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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mantra_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Mantra language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mantra_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanhitā" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanhitā"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Sanhitā</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanhitā-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brāhmaṇa_prose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brāhmaṇa_prose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.4</span> <span>Brāhmaṇa prose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brāhmaṇa_prose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sūtra_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sūtra_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.5</span> <span>Sūtra language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sūtra_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Accent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Accent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pluti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pluti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Pluti</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pluti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glossary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glossary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Glossary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glossary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brahmic_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brahmic_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Brahmic notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brahmic_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phonology_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Vedic Sanskrit</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4" title="वैदिक संस्कृत – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="वैदिक संस्कृत" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4" title="বৈদিক সংস্কৃত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বৈদিক সংস্কৃত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Ведыйская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ведыйская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Вэдыйская мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Вэдыйская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4" title="वैदिक संस्कृत – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="वैदिक संस्कृत" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedische_Sproch" title="Vedische Sproch – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Vedische Sproch" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9dsk%C3%BD_sanskrt" title="Védský sanskrt – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Védský sanskrt" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedisk" title="Vedisk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vedisk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedische_Sprache" title="Vedische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vedische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1nscrito_v%C3%A9dico" title="Sánscrito védico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sánscrito védico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda_sanskrito" title="Veda sanskrito – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Veda sanskrito" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vediko" title="Vediko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Vediko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="سانسکریت ودایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سانسکریت ودایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_v%C3%A9dique" title="Sanskrit védique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sanskrit védique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%EB%8B%A4_%EC%82%B0%EC%8A%A4%ED%81%AC%EB%A6%AC%ED%8A%B8%EC%96%B4" title="베다 산스크리트어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="베다 산스크리트어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4" title="वैदिक संस्कृत – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वैदिक संस्कृत" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Weda" title="Bahasa Weda – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Weda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanscrito_vedico" title="Sanscrito vedico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sanscrito vedico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%83%E0%B2%A4" title="ವೈದಿಕ ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವೈದಿಕ ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ved%C5%B3_kalba" title="Vedų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vedų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%82" title="വൈദികസംസ്‌കൃതം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വൈദികസംസ്‌കൃതം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4" title="वेदिक संस्कृत – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वेदिक संस्कृत" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="ودایی سانسکریت – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ودایی سانسکریت" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedisch_Sanskriet" title="Vedisch Sanskriet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vedisch Sanskriet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4" title="वैदिक संस्कृत – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="वैदिक संस्कृत" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%83%80%E8%AA%9E" title="ヴェーダ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヴェーダ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedisk_sanskrit" title="Vedisk sanskrit – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vedisk sanskrit" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veda_tili" title="Veda tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Veda tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AF%DA%A9_%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="ویدک سنسکرت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ویدک سنسکرت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskryt_wedyjski" title="Sanskryt wedyjski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sanskryt wedyjski" 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Archaic language in the Vedas (2nd millennium BCE)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Vedda_language" title="Vedda language">Vedda language</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Vedic Sanskrit</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Present-day <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Northwestern <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1500</span> – 600 BCE</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Vedic Sanskrit</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/vsn" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:vsn">vsn</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/vsn">vsn</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"> </th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/qnk">qnk</a></code> Rigvedic</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/vedi1234">vedi1234</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Vedic Sanskrit</b>, also simply referred as the <b>Vedic language</b>, is an ancient language of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a> subgroup of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European language</a> family. It is attested in the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> and related literature<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrow200143_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow200143-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> compiled over the period of the mid-<a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd millennium BCE">2nd</a> to mid-1st millennium BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Mair2006p160_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mair2006p160-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">orally preserved</a>, predating the advent of writing by several centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacdonell19162_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonell19162-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReich2019122_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich2019122-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Extensive ancient literature in the Vedic <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> language has survived into the modern era, and this has been a major source of information for reconstructing <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> history.<sup id="cite_ref-Baldi1983p51_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldi1983p51-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-beckwith366_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beckwith366-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistoric_derivation">Prehistoric derivation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prehistoric derivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Substratum_in_Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit">Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit</a></div> <p>The separation of Proto-Indo-Iranian language into Proto-Iranian and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Aryan_language" title="Proto-Indo-Aryan language">Proto-Indo-Aryan</a> is estimated, on linguistic grounds, to have occurred around or before 1800 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Baldi1983p51_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldi1983p51-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The date of composition of the oldest hymns of the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> is vague at best, generally estimated to roughly 1500 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both <a href="/wiki/Asko_Parpola" title="Asko Parpola">Asko Parpola</a> (1988) and <a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">J. P. Mallory</a> (1998) place the locus of the division of Indo-Aryan from Iranian in the Bronze Age culture of the <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a> (BMAC). Parpola (1999) elaborates the model and has "Proto-Rigvedic" Indo-Aryans intrude the BMAC around 1700 BCE. He assumes early Indo-Aryan presence in the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation#Collapse_and_Late_Harappan" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Late Harappan</a> horizon from about 1900 BCE, and "Proto-Rigvedic" (Proto-Dardic) intrusion to Punjab as corresponding to the <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave culture</a> from about 1700 BCE. According to this model, Rigvedic within the larger Indo-Aryan group is the direct ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Dardic_languages" title="Dardic languages">Dardic languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early Vedic Sanskrit language was far less homogeneous compared to the language described by <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a>, that is, Classic Sanskrit. The language in the early <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit.<sup id="cite_ref-Gombrich2006p24_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gombrich2006p24-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formalization of the late form of Vedic Sanskrit language into the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Classical Sanskrit</a> form is credited to <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%AD%C4%81dhy%C4%81y%C4%AB" title="Aṣṭādhyāyī">Aṣṭādhyāyī</a></i>, along with <a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Mahabhashya" title="Mahabhashya">Mahabhasya</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Katyayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyayana">Katyayana</a>'s commentary that preceded Patanjali's work.