter the majority of the garrison.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The citadel, holding the remaining one-tenth of the garrison, held out for another month and was only taken after heavy Mongol casualties. <a href="/wiki/Inalchuq" title="Inalchuq">Inalchuq</a> held out until the end, even climbing to the top of the citadel in the last moments of the siege to throw down tiles at the oncoming Mongols and slay many of them in close quarters combat. Genghis killed many of the inhabitants, enslaved the rest, and executed Inalchuq.<sup id="cite_ref-Man_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Man-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Urgench.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Urgench.jpg/225px-Urgench.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Urgench.jpg/338px-Urgench.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Urgench.jpg/450px-Urgench.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarazm" title="Muhammad II of Khwarazm">Muhammad's</a> palace in <a href="/wiki/Kunya_Urgench" class="mw-redirect" title="Kunya Urgench">Urgench</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bukhara">Bukhara</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bukhara"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bukhara" title="Siege of Bukhara">Siege of Bukhara</a></div> <p>At this point, the Mongol army was divided into five widely separated groups on opposite ends of the enemy empire. After the Shah did not mount an active defence of the cities on the <a href="/wiki/Syr_Darya" title="Syr Darya">Syr Darya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui</a>, at the head of an army of roughly 50,000 men, skirted the natural defence barrier of the Syr Darya and its fortified cities, and went westwards to lay siege to the city of <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a> first. To do this, they traversed 300 miles of the seemingly impassable <a href="/wiki/Kyzyl_Kum" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyzyl Kum">Kyzyl Kum</a> desert by hopping through the various <a href="/wiki/Oasis" title="Oasis">oases</a>, guided most of the way by captured nomads. The Mongols arrived at the gates of Bukhara virtually unnoticed. Many military tacticians regard this surprise entrance to Bukhara as one of the most successful manoeuvres in warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-Greene_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greene-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bukhara was not heavily fortified, with a <a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">moat</a> and a single wall, and the citadel typical of Khwarazmian cities. The Bukharan garrison was made up of <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> soldiers and led by <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> generals, who attempted to break out on the third day of the siege. <a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Athir" title="Ibn al-Athir">Ibn al-Athir</a> state that the city had 20,000 defenders, though <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Sverdrup&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carl Sverdrup (page does not exist)">Carl Sverdrup</a> contends that it only had a tenth of this number.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A break-out force was annihilated in open battle. The city's leaders opened the gates to the Mongols, though a unit of Turkic defenders held the city's citadel for another twelve days. The Mongols valued artisans' skills highly and artisans were exempted from massacre during the conquests and instead entered into lifelong service as slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, when the citadel was taken survivors were executed with the exception of artisans and craftsmen, who were sent back to Mongolia. Young men who had not fought were drafted into the Mongolian army and the rest of the population was sent into <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">slavery in the Mongol Empire</a>. As the Mongol soldiers looted the city, a fire broke out, razing most of the city to the ground. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Samarkand">Samarkand</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Samarkand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Samarkand_(1220)" title="Siege of Samarkand (1220)">Siege of Samarkand (1220)</a></div> <p>After the fall of <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>, Genghis headed to the Khwarazmian capital of <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> and arrived in March 1220. During this period, the Mongols also waged effective psychological warfare and caused divisions within their foe. The Khan's spies told them of the bitter fighting between the <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarazm" title="Muhammad II of Khwarazm">Shah</a> and his mother <a href="/wiki/Terken_Khatun_(wife_of_Ala_ad-Din_Tekish)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terken Khatun (wife of Ala ad-Din Tekish)">Terken Khatun</a>, who commanded the allegiance of some of his most senior commanders and his elite <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_language" title="Chagatai language">Turkic</a> cavalry divisions. Since <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turks</a> were both steppe peoples, Genghis argued that Terken Khatun and her army should join the Mongols against her treacherous son. Meanwhile, he arranged for deserters to bring letters that said Terken Khatun and some of her generals had allied with the Mongols. This further inflamed the existing divisions in the <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a>, and probably prevented the senior commanders from unifying their forces. Genghis then compounded the damage by repeatedly issuing bogus decrees in the name of either Terken Khatun or Shah Muhammad, further tangling up the already divided Khwarazmian command structure.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of the Mongol strategic initiative, speedy manoeuvres, and psychological strategies, all the Khwarazmian generals, including the Queen Mother, kept their forces as a garrison and were defeated in turn. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> possessed significantly better fortifications and a larger garrison compared to <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ata-Malik_Juvayni" title="Ata-Malik Juvayni">Juvayni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din</a> (both writing under Mongol auspices) credit the defenders of the city with 100,000–110,000 men, while <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Athir" title="Ibn al-Athir">Ibn al-Athir</a> states 50,000.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A more likely number is perhaps 10,000, considering the city itself had less than 100,000 people total at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Genghis began his siege, his sons <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chaghatai</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei</a> joined him after finishing <a href="/wiki/Otrar_Catastrophe" title="Otrar Catastrophe">the reduction of Otrar</a>, and the joint Mongol forces launched an assault on the city. The Mongols attacked using prisoners as body shields. On the third day of fighting, the Samarkand garrison launched a counterattack. Feigning retreat, Genghis drew approximately half of the garrison outside the fortifications of Samarkand and slaughtered them in open combat. <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarazm" title="Muhammad II of Khwarazm">Shah Muhammad</a> attempted to relieve the city twice, but was driven back. On the fifth day, all but a handful of soldiers surrendered. The remaining soldiers, diehard supporters of the Shah, held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis reneged on his surrender terms and executed every soldier who had taken arms against him at Samarkand. The people of Samarkand were ordered to evacuate and assemble in a plain outside the city, where many were killed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>About the time of the fall of Samarkand, Genghis Khan charged <a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jebe" title="Jebe">Jebe</a>, two of the Khan's top generals, with hunting down the <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarazm" title="Muhammad II of Khwarazm">Shah</a>. The Shah had fled west with some of his most loyal soldiers and his son, <a href="/wiki/Mingburnu" class="mw-redirect" title="Mingburnu">Jalal al-Din</a>, to a small island in the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>. It was there, in December 1220, that the Shah died. Most scholars attribute his death to pneumonia, but others cite the sudden shock of the loss of his empire.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gurganj">Gurganj</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Gurganj"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gurganj" title="Siege of Gurganj">Siege of Gurganj</a></div> <p>Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of <a href="/wiki/Konya-Urgench" class="mw-redirect" title="Konya-Urgench">Gurganj</a> was still in the hands of Khwarazmian forces. Previously, the <a href="/wiki/Terken_Khatun_(wife_of_Ala_al-Din_Tekish)" title="Terken Khatun (wife of Ala al-Din Tekish)">Shah's mother</a> had ruled Gurganj, but she fled when she learned her son had absconded to the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>. She was captured and sent to Mongolia. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Khumar_Tegin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khumar Tegin (page does not exist)">Khumar Tegin</a>, one of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarazm" title="Muhammad II of Khwarazm">Muhammad's</a> generals, declared himself Sultan of Gurganj. <a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a>, who had been on campaign in the north since the invasion, approached the city from that direction, while <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai</a> attacked from the south. