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id="toc-Periodisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background_and_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background_and_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Background and formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background_and_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Partition_of_Jin_(453–403_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Partition_of_Jin_(453–403_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Partition of Jin (453–403 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Partition_of_Jin_(453–403_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Warring_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Warring_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Early Warring States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Warring_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_three_Jins_recognized_(403–364_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_three_Jins_recognized_(403–364_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>The three Jins recognized (403–364 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_three_Jins_recognized_(403–364_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qi_resurgence_under_Tian_(379–340_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qi_resurgence_under_Tian_(379–340_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Qi resurgence under Tian (379–340 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qi_resurgence_under_Tian_(379–340_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wars_of_Wei" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_of_Wei"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Wars of Wei</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars_of_Wei-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dukes_become_kings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dukes_become_kings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Dukes become kings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dukes_become_kings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Qi_and_Wei_became_kingdoms_(344_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qi_and_Wei_became_kingdoms_(344_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Qi and Wei became kingdoms (344 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qi_and_Wei_became_kingdoms_(344_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shang_Yang_reforms_Qin_(356–338_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shang_Yang_reforms_Qin_(356–338_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Shang Yang reforms Qin (356–338 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shang_Yang_reforms_Qin_(356–338_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qin_defeats_Wei_(341–340_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qin_defeats_Wei_(341–340_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Qin defeats Wei (341–340 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qin_defeats_Wei_(341–340_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chu_conquers_Yue_(334_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chu_conquers_Yue_(334_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>Chu conquers Yue (334 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chu_conquers_Yue_(334_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qin,_Han_and_Yan_became_kingdoms_(325–323_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qin,_Han_and_Yan_became_kingdoms_(325–323_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.5</span> <span>Qin, Han and Yan became kingdoms (325–323 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qin,_Han_and_Yan_became_kingdoms_(325–323_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Partition_of_Zhou_(314_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Partition_of_Zhou_(314_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.6</span> <span>Partition of Zhou (314 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Partition_of_Zhou_(314_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Horizontal_and_vertical_alliances_(334–249_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Horizontal_and_vertical_alliances_(334–249_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Horizontal and vertical alliances (334–249 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Horizontal_and_vertical_alliances_(334–249_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Su_Qin_and_the_first_vertical_alliance_(334–300_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Su_Qin_and_the_first_vertical_alliance_(334–300_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Su Qin and the first vertical alliance (334–300 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Su_Qin_and_the_first_vertical_alliance_(334–300_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_first_horizontal_alliance_(300–287_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_first_horizontal_alliance_(300–287_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>The first horizontal alliance (300–287 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_first_horizontal_alliance_(300–287_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Su_Dai_and_the_second_vertical_alliance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Su_Dai_and_the_second_vertical_alliance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>Su Dai and the second vertical alliance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Su_Dai_and_the_second_vertical_alliance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_second_horizontal_alliance_and_fall_of_Qi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_second_horizontal_alliance_and_fall_of_Qi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.4</span> <span>The second horizontal alliance and fall of Qi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_second_horizontal_alliance_and_fall_of_Qi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qin_and_Zhao_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qin_and_Zhao_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.5</span> <span>Qin and Zhao expansion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qin_and_Zhao_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qin-Zhao_wars_(282–257_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qin-Zhao_wars_(282–257_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.6</span> <span>Qin-Zhao wars (282–257 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qin-Zhao_wars_(282–257_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_Zhou_dynasty_(256–249_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_Zhou_dynasty_(256–249_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.7</span> <span>End of Zhou dynasty (256–249 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_Zhou_dynasty_(256–249_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qin_unites_China_(247–221_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qin_unites_China_(247–221_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Qin unites China (247–221 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qin_unites_China_(247–221_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Han" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Han"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Conquest of Han</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Han-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Wei" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Wei"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.2</span> <span>Conquest of Wei</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Wei-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Chu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Chu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.3</span> <span>Conquest of Chu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Chu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Zhao_and_Yan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Zhao_and_Yan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.4</span> <span>Conquest of Zhao and Yan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Zhao_and_Yan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Qi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Qi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.5</span> <span>Conquest of Qi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Qi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_theory_and_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_theory_and_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Military theory and practice</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Military_theory_and_practice-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Military theory and practice subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Military_theory_and_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Increasing_scale_of_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Increasing_scale_of_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Increasing scale of warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Increasing_scale_of_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Military developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Military thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture_and_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture_and_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Culture and society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture_and_society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture and society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture_and_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nobles,_bureaucrats_and_reformers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nobles,_bureaucrats_and_reformers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Nobles, bureaucrats and reformers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nobles,_bureaucrats_and_reformers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sophisticated_arithmetic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sophisticated_arithmetic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Sophisticated arithmetic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sophisticated_arithmetic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Economic developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 69 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-69" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">69 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tydperk_van_die_Strydende_State" title="Tydperk van die Strydende State – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Tydperk van die Strydende State" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="حقبة الممالك المتحاربة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حقبة الممالك المتحاربة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97" title="যুদ্ধৰত ৰাজ্যৰ যুগ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="যুদ্ধৰত ৰাজ্যৰ যুগ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodu_de_los_Reinos_Combatientes" title="Periodu de los Reinos Combatientes – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Periodu de los Reinos Combatientes" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B6y%C3%BC%C5%9F%C9%99n_%C3%A7arl%C4%B1qlar_d%C3%B6vr%C3%BC" title="Döyüşən çarlıqlar dövrü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Döyüşən çarlıqlar dövrü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2" title="প্রাচীন চীনের যুদ্ধরত রাজ্য কাল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাচীন চীনের যুদ্ধরত রাজ্য কাল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%C3%A0n-kok_s%C3%AE-t%C4%81i" title="Chiàn-kok sî-tāi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chiàn-kok sî-tāi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%BA%D1%83%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%8B%D1%83%D1%81%D1%8B_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE" title="Һуғышыусы батшалыҡтар осоро – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Һуғышыусы батшалыҡтар осоро" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%89%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Период на воюващите държави – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Период на воюващите държави" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marevezh_ar_Stado%C3%B9_Brezelour" title="Marevezh ar Stadoù Brezelour – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Marevezh ar Stadoù Brezelour" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per%C3%ADode_dels_Regnes_Combatents_(Xina)" title="Període dels Regnes Combatents (Xina) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Període dels Regnes Combatents (Xina)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obdob%C3%AD_v%C3%A1l%C4%8D%C3%ADc%C3%ADch_st%C3%A1t%C5%AF" title="Období válčících států – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Období válčících států" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfnod_y_Gwladwriaethau_Rhyfelgar" title="Cyfnod y Gwladwriaethau Rhyfelgar – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfnod y Gwladwriaethau Rhyfelgar" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeit_der_Streitenden_Reiche" title="Zeit der Streitenden Reiche – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zeit der Streitenden Reiche" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhanguo" title="Zhanguo – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Zhanguo" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%B5%CE%BC%CF%80%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Περίοδος των εμπόλεμων κρατών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Περίοδος των εμπόλεμων κρατών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinos_combatientes" title="Reinos combatientes – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reinos combatientes" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milit%C5%9Dtata_periodo" title="Militŝtata periodo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Militŝtata periodo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erresuma_Borrokalarien_garaia" title="Erresuma Borrokalarien garaia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erresuma Borrokalarien garaia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%A8" title="دوره ایالت‌های جنگ‌طلب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوره ایالت‌های جنگ‌طلب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9riode_des_Royaumes_combattants" title="Période des Royaumes combattants – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Période des Royaumes combattants" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per%C3%ADodo_dos_Reinos_Combatentes" title="Período dos Reinos Combatentes – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Período dos Reinos Combatentes" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chan-koet_S%E1%B9%B3%CC%80-kh%C3%AC" title="Chan-koet Sṳ̀-khì – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chan-koet Sṳ̀-khì" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EA%B5%AD_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="전국 시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="전국 시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2" title="झगड़ते राज्यों का काल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="झगड़ते राज्यों का काल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razdoblje_zara%C4%87enih_dr%C5%BEava" title="Razdoblje zaraćenih država – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Razdoblje zaraćenih država" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_Negara-negara_Berperang" title="Zaman Negara-negara Berperang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Zaman Negara-negara Berperang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodo_degli_Stati_Combattenti" title="Periodo degli Stati Combattenti – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Periodo degli Stati Combattenti" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA" title="תקופת המדינות הלוחמות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תקופת המדינות הלוחמות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serdema_Dewlet%C3%AAn_%C5%9Eer_Dikin" title="Serdema Dewletên Şer Dikin – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Serdema Dewletên Şer Dikin" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anni_bellorum" title="Anni bellorum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Anni bellorum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karojo%C5%A1o_valstu_periods" title="Karojošo valstu periods – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Karojošo valstu periods" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadakoz%C3%B3_fejedelems%C3%A9gek_kora_(K%C3%ADna)" title="Hadakozó fejedelemségek kora (Kína) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hadakozó fejedelemségek kora (Kína)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%87%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%98%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%82" title="യുദ്ധത്തിലേർപ്പെട്ടിരുന്ന രാജ്യങ്ങളുടെ കാലഘട്ടം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="യുദ്ധത്തിലേർപ്പെട്ടിരുന്ന രാജ്യങ്ങളുടെ കാലഘട്ടം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%87" title="عصر الممالك المتحاربه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="عصر الممالك المتحاربه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_Negara_Berperang" title="Zaman Negara Berperang – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zaman Negara Berperang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A9ng-gu%C3%B3k_S%C3%AC-d%C3%A2i" title="Ciéng-guók Sì-dâi – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ciéng-guók Sì-dâi" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82_%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D2%AF%D0%B5" title="Байлдаант улсын үе – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Байлдаант улсын үе" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periode_van_de_Strijdende_Staten" title="Periode van de Strijdende Staten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Periode van de Strijdende Staten" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%A6%E5%9B%BD%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3_(%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD)" title="戦国時代 (中国) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="戦国時代 (中国)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_stridende_staters_tid" title="De stridende staters tid – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="De stridende staters tid" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krigarrika-tida" title="Krigarrika-tida – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Krigarrika-tida" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peri%C3%B2de_dei_Reiaumes_Combatents" title="Periòde dei Reiaumes Combatents – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Periòde dei Reiaumes Combatents" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chjango" title="Chjango – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Chjango" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9D%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%9C%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%87_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2" title="ਝਗੜਦੇ ਰਾਜਾਂ ਦਾ ਕਾਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਝਗੜਦੇ ਰਾਜਾਂ ਦਾ ਕਾਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DA%BE%DA%AF%DA%91%D8%AF%DB%92_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%DA%BA_%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%81" title="جھگڑدے راجاں دا ویلہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جھگڑدے راجاں دا ویلہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okres_Walcz%C4%85cych_Kr%C3%B3lestw" title="Okres Walczących Królestw – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Okres Walczących Królestw" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per%C3%ADodo_dos_Estados_Combatentes" title="Período dos Estados Combatentes – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Período dos Estados Combatentes" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%81%D1%8F_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2" title="Период Сражающихся царств – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Период Сражающихся царств" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periudha_e_shteteve_nd%C3%ABrluftuese" title="Periudha e shteteve ndërluftuese – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Periudha e shteteve ndërluftuese" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="යුද්ධ රාජ්‍ය සමය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="යුද්ධ රාජ්‍ය සමය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Warring States period" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obdobie_bojuj%C3%BAcich_%C5%A1t%C3%A1tov_(%C4%8C%C3%ADna)" title="Obdobie bojujúcich štátov (Čína) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Obdobie bojujúcich štátov (Čína)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obdobje_vojskujo%C4%8Dih_se_dr%C5%BEav" title="Obdobje vojskujočih se držav – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Obdobje vojskujočih se držav" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B4%DB%95%DA%95%DB%8C_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سەردەمی شەڕی ویلایەتەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سەردەمی شەڕی ویلایەتەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%9B%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Период зараћених држава – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Период зараћених држава" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_Zara%C4%87enih_dr%C5%BEava" title="Period Zaraćenih država – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Period Zaraćenih država" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taistelevat_l%C3%A4%C3%A4nitysvaltiot" title="Taistelevat läänitysvaltiot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Taistelevat läänitysvaltiot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_stridande_staterna" title="De stridande staterna – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="De stridande staterna" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="போரிடும் நாடுகள் காலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="போரிடும் நாடுகள் காலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90" title="ยุครณรัฐ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุครณรัฐ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sava%C5%9Fan_Devletler_%C3%87a%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Savaşan Devletler Çağı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Savaşan Devletler Çağı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%A7%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D2%91%D0%BE" title="Період Чжаньґо – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Період Чжаньґо" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%DA%BA_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1" title="متحارب ریاستوں کا دور – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="متحارب ریاستوں کا دور" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%E1%BA%BFn_Qu%E1%BB%91c" title="Chiến Quốc – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chiến Quốc" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%B0%E5%9C%8B" title="戰國 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="戰國" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%98%E5%9B%BD" title="战国 – Wu" lang="wuu" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period of Chinese history, c. 475 to 221 BC</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the period of Chinese history. For the period of Japanese history, see <a href="/wiki/Sengoku_period" title="Sengoku period">Sengoku period</a>. 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Warring+States+period%22">"Warring States period"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Warring+States+period%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Warring+States+period%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Warring+States+period%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Warring+States+period%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Warring States period</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image notheme" style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg/300px-EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg/450px-EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg/600px-EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4724" data-file-height="4348" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The seven Warring States of <a href="/wiki/Yan_(state)" title="Yan (state)">Yan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhao_(state)" title="Zhao (state)">Zhao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Han_(Warring_States)" title="Han (Warring States)">Han</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wei_(state)" title="Wei (state)">Wei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qi_(state)" title="Qi (state)">Qi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chu_(state)" title="Chu (state)">Chu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 260 BC</span></div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%B0%E5%9C%8B%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:戰國時代">戰國時代</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%98%E5%9B%BD%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" class="extiw" title="wikt:战国时代">战国时代</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Zhànguó shídài</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Zhànguó shídài</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span lang="zh-Bopo">ㄓㄢˋ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄍㄨㄛˊ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄕˊ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄉㄞˋ</span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>Chan<sup>4</sup>-kuo<sup>2</sup> Shih<sup>2</sup>-tai<sup>4</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Jhànguó shíhdài</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Jàn'gwó shŕdài</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[ʈʂân.kwǒ ʂɻ̩̌.tâɪ]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Jin'gwok sìhdoih</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Zin3 gwok3 si4 doi6</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[tsin˧.kʷɔk̚˧ si˩.tɔj˨]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Chiàn-kok sî-tāi</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Min Nan Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="nan-Latn">Tsiàn-kok sî-tāi</span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Reconstructions_of_Old_Chinese#Baxter–Sagart_(2014)" title="Reconstructions of Old Chinese">Baxter–Sagart (2014)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Old Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="och-Latn"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tar-s<span class="wrap"> </span>[C.q]ʷˤək</span></li><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tar-s<span class="wrap"> </span>[d]ə<span class="wrap"> </span>(~<span class="wrap"> </span>[d]əʔ)<span class="wrap"> </span>lˤək-s</span></li></ul></div></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="background:#FFEECC;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_China" title="Category:History of China">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage mw-no-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China"><img alt="History of China in Chinese characters and seal script" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/200px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/300px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/400px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="121" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #f0faff; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 8500</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow</a></b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></b>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao civilization</a></b></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">Ancient</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #eeffe8; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2070</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> BC)</span></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 256 BC</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1046–771 BC)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(771–256 BC)</span> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 770</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 476 BC</span>)</span></dd> <dd><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warring States</a> <span class="nowrap">(475–221 BC)</span></dd></dl></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(221–207 BC)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(206 BC – 220 AD)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Han_Contention" title="Chu–Han Contention">Chu–Han Contention</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(206–202 BC)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(202 BC – 9 AD)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(9–23 AD)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(25–220 AD)</span></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(220–280 AD)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu</a></b>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Wu</a></b></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–420)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–316)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(317–420)</span></dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><br /></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(304–439)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and<br />Southern dynasties</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(420–589)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(581–618)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(618–907)</span> <ul><li><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Wu_Zhou" title="Wu Zhou">Wu Zhou</a> <span class="nowrap">(690–705)</span></dd></dl></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and<br />Ten Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(907–979)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1279)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1127)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1127–1279)</span></dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(916–1125)</span></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1038–1227)</span></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1115–1234)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1271–1368)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1368–1644)</span></li></ul> <hr /> 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China">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Science and technology history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_China" title="Cartography of China">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">Inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport_in_China" title="History of transport in China">Transport history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">Women's history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_China" title="Template:History of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_China" title="Template talk:History of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Warring States period</b> in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese history">Chinese history</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 475</span> – 221 BC) comprises the final centuries of the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> – 256 BC), which were characterized by warfare, bureaucratic and military reform, and political consolidation. It followed the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a> and concluded with the <a href="/wiki/Qin%27s_wars_of_unification" title="Qin's wars of unification">wars of conquest</a> that saw the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Qin">state of Qin</a> annex each of the other contender states by 221 BC and found the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">imperial dynastic state</a> in East Asian history. </p><p>While scholars have identified several different dates as marking the beginning of the Warring States period, <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a>'s choice of 475 BC is the most often cited. The era largely corresponds to the second half of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a> period, where the king of Zhou formally ruled as <a href="/wiki/Chinese_sovereign" title="Chinese sovereign">Chinese sovereign</a>, but had lost political power and functioned in practice as a figurehead. This dynamic served as the backdrop for the machinations of the eponymous Warring States. The label "Warring States period" derives from the <i><a href="/wiki/Record_of_the_Warring_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Record of the Warring States">Record of the Warring States</a></i>, a work of history compiled during the early <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BC – 220 AD). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horse_Armor,_Tomb_of_Marquis_Yi_of_Zeng_(10170676483).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Horse_Armor%2C_Tomb_of_Marquis_Yi_of_Zeng_%2810170676483%29.jpg/220px-Horse_Armor%2C_Tomb_of_Marquis_Yi_of_Zeng_%2810170676483%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Horse_Armor%2C_Tomb_of_Marquis_Yi_of_Zeng_%2810170676483%29.jpg/330px-Horse_Armor%2C_Tomb_of_Marquis_Yi_of_Zeng_%2810170676483%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Horse_Armor%2C_Tomb_of_Marquis_Yi_of_Zeng_%2810170676483%29.jpg/440px-Horse_Armor%2C_Tomb_of_Marquis_Yi_of_Zeng_%2810170676483%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>Leather horse armour from the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Marquis_Yi_of_Zeng" title="Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng">tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 433 BC</span></figcaption></figure> <p>The political geography of the era was dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Warring_States" title="Seven Warring States">Seven Warring States</a>, namely: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin</a> located in the far west, with its core in the <a href="/wiki/Wei_River_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Wei River Valley">Wei River Valley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guanzhong" title="Guanzhong">Guanzhong</a>. This geographical position offered protection from the other states but limited its initial influence.</li> <li>The Three Jins located in the center on the <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a> plateau were the three successor states of <a href="/wiki/Jin_(Chinese_state)" title="Jin (Chinese state)">Jin</a>. These were: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_(Warring_States)" title="Han (Warring States)">Han</a> south, along the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>, controlling the approaches to Qin.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_(state)" title="Wei (state)">Wei</a> located in the middle, roughly today's eastern <a href="/wiki/Henan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Henan Province">Henan Province</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_(state)" title="Zhao (state)">Zhao</a> the northernmost of the three, roughly today's southern <a href="/wiki/Hebei_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebei Province">Hebei Province</a> as well as northern <a href="/wiki/Shanxi_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanxi Province">Shanxi Province</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi_(state)" title="Qi (state)">Qi</a> east, centered on the <a href="/wiki/Shandong_Peninsula" title="Shandong Peninsula">Shandong Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chu_(state)" title="Chu (state)">Chu</a> south, with its core territory around the valleys of the <a href="/wiki/Han_River_(Yangtze_River_tributary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Han River (Yangtze River tributary)">Han River</a> and, later, the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_(state)" title="Yan (state)">Yan</a> northeast, centered on modern-day <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>. Late in the period it pushed northeast and began to occupy the <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsula</a></li></ul> <p>Besides these seven major states other smaller states survived into the period. They include: </p> <ul><li>Royal territory of the Zhou king was near <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyi</a> in the Han area on the Yellow River.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yue_(state)" title="Yue (state)">Yue</a> On the southeast coast near <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> was the State of Yue, which was highly active in the late Spring and Autumn era but was later annexed by Chu.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_(state)" title="Zhongshan (state)">Zhongshan</a> between the states of Zhao and Yan was the state of Zhongshan, which was eventually annexed by Zhao in 296 BC.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> states: In the far southwest were the non-Zhou states of <a href="/wiki/Ba_(state)" title="Ba (state)">Ba</a> (east) and <a href="/wiki/Shu_(state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shu (state)">Shu</a> (west). These ancient kingdoms were conquered by Qin later in the period.</li> <li>Other minor states: There were many minor states which were satellites of the larger ones until they were absorbed. Many were in the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plain_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Plain (China)">Central Plains</a> between the three Jins (west) and Qi (east) and Chu to the south. Some of the more important ones were <a href="/wiki/Song_(state)" title="Song (state)">Song</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lu_(state)" title="Lu (state)">Lu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zheng_(state)" title="Zheng (state)">Zheng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wey_(state)" title="Wey (state)">Wey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teng_(state)" title="Teng (state)">Teng</a>, Yue and <a href="/wiki/Zou_(state)" title="Zou (state)">Zou</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Periodisation">Periodisation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Periodisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastern_Zhou_Bronze_Dagger,_7th-3rd_C._BC_01b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Eastern_Zhou_Bronze_Dagger%2C_7th-3rd_C._BC_01b.jpg/220px-Eastern_Zhou_Bronze_Dagger%2C_7th-3rd_C._BC_01b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Eastern_Zhou_Bronze_Dagger%2C_7th-3rd_C._BC_01b.jpg/330px-Eastern_Zhou_Bronze_Dagger%2C_7th-3rd_C._BC_01b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Eastern_Zhou_Bronze_Dagger%2C_7th-3rd_C._BC_01b.jpg/440px-Eastern_Zhou_Bronze_Dagger%2C_7th-3rd_C._BC_01b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Dagger handle, <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Warring_States_and_the_Qin_dynasty" title="Timeline of the Warring States and the Qin dynasty">Timeline of the Warring States and the Qin dynasty</a></div> <p>The eastward flight of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Zhou</a> court in 771 BC marks the start of the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a>. No one single incident or starting point inaugurated the Warring States era. The political situation of the period represented a culmination of historical trends of conquest and annexation which also characterised the Spring and Autumn period. As a result, there is some controversy as to the beginning of the era. Proposed starting points include: </p> <ul><li>481 BC – Proposed by Song-era historian Lü Zuqian, since this year marks the end of the <i><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Spring and Autumn Annals</a></i>.</li> <li>476–475 BC – <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a>, author of the <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 91</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;">  BC</span>), chose this date as the inaugural year of <a href="/wiki/King_Yuan_of_Zhou" title="King Yuan of Zhou">King Yuan of Zhou</a>.</li> <li>453 BC BC – The <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Jin" title="Partition of Jin">Partition of Jin</a> saw the formation of Han, Zhao, and Wei, three of the seven warring states.</li> <li>441 BC – The inaugural year of Zhou Kings starting with <a href="/wiki/King_Ai_of_Zhou" title="King Ai of Zhou">King Ai of Zhou</a>.</li> <li>403 BC – The year when the Zhou court officially recognised Han, Zhao and Wei as states. <a href="/wiki/Sima_Guang" title="Sima Guang">Sima Guang</a>, author of the <i><a href="/wiki/Zizhi_Tongjian" title="Zizhi Tongjian">Zizhi Tongjian</a></i> (1084) advocates this date as symbolic of eroded Zhou authority.