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest epigraphic records of the indigenous rulers of India are written in the <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> language. Originally the epigraphic language of the whole of India was mainly Prakrit and Sanskrit is first noticed in the inscriptions of North India from about the second half of the 1st century BCE. Sanskrit gradually ousted Prakrit from the field of Indian epigraphy in all parts of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronology">Chronology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Chronology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Five chronologically distinct strata can be identified within the Vedic language:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-witz24_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witz24-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Ṛg-vedic</li> <li>Mantra</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83hit%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Saṃhitā">Saṃhitā</a> prose</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Br%C4%81hma%E1%B9%87a" class="mw-redirect" title="Brāhmaṇa">Brāhmaṇa</a> prose</li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%ABtras" class="mw-redirect" title="Sūtras">Sūtras</a></li></ol> <p>The first three are commonly grouped together, as the Saṃhitās<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>A<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> comprising the four Vedas:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>B<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ṛg, atharvan, yajus, sāman, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the canonical foundation both of the Vedic religion, and the later religion known as Hinduism.<sup id="cite_ref-jb12_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jb12-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ṛg-vedic"><span id=".E1.B9.9Ag-vedic"></span>Ṛg-vedic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ṛg-vedic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many words in the Vedic Sanskrit of the <i><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Ṛg·veda</a></i> have cognates or direct correspondences with the ancient <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> language, but these do not appear in post-Rigvedic Indian texts. The text of the <i>Ṛg·veda</i> must have been essentially complete by around the 12th century BCE. The pre-1200 BCE layers mark a gradual change in Vedic Sanskrit, but there is disappearance of these archaic correspondences and linguistics in the post-Rigvedic period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-witz24_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witz24-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mantra_language">Mantra language</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mantra language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the <i><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></i> (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the <i>Ṛg·veda</i> <a href="/wiki/Khilani" title="Khilani">Khilani</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></i> Saṃhitā, and the mantras of the <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a>. These texts are largely derived from the Ṛg·veda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. For example, the more ancient injunctive verb system is no longer in use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-witz24_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witz24-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sanhitā"><span id="Sanhit.C4.81"></span>Sanhitā</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sanhitā"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An important linguistic change is the disappearance of the <a href="/wiki/Injunctive_mood" title="Injunctive mood">injunctive</a>, subjunctive, optative, imperative (the <a href="/wiki/Aorist" title="Aorist">aorist</a>). New innovations in Vedic Sanskrit appear such as the development of periphrastic aorist forms. This must have occurred before the time of <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> because Panini makes a list of those from the northwestern region of India who knew these older rules of Vedic Sanskrit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-witz24_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witz24-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brāhmaṇa_prose"><span id="Br.C4.81hma.E1.B9.87a_prose"></span>Brāhmaṇa prose</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Brāhmaṇa prose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In this layer of Vedic literature, the archaic Vedic Sanskrit verb system has been abandoned, and a prototype of pre-Panini Vedic Sanskrit structure emerges. The <i>Yajñagāthās</i> texts provide a probable link between Vedic Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit and languages of the Epics. Complex meters such as <i><a href="/wiki/Anu%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADubh" title="Anuṣṭubh">Anuṣṭubh</a></i> and rules of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Sanskrit prosody</a> had been or were being innovated by this time, but parts of the Brāhmaṇa layers show the language is still close to Vedic Sanskrit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989121–127_(see_pp._29–31_in_the_archived-url)_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989121–127_(see_pp._29–31_in_the_archived-url)-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-witz24_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witz24-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sūtra_language"><span id="S.C5.ABtra_language"></span>Sūtra language</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sūtra language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is the last stratum of Vedic literature, comprising the bulk of the <a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)#Śrauta_Sutras" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Śrautasūtras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Gṛhyasūtras</a> and some <i><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upaniṣad</a></i>s such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Kaṭha Upaniṣad</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitrāyaṇiya Upaniṣad</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-witz24_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witz24-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These texts elucidate the state of the language which formed the basis of Pāṇini's codification into Classical Sanskrit.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Vedic differs from Classical Sanskrit to an extent comparable to the difference between <a href="/wiki/Homeric_Greek" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek">Classical Greek</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following differences may be observed in the phonology: </p> <ul><li>Vedic had a <a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex lateral approximant">voiced retroflex lateral approximant</a> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɭ]</span>) <sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as its breathy-voiced counterpart (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɭʱ]</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ii<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which are not found in classical Sanskrit; Macdonell suggests these were allophones of the corresponding plosives <i>ḍ</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɖ/</span>) and <i>ḍh</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɖʱ/</span>);<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacdonell191616-17_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonell191616-17-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> these units could also function metrically as a cluster, suggesting <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Aryan" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Aryan">Proto-Indo-Aryan</a> pronunciations of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*[ʐɖ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*[ʐɖʱ]</span> (see <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_superstrate_in_Mitanni" title="Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni">Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni</a>) before the loss of voiced sibilants, which occurred after the split of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacdonell191614-19_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonell191614-19-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The vowels <i>e</i> and <i>o</i> were realized in Vedic as <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> <i>ai</i> and <i>au</i>, but they became <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongs</a> in later Sanskrit, such as <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">daivá-</i></span></i> > <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">devá-</i></span></i>and <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">áika-</i></span></i>><i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ekā-</i></span></i>. However, the diphthongal quality still resurfaces in sandhi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacdonell19164-5_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonell19164-5-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The vowels <i>ai</i> and <i>au</i> were correspondingly realized in Vedic as long <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> <i>āi</i> and <i>āu</i>, but they became correspondingly short in Classical Sanskrit: <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">dyā́us</i></span></i> > <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">dyáus</i></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacdonell19164-5_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonell19164-5-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Prātiśākhyas claim that the "dental" consonants were articulated from the teeth ridge (<i>dantamūlīya</i>, <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a>), but they became <a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">dentals</a> later, whereas most other authorities including Pāṇini designate them as dentals.<sup id="cite_ref-Deshpande138_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deshpande138-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Prātiśākhyas are inconsistent about <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>]</span> but generally claim that it was also a <i>dantamūlīya</i>. According to Pāṇini it is a <a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">retroflex consonant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Deshpande138_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deshpande138-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <i>pluti</i> (<a href="/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">trimoraic</a>) vowels were on the verge of becoming <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemicized</a> during middle Vedic, but disappeared again.</li> <li>Vedic often allowed two like vowels in certain cases to come together in <a href="/wiki/Hiatus_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiatus (linguistics)">hiatus</a> without merger during <a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">sandhi</a>, which has been reconstructed as the influence of an old <a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_consonant" title="Laryngeal consonant">laryngeal</a> still present in the Proto-Indo-Iranian stage of the language: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">PIE</a> <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">h₂we<b>h₁</b>·nt-</i></span> → <i>va·ata-</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>C<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClackson200758-59_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClackson200758-59-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accent">Accent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Accent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vedic_accent" title="Vedic accent">Vedic accent</a></div> <p>Vedic had a <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which could even change the meaning of the words, and was still in use in Pāṇini's time, as can be inferred by his use of devices to indicate its position. At some latter time, this was replaced by a stress accent limited to the second to fourth syllables from the end.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since a small number of words in the late pronunciation of Vedic carry the so-called "independent <i><a href="/wiki/Svarita" class="mw-redirect" title="Svarita">svarita</a></i>" on a short vowel, one can argue that <i>late</i> Vedic was <i>marginally</i> a <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tonal language</a>. Note however that in the metrically-restored versions of the <i><a href="/wiki/Rig_Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Rig Veda">Rig Veda</a> </i>almost all of the syllables carrying an <a href="/wiki/Independent_svarita" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent svarita">independent <i>svarita</i></a> must revert to a sequence of two syllables, the first of which carries an <i><a href="/wiki/Udatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Udatta">udātta</a></i> and the second a so-called dependent <i><a href="/wiki/Svarita" class="mw-redirect" title="Svarita">svarita</a></i>. Early Vedic was thus definitely not a tonal language like <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> but a pitch accent language like <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, which was inherited from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Proto-Indo-European accent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pitch accent was not restricted to Vedic. Early Sanskrit grammarian <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> gives accent rules for both the spoken language of his post-Vedic time as well as the differences of Vedic accent. However, no extant post-Vedic text with accents are found.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pluti">Pluti</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pluti"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <caption>Pluta </caption> <tbody><tr> <td><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">a3</i></span> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1094882035">.mw-parser-output .script-Cprt{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Segoe UI Historic","Noto Sans Cypriot",Code2001}.mw-parser-output .script-Hano{font-size:125%;font-family:"Noto Sans Hanunoo",FreeSerif,Quivira}.mw-parser-output .script-Latf,.mw-parser-output .script-de-Latf{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Breitkopf Fraktur",UnifrakturCook,UniFrakturMaguntia,MarsFraktur,"MarsFraktur OT",KochFraktur,"KochFraktur OT",OffenbacherSchwabOT,"LOB.AlteSchwabacher","LOV.AlteSchwabacher","LOB.AtlantisFraktur","LOV.AtlantisFraktur","LOB.BreitkopfFraktur","LOV.BreitkopfFraktur","LOB.FetteFraktur","LOV.FetteFraktur","LOB.Fraktur3","LOV.Fraktur3","LOB.RochFraktur","LOV.RochFraktur","LOB.PostFraktur","LOV.PostFraktur","LOB.RuelhscheFraktur","LOV.RuelhscheFraktur","LOB.RungholtFraktur","LOV.RungholtFraktur","LOB.TheuerbankFraktur","LOV.TheuerbankFraktur","LOB.VinetaFraktur","LOV.VinetaFraktur","LOB.WalbaumFraktur","LOV.WalbaumFraktur","LOB.WeberMainzerFraktur","LOV.WeberMainzerFraktur","LOB.WieynckFraktur","LOV.WieynckFraktur","LOB.ZentenarFraktur","LOV.ZentenarFraktur"}.mw-parser-output .script-en-Latf{font-size:1.25em;font-family:Cankama,"Old English Text MT","Textura Libera","Textura Libera Tenuis",London}.mw-parser-output .script-it-Latf{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Rotunda Pommerania",Rotunda,"Typographer Rotunda"}.mw-parser-output .script-Lina{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Noto Sans Linear A"}.mw-parser-output .script-Linb{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Noto Sans Linear B"}.mw-parser-output .script-Ugar{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Segoe UI Historic","Noto Sans Ugaritic",Aegean}.mw-parser-output .script-Xpeo{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Segoe UI Historic","Noto Sans Old Persian",Artaxerxes,Xerxes,Aegean}</style><span class="Unicode">अ३</span>)</td> <td><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ā3</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">आ३</span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">i3</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">इ३</span>)</td> <td><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ī3</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">ई३</span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">u3</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">उ३</span>)</td> <td><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ū3</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">ऊ३</span>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">a3i (e3)</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">ए३</span>)</td> <td><span style="color:gray"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ā3i</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">ऐ३</span>)</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">a3u (o3)</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">ओ३</span>)</td> <td><span style="color:gray"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ā3u</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">औ३</span>)</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span style="color:gray"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ṛ3</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">ऋ३</span>)</span></td> <td><span style="color:gray"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ṝ3</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">ॠ३</span>)</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span style="color:gray"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ḷ3</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">ऌ३</span>)</span></td> <td><span style="color:gray"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">ḹ3</i></span> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">ॡ३</span>)</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Pluti" redirects here. For other uses of "pluta", see <a href="/wiki/Pluta_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Pluta (disambiguation)">Pluta</a>.</div> <p><i><b>Pluti</b></i>, or <i>prolation</i>, is the term for the phenomenon of protracted or <a href="/wiki/Overlong_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Overlong vowel">overlong vowels</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>; the overlong or <i>prolated</i> vowels are themselves called <i><b>pluta</b></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKobayashi200613_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKobayashi200613-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pluta vowels are usually noted with a numeral "3" (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">३</span>) indicating a length of three <a href="/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)" title="Mora (linguistics)">morae</a> (<span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">trimātra</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScharfHymann2011154_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharfHymann2011154-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A diphthong is prolated by prolongation of its first vowel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇinian</a> grammarians recognise the phonetic occurrence of diphthongs measuring more than three morae in duration, but classify them all as prolated (i.e. trimoraic) to preserve a strict tripartite division of vocalic length between <span title="Danish-language romanization"><i lang="da-Latn">hrasva</i></span> (short, 1 mora), <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">dīrgha</i></span> (long, 2 morae) and <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">pluta</i></span> (prolated, 3+ morae).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScharfHymann201172_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharfHymann201172-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:O3m_AryaSamaj.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/O3m_AryaSamaj.PNG/200px-O3m_AryaSamaj.PNG" decoding="async" width="200" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/O3m_AryaSamaj.PNG/300px-O3m_AryaSamaj.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/O3m_AryaSamaj.PNG/400px-O3m_AryaSamaj.PNG 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="429" /></a><figcaption>The syllable <i><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Aum</a></i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1094882035"><span class="Unicode">ओ३म्</span>) rendered with <i>pluta</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Pluta vowels are recorded a total of 3 times in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> and 15 times in the <a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a>, typically in cases of questioning and particularly where two options are being compared.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKobayashi200613_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKobayashi200613-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28_39-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">adháḥ svid āsî3d upári svid āsī3t</i></span></li></ul> <dl><dd>"Was it above? Was it below?"</dd> <dd>Rigveda 10.129.5d</dd></dl> <ul><li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">idáṃ bhûyā3 idâ3miti</i></span></li></ul> <dl><dd>"Is this larger? Or this?"</dd> <dd>Atharvaveda 9.6.18</dd></dl> <p>The <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">pluti</i></span> attained the peak of their popularity in the <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a> period of late Vedic Sanskrit (roughly 8th century BC), with some 40 instances in the <a href="/wiki/Shatapatha_Brahmana" title="Shatapatha Brahmana">Shatapatha Brahmana</a> alone.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic Sanskrit grammar</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_literature#Vedic_literature" title="Sanskrit literature">Sanskrit literature § Vedic literature</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Sanskrit">Classical Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_epigraphy" title="Sanskrit epigraphy">Sanskrit epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic Sanskrit grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_metre" title="Vedic metre">Vedic metre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vedic_Word_Concordance" title="A Vedic Word Concordance">A Vedic Word Concordance</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a>, a closely related language</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Today, the pitch accent can be heard only in the traditional Vedic chantings.