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Terken_Khatun-1.1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Terken_Khatun-1.1.jpg/220px-Terken_Khatun-1.1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Terken_Khatun-1.1.jpg/330px-Terken_Khatun-1.1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Terken_Khatun-1.1.jpg/440px-Terken_Khatun-1.1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3190" data-file-height="1623" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Terken_Khatun_(wife_of_Ala_ad-Din_Tekish)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terken Khatun (wife of Ala ad-Din Tekish)">Terken Khatun</a>, Empress of the <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a>, known as "the Queen of the Turks", held captive by <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> army. <i><a href="/wiki/Jami%27_al-tawarikh" title="Jami' al-tawarikh">Jami' al-tawarikh</a></i>, 1430–1434.</figcaption></figure> <p>The assault on Gurganj proved to be the most difficult battle of the Mongol invasion. The city was built along the river <a href="/wiki/Amu_Darya" title="Amu Darya">Amu Darya</a> in a marshy delta area. The soft ground did not lend itself to siege warfare, and there was a lack of large stones for the catapults. The Mongols attacked regardless, and the city fell only after the defenders put up a stout defence, fighting block for block. Mongolian casualties were higher than normal, due to the unaccustomed difficulty of adapting Mongolian tactics to city fighting. </p><p>The taking of Gurganj was further complicated by continuing tensions between <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> and his eldest son, <a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a>, who had been promised the city as his prize. Jochi's mother was the same person as his three brothers': Genghis Khan's teen bride, and apparent lifelong love, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6rte" title="Börte">Börte</a>. Only her sons were counted as Genghis's "official" sons and successors, rather than those conceived by the Khan's 500 or so other "wives and consorts". But Jochi had been conceived in controversy; in the early days of the Khan's rise to power, Börte was captured and raped while she was held prisoner. Jochi was born nine months later. While Genghis Khan chose to acknowledge him as his oldest son (primarily due to his love for Börte, whom he would have had to reject had he rejected her child), questions had always existed over Jochi's true parentage.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolle_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolle-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (March 2018)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Such tensions were present as <a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a> engaged in negotiations with the defenders, trying to get them to surrender so that as much of the city as possible was undamaged. This angered <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis</a> headed off this fight between siblings by appointing <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei</a> the commander of the besieging forces as Gurganj fell. But the removal of Jochi from command, and the sack of a city he considered promised to him, enraged him and estranged him from his father and brothers, and is credited with being a decisive impetus for the later actions of a man who saw his younger brothers promoted over him, despite his own considerable military skills. </p><p>As usual, the artisans were sent back to Mongolia, young women and children were given to the Mongol soldiers as slaves, and the rest of the population was massacred. The Persian scholar <a href="/wiki/Ata_al-Mulk_Juvayni" class="mw-redirect" title="Ata al-Mulk Juvayni">Juvayni</a> states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were given the task of executing twenty-four Gurganj citizens each, which would mean that 1.2 million people were killed. While this is almost certainly an exaggeration, the sacking of Gurganj is considered one of the bloodiest massacres in human history.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Then came the complete destruction of the city of Gurganj, south of the <a href="/wiki/Aral_Sea" title="Aral Sea">Aral Sea</a>. Upon its surrender the Mongols broke the dams and flooded the city, then proceeded to execute the survivors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Khorasan">Khorasan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Khorasan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the Mongols battered their way into <a href="/wiki/Konye-Urgench" title="Konye-Urgench">Gurganj</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis</a> dispatched his youngest son <a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui</a>, at the head of an army, into the western Khwarazmian province of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>. Khorasan had already felt the strength of Mongol arms. Earlier in the war, the generals <a href="/wiki/Jebe" title="Jebe">Jebe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a> had travelled through the province while hunting down the fleeing Shah <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarazm" title="Muhammad II of Khwarazm">Muhammad</a>. However, the region was far from subjugated, many major cities remained free of Mongol rule, and the region was rife with rebellion against the few Mongol forces present in the region, following rumours that the Shah's son <a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Din_Mangburni" title="Jalal al-Din Mangburni">Jalal al-Din</a> was gathering an army to fight the Mongols. </p><p>Tolui's army consisted of somewhere around 50,000 men, which was composed of a core of Mongol soldiers (some estimates place it at 7,000<sup id="cite_ref-Stubbs_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stubbs-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), supplemented by a large body of foreign soldiers, such as <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turks</a> and previously conquered peoples in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>. The army also included "3,000 machines flinging heavy incendiary arrows, 300 catapults, 700 <a href="/wiki/Mangonel" title="Mangonel">mangonels</a> to discharge pots filled with <a href="/wiki/Naphtha" title="Naphtha">naphtha</a>, 4,000 storming-ladders, and 2,500 sacks of earth for filling up <a href="/wiki/Moat" title="Moat">moats</a>". Among the first cities to fall was <a href="/wiki/Termez" title="Termez">Termez</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>. </p><p>The major city to fall to Tolui's army was the city of <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ata-Malik_Juvayni" title="Ata-Malik Juvayni">Juvayni</a> wrote of Merv: "In extent of territory it excelled among the lands of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, and the bird of peace and security flew over its confines. The number of its chief men rivaled the drops of April rain, and its earth contended with the heavens."<sup id="cite_ref-Stubbs_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stubbs-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The garrison at Merv was only about 12,000 men, and the city was inundated with refugees from eastern Khwarazmia. For six days, Tolui <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Merv_(1221)" title="Siege of Merv (1221)">besieged the city</a>, and on the seventh day, he assaulted the city. However, the garrison beat back the assault and launched their own counter-attack against the Mongols. The garrison force was similarly forced back into the city. The next day, the city's governor surrendered the city on Tolui's promise that the lives of the citizens would be spared. As soon as the city was handed over, however, Tolui slaughtered almost every person who surrendered, in a massacre possibly on a greater scale than that at <a href="/wiki/Konye-Urgench" title="Konye-Urgench">Gurganj</a>. </p><p>After finishing off <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>, Tolui headed westwards, attacking the cities of <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nishapur fell after only three days; here, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tokuchar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tokuchar (page does not exist)">Tokuchar</a>, a son-in-law of Genghis, was killed in battle, and <a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui</a> put to the sword every living thing in the city, including the cats and dogs, with Tokuchar's widow presiding over the slaughter.<sup id="cite_ref-Stubbs_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stubbs-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Nishapur's fall, Herat surrendered without a fight and was spared. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bamiyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamiyan">Bamiyan</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a> was another scene of carnage, where stiff resistance resulted in the death of a grandson of Genghis. Next was the city of <a href="/wiki/Tus,_Iran" title="Tus, Iran">Tus</a>. By spring 1221, the province of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a> was under complete Mongol rule. Leaving garrison forces behind him, Tolui headed back east to rejoin his father.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jalal_al-Din">Jalal al-Din</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Jalal al-Din"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Parwan" title="Battle of Parwan">Battle of Parwan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Indus" title="Battle of the Indus">Battle of the Indus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_(1221).