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background_and_formation">Background and formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Background and formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Warring_States_Period.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Early_Warring_States_Period.png/450px-Early_Warring_States_Period.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Early_Warring_States_Period.png/675px-Early_Warring_States_Period.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Early_Warring_States_Period.png/900px-Early_Warring_States_Period.png 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Map showing states at the beginning of the Warring States period<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Capital of Wei should be Anyi. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Eastern Zhou dynasty began its fall around 5th century BC. As their influence waned, they had to rely on armies in allied states rather than their own military force. Hundreds of smaller polities coalesced into seven major states which included: Chu, Han, Qin, Wei, Yan, Qi and Zhao. However, there eventually was a shift in alliances because each state's ruler wanted independence. This caused hundreds of wars between 535 and 286 BC. The victorious state would have overall rule and control in China.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The system of feudal states created by the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Zhou dynasty">Western Zhou dynasty</a> underwent enormous changes after 771 BC with the flight of the Zhou court to modern-day <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> and the diminution of its relevance and power. The Spring and Autumn period led to a few states gaining power at the expense of many others, the latter no longer able to depend on central authority for legitimacy or protection. During the Warring States period, many rulers claimed the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a> to justify their conquest of other states and spread their influence.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The struggle for hegemony eventually created a state system dominated by several large states, such as <a href="/wiki/Jin_(Chinese_state)" title="Jin (Chinese state)">Jin</a>, Chu, Qin, Yan, and Qi, while the smaller states of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plain_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Plain (China)">Central Plain</a> tended to be their satellites and tributaries. Other major states also existed, such as Wu and Yue in the southeast. The last decades of the Spring and Autumn era were marked by increased stability, as the result of peace negotiations between Jin and Chu which established their respective spheres of influence. This situation ended with the partition of Jin, whereby the state was divided between the houses of Han, Zhao and Wei, leading to the seven major warring states. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Partition_of_Jin_(453–403_BC)"><span id="Partition_of_Jin_.28453.E2.80.93403_BC.29"></span>Partition of Jin (453–403 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Partition of Jin (453–403 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Jin" title="Partition of Jin">Partition of Jin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warring_States_Bronze_Warriors_(9831196065).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Warring_States_Bronze_Warriors_%289831196065%29.jpg/220px-Warring_States_Bronze_Warriors_%289831196065%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Warring_States_Bronze_Warriors_%289831196065%29.jpg/330px-Warring_States_Bronze_Warriors_%289831196065%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Warring_States_Bronze_Warriors_%289831196065%29.jpg/440px-Warring_States_Bronze_Warriors_%289831196065%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4700" data-file-height="2804" /></a><figcaption>Warring States Bronze Warriors</figcaption></figure> <p>The rulers of Jin had steadily lost political powers since the middle of the 6th century BC to their nominally subordinate nobles and military commanders, a situation arising from the traditions of the Jin which forbade the <a href="/wiki/Enfeoffment" class="mw-redirect" title="Enfeoffment">enfeoffment</a> of relatives of the ducal house. This allowed other clans to gain fiefs and military authority, and decades of internecine struggle led to the establishment of four major families, the Han, Zhao, Wei and Zhi. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jinyang" title="Battle of Jinyang">Battle of Jinyang</a> saw the allied Han, Zhao and Wei destroy the Zhi family (453 BC) and their lands were distributed among them. With this, they became the <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> rulers of most of Jin's territory, though this situation would not be officially recognised until half a century later. The Jin division created a political vacuum that enabled during the first 50 years expansion of Chu and Yue northward and Qi southward. Qin increased its control of the local tribes and began its expansion southwest to <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Warring_States">Early Warring States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Early Warring States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_three_Jins_recognized_(403–364_BC)"><span id="The_three_Jins_recognized_.28403.E2.80.93364_BC.29"></span>The three Jins recognized (403–364 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The three Jins recognized (403–364 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_tomb_guardian_300_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Chinese_tomb_guardian_300_BC.jpg/220px-Chinese_tomb_guardian_300_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Chinese_tomb_guardian_300_BC.jpg/330px-Chinese_tomb_guardian_300_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Chinese_tomb_guardian_300_BC.jpg/440px-Chinese_tomb_guardian_300_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1190" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Tomb Guardian of Chu Kingdom (300 BC) held at <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Museum_of_Art" title="Birmingham Museum of Art">Birmingham Museum of Art</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 403 BC, the court of <a href="/wiki/King_Weilie_of_Zhou" title="King Weilie of Zhou">King Weilie of Zhou</a> officially recognized Zhao, Wei and Han as immediate vassals, thereby raising them to the same rank as the other warring states. </p><p>From before 405 until 383 BC the three Jins were united under the leadership of Wei and expanded in all directions. The most important figure was <a href="/wiki/Marquess_Wen_of_Wei" title="Marquess Wen of Wei">Marquess Wen of Wei</a> (445–396 BC). In 408–406 BC he conquered the State of <a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_(state)" title="Zhongshan (state)">Zhongshan</a> to the northeast on the other side of Zhao. At the same time he pushed west across the Yellow River to the <a href="/wiki/Luo_River_(Shaanxi)" title="Luo River (Shaanxi)">Luo River</a> taking the area of Xihe (literally 'west of the [Yellow] river'). </p><p>The growing power of Wei caused Zhao to back away from the alliance. In 383 BC it moved its capital to <a href="/wiki/Handan" title="Handan">Handan</a> and attacked the small state of <a href="/wiki/Wey_(state)" title="Wey (state)">Wey</a>. Wey appealed to Wei which attacked Zhao on the western side. Being in danger, Zhao called in Chu. As usual, Chu used this as a pretext to annex territory to its north, but the diversion allowed Zhao to occupy a part of Wei. This conflict marked the end of the power of the united Jins and the beginning a period of shifting alliances and wars on several fronts. </p><p>In 376 BC, the states of Han, Wei and Zhao deposed <a href="/wiki/Duke_Jing_of_Jin_(Jujiu)" title="Duke Jing of Jin (Jujiu)">Duke Jing of Jin</a> and divided the last remaining Jin territory between themselves, which marked the final end of the Jin state. </p><p>In 370 BC, <a href="/wiki/Marquess_Wu_of_Wei" title="Marquess Wu of Wei">Marquess Wu of Wei</a> died without naming a successor, which led to a war of succession. After three years of civil war, <a href="/wiki/Zhao_(state)" title="Zhao (state)">Zhao</a> from the north and <a href="/wiki/Han_(Warring_States)" title="Han (Warring States)">Han</a> from the south invaded Wei. On the verge of conquering Wei, the leaders of Zhao and Han fell into disagreement about what to do with Wei, and both armies abruptly retreated. As a result, <a href="/wiki/King_Hui_of_Wei" title="King Hui of Wei">King Hui of Wei</a> (still a Marquess at the time) was able to ascend the throne of Wei. </p><p>Zhao extended from the Shanxi plateau across the plain to the borders of Qi. Wei reached east to Qi, <a href="/wiki/Lu_(state)" title="Lu (state)">Lu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Song_(state)" title="Song (state)">Song</a>. To the south, the weaker state of Han held the east–west part of the Yellow River valley, surrounded the Zhou royal domain at <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> and held an area north of Luoyang called <a href="/wiki/Shangdang" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangdang">Shangdang</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qi_resurgence_under_Tian_(379–340_BC)"><span id="Qi_resurgence_under_Tian_.28379.E2.80.93340_BC.29"></span>Qi resurgence under Tian (379–340 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Qi resurgence under Tian (379–340 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jade_dragon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jade_dragon.jpg/200px-Jade_dragon.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jade_dragon.jpg/300px-Jade_dragon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Jade_dragon.jpg/400px-Jade_dragon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A carved-<a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">dragon</a> garment ornament from the Warring States period</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Duke_Kang_of_Qi" title="Duke Kang of Qi">Duke Kang of Qi</a> died in 379 BC with no heir from the house of Jiang, which had ruled Qi since the state's founding. The throne instead passed to the future <a href="/wiki/King_Wei_of_Qi" title="King Wei of Qi">King Wei</a>, from the house of Tian. The Tian had been very influential at court towards the end of Jiang rule, and now openly assumed power.