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glossary">Glossary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Glossary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-upper-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">'compiled', 'put together'<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">from <i>vid-</i>, 'to know', cognate with Eng. 'wit'<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>vā́ta-</i>, wind</span> </li> </ol></div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Brahmic_notes">Brahmic notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Brahmic notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1256386598">.mw-parser-output .cot-header-mainspace{background:#F0F2F5;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cot-header-other{background:#CCFFCC;color:inherit}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cot-header-mainspace{background:#14181F;color:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cot-header-other{background:#003500;color:inherit}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cot-header-mainspace{background:#14181F;color:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cot-header-other{background:#003500;color:inherit}}</style> <div style="margin-left:0"> <table class="mw-collapsible mw-archivedtalk mw-collapsed" style="color:inherit; background: transparent; text-align: left; border: 1px solid Silver; margin: 0.2em auto auto; width:100%; clear: both; padding: 1px;"> <tbody><tr> <th class="cot-header-mainspace" style="; font-size:87%; padding:0.2em 0.3em; text-align:center;"><div style="font-size:115%;margin:0 4em">Brahmic transliteration</div> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="color:inherit; border: solid 1px Silver; padding: 0.6em; background: var(--background-color-base, #fff);"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-roman" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">ळ</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">ळ्ह</span></span></span> </li> </ol></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrow200143-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrow200143_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurrow2001">Burrow 2001</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mair2006p160-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mair2006p160_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Witzel, Michael</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-OilJCX1moC&pg=PA160">"Early Loanwords in Western Central Asia: Indicators of Substrate Populations, Migrations, and Trade Relations"</a>. In Mair, Victor H. (ed.). <i>Contact And Exchange in the Ancient World</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii Press">University of Hawaii Press</a>. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2884-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2884-4"><bdi>978-0-8248-2884-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+Loanwords+in+Western+Central+Asia%3A+Indicators+of+Substrate+Populations%2C+Migrations%2C+and+Trade+Relations&rft.btitle=Contact+And+Exchange+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-2884-4&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8-OilJCX1moC%26pg%3DPA160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonell19162-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacdonell19162_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacdonell1916">Macdonell 1916</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich2019122-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReich2019122_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReich2019">Reich 2019</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baldi1983p51-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baldi1983p51_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baldi1983p51_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaldi1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Baldi" title="Philip Baldi">Baldi, Philip</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lq-mkL23oh8C&pg=PA51"><i>An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages</i></a>. Southern Illinois University Press. pp. 51–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8093-1091-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8093-1091-3"><bdi>978-0-8093-1091-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Indo-European+Languages&rft.pages=51-52&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8093-1091-3&rft.aulast=Baldi&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlq-mkL23oh8C%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-beckwith366-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-beckwith366_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith2009" class="citation book cs1">Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5jG1eHe3y4EC"><i>Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 363–368. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13589-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13589-2"><bdi>978-0-691-13589-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+of+the+Silk+Road%3A+A+History+of+Central+Eurasia+from+the+Bronze+Age+to+the+Present&rft.pages=363-368&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13589-2&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5jG1eHe3y4EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMallory1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J.P._Mallory" class="mw-redirect" title="J.P. Mallory">Mallory, J.P.</a> (1989). <i>In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth</i>. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 38f.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+the+Indo-Europeans%3A+Language%2C+Archaeology%2C+and+Myth&rft.place=London&rft.pages=38f&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Mallory&rft.aufirst=J.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._P._MalloryDouglas_Q._Adams1997" class="citation book cs1">J. P. Mallory; Douglas Q. Adams (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC"><i>Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 306. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-98-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-98-5"><bdi>978-1-884964-98-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Indo-European+Culture&rft.pages=306&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-98-5&rft.au=J.+P.+Mallory&rft.au=Douglas+Q.+Adams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtzU3RIV2BWIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parpola, Asko (1999), "The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European", in Blench, Roger & Spriggs, Matthew, Archaeology and Language, vol. III: Artefacts, languages and texts, London and New York: Routledge.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gombrich2006p24-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gombrich2006p24_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Gombrich2006" class="citation book cs1">Richard Gombrich (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jZyJAgAAQBAJ"><i>Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 24–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-90352-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-90352-8"><bdi>978-1-134-90352-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theravada+Buddhism%3A+A+Social+History+from+Ancient+Benares+to+Modern+Colombo&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-134-90352-8&rft.au=Richard+Gombrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjZyJAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGérard_HuetAmba_KulkarniPeter_Scharf2009" class="citation book cs1">Gérard Huet; Amba Kulkarni; Peter Scharf (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t2f1hneiV08C"><i>Sanskrit Computational Linguistics: First and Second International Symposia Rocquencourt, France, October 29–31, 2007 Providence, RI, USA, May 15–17, 2008, Revised Selected Papers</i></a>. Springer. pp. v–vi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-00154-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-00154-3"><bdi>978-3-642-00154-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit+Computational+Linguistics%3A+First+and+Second+International+Symposia+Rocquencourt%2C+France%2C+October+29%E2%80%9331%2C+2007+Providence%2C+RI%2C+USA%2C+May+15%E2%80%9317%2C+2008%2C+Revised+Selected+Papers&rft.pages=v-vi&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-642-00154-3&rft.au=G%C3%A9rard+Huet&rft.au=Amba+Kulkarni&rft.au=Peter+Scharf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt2f1hneiV08C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Louis Renou & Jean Filliozat. <i>L'Inde Classique, manuel des etudes indiennes</i>, vol.II pp.86–90, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_fran%C3%A7aise_d%27Extr%C3%AAme-Orient" class="mw-redirect" title="École française d'Extrême-Orient">École française d'Extrême-Orient</a>, 1953, reprinted 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-85539-903-3" title="Special:BookSources/2-85539-903-3">2-85539-903-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indianepigraphy0000sirc/page/38/mode/2up?q=Sanskrit">"Indian epigraphy"</a>. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass. 1965.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indian+epigraphy&rft.pub=Delhi%2C+Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findianepigraphy0000sirc%2Fpage%2F38%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3DSanskrit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989115–127_(see_pp._26–30_in_the_archived-url)_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichael_Witzel1989">Michael Witzel 1989</a>, pp. 115–127 (see pp. 26–30 in the archived-url).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-witz24-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-witz24_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witz24_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witz24_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witz24_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witz24_15-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witz24_15-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlaus_G._Witz1998" class="citation book cs1">Klaus G. Witz (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2jnPlEqwe_UC&pg=PA24"><i>The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 24 with note 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1573-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1573-5"><bdi>978-81-208-1573-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Wisdom+of+the+Upani%E1%B9%A3ads%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=24+with+note+73&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1573-5&rft.au=Klaus+G.+Witz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2jnPlEqwe_UC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, pp. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MWW, p. 1123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MWW, p.963.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jb12-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jb12_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J&B, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989121–127_(see_pp._29–31_in_the_archived-url)-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichael_Witzel1989121–127_(see_pp._29–31_in_the_archived-url)_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichael_Witzel1989">Michael Witzel 1989</a>, pp. 121–127 (see pp. 29–31 in the archived-url).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, pp44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwickChadwick2010" class="citation book cs1">Chadwick, H. Munro; Chadwick, Nora K. (2010-10-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ds2oBKF_FrUC&pg=PA460"><i>The Growth of Literature</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 460. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01615-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01615-5"><bdi>978-1-108-01615-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Growth+of+Literature&rft.pages=460&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010-10-31&rft.isbn=978-1-108-01615-5&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=H.+Munro&rft.au=Chadwick%2C+Nora+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDs2oBKF_FrUC%26pg%3DPA460&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonell191616-17-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacdonell191616-17_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacdonell1916">Macdonell 1916</a>, p. 16-17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonell191614-19-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacdonell191614-19_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacdonell1916">Macdonell 1916</a>, p. 14-19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonell19164-5-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacdonell19164-5_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacdonell19164-5_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacdonell1916">Macdonell 1916</a>, p. 4-5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Deshpande138-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Deshpande138_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Deshpande138_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Deshpande, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitney, §52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClackson200758-59-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClackson200758-59_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClackson2007">Clackson 2007</a>, p. 58-59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burrow, §3.24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamisonBegušBeguš2016" class="citation journal cs1">Jamison, S.; Beguš, G.; Beguš, G. (2016). "The Phonetics of the Independent Svarita in Vedic". <i>Proceedings of the 26th Annual UCLA Indo-European Conference</i>: 1–12. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17589517">17589517</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+26th+Annual+UCLA+Indo-European+Conference&rft.atitle=The+Phonetics+of+the+Independent+Svarita+in+Vedic&rft.pages=1-12&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17589517%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Jamison&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Begu%C5%A1%2C+G.&rft.au=Begu%C5%A1%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChakrabarti1996" class="citation book cs1">Chakrabarti, Samiran Chandra (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lVjkAAAAMAAJ"><i>Some Aspects of Vedic Studies</i></a>. School of Vedic Studies, Rabindra Bharati University. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-86938-04-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-86938-04-1"><bdi>978-81-86938-04-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+Aspects+of+Vedic+Studies&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=School+of+Vedic+Studies%2C+Rabindra+Bharati+University&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-86938-04-1&rft.aulast=Chakrabarti&rft.aufirst=Samiran+Chandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlVjkAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKobayashi200613-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKobayashi200613_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKobayashi200613_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKobayashi2006">Kobayashi (2006)</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitney195027–28_39-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhitney1950">Whitney (1950)</a>, pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharfHymann2011154-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScharfHymann2011154_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScharfHymann2011">Scharf & Hymann (2011)</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScharfHymann201172-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScharfHymann201172_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScharfHymann2011">Scharf & Hymann (2011)</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrunk1983" class="citation book cs1">Strunk, Klaus (1983). <i>Typische Merkmale von Fragesätzen und die altindische "Pluti"</i>. München. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3769615271" title="Special:BookSources/3769615271"><bdi>3769615271</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Typische+Merkmale+von+Frages%C3%A4tzen+und+die+altindische+%22Pluti%22&rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=3769615271&rft.aulast=Strunk&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurrow2001" class="citation book cs1">Burrow, T. (2001). <i>The Sanskrit language</i> (1st Indian ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120817678" title="Special:BookSources/9788120817678"><bdi>9788120817678</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sanskrit+language&rft.place=Delhi&rft.edition=1st+Indian&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9788120817678&rft.aulast=Burrow&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClackson2007" class="citation book cs1">Clackson, James (2007). <i>Indo-European Linguistics</i>. Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65313-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65313-8"><bdi>978-0-521-65313-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65313-8&rft.aulast=Clackson&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKobayashi2006" class="citation journal cs1">Kobayashi, Masato (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/masatok/Kobayashi_Ast8_2.pdf">"<span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Pāṇini</i></span>'s Phonological Rules and Vedic: <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Aṣṭādhyāyī</i></span> 8.2*"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Indological Studies</i>. <b>18</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Indological+Studies&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22International+Alphabet+of+Sanskrit+transliteration%22%3E%3Ci+lang%3D%22sa-Latn%22%3EP%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini%3C%2Fi%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%27s+Phonological+Rules+and+Vedic%3A+%3Cspan+title%3D%22International+Alphabet+of+Sanskrit+transliteration%22%3E%3Ci+lang%3D%22sa-Latn%22%3EA%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%AD%C4%81dhy%C4%81y%C4%AB%3C%2Fi%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E+8.2%2A&rft.volume=18&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Kobayashi&rft.aufirst=Masato&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp%2Fmasatok%2FKobayashi_Ast8_2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacdonell1916" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Anthony_Macdonell" title="Arthur Anthony Macdonell">Macdonell, Arthur Anthony</a> (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YKI3TQvbsDcC"><i>A Vedic Grammar for Students</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1052-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1052-5"><bdi>978-81-208-1052-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Vedic+Grammar+for+Students&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1916&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1052-5&rft.aulast=Macdonell&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYKI3TQvbsDcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Witzel1989" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a> (1989), <a href="/wiki/Colette_Caillat" title="Colette Caillat">Colette Caillat</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/dialects.pdf"><i>Tracing the Vedic dialects, in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in French), Paris: de Boccard</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tracing+the+Vedic+dialects%2C+in+Dialectes+dans+les+litteratures+Indo-Aryennes&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=de+Boccard&rft.date=1989&rft.au=Michael+Witzel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F~witzel%2Fdialects.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReich2019" class="citation book cs1">Reich, David (2019). <i>Who we are and how we got here: ancient DNA and the new science of the human past</i>. New York: First Vintage Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-87346-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-87346-5"><bdi>978-1-101-87346-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+we+are+and+how+we+got+here%3A+ancient+DNA+and+the+new+science+of+the+human+past&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=First+Vintage+Books&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-101-87346-5&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScharfHymann2011" class="citation book cs1">Scharf, Peter M.; Hymann, Malcolm D. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sanskritlibrary.org/Sanskrit/pub/lies_sl.pdf"><i>Linguistic Issues in Encoding Sanskrit</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (1st ed.). Providence: The Sanskrit Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120835399" title="Special:BookSources/9788120835399"><bdi>9788120835399</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Issues+in+Encoding+Sanskrit&rft.place=Providence&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=The+Sanskrit+Library&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9788120835399&rft.aulast=Scharf&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&rft.au=Hymann%2C+Malcolm+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsanskritlibrary.org%2FSanskrit%2Fpub%2Flies_sl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitney1950" class="citation book cs1">Whitney, William Dwight (1950). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sanskrit_Grammar_(Whitney)"><i>Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language, and the older Dialects, of Veda and Brahmana</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit+Grammar%3A+Including+both+the+Classical+Language%2C+and+the+older+Dialects%2C+of+Veda+and+Brahmana&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Whitney&rft.aufirst=William+Dwight&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FSanskrit_Grammar_%28Whitney%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreretonJamison2020" class="citation book cs1">Brereton, Joel; Jamison, Stephanie (2020). <i>The Rigveda, A Guide</i>. Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190633363" title="Special:BookSources/9780190633363"><bdi>9780190633363</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rigveda%2C+A+Guide&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780190633363&rft.aulast=Brereton&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft.au=Jamison%2C+Stephanie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelbrückWindisch1878" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Berthold_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Berthold Delbrück">Delbrück, Berthold</a>; Windisch, Ernst Wilhelm Oskar (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DoaWr78cxKQC"><i>Syntaktische Forschungen: III. Die Altindische Wortfolge aus dem Çatapathabrâhmaṇa, Dargestellt von B. Delbrück</i></a> (in German). Adegi Graphics LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-543-94034-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-543-94034-6"><bdi>978-0-543-94034-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syntaktische+Forschungen%3A+III.