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_%281221%29.jpeg/220px-Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_%281221%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_%281221%29.jpeg/330px-Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_%281221%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_%281221%29.jpeg/440px-Bataille_de_v%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n_%281221%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3188" data-file-height="2080" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_V%C3%A2liy%C3%A2n" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Vâliyân">Battle of Vâliyân</a> (spring of 1221). <i><a href="/wiki/Jami%27_al-tawarikh" title="Jami' al-tawarikh">Jami' al-tawarikh</a></i>, 1430–1434.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the Mongol campaign in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarazm" title="Muhammad II of Khwarazm">Shah's</a> army was broken. <a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Din_Mangburni" title="Jalal al-Din Mangburni">Jalal al-Din</a>, who took power after his father's death, began assembling the remnants of the Khwarazmian army in the south, in the area of <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. Genghis had dispatched forces to hunt down the gathering army under Jalal al-Din, and the two sides met in September 1221 at the town of <a href="/wiki/Parwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Parwan">Parwan</a>. The engagement was a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Parwan" title="Battle of Parwan">humiliating defeat for the Mongol forces</a>. Enraged, Genghis headed south himself, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Indus" title="Battle of the Indus">defeated Jalal al-Din on the Indus River</a>. Jalal al-Din, defeated, fled to <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</a>. Genghis spent some time on the southern shore of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus</a> searching for the new Shah, but failed to find him. <span class="anchor" id="Khwarazmian_insurgency"></span> </p><p>Genghis sent general Dorbei Doqshin with two <a href="/wiki/Tumen_(unit)" title="Tumen (unit)">tumens</a> to pursue <a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Din_Mangburni" title="Jalal al-Din Mangburni">Jalal al-Din</a>, whom he still regarded as a threat, in early 1222; one account has Doqshin fail to secure Jalal al-Din, and return to the Khan in <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, who was so infuriated Doqshin was sent out at once on the same task.<sup id="cite_ref-Juvani_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juvani-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 141">: 141 </span></sup> Meanwhile, Jalal al-Din was quarrelling with local princes, but was mostly victorious when it came to battle. Under Doqshin's leadership, the Mongol army took <a href="/wiki/Nandana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nandana">Nandana</a> from one of the lieutenants of Jalal al-Din, sacked it, then proceeded to besiege the larger <a href="/wiki/Multan" title="Multan">Multan</a>. The Mongol army managed to breach the wall but the city was defended successfully by the Khwarazmians; due to the hot weather, the Mongols were forced to retreat after 42 days. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Jackson_(historian)" title="Peter Jackson (historian)">Peter Jackson</a> suggests that Doqshin, having been instructed not to return unsuccessfully, eventually converted to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and joined Jalal al-Din.<sup id="cite_ref-Panjab_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Panjab-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Encouraged by Jalal al-Din's success against the Mongols, the Khwarazmians started an insurgency. Kush Tegin Pahlawan led a revolt in <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> and seized it successfully. After recapturing Merv, Kush Tegin Pahlawan made a successful attack on <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>. People in <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a> also rebelled and disposed the Mongol vassal leadership. An insurgency leader named Muhammad al- Marghani twice attacked the camp Genghis Khan accommodated at <a href="/wiki/Baghlan" title="Baghlan">Baghlan</a> and returned with some loot. As a response, Genghis Khan sent a large army under <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei</a> back to <a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genghis Khan appointed Yelü Ahai to restore Mongol sovereignty order in <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>. Yelü Ahai managed to restore the order in the cities in 1223.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Shigi_Qutuqu" title="Shigi Qutuqu">Shigi Qutuqu</a> dealt with <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Parwan#Aftermath" title="Battle of Parwan">the revolt that dethroned the pro-Mongol governance of Merv</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_army_between_1231_and_1246" title="Khwarazmian army between 1231 and 1246">Khwarazmian army between 1231 and 1246</a></div> <p>After the defeat of the Khwarazmian Empire, Genghis Khan gathered his forces in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> to return to the Mongolian steppes. Under the suggestion of <a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a>, the Mongol army was split into two forces. Genghis Khan led the main army on a raid through <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">northern India</a> towards Mongolia, while another 20,000 (two <a href="/wiki/Tumen_(unit)" title="Tumen (unit)">tumen</a>) contingent marched through the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> and into <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Rus'</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> under generals <a href="/wiki/Jebe" title="Jebe">Jebe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a>. </p><p>In the following years <a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Din_Mangburni" title="Jalal al-Din Mangburni">Jalal al-Din</a> tried to reestablish the Khwarazmian kingdom, but never fully consolidated his power. He retook control of areas of <a href="/wiki/Western_Iran" title="Western Iran">western Iran</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Kerman" title="Kerman">Kerman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Fars" title="Dialects of Fars">Fars</a>, but was eventually defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Rum Seljuk</a> Sultan <a href="/wiki/Kayqubad_I" title="Kayqubad I">Kayqubad I</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yass%C4%B1%C3%A7emen" title="Battle of Yassıçemen">Battle of Yassıçemen</a> in 1230.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mongols came back to conquer the western areas of the former Khwarazmian Empire in 1230–1231, at the time of Genghis Khan's successor <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei" class="mw-redirect" title="Ögedei">Ögedei</a>, who sent an expedition of three <a href="/wiki/Tumen_(unit)" title="Tumen (unit)">tumens</a> led by general <a href="/wiki/Chormaghun" class="mw-redirect" title="Chormaghun">Chormaghun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After attempting a defensive strategy, <a href="/wiki/Jalal_al-Din_Mangburni" title="Jalal al-Din Mangburni">Jalal al-Din</a> finally died in <a href="/wiki/Diyarbakir" class="mw-redirect" title="Diyarbakir">Diyarbakir</a> in 1231.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mongols under Chormaghun established themselves in <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwestern Iran">northwestern Iran</a>, from where they were able to raid the neighbouring territories of <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> during the next ten years, culminating with the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia" title="Mongol invasions of Georgia">invasion of Georgia</a> in 1236.<sup id="cite_ref-LP_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LP-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The destruction and absorption of the Khwarazmian Empire would prove to be a sign of things to come, for the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a> as well as for <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new territory proved to be an important stepping stone for the Mongol armies when they invaded <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Piast_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Piast dynasty">Poland</a> during the reign of Genghis' son <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei</a>, and future campaigns brought Mongol armies to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>. For the Islamic world, the destruction of Khwarazmia left <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> wide open. All three regions were eventually subjugated by future khans. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MongolMap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/280px-MongolMap.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/420px-MongolMap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MongolMap.jpg/560px-MongolMap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="609" /></a><figcaption>Routes taken by Mongol invaders and Mongol successor khanates</figcaption></figure> <p>The war with Khwarazmia also brought up the important question of succession. <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> was not young when the war began, and he had four sons, all of whom were fierce warriors and each of them had his own loyal group of followers. Their sibling rivalry almost came to a head during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gurganj" title="Siege of Gurganj">Siege of Gurganj</a> and Genghis was forced to rely on his third son, <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei</a>, who ended the battle. Following the destruction of <a href="/wiki/Konye-Urgench" title="Konye-Urgench">Gurganj</a>, Genghis officially selected Ögedei to be his successor, and he also ruled that future khans would be the direct descendants of previous rulers. Despite Genghis's establishment of this practice, the four sons would eventually come to blows, and those blows revealed the instability of the khanate that Genghis had created. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a> never forgave his father, and he essentially withdrew from future Mongol wars, he moved to the north, and he refused to come to his father when he was ordered to.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolle_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolle-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, at the time of his death, Genghis Khan was contemplating a march on his rebellious son. The bitterness that resulted from this event was transmitted to Jochi's sons, especially <a href="/wiki/Batu_Khan" title="Batu Khan">Batu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berke" title="Berke">Berke</a> (of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>), who would conquer <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chambers_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chambers-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluks of Egypt</a> managed to inflict one of history's most significant defeats on the Mongols at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut" title="Battle of Ain Jalut">Battle of Ain Jalut</a> in 1260, <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a>, one of Genghis Khan's grandsons by his son <a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui</a>, who had <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">sacked Baghdad in 1258</a>, was unable to avenge that defeat when <a href="/wiki/Berke" title="Berke">Berke Khan</a>, his cousin (who had converted to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>), attacked him in the <a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">Transcaucasus</a> in order to aid the cause of Islam, and Mongol battled Mongol for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The seeds of that battle began in the conflict with Khwarazmia when their fathers struggled for supremacy.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feigned_retreat" title="Feigned retreat">Feigned retreat</a> (battle of <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, 1250)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMay2016" class="citation book cs1">May, Timothy (2016). <i>The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>. Santa-Barbara, CA: ABС-СLIO. p. 162. <q>...he (Genghis Khan) led his main army over 1,000 miles to invade the Khwarazmian Empire in 1219. Within two years, a once dynamic and powerful empire has been erased from the map and largely forgotten in history.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mongol+Empire%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa-Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=AB%D0%A1-%D0%A1LIO&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Golden-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Golden_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Golden_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Golden_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolden2009" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Golden, Peter (2009). "Inner Asia c.1200". <i>The Cambridge History of Inner Asia</i>. The Chinggisid Age: 9–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139056045.004">10.1017/CBO9781139056045.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05604-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05604-5"><bdi>978-1-139-05604-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Inner+Asia&rft.atitle=Inner+Asia+c.1200&rft.volume=The+Chinggisid+Age&rft.pages=9-25&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139056045.004&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05604-5&rft.aulast=Golden&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buniyatov-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buniyatov_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buniyatov_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuniyatov2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">Buniyatov, Z. M. (2015) [1986]. <i>A History of the Khorezmian State Under the Anushteginids, 1097-1231</i> <bdi lang="ru">Государство Хорезмшахов-Ануштегинидов: 1097-1231</bdi> [<i>A History of the Khorezmian State under the Anushteginids, 1097-1231</i>]. Translated by Mustafayev, Shahin; Welsford, Thomas. Moscow: Nauka. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9943-357-21-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-9943-357-21-1"><bdi>978-9943-357-21-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Khorezmian+State+Under+the+Anushteginids%2C+1097-1231+%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE+%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BC%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2-%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%3A+1097-1231&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=Nauka&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-9943-357-21-1&rft.aulast=Buniyatov&rft.aufirst=Z.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasan_Dani1990" class="citation book cs1">Hasan Dani, Ahmad; et al. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC"><i>History of civilizations of Central Asia, vol. IV</i></a>. Delhi: Unesco. p. 182. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1409-6" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1409-6"><bdi>81-208-1409-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+civilizations+of+Central+Asia%2C+vol.+IV&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pages=182&rft.pub=Unesco&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=81-208-1409-6&rft.aulast=Hasan+Dani&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D883OZBe2sMYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biran-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Biran_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiran2009" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Biran, Michal (2009). "The Mongols in Central Asia from Chinggis Khan's invasion to the rise of Temür". <i>The Cambridge History of Inner Asia</i>. The Chinggisid Age: 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05604-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05604-5"><bdi>978-1-139-05604-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Inner+Asia&rft.atitle=The+Mongols+in+Central+Asia+from+Chinggis+Khan%27s+invasion+to+the+rise+of+Tem%C3%BCr&rft.volume=The+Chinggisid+Age&rft.pages=47&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05604-5&rft.aulast=Biran&rft.aufirst=Michal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abazov-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abazov_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abazov_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abazov_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbazov2008" class="citation book cs1">Abazov, Rafis (2008). <i>Palgrave Concise Historical Atlas of Central Asia</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-7542-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-7542-3"><bdi>978-1-4039-7542-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palgrave+Concise+Historical+Atlas+of+Central+Asia&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-7542-3&rft.aulast=Abazov&rft.aufirst=Rafis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2009" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Jackson, Peter (2009). "The Mongol Age in Eastern Inner Asia". <i>The Cambridge History of Inner Asia</i>. The Chinggisid Age: 26–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139056045.005">10.1017/CBO9781139056045.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05604-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05604-5"><bdi>978-1-139-05604-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Inner+Asia&rft.atitle=The+Mongol+Age+in+Eastern+Inner+Asia&rft.volume=The+Chinggisid+Age&rft.pages=26-45&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139056045.005&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05604-5&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nasawi-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nasawi_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-Nasawi1241" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Shihab_al-Din_Muhammad_al-Nasawi" title="Shihab al-Din Muhammad al-Nasawi">al-Nasawi, Shihab al-Din Muhammed</a> (1241). <i>Sirah al-Sultan Jalal al-Din Mankubirti</i> [<i>Biography of Sultan Jalal al-Din Mankubirti</i>] (in Arabic).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sirah+al-Sultan+Jalal+al-Din+Mankubirti&rft.date=1241&rft.aulast=al-Nasawi&rft.aufirst=Shihab+al-Din+Muhammed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hildinger-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hildinger_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHildinger1997" class="citation book cs1">Hildinger, Eric (1997). <i>Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700</i>. Da Capo Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warriors+of+the+Steppe%3A+A+Military+History+of+Central+Asia%2C+500+B.C.+to+A.D.+1700&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Hildinger&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Timothy-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Timothy_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Timothy_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Timothy_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay2018" class="citation book cs1">May, Timothy (2018). "The Mongols outside Mongolia". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctv1kz4g68.11"><i>The Mongol Empire</i></a>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 58–61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4237-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4237-3"><bdi>978-0-7486-4237-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctv1kz4g68.11">10.3366/j.ctv1kz4g68.11</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Mongols+outside+Mongolia&rft.btitle=The+Mongol+Empire&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=58-61&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3366%2Fj.ctv1kz4g68.11%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-4237-3&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3366%2Fj.ctv1kz4g68.11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeo_de_Hartog2004" class="citation book cs1">Leo de Hartog (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/genghiskhanconqu00hart/page/86"><i>Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World</i></a>. Tauris Parke. pp. 86–87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86064-972-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-86064-972-6"><bdi>1-86064-972-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genghis+Khan%3A+Conqueror+of+the+World&rft.pages=86-87&rft.pub=Tauris+Parke&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-86064-972-6&rft.au=Leo+de+Hartog&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgenghiskhanconqu00hart%2Fpage%2F86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Juvani-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Juvani_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Juvani_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuvainic._1260" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ata-Malik_Juvayni" title="Ata-Malik Juvayni">Juvaini, Ata-Malik</a> (c. 1260). <i><a href="/wiki/Tarikh-i_Jahangushay" title="Tarikh-i Jahangushay">Tarikh-i Jahangushay</a></i> <bdi lang="fa">تاریخ جهانگشای</bdi> [<i>History of the World Conqueror</i>] (in Persian). Vol. 1. Translated by <a href="/wiki/John_Andrew_Boyle" title="John Andrew Boyle">Andrew Boyle, John</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tarikh-i+Jahangushay+%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE+%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%8C&rft.aulast=Juvaini&rft.aufirst=Ata-Malik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sverdrup1-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sverdrup1_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sverdrup1_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sverdrup1_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sverdrup1_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSverdrup2010" class="citation journal cs1">Sverdrup, Carl (2010). France, John; J. Rogers, Clifford; DeVries, Kelly (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt7zstnd.6">"Numbers in Mongol Warfare"</a>. <i>Journal of Medieval Military History</i>. <b>VIII</b>. Boydell and Brewer: 109–117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781846159022-004">10.1515/9781846159022-004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-596-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-596-7"><bdi>978-1-84383-596-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt7zstnd.6">10.7722/j.ctt7zstnd.6</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medieval+Military+History&rft.atitle=Numbers+in+Mongol+Warfare&rft.volume=VIII&rft.pages=109-117&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7722%2Fj.ctt7zstnd.6%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9781846159022-004&rft.isbn=978-1-84383-596-7&rft.aulast=Sverdrup&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7722%2Fj.ctt7zstnd.6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span>; <i>but see</i> <a href="/wiki/B.H._Liddell_Hart" class="mw-redirect" title="B.H. Liddell Hart">Hart, B.H.L.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatcaptainsunv0000lidd/page/13/mode/1up?view=theater"><i>Great Captains Unveiled</i>, p.13</a> (Books for Libraries Press, 1967) (putting the numbers at 200,000 Khwarazmians against 150,000 Mongols).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-Dinc._1300" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">al-Din, Rashid</a> (c. 1300). Thackston, W. M. (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Jami%27_al-tawarikh" title="Jami' al-tawarikh">Jami' al-tawarikh</a></i> <bdi lang="ar">جامع التواريخ</bdi> [<i>Compendium of Chronicles</i>] (in Arabic and Persian). Vol. 2. p. 346.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jami%27+al-tawarikh+%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE&rft.pages=346&rft.aulast=al-Din&rft.aufirst=Rashid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuzjani1260" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Minhaj-i_Siraj_Juzjani" title="Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani">Juzjani, Minhaj-i Siraj</a> (1260). <i><a href="/wiki/Tabaqat-i_Nasiri" title="Tabaqat-i Nasiri">Tabaqat-i Nasiri</a></i> <bdi lang="fa">طبقات ناصری</bdi> (in Persian). Vol. XXIII. Translated by Raverty, H. G. p. 968.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tabaqat-i+Nasiri+%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA+%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1%DB%8C&rft.pages=968&rft.date=1260&rft.aulast=Juzjani&rft.aufirst=Minhaj-i+Siraj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1975" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, John Masson (1975). "Mongol Manpower and Persian Population". <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i>. <b>18</b> (3). Brill: 273–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3632138">10.2307/3632138</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3632138">3632138</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Mongol+Manpower+and+Persian+Population&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=273-4&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3632138&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3632138%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=John+Masson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stubbs-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stubbs_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stubbs_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stubbs_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stubbs_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStubbs2006" class="citation journal cs1">Stubbs, Kim (2006). "Facing the Wrath of Khan". <i>Military History</i>. <b>23</b> (3): 30–37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Military+History&rft.atitle=Facing+the+Wrath+of+Khan&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=30-37&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Stubbs&rft.aufirst=Kim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rossabi-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rossabi_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossabi1994" class="citation journal cs1">Rossabi, Morris (October 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/conquests/khans_horses.pdf">"All the Khan's Horses"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Natural History</i>: 49–50<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+History&rft.atitle=All+the+Khan%27s+Horses&rft.pages=49-50&rft.date=1994-10&rft.aulast=Rossabi&rft.aufirst=Morris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fafe.easia.columbia.edu%2Fmongols%2Fconquests%2Fkhans_horses.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLynn-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McLynn_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McLynn_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLynn2015" class="citation book cs1">McLynn, Frank (2015). <i>Genghis Khan: His Conquests, His Empire, His Legacy</i>. 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E.</a>; Asimov, M. S. (1999). <i>History of Civilizations of Central Asia</i>. Vol. IV. UNESCO. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/772008592">772008592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Civilizations+of+Central+Asia&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F772008592&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=C.+E.&rft.au=Asimov%2C+M.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyle1968" class="citation journal cs1">Boyle, J. A. (1968). 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 307. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521069366.005">10.1017/CHOL9780521069366.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05497-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05497-3"><bdi>978-1-139-05497-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.atitle=Dynastic+and+Political+History+of+the+Il-Khans&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=307&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521069366.005&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05497-3&rft.aulast=Boyle&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSverdrup2013" class="citation journal cs1">Sverdrup, Carl (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/jasiahist.47.1.0033">"Sübe'etei Ba'atur, Anonymous Strategist"</a>. <i>Journal of Asian History</i>. <b>47</b> (1). Harrassowitz Verlag: 37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.13173%2Fjasiahist.47.1.0033">10.13173/jasiahist.47.1.0033</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/jasiahist.47.1.0033">10.13173/jasiahist.47.1.0033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+History&rft.atitle=S%C3%BCbe%27etei+Ba%27atur%2C+Anonymous+Strategist&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13173%2Fjasiahist.47.1.0033&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.13173%2Fjasiahist.47.1.0033%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sverdrup&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.13173%2Fjasiahist.47.1.0033&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_NicolleRichard_Hook1998" class="citation book cs1">David Nicolle; Richard Hook (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OgQXAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Brockhampton Press. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86019-407-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-86019-407-9"><bdi>1-86019-407-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mongol+Warlords%3A+Genghis+Khan%2C+Kublai+Khan%2C+Hulegu%2C+Tamerlane&rft.pages=86&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Brockhampton+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-86019-407-9&rft.au=David+Nicolle&rft.au=Richard+Hook&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOgQXAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChahryar_AdleIrfan_Habib2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Chahryar Adle; Irfan Habib (2003). Ahmad Hasan Dani; Chahryar Adle; Irfan Habib (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC"><i>History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century</i></a>. Vol. 5 of History of Civilizations of Central Asia (illustrated ed.). UNESCO. p. 474. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-3-103876-1" title="Special:BookSources/92-3-103876-1"><bdi>92-3-103876-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Civilizations+of+Central+Asia%3A+Development+in+contrast%3A+from+the+sixteenth+to+the+mid-nineteenth+century&rft.pages=474&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=92-3-103876-1&rft.au=Chahryar+Adle&rft.au=Irfan+Habib&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D883OZBe2sMYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juvayni, Rashid al-Din.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sverdrup 2017, p. 148, citing Rashid Al-Din, 107, 356–362.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juvayni, pp. 83–84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Man-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Man_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Man2007" class="citation book cs1">John Man (2007). <i>Genghis Khan: Life, Death, and Resurrection</i>. Macmillan. p. 163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-36624-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-36624-7"><bdi>978-0-312-36624-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genghis+Khan%3A+Life%2C+Death%2C+and+Resurrection&rft.pages=163&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-312-36624-7&rft.au=John+Man&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juvayni, p. 85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Greene-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Greene_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwen2009" class="citation book cs1">Owen, David (2009). <i>The Little Book of Warfare: 50 Key Battles That Trace The Evolution Of Conflict</i>. Fall River Press. pp. 20–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74110-913-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-74110-913-9"><bdi>978-1-74110-913-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Little+Book+of+Warfare%3A+50+Key+Battles+That+Trace+The+Evolution+Of+Conflict&rft.pages=20-21&rft.pub=Fall+River+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-74110-913-9&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sverdrup, Carl. <i>The Mongol Conquests: The Military Operations of Genghis Khan and Sube'etei</i>. Helion and Company, 2017. Page 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher P. Atwood, <i>Encyclopedia of Mongolian and the Mongol Empire</i> (Facts on File, 2004), 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank McLynn.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sverdrup 2017, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sverdrup, p. 151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McLynn, p. 280</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicolle-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nicolle_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nicolle_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicolle, David. <i>The Mongol Warlords</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat0.htm#Mongol">"WAR STATS REDIRECT"</a>. <i>users.erols.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=users.erols.com&rft.atitle=WAR+STATS+REDIRECT&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.erols.com%2Fmwhite28%2Fwarstat0.htm%23Mongol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Panjab-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Panjab_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1990" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Jackson_(historian)" title="Peter Jackson (historian)">Jackson, Peter</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4299834">"Jalāl Al-Dīn, the Mongols, and the Khwarazmian Conquest of the Panjāb and Sind"</a>. <i>Iran</i>. <b>28</b>. British Institute of Persian Studies: 45–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4299834">10.2307/4299834</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4299834">4299834</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iran&rft.atitle=Jal%C4%81l+Al-D%C4%ABn%2C+the+Mongols%2C+and+the+Khwarazmian+Conquest+of+the+Panj%C4%81b+and+Sind&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=45-54&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4299834&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4299834%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4299834&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Andrew_Boyle" title="John Andrew Boyle">Boyle</a>, John Andrew (June 1963). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/20832685?origin=JSTOR-pdf">THE MONGOL COMMANDERS IN AFGHANISTAN AND INDIA ACCORDING TO THE ṬABAQĀT-I NĀṢIRĪ OF JŪZJĀNĪ</a>". <i>Islamic Studies</i>. 2, No. 2: 235–247 – via Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Saunders, J. J. (2001). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nFx3OlrBMpQC&q=parwan+revolts+mongols&pg=PA61">The History of the Mongol Conquests</a></i>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1766-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1766-7">978-0-8122-1766-7</a>. <q><i>He actually succeeded in routing a Mongol detachment at Parwan near Kabul in Afghanistan, an event which raised many false hopes and led to fatal uprisings against Mongol rule in Mery, Herat and elsewhere in the autumn of 1221</i>.</q></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sverdrup, Carl (2017). <i>The Mongol Conquests The Military Operations of Genghis Khan and Sübe'etei</i>. West Midlands: Helion & Company Limited. pp. 29, 163, 168. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-910777-71-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-910777-71-8">978-1-910777-71-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Andrew_Boyle" title="John Andrew Boyle">Boyle</a>, John Andrew (June 1963). "THE MONGOL COMMANDERS IN AFGHANISTAN AND INDIA ACCORDING TO THE ṬABAQĀT-I NĀṢIRĪ OF JŪZJĀNĪ". <i>Islamic Studies</i>. 2, No. 2: 241 – via Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwin1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Irwin, Robert (1999). "Islam and the Mediterranean: The rise of the Mamluks". In Abulafia, David (ed.). <i>The New Cambridge Medieval History</i>. Vol. 5, c.1198–c.1300. Cambridge University Press. p. 611.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islam+and+the+Mediterranean%3A+The+rise+of+the+Mamluks&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+Medieval+History&rft.pages=611&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Irwin&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LP-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LP_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LP_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPubblici2021" class="citation book cs1">Pubblici, Lorenzo (2021). <i>Mongol Caucasia. Invasions, conquest, and government of a frontier region in thirteenth-century Eurasia (1204-1295)</i>. Brill. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-50355-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-50355-7"><bdi>978-90-04-50355-7</bdi></a>. <q>The new Khan Ögedei decided to complete the conquest of Khorazm and entrusted the general Chormaghun (fl. 1221–1241) with three tümen to accomplish the task. The Mongol army arrived in Khorasan in the winter between 1230 and the following year. Jalal ud-Din heard the news and fled. He was probably pursuing a defensive strategy, aware of the effectiveness of the adversary. The flight to inaccessible places could have been a boost for his troops as they were indigenous, while perhaps he hoped that the Mongols did not have this knowledge. After running through a quite extensive territory, he arrived near Amid (Diyarbakir) where he died under strange circumstances in August 1231.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mongol+Caucasia.+Invasions%2C+conquest%2C+and+government+of+a+frontier+region+in+thirteenth-century+Eurasia+%281204-1295%29&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-90-04-50355-7&rft.aulast=Pubblici&rft.aufirst=Lorenzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morgan-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Morgan, David <i>The Mongols</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chambers-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chambers_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chambers, James. <i>The Devil's Horsemen</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBausani1969" class="citation journal cs1">Bausani, A. (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-iran/religion-under-the-mongols/6E775C47A2395013CCAE0B69290C3BFC#">"Religion under the Mongols"</a>. <i>The Cambridge History of Iran</i>. <b>5</b>. Cambridge University Press: 538–549. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521069366.008">10.1017/CHOL9780521069366.008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05497-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05497-3"><bdi>978-1-139-05497-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.atitle=Religion+under+the+Mongols&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=538-549&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521069366.008&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05497-3&rft.aulast=Bausani&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fcambridge-history-of-iran%2Freligion-under-the-mongols%2F6E775C47A2395013CCAE0B69290C3BFC%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Chambers, James. <i>The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe</i>, Atheneum, 1979. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-689-10942-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-689-10942-3">0-689-10942-3</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillenbrand2010" class="citation journal cs1">Hillenbrand, Robert (1 January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004236615_011">"The Schefer Ḥarīrī: A Study in Islamic Frontispiece Design"</a>. <i>Arab Painting</i>: 117–134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004236615_011">10.1163/9789004236615_011</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23661-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23661-5"><bdi>978-90-04-23661-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arab+Painting&rft.atitle=The+Schefer+%E1%B8%A4ar%C4%ABr%C4%AB%3A+A+Study+in+Islamic+Frontispiece+Design&rft.pages=117-134&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004236615_011&rft.isbn=978-90-04-23661-5&rft.aulast=Hillenbrand&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1163%2F9789004236615_011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Morgan, David. <i>The Mongols</i>, 1986. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-17563-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-17563-6">0-631-17563-6</a>)</li> <li>Nicolle, David. <i>The Mongol Warlords: Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, Hulegu, Tamerlane</i>, Brockhampton Press, 1998. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85314-104-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-85314-104-6">1-85314-104-6</a>)</li> <li>Saunders, J.J. <i>The History of the Mongol Conquests</i>, Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, 1971. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8122-1766-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8122-1766-7">0-8122-1766-7</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShah1980" class="citation book cs1">Shah, Amina (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/assembliesofalha00amin/page/n9/mode/2up"><i>The assemblies of al-Hariri : fifty encounters with the Shaykh Abu Zayd of Seruj</i></a>. London : Octagon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-900860-86-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-900860-86-7"><bdi>978-0-900860-86-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+assemblies+of+al-Hariri+%3A+fifty+encounters+with+the+Shaykh+Abu+Zayd+of+Seruj&rft.pub=London+%3A+Octagon+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-900860-86-7&rft.aulast=Shah&rft.aufirst=Amina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fassembliesofalha00amin%2Fpage%2Fn9%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMongol+invasion+of+the+Khwarazmian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>A <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080420055945/http://www.timespacemap.com/search/eventsearch.htm?_what=%22Mongolian%20Invasion%20of%20Central%20Asia%22&_maptype=2">Map of Events</a> mentioned in this article.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mongol_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mongol_Empire" title="Template:Mongol Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mongol_Empire" title="Template talk:Mongol Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mongol_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mongol Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mongol_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Terminology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Terminology</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_nobility" title="Mongolian nobility">Titles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khagan" title="Khagan">Khagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khatun" title="Khatun">Khatun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanum" title="Khanum">Khanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinong" title="Jinong">Jinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khong_Tayiji" title="Khong Tayiji">Khong Tayiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noyan" title="Noyan">Noyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarkhan" title="Tarkhan">Tarkhan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Political</li><li>Military</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jarlig" title="Jarlig">Jarlig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_(route)" title="Yam (route)">Örtöö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orda_(organization)" title="Orda (organization)">Orda</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pax_Mongolica" title="Pax Mongolica">Pax Mongolica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurultai" title="Kurultai">Kurultai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiza" title="Paiza">Paiza / Gerege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manghud" title="Manghud">Manghit / Mangudai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumen_(unit)" title="Tumen (unit)">Tümen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kheshig" title="Kheshig">Kheshig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darughachi" title="Darughachi">Darughachi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="PoliticsOrganizationLife" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Politics</li><li>Organization</li><li>Life</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_divisions_and_vassals_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire">Administrative divisions and vassals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tug_(banner)" title="Tug (banner)">Banner/Bunchuk/Tug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Invasions and conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_under_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Destruction under the Mongol Empire">Destructiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Seal_of_the_Mongols" title="Imperial Seal of the Mongols">Imperial Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Military of the Mongol Empire">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Religion in the Mongol Empire">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Society of the Mongol Empire">Society and economy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">House of Borjigin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_%C3%96gedei" title="House of Ögedei">House of Ögedei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Armenia" title="Mongol Armenia">Mongol Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Mongol_Alliance" title="Byzantine–Mongol Alliance">Byzantine–Mongol Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Mongol_alliance" title="Franco-Mongol alliance">Franco-Mongol alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles_of_the_Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe">Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_of_the_Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mongol_states" title="List of Mongol states">Khanates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Northern Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_%C3%96gedei" title="House of Ögedei">House of Ögedei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wings_of_the_Golden_Horde" title="Wings of the Golden Horde">Wings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almaliq,_Xinjiang" title="Almaliq, Xinjiang">Almalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avarga" title="Avarga">Avarga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azov" title="Azov">Azov (Azaq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolghar" title="Bolghar">Bolghar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakorum" title="Karakorum">Karakorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanbaliq" title="Khanbaliq">Dadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majar_(Golden_Horde)" title="Majar (Golden Horde)">Majar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maragheh" title="Maragheh">Maragheh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarshi" title="Qarshi">Qarshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarai_(city)" title="Sarai (city)">Sarai Batu/Berke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saray-J%C3%BCk" title="Saray-Jük">Saray-Jük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangdu" title="Shangdu">Shangdu (Xanadu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soltaniyeh" title="Soltaniyeh">Soltaniyeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukek" title="Ukek">Ukek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xacitarxan" title="Xacitarxan">Xacitarxan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="CampaignsBattles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Campaigns</li><li>Battles</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Asia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Central Asia">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaigns_in_Siberia" title="Mongol campaigns in Siberia">Siberia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1207-1308)</span></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Sakhalin" title="Mongol invasions of Sakhalin">Sakhalin <span style="font-size:85%;">(1264–1308)</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Qara_Khitai" title="Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai <span style="font-size:85%;">(1216–18)</span></a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khwarazmian Empire <span