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The new ruler set about reclaiming territories that had been lost to other states. He launched a successful campaign against Zhao, Wey and Wei, once again extending Qi territory to the Great Wall. <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> writes that the other states were so awestruck that nobody dared attack Qi for more than 20 years. The demonstrated military prowess also had a calming effect on Qi's own population, which experienced great domestic tranquility during Wei's reign.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_46_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_46-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of King Wei's reign, Qi had become the strongest of the states and proclaimed itself "king"; establishing independence from the Zhou dynasty (see below). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wars_of_Wei">Wars of Wei</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Wars of Wei"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Huang_with_two_dragon_heads.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Huang_with_two_dragon_heads.jpg/200px-Huang_with_two_dragon_heads.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Huang_with_two_dragon_heads.jpg/300px-Huang_with_two_dragon_heads.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Huang_with_two_dragon_heads.jpg/400px-Huang_with_two_dragon_heads.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A jade-carved <a href="/wiki/Huang_(jade)" title="Huang (jade)">huang</a> with two dragon heads, Warring States, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Museum" title="Shanghai Museum">Shanghai Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/King_Hui_of_Wei" title="King Hui of Wei">King Hui of Wei</a> (370–319 BC) set about restoring the state. In 362–359 BC he exchanged territories with Han and Zhao in order to make the boundaries of the three states more rational. </p><p>In 364 BC, Wei was defeated by Qin at the Battle of Shimen and was only saved by the intervention of Zhao. Qin won another victory in 362 BC. In 361 BC the Wei capital was moved east to <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Daliang</a> to be out of the reach of Qin. </p><p>In 354 BC, King Hui of Wei started a large-scale attack on Zhao. By 353 BC, Zhao was losing badly and its capital, <a href="/wiki/Handan" title="Handan">Handan</a>, was under siege. The <a href="/wiki/State_of_Qi" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Qi">state of Qi</a> intervened. The famous Qi strategist, <a href="/wiki/Sun_Bin" title="Sun Bin">Sun Bin</a> the great-great-great-grandson of <a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a>, the author of the <i><a href="/wiki/Art_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of War">Art of War</a></i>, proposed to attack the Wei capital while the Wei army was tied up besieging Zhao. The strategy was a success; the Wei army hastily moved south to protect its capital, was caught on the road and decisively defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guiling" title="Battle of Guiling">Battle of Guiling</a>. The battle is remembered in the second of the <a href="/wiki/Thirty-Six_Stratagems" title="Thirty-Six Stratagems">Thirty-Six Stratagems</a>, "besiege Wei, save Zhao"—meaning to attack a vulnerable spot to relieve pressure at another point. </p><p>Domestically, King Hui patronized philosophy and the arts, and is perhaps best remembered for hosting the Confucian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a> at his court; their conversations form the first two chapters of <a href="/wiki/Mencius_(book)" title="Mencius (book)">the book which bears Meng Zi's name</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dukes_become_kings">Dukes become kings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dukes become kings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qi_and_Wei_became_kingdoms_(344_BC)"><span id="Qi_and_Wei_became_kingdoms_.28344_BC.29"></span>Qi and Wei became kingdoms (344 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Qi and Wei became kingdoms (344 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The title of king (<i>wang</i>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">王</span></span>) was held by figurehead rulers of the Zhou dynasty, while the rulers of most states held the title of duke (<i>gong</i>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">公</span></span>) or marquess (<i>hou</i>, <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">侯</span></span>). A major exception was Chu, whose rulers were called kings since <a href="/wiki/King_Wu_of_Chu" title="King Wu of Chu">King Wu of Chu</a> started using the title <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 703 BC</span>. </p><p>In 344 BC the rulers of Qi and Wei mutually recognized each other as kings: <a href="/wiki/King_Wei_of_Qi" title="King Wei of Qi">King Wei of Qi</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_Hui_of_Wei" title="King Hui of Wei">King Hui of Wei</a>, in effect declaring their independence from the Zhou court. This marked a major turning point: unlike those in the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a>, the new generation of rulers ascending the thrones in the Warring States period would not entertain even the pretence of being vassals of the Zhou dynasty, instead proclaiming themselves fully independent kingdoms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shang_Yang_reforms_Qin_(356–338_BC)"><span id="Shang_Yang_reforms_Qin_.28356.E2.80.93338_BC.29"></span>Shang Yang reforms Qin (356–338 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Shang Yang reforms Qin (356–338 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bianzhong.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Bianzhong.jpg/250px-Bianzhong.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Bianzhong.jpg/375px-Bianzhong.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Bianzhong.jpg/500px-Bianzhong.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4768" data-file-height="2752" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bianzhong_of_Marquis_Yi_of_Zeng" title="Bianzhong of Marquis Yi of Zeng">Bianzhong of Marquis Yi of Zeng</a>, a set of bronze <i><a href="/wiki/Bianzhong" title="Bianzhong">bianzhong</a></i> percussion instruments from the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Marquis_Yi_of_Zeng" title="Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng">Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a> (433 BC)</figcaption></figure> <p>During the early Warring States period Qin generally avoided conflicts with the other states. This changed during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Duke_Xiao_of_Qin" title="Duke Xiao of Qin">Duke Xiao</a>, when prime minister <a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a> made centralizing and authoritarian reforms in accordance with his <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalist</a> philosophy between the years 356 and 338 BC. </p><p>Shang introduced land reforms, privatized land, rewarded farmers who exceeded harvest quotas, enslaved farmers who failed to meet quotas, and used enslaved subjects as rewards for those who met government policies. As manpower was short in Qin relative to the other states at the time, Shang enacted policies to increase its manpower. As Qin peasants were recruited into the military, he encouraged active immigration of peasants from other states into Qin as a replacement workforce; this policy simultaneously increased the manpower of Qin and weakened the manpower of Qin's rivals. </p><p>Shang made laws forcing citizens to marry at a young age and passed tax laws to encourage raising multiple children. He also enacted policies to free convicts who worked in opening wastelands for agriculture. Shang abolished <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a> and created a double tax on households that had more than one son living in the household, to break up large clans into nuclear families. Shang also moved the capital to reduce the influence of nobles on the administration. </p><p>The rise of Qin was recognized by the royal court, and in 343 BC the king conferred the title of Count (伯 Bó) on Duke Xiao. As was customary, a conference was hosted which the feudal lords attended, and during which the Son of Heaven bestowed the title.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the reforms Qin became much more aggressive. In 340 Qin took land from Wèi after it had been defeated by Qi. In 316 Qin conquered <a href="/wiki/Shu_(state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shu (state)">Shu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ba_(state)" title="Ba (state)">Ba</a> in Sichuan to the southwest. Development of this area took a long time but slowly added greatly to Qin's wealth and power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qin_defeats_Wei_(341–340_BC)"><span id="Qin_defeats_Wei_.28341.E2.80.93340_BC.29"></span>Qin defeats Wei (341–340 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Qin defeats Wei (341–340 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 341 BC, Wei attacked Han. Qi allowed Han to be nearly defeated and then intervened. The generals from the Battle of Guiling met again (<a href="/wiki/Sun_Bin" title="Sun Bin">Sun Bin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tian_Ji" title="Tian Ji">Tian Ji</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Pang_Juan" title="Pang Juan">Pang Juan</a>), using the same tactic, attacking Wei's capital. Sun Bin feigned a retreat and then turned on the overconfident Wei troops and decisively defeated them at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maling" title="Battle of Maling">Battle of Maling</a>. After the battle all three of the Jin successor states appeared before <a href="/wiki/King_Xuan_of_Qi" title="King Xuan of Qi">King Xuan of Qi</a>, pledging their loyalty.