+Die+Altindische+Wortfolge+aus+dem+%C3%87atapathabr%C3%A2hma%E1%B9%87a%2C+Dargestellt+von+B.+Delbr%C3%BCck&rft.pub=Adegi+Graphics+LLC&rft.date=1878&rft.isbn=978-0-543-94034-6&rft.aulast=Delbr%C3%BCck&rft.aufirst=Berthold&rft.au=Windisch%2C+Ernst+Wilhelm+Oskar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDoaWr78cxKQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeshpande1993" class="citation book cs1">Deshpande, Madhav M. (1993). <i>Sanskrit and Prakrit</i> (1st ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1136-4" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1136-4"><bdi>81-208-1136-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit+and+Prakrit&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=81-208-1136-4&rft.aulast=Deshpande&rft.aufirst=Madhav+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindner1878" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lindner, Bruno (1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/altindischenomi00lindgoog"><i>Altindische Nominalbildung: Nach den Saṃhitâs</i></a> (in German). Costenoble. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/altindischenomi00lindgoog/page/n8">1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Altindische+Nominalbildung%3A+Nach+den+Sa%E1%B9%83hit%C3%A2s&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Costenoble&rft.date=1878&rft.aulast=Lindner&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faltindischenomi00lindgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacdonell1910" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Anthony_Macdonell" title="Arthur Anthony Macdonell">Macdonell, Arthur Anthony</a> (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924023050325"><i>Vedic Grammar</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vedic+Grammar&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Macdonell&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924023050325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRenou1952" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Renou, Louis (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.2174"><i>Grammaire de la langue védique</i></a>. Les Langues du Monde (in French). Lyon: IAC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammaire+de+la+langue+v%C3%A9dique&rft.place=Lyon&rft.series=Les+Langues+du+Monde&rft.pub=IAC&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Renou&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.gov.ignca.2174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1CD0.pdf">Unicode signs for Vedic Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/indexe.htm?/texte/texte2.htm#ved">index of Vedic texts</a> (TITUS)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/vedol">Ancient Sanskrit Online</a> by Karen Thomson and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc">Linguistics Research Center</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3jNMmTOaykA">Introduction to Vedic chanting</a>. Swami Tadatmananda (Arsha Bodha Center)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spw.uni-goettingen.de/projects/aig/lng-ved.html">glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammar online</a>, an online collection of introductory videos to Ancient Indo-European languages produced by the University of Göttingen</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonology_2">Phonology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.evertype.com/standards/iso10646/pdf/vedic/Vedic_accents_doc.pdf">Vedic Accents</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art188e.pdf">Frederik Kortlandt "Accent and ablaut in the Vedic verbs"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unc.edu/~melfraz/ling/frazier-UCLA-handout.pdf">Melissa Frazier "Accent in Proto-Indo-European Athematic Nouns and Its Development in Vedic" (obsolete link)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070101225942/https://www.unc.edu/~melfraz/ling/frazier-UCLA-handout.pdf">Internet Archive copy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ancient-buddhist-texts.net/Textual-Studies/Prosody-Articles/Macdonell-Vedic.pdf">Arthur Anthony Macdonell "A Vedic Grammar for Students: Appendix II: Vedic Metre"</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_Sanskrit&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yesvedanta.com/keyswap/">"Keyswap – IAST Diacritics Windows Software"</a>. <i>YesVedanta</i>. 9 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YesVedanta&rft.atitle=Keyswap+%E2%80%93+IAST+Diacritics+Windows+Software&rft.date=2018-08-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yesvedanta.com%2Fkeyswap%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span> — Keyboard Software for typing in the International Alphabet for Sanskrit</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sanskritdictionary.com/">"Online Sanskrit Dictionary"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Online+Sanskrit+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sanskritdictionary.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span> — sources results from Monier Williams etc.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sanskrit.inria.fr/DICO/grammar.html">"The Sanskrit Grammarian"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Sanskrit+Grammarian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsanskrit.inria.fr%2FDICO%2Fgrammar.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVedic+Sanskrit" class="Z3988"></span> — dynamic online declension and conjugation tool</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd 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.navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sanskrit_language_topics" title="Template:Sanskrit language topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sanskrit_language_topics" title="Template talk:Sanskrit language topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sanskrit_language_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sanskrit language topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sanskrit" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influence zone</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indosphere" title="Indosphere">Indosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_(political_model)" title="Mandala (political model)">Mandala political model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mode of spread</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskritisation (sociology)">Sanskritisation (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritisation_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskritisation (language)">Sanskritisation (language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskritism" title="Sanskritism">Sanskritism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vedic Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">Grammar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_pronouns_and_determiners" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit pronouns and determiners">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_compound" title="Sanskrit compound">Compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_verbs" title="Sanskrit verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Prosody</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Origin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Later development <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagari_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagari script">Nagari script</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Spread of usage <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangla_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangla alphabet">Bangla script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawi language">Kawi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suyat" title="Suyat">Suyat family of scripts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_literature" title="Sanskrit literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Buddhist literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_drama" title="Indian classical drama">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_epic_poetry" title="Indian epic poetry">Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_Indian_texts" title="List of historic Indian texts">Historic Sanskrit texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legendary_creatures_in_Hindu_mythology" title="List of legendary creatures in Hindu mythology">Legendary creatures in Sanskrit Hindu mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_literature" title="Sanskrit literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_poets" title="List of Sanskrit poets">Sanskrit poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current usage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_university_and_college_mottos#India" title="List of university and college mottos">Sanskrit mottos of universities in India</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Loanwords <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Sanskrit_origin" title="List of English words of Sanskrit origin">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_and_Persian_roots_in_Hindi" title="List of Sanskrit and Persian roots in Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_loanwords_in_Indonesian" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Sanskrit loanwords in Indonesian">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_loanwords_in_Tagalog#Sanskrit" title="List of loanwords in Tagalog">Tagalog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_inscriptions_in_the_Malay_world" title="Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world">Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_revival" title="Sanskrit revival">Sanskrit revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_studies" title="Sanskrit studies">Sanskrit studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_revival#Revival_outside_India" title="Sanskrit revival">Sanskrit academic institutes outside India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_universities_in_India" title="List of Sanskrit universities in India">Sanskrit universities in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Wikipedia" title="Sanskrit Wikipedia">Sanskrit Wikipedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Sanskrit_Day" title="World Sanskrit Day">World Sanskrit Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Sanskrit_Conference" title="World Sanskrit Conference">World Sanskrit Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indo-Aryan_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Template:Indo-Aryan languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Template talk:Indo-Aryan languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-Aryan languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indo-Aryan_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dardic_languages" title="Dardic languages">Dardic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kashmiri</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_language" title="Kashmiri language">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kishtwari" title="Kishtwari">Kishtwari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Shina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shina_language" title="Shina language">Shina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brokskat" title="Brokskat">Brokskat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kundal_Shahi_language" title="Kundal Shahi language">Kundal Shahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalkoti_language" title="Kalkoti language">Kalkoti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ushoji_language" title="Ushoji language">Ushoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palula_language" title="Palula