style="font-size:85%;">(1219–1221)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Persia_and_Mesopotamia" title="Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia">Persia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1219–1256)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests#East_Asia" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Western_Xia" title="Mongol conquest of Western Xia"><span class="wrap">Western Xia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1205 / 1207 / 1209–10 / 1225–27)</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Jin_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty">Northern China <span style="font-size:85%;">(1211–34)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Korea <span style="font-size:85%;">(1231–60)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_the_Song_dynasty" title="Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty">Southern China <span style="font-size:85%;">(1235–79)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Tibet" title="Mongol invasions of Tibet"><span class="wrap">Tibet <span style="font-size:85%;">(1236 / 1240 / 1252)</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_China#Conquest_of_Yunnan" title="Mongol conquest of China">Yunnan <span style="font-size:85%;">(1253–56)</span></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">Japan <span style="font-size:85%;">(1274 / 1281)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests#Southeast_Asian_and_Korean_vassals" title="Mongol invasions and conquests">Southeast</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="First Mongol invasion of Burma"><span class="wrap">Burma <span style="font-size:85%;">(1277 / 1283 / 1287)</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Java" title="Mongol invasion of Java">Java <span style="font-size:85%;">(1293)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Vietnam" title="Mongol invasions of Vietnam">Vietnam <span style="font-size:85%;">(1257 / 1284–88)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Burma" title="Second Mongol invasion of Burma">Burma <span style="font-size:85%;">(1300–02)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_India" title="Mongol invasions of India">India <span style="font-size:85%;">(1221–1327)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia" title="Mongol invasions of Georgia"><span class="wrap">Georgia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1220–22 / 1226–31 / 1237–64)</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Circassia" title="Mongol invasion of Circassia">Circassia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1237–1300s)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Durdzuketi" title="Mongol invasions of Durdzuketi">Chechnya <span style="font-size:85%;">(1237–1300s)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Volga_Bulgaria" title="Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria">Volga Bulgaria <span style="font-size:85%;">(1229–36)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Alania" title="Mongol invasion of Alania">Alania <span style="font-size:85%;">(1238–1239)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus' <span style="font-size:85%;">(1223 / 1236–40)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="First Mongol invasion of Poland">Poland and Bohemia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1240–41)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="First Mongol invasion of Hungary">Hungary <span style="font-size:85%;">(1241–42)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_incursions_in_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Mongol incursions in the Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire <span style="font-size:85%;">(1241–42)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Bulgaria_and_Serbia" title="Mongol invasion of Bulgaria and Serbia">Serbia and Bulgaria <span style="font-size:85%;">(1242)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Latin_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Latin Empire">Latin Empire <span style="font-size:85%;">(1242)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Lithuania" title="Mongol invasions of Lithuania">Lithuania <span style="font-size:85%;">(1258–59)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Second Mongol invasion of Poland">Poland <span style="font-size:85%;">(1259–60)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Byzantine_Thrace" title="Mongol invasion of Byzantine Thrace">Thrace <span style="font-size:85%;">(1264–65)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mongol_invasion_of_Hungary" title="Second Mongol invasion of Hungary">Hungary <span style="font-size:85%;">(1285–86)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Mongol_invasion_of_Poland" title="Third Mongol invasion of Poland">Poland <span style="font-size:85%;">(1287–88)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_conflict_with_the_Nogai_Horde" title="Serbian conflict with the Nogai Horde">Serbia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1291)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Anatolia" title="Mongol conquest of Anatolia">Anatolia <span style="font-size:85%;">(1241–43)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_campaign_against_the_Nizaris" title="Mongol campaign against the Nizaris">Alamut <span style="font-size:85%;">(1253–1256)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Baghdad <span style="font-size:85%;">(1258)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Syria <span style="font-size:85%;">(1260–1323)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_raids_into_Palestine" title="Mongol raids into Palestine">Palestine <span style="font-size:85%;">(1260 / 1301)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civil wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Division of the Mongol Empire">Division of the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toluid_Civil_War" title="Toluid Civil War">Toluid Civil War <span style="font-size:85%;">(1260–64)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berke%E2%80%93Hulagu_war" title="Berke–Hulagu war">Berke–Hulagu war <span style="font-size:85%;">(1262)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaidu%E2%80%93Kublai_war" title="Kaidu–Kublai war">Kaidu–Kublai war <span style="font-size:85%;">(1268–1301)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esen_Buqa%E2%80%93Ayurbarwada_war" title="Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war">Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war <span style="font-size:85%;">(1314–1318)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">People</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mongol_rulers" title="List of Mongol rulers">Great Khans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolui" title="Tolui">Tolui <span style="font-size:85%;">(regent)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%B6regene_Khatun" title="Töregene Khatun">Töregene Khatun <span style="font-size:85%;">(regent)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Khan" title="Güyük Khan">Güyük Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghul_Qaimish" title="Oghul Qaimish">Oghul Qaimish <span style="font-size:85%;">(regent)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Yuan_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Yuan emperors">Khagans of the Yuan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Khans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jochi" title="Jochi">Jochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batu_Khan" title="Batu Khan">Batu Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sartaq_Khan" title="Sartaq Khan">Sartaq Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orda_Khan" title="Orda Khan">Orda Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berke" title="Berke">Berke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toqta" title="Toqta">Toqta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96zbeg_Khan" title="Özbeg Khan">Özbeg Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khan" title="Chagatai Khan">Chagatai Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duwa" title="Duwa">Duwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebek" title="Kebek">Kebek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulegu_Khan" title="Hulegu Khan">Hulegu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abaqa_Khan" title="Abaqa Khan">Abaqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arghun" title="Arghun">Arghun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazan" title="Ghazan">Ghazan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subutai" title="Subutai">Subutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebe" title="Jebe">Jebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqali" title="Muqali">Muqali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negudar" title="Negudar">Negudar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo%27orchu" title="Bo'orchu">Bo'orchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Kan" title="Guo Kan">Guo Kan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boroqul" title="Boroqul">Boroqul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jelme" title="Jelme">Jelme</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Khubilai_Noyon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khubilai Noyon (page does not exist)">Khubilai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aju" title="Aju">Aju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayan_of_the_Baarin" title="Bayan of the Baarin">Bayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadan" title="Kadan">Kadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boroldai" title="Boroldai">Boroldai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogai_Khan" title="Nogai Khan">Nogai Khan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Timeline of the Mongol Empire">Timeline of the Mongol Empire</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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