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the following year <a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin</a> attacked the weakened Wei. Wei was devastatingly defeated and ceded a large part of its territory in return for truce. With Wei severely weakened, Qi and Qin became the dominant states in China. </p><p>Wei came to rely on Qi for protection, with <a href="/wiki/King_Hui_of_Wei" title="King Hui of Wei">King Hui of Wei</a> meeting King Xuan of Qi on two occasions. After Hui's death, his successor <a href="/wiki/King_Xiang_of_Wei" title="King Xiang of Wei">King Xiang</a> also established a good relationship with his Qi counterpart, with both promising to recognize the other as "king".<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_46_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_46-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chu_conquers_Yue_(334_BC)"><span id="Chu_conquers_Yue_.28334_BC.29"></span>Chu conquers Yue (334 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Chu conquers Yue (334 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chu_(state)" title="Chu (state)">Chu (state)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warring_States_bronze_ding_with_gold_and_silver_inlay.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Warring_States_bronze_ding_with_gold_and_silver_inlay.JPG/220px-Warring_States_bronze_ding_with_gold_and_silver_inlay.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Warring_States_bronze_ding_with_gold_and_silver_inlay.JPG/330px-Warring_States_bronze_ding_with_gold_and_silver_inlay.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Warring_States_bronze_ding_with_gold_and_silver_inlay.JPG/440px-Warring_States_bronze_ding_with_gold_and_silver_inlay.JPG 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>A Warring States bronze <a href="/wiki/Ding_(vessel)" title="Ding (vessel)"><i>ding</i> vessel</a> with gold and silver inlay</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lacquer_painting_from_Ch%27u_State.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Lacquer_painting_from_Ch%27u_State.jpg/220px-Lacquer_painting_from_Ch%27u_State.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Lacquer_painting_from_Ch%27u_State.jpg/330px-Lacquer_painting_from_Ch%27u_State.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Lacquer_painting_from_Ch%27u_State.jpg/440px-Lacquer_painting_from_Ch%27u_State.jpg 2x" data-file-width="697" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Lacquerware" title="Lacquerware">lacquerware</a> painting from the Jingmen Tomb (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">荊門楚墓;</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Jīngmén chǔ mù</span></i>, circa 316 BC) of the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Chu" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Chu">State of Chu</a>, depicting men wearing precursors to <i><a href="/wiki/Hanfu" title="Hanfu">Hanfu</a></i> (i.e. traditional <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a> dress) and riding in a two-horsed <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Early in the Warring States period, Chu was one of the strongest states in China. The state rose to a new level of power around 389 BC when <a href="/wiki/King_Dao_of_Chu" title="King Dao of Chu">King Dao of Chu</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">楚悼王</span></span>) named the famous reformer <a href="/wiki/Wu_Qi" title="Wu Qi">Wu Qi</a> as his chancellor. </p><p>Chu rose to its peak in 334 BC, when it conquered <a href="/wiki/Yue_(state)" title="Yue (state)">Yue</a> to its east on the Pacific coast. The series of events leading up to this began when Yue prepared to attack Qi to its north. The King of Qi sent an emissary who persuaded the King of Yue to attack Chu instead. Yue initiated a large-scale attack at Chu but was defeated by Chu's counter-attack. Chu then proceeded to conquer Yue. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qin,_Han_and_Yan_became_kingdoms_(325–323_BC)"><span id="Qin.2C_Han_and_Yan_became_kingdoms_.28325.E2.80.93323_BC.29"></span>Qin, Han and Yan became kingdoms (325–323 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Qin, Han and Yan became kingdoms (325–323 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/King_Xian_of_Zhou" title="King Xian of Zhou">King Xian of Zhou</a> had attempted to use what little royal prerogative he had left by appointing the dukes <a href="/wiki/Duke_Xian_of_Qin_(424%E2%80%93362_BC)" title="Duke Xian of Qin (424–362 BC)">Xian</a> (384–362 BC), <a href="/wiki/Duke_Xiao_of_Qin" title="Duke Xiao of Qin">Xiao</a> (361–338 BC) and <a href="/wiki/King_Hui_of_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="King Hui of Qin">Hui</a> (338–311 BC) of Qin as hegemons, thereby in theory making Qin the chief ally of the court.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, in 325 the confidence of Duke Hui grew so great that he proclaimed himself "king" of Qin; adopting the same title as the king of Zhou and thereby effectively proclaiming independence from the Zhou dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King Hui of Qin was guided by his prime minister <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yi_(Warring_States_period)" title="Zhang Yi (Warring States period)">Zhang Yi</a>, a prominent representative of the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Diplomacy" title="School of Diplomacy">School of Diplomacy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_5_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_5-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He was followed in 323 BC by <a href="/wiki/King_Xuanhui_of_Han" title="King Xuanhui of Han">King Xuanhui of Han</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_Yi_of_Yan" title="King Yi of Yan">King Yi of Yan</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/King_Cuo_of_Zhongshan" title="King Cuo of Zhongshan">King Cuo</a> of the minor state Zhongshan.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 318 BC even the ruler of <a href="/wiki/Song_(state)" title="Song (state)">Song</a>, a relatively minor state, declared himself king. Uniquely, while <a href="/wiki/King_Wuling_of_Zhao" title="King Wuling of Zhao">King Wuling of Zhao</a> had joined the other kings in declaring himself king, he retracted this order in 318 BC, after Zhao suffered a great defeat at the hands of Qin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Partition_of_Zhou_(314_BC)"><span id="Partition_of_Zhou_.28314_BC.29"></span>Partition of Zhou (314 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Partition of Zhou (314 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/King_Kao_of_Zhou" title="King Kao of Zhou">King Kao of Zhou</a> had enfeoffed his younger brother as Duke Huan of Henan. Three generations later, this cadet branch of the royal house began calling themselves "dukes of East Zhou".<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Upon the ascension of <a href="/wiki/King_Nan_of_Zhou" title="King Nan of Zhou">King Nan</a> in 314, East Zhou became an independent state. The king came to reside in what became known as West Zhou.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Horizontal_and_vertical_alliances_(334–249_BC)"><span id="Horizontal_and_vertical_alliances_.28334.E2.80.93249_BC.29"></span>Horizontal and vertical alliances (334–249 BC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Horizontal and vertical alliances (334–249 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iron_sword_and_two_bronze_swords,_Warring_States_Period.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Iron_sword_and_two_bronze_swords%2C_Warring_States_Period.JPG/220px-Iron_sword_and_two_bronze_swords%2C_Warring_States_Period.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Iron_sword_and_two_bronze_swords%2C_Warring_States_Period.JPG/330px-Iron_sword_and_two_bronze_swords%2C_Warring_States_Period.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Iron_sword_and_two_bronze_swords%2C_Warring_States_Period.JPG/440px-Iron_sword_and_two_bronze_swords%2C_Warring_States_Period.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>An iron sword and two bronze swords dated to the Warring States period</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/School_of_Diplomacy" title="School of Diplomacy">School of Diplomacy</a></div> <p>Towards the end of the Warring States period, the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Qin">state of Qin</a> became disproportionately powerful compared with the other six states. As a result, the policies of the six states became overwhelmingly oriented towards dealing with the Qin threat, with two opposing schools of thought. One school advocated a 'vertical' or north–south alliance called <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">hezong</i></span> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">合縱</span></span>) in which the states would ally with each other to repel Qin. The other advocated a 'horizontal' or east–west alliance called <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">lianheng</i></span> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">連橫{</span></span>), in which a state would ally with Qin to participate in its ascendancy. </p><p>There were some initial successes in <span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">hezong</i></span>, though mutual suspicions between allied states led to the breakdown of such alliances. Qin repeatedly exploited the horizontal alliance strategy to defeat the states one by one. During this period, many philosophers and tacticians travelled around the states, recommending that the rulers put their respective ideas into use. These "lobbyists", such as <a href="/wiki/Su_Qin" title="Su Qin">Su Qin</a>, who advocated vertical alliances, and <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yi_(Warring_States_period)" title="Zhang Yi (Warring States period)">Zhang Yi</a>, who advocated horizontal alliances, were famous for their tact and intellect, and were collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Diplomacy" title="School of Diplomacy">School of Diplomacy</a>, whose Chinese name (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">縱橫家</span></span> 'the school of the vertical and horizontal') was derived from the two opposing ideas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Su_Qin_and_the_first_vertical_alliance_(334–300_BC)"><span id="Su_Qin_and_the_first_vertical_alliance_.28334.E2.80.93300_BC.29"></span>Su Qin and the first vertical alliance (334–300 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Su Qin and the first vertical alliance (334–300 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beginning in 334 BC the diplomat <a href="/wiki/Su_Qin" title="Su Qin">Su Qin</a> spent years visiting the courts of Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi and Chu and persuaded them to form a united front against Qin. In 318 BC all states except Qi launched a joint attack on Qin, which was not successful.