language">Palula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawi_language_(Dardic)" title="Sawi language (Dardic)">Sawi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pashayi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pashayi_languages" title="Pashayi languages">Pashayi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kunar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dameli_language" title="Dameli language">Dameli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gawar-Bati_language" title="Gawar-Bati language">Gawar-Bati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nangalami_language" title="Nangalami language">Nangalami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shumashti_language" title="Shumashti language">Shumashti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wotapuri-Katarqalai_language" title="Wotapuri-Katarqalai language">Wotapuri-Katarqalai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chitral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalasha-mun" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalasha-mun">Kalasha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khowar" title="Khowar">Khowar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hazara Division</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Kohistani" title="Indus Kohistani">Indus Kohistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateri_language" title="Bateri language">Bateri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilisso_language" title="Chilisso language">Chilisso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gowro_language" title="Gowro language">Gowro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalami_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalami language">Kalami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirahi_language" title="Tirahi language">Tirahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mankiyali_language" title="Mankiyali language">Mankiyali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Northern Indo-Aryan languages">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doteli" title="Doteli">Doteli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumli_language" title="Jumli language">Jumli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_language" title="Nepali language">Nepali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garhwali_language" title="Garhwali language">Garhwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumaoni_language" title="Kumaoni language">Kumaoni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Pahari" title="Western Pahari">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_language" title="Dogri language">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangri_language" title="Kangri language">Kangri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhadarwahi_language" title="Bhadarwahi language">Bhadarwahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Churahi" title="Churahi">Churahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhateali" title="Bhateali">Bhateali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilaspuri" title="Bilaspuri">Bilaspuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chambeali" title="Chambeali">Chambeali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaddi_language" title="Gaddi language">Gaddi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangwali" title="Pangwali">Pangwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandeali" title="Mandeali">Mandeali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasu_Pahari" title="Mahasu Pahari">Mahasu Pahari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaunsari_language" title="Jaunsari language">Jaunsari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kullui" title="Kullui">Kullui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahari_Kinnauri_language" title="Pahari Kinnauri language">Pahari Kinnauri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduri_language" title="Hinduri language">Hinduri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirmauri_language" title="Sirmauri language">Sirmauri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarazi_language" title="Sarazi language">Sarazi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northwestern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Punjabi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_dialects_and_languages" title="Punjabi dialects and languages">dialects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sansi_language" title="Sansi language">Sansi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lahnda" title="Lahnda">Lahnda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindko" title="Hindko">Hindko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inku_language" title="Inku language">Inku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khetrani_language" title="Khetrani language">Khetrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahari-Pothwari" title="Pahari-Pothwari">Pahari-Pothwari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraiki_language" title="Saraiki language">Saraiki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_languages" title="Sindhi languages">Sindhi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jadgali_language" title="Jadgali language">Jadgali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholosi_language" title="Kholosi language">Kholosi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutchi_language" title="Kutchi language">Kutchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwati_language" title="Luwati language">Luwati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memoni_language" title="Memoni language">Memoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_languages" title="Gujarati languages">Gujarati</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aer_language" title="Aer language">Aer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lisan_ud-Dawat" title="Lisan ud-Dawat">Lisan ud-Dawat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jandavra_language" title="Jandavra language">Jandavra</a></li> <li>Koli <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kachi_Koli_language" title="Kachi Koli language">Kachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkari_Koli_language" title="Parkari Koli language">Parkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadiyara_Koli_language" title="Wadiyara Koli language">Wadiyara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saurashtra_language" title="Saurashtra language">Saurashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaghri_language" title="Vaghri language">Vaghri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rajasthani_languages" title="Rajasthani languages">Rajasthani</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagri_language" title="Bagri language">Bagri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goaria_language" title="Goaria language">Goaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loarki_language" title="Loarki language">Loarki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujari_language" title="Gujari language">Gujari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhundari_language" title="Dhundari language">Dhundari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harauti_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Harauti language">Harauti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malvi_language" title="Malvi language">Malvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwari_language" title="Marwari language">Marwari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mewati_language" title="Mewati language">Mewati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mewari_language" title="Mewari language">Mewari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shekhawati_language" title="Shekhawati language">Shekhawati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhatki_language" title="Dhatki language">Dhatki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Od_language" title="Od language">Od</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimadi_language" title="Nimadi language">Nimadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bhil_languages" title="Bhil languages">Bhil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhili_language" title="Bhili language">Bhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhilali_language" title="Bhilali language">Bhilali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chodri_language" title="Chodri language">Chodri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhodia%E2%80%93Kukna_language" title="Dhodia–Kukna language">Dhodia–Kukna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhanki_language" title="Dhanki language">Dhanki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubli_language" title="Dubli language">Dubli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauria_language" title="Bauria language">Bauria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhilori_language" title="Bhilori language">Bhilori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawchi_language" title="Mawchi language">Mawchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magari_language" title="Magari language">Magari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palya_Bareli_language" title="Palya Bareli language">Palya Bareli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauri_Bareli_language" title="Pauri Bareli language">Pauri Bareli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rathwi_Bareli_language" title="Rathwi Bareli language">Rathwi Bareli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardhi_language" title="Pardhi language">Pardhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamit_language" title="Gamit language">Gamit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalto_language" title="Kalto language">Kalto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasavi_language" title="Vasavi language">Vasavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagdi" title="Wagdi">Wagdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaagri_Booli_language" title="Vaagri Booli language">Vaagri Booli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khandeshi_language" title="Khandeshi language">Khandeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambadi" title="Lambadi">Lambadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawoodi_language" title="Dawoodi language">Dawoodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_language" title="Romani language">Romani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Romani_languages" title="Template:Romani languages">list of languages</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Central Indo-Aryan languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braj_Bhasha" title="Braj Bhasha">Braj Bhasha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundeli_language" title="Bundeli language">Bundeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haryanvi_language" title="Haryanvi language">Haryanvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kauravi_dialect" title="Kauravi dialect">Kauravi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinglish" title="Hinglish">Hinglish</a>/<a href="/wiki/Urdish" title="Urdish">Urdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deccani_language" title="Deccani language">Deccani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judeo-Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyderabadi_Urdu" title="Hyderabadi Urdu">Hyderabadi Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rekhta" title="Rekhta">Rekhta</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannauji_language" title="Kannauji language">Kannauji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sansi_language" title="Sansi language">Sansi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadhukkadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadhukkadi">Sadhukkadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awadhi_language" title="Awadhi language">Awadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagheli_language" title="Bagheli language">Bagheli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarhi_language" title="Chhattisgarhi language">Chhattisgarhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiji_Hindi" title="Fiji Hindi">Fiji Hindi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parya_language" title="Parya language">Parya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Eastern Indo-Aryan languages">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bihari_languages" title="Bihari languages">Bihari</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bhojpuric</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_language" title="Bhojpuri language">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Hindustani" title="Caribbean Hindustani">Caribbean Hindustani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Magahi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magahi_language" title="Magahi language">Magahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khortha_language" title="Khortha language">Khortha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maithili</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_language" title="Maithili language">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angika" title="Angika">Angika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajjika" title="Bajjika">Bajjika</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sadanic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sadri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadri language">Sadri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurmali_language" title="Kurmali language">Kurmali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tharuic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tharu_languages" title="Tharu languages">Tharu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kochila_Tharu" title="Kochila Tharu">Kochila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buksa_language" title="Buksa language">Buksa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majhi_language" title="Majhi language">Majhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musasa_language" title="Musasa language">Musasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kumhali_language" title="Kumhali language">Kumhali</a></li> <li>Kuswaric <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bote-Darai_language" title="Bote-Darai language">Bote-Darai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danwar_language" title="Danwar language">Danwar</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gauda%E2%80%93Kamarupa_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauda–Kamarupa languages">Gauda–<br />Kamarupa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bengali</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_dialects" title="Bengali dialects">dialects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishnupriya_Manipuri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishnupriya Manipuri language">Bishnupriya Manipuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajong_language" title="Hajong language">Hajong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharia_Thar_language" title="Kharia Thar language">Kharia Thar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurmukar_language" title="Kurmukar language">Kurmukar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mal_Paharia_language" title="Mal Paharia language">Mal Paharia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noakhailla_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Noakhailla language">Noakhailla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_language" title="Sylheti language">Sylheti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanchangya_language" title="Tanchangya language">Tanchangya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kamarupic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamrupi_dialects" title="Kamrupi dialects">Kamrupi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goalpariya_dialects" title="Goalpariya dialects">Goalpariya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajbanshi_language_(Nepal)" title="Rajbanshi language (Nepal)">Rajbanshi (Nepal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangpuri_language" title="Rangpuri language">Rangpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surjapuri_language" title="Surjapuri language">Surjapuri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chittagonian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chittagonian_language" title="Chittagonian language">Chittagonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_language" title="Chakma language">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohingya_language" title="Rohingya language">Rohingya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Odia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Odia_language" title="Odia language">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambalpuri_language" title="Sambalpuri language">Sambalpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desia_language" title="Desia language">Desia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhatri_language" title="Bhatri language">Bhatri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodo_Parja_language" title="Bodo Parja language">Bodo Parja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reli_language" title="Reli language">Reli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kupia_language" title="Kupia language">Kupia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Halbic_languages" title="Halbic languages">Halbic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Halbi_language" title="Halbi language">Halbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamar_language" title="Kamar language">Kamar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhunjia_language_(Halbic)" title="Bhunjia language (Halbic)">Bhunjia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahari_language" title="Nahari language">Nahari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marathi-Konkani_languages" title="Marathi-Konkani languages">Marathi–<br />Konkani</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marathic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varhadi_dialect" title="Varhadi dialect">Varhadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andh_language" title="Andh language">Andh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berar-Deccan_Marathi" title="Berar-Deccan Marathi">Berar Deccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varli_language" title="Varli language">Varli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phudagi_language" title="Phudagi language">Phudagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katkari_language" title="Katkari language">Katkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadodi_language" title="Kadodi language">Kadodi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Konkanic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Konkani_language" title="Konkani language">Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharashtrian_Konkani" class="mw-redirect" title="Maharashtrian Konkani">Maharashtrian Konkani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canarese_Konkani" title="Canarese Konkani">Canarese Konkani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_language" title="Maldivian language">Maldivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_language" title="Sinhala language">Sinhala</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Sanskrit">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_superstrate_in_Mitanni" title="Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni">Mitanni superstrate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Middle Indo-Aryan languages">Middle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashokan_Prakrit" title="Ashokan Prakrit">Ashokan Prakrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ardhamagadhi_Prakrit" title="Ardhamagadhi Prakrit">Early Ardhamagadhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle (<a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatic_Prakrit" title="Dramatic Prakrit">Dramatic Prakrits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ardhamagadhi_Prakrit" title="Ardhamagadhi Prakrit">Ardhamagadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhi_Prakrit" title="Magadhi Prakrit">Magadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharashtri_Prakrit" title="Maharashtri Prakrit">Maharashtri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shauraseni_Prakrit" title="Shauraseni Prakrit">Shauraseni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhari_language" title="Gandhari language">Gāndhārī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudi_Prakrit" title="Gaudi Prakrit">Gaudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paishachi" title="Paishachi">Paishachi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Late (<a href="/wiki/Apabhra%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba" title="Apabhraṃśa">Apabhraṃśa</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abahattha" title="Abahattha">Abahattha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apabhra%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba" title="Apabhraṃśa">Apabhraṃśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elu" title="Elu">Elu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamarupi_Prakrit" title="Kamarupi Prakrit">Kamarupi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khasa_Prakrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Khasa Prakrit language">Khasa Prakrit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proto-<br />languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Aryan_language" title="Proto-Indo-Aryan language">Proto-Indo-Aryan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Badeshi" title="Badeshi">Badeshi</a> (unknown further classification)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bazigar_language" title="Bazigar language">Bazigar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinali%E2%80%93Lahul_languages" title="Chinali–Lahul languages">Chinali–Lahul</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinali_language" title="Chinali language">Chinali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lahul_Lohar_language" title="Lahul Lohar language">Lahul Lohar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikhgal" title="Sheikhgal">Sheikhgal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pidgins<br />and creoles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andaman_Creole_Hindi" title="Andaman Creole Hindi">Andaman Creole Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombay_Hindi" title="Bombay Hindi">Bombay Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haflong_Hindi" title="Haflong Hindi">Haflong Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagamese_creole" title="Nagamese creole">Nagamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nefamese" title="Nefamese">Nefamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda_language" title="Vedda language">Vedda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <dl><dt>See also</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian languages</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nuristani_languages" title="Nuristani languages">Nuristani languages</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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