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/King_Hui_of_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="King Hui of Qin">King Hui of Qin</a> died in 311 BC, followed by prime minister Zhang Yi one year later. The new monarch, <a href="/wiki/King_Wu_of_Qin" title="King Wu of Qin">King Wu</a>, reigned only four years before dying without legitimate heirs. Some damaging turbulence ensued throughout 307 BC before a son of King Hui by a concubine (i.e. a younger half-brother of King Wu) could be established as <a href="/wiki/King_Zhao_of_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="King Zhao of Qin">King Zhao</a>, who in stark contrast to his predecessor went on to rule for an unprecedented 53 years. </p><p>After the failure of the first vertical alliance, Su Qin eventually came to live in Qi, where he was favored by King Xuan and drew the envy of the ministers. An assassination attempt in 300 BC left Su mortally wounded but not dead. Sensing death approaching, he advised the newly crowned <a href="/wiki/King_Min_of_Qi" title="King Min of Qi">King Min</a> have him publicly executed to draw out the assassins. King Min complied with Su's request and killed him, putting an end to the first generation of Vertical alliance thinkers.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_69_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_69-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_first_horizontal_alliance_(300–287_BC)"><span id="The_first_horizontal_alliance_.28300.E2.80.93287_BC.29"></span>The first horizontal alliance (300–287 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The first horizontal alliance (300–287 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yue_statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Yue_statue.jpg/170px-Yue_statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Yue_statue.jpg/255px-Yue_statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Yue_statue.jpg/340px-Yue_statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="954" /></a><figcaption>A bronze statue of a seated man, from the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Yue" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Yue">State of Yue</a>, Warring States period</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/King_Min_of_Qi" title="King Min of Qi">King Min of Qi</a> came to be highly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Mengchang_of_Qi" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Mengchang of Qi">Lord Mengchang</a>, a grandson of the former <a href="/wiki/King_Wei_of_Qi" title="King Wei of Qi">King Wei of Qi</a>. Lord Mengchang made a westward alliance with the states of <a href="/wiki/Wei_(state)" title="Wei (state)">Wei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_(Warring_States)" title="Han (Warring States)">Han</a>. In the far west, Qin, which had been weakened by a succession struggle in 307, yielded to the new coalition and appointed Lord Mengchang its chief minister. The alliance between Qin and Qi was sealed by a Qin princess marrying King Min.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_46_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_46-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <i>horizontal</i> or east–west alliance might have secured peace except that it excluded the <a href="/wiki/Zhao_(state)" title="Zhao (state)">State of Zhao</a>. </p><p>Around 299 BC, <a href="/wiki/King_Huiwen_of_Zhao" title="King Huiwen of Zhao">the ruler</a> of <a href="/wiki/Zhao_(state)" title="Zhao (state)">Zhao</a> became the last of the seven major states to proclaim himself "king". </p><p>In 298 BC, Zhao offered Qin an alliance and Lord Mengchang was driven out of Qin. The remaining three allies, Qi, Wei and Han, attacked Qin, driving up the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> below Shanxi to the <a href="/wiki/Hangu_Pass" title="Hangu Pass">Hangu Pass</a>. After 3 years of fighting they took the pass and forced Qin to return territory to Han and Wei. They next inflicted major defeats on Yan and Chu. During the 5-year administration of Lord Mengchang, Qi was the major power in China. </p><p>In 294, Lord Mengchang was implicated in a <i>coup d'état</i> and fled to Wei. His alliance system collapsed. Qi and Qin made a truce and pursued their own interests. Qi moved south against the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Song">state of Song</a> whilst the Qin General <a href="/wiki/Bai_Qi" title="Bai Qi">Bai Qi</a> pushed back eastward against a Han/Wei alliance, gaining victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yique" title="Battle of Yique">Battle of Yique</a>. </p><p>In 288, <a href="/wiki/King_Zhao_of_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="King Zhao of Qin">King Zhao of Qin</a> and <a href="/wiki/King_Min_of_Qi" title="King Min of Qi">King Min of Qi</a> took the title <i>di</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">帝</span></span> 'emperor'), of the west and east respectively. They swore a covenant and started planning an attack on Zhao. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Su_Dai_and_the_second_vertical_alliance">Su Dai and the second vertical alliance</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Su Dai and the second vertical alliance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 287 BC the strategist Su Dai, younger brother of Su Qin<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_69_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_69-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and possibly an agent of Yan, persuaded King Min that the Zhao war would only benefit Qin. King Min agreed and formed a 'vertical' alliance with the other states against Qin. Qin backed off, abandoned the presumptuous title of "Di", and restored territory to Wei and Zhao. In 286 Qi annexed the state of Song. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_second_horizontal_alliance_and_fall_of_Qi">The second horizontal alliance and fall of Qi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The second horizontal alliance and fall of Qi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 285 BC, the success of Qi had frightened the other states. Under the leadership of Lord Mengchang, who was exiled in Wei, Qin, Zhao, Wei and Yan formed an alliance. Yan had normally been a relatively weak ally of Qi and Qi feared little from this quarter. Yan's onslaught under general <a href="/wiki/Yue_Yi" title="Yue Yi">Yue Yi</a> came as a devastating surprise. Simultaneously, the other allies attacked from the west. Chu declared itself an ally of Qi but contented itself with annexing some territory to its north. Qi's armies were destroyed while the territory of Qi was reduced to the two cities of Ju and <a href="/wiki/Jimo,_Shandong" class="mw-redirect" title="Jimo, Shandong">Jimo</a>. King Min himself was later captured and executed by his own followers. </p><p>King Min was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/King_Xiang_of_Qi" title="King Xiang of Qi">King Xiang</a> in 283 BC. His general <a href="/wiki/Tian_Dan_(Qi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tian Dan (Qi)">Tian Dan</a> was eventually able to restore much of Qi's territory, but it never regained the influence it had under King Min. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qin_and_Zhao_expansion">Qin and Zhao expansion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Qin and Zhao expansion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 278 BC, the Qin general Bai Qi attacked from Qin's new territory in Sichuan to the west of Chu. The capital of <a href="/wiki/Ying_(Chu)" title="Ying (Chu)">Ying</a> was captured and Chu's western lands on the <a href="/wiki/Han_River_(Yangtze_River_tributary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Han River (Yangtze River tributary)">Han River</a> were lost. The effect was to shift Chu significantly to the east. </p><p>After Chu was defeated in 278, the remaining great powers were Qin in the west and Zhao in the north-center. There was little room for diplomatic maneuver and matters were decided by wars. Zhao had been much strengthened by <a href="/wiki/King_Wuling_of_Zhao" title="King Wuling of Zhao">King Wuling of Zhao</a> (325–299). In 307 he enlarged his cavalry by copying the northern nomads. In 306 he took more land in the northern Shanxi plateau. In 305 he defeated the north-eastern border state of <a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_(state)" title="Zhongshan (state)">Zhongshan</a>. In 304 he pushed far to the north-west and occupied the east–west section of the Yellow River in the north of the <a href="/wiki/Ordos_Loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordos Loop">Ordos Loop</a>. King Huiwen of Zhao (298–266) chose able servants and expanded against the weakened Qi and Wei. In 296 his general <a href="/wiki/Lian_Po" title="Lian Po">Lian Po</a> defeated two Qin armies. </p><p>In 269 BC Fan Sui became chief advisor to Qin. He advocated authoritarian reforms, irrevocable expansion and an alliance with distant states to attack nearby states (the twenty-third of the <a href="/wiki/Thirty-Six_Stratagems" title="Thirty-Six Stratagems">Thirty-Six Stratagems</a>). His maxim "attack not only the territory, but also the people" enunciated a policy of mass slaughter that became increasingly frequent.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Qin-Zhao_wars_(282–257_BC)"><span id="Qin-Zhao_wars_.28282.E2.80.93257_BC.29"></span>Qin-Zhao wars (282–257 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Qin-Zhao wars (282–257 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 265 <a href="/wiki/King_Zhaoxiang_of_Qin" title="King Zhaoxiang of Qin">King Zhaoxiang of Qin</a> made the first move by attacking the weak state of Han which held the Yellow River gateway into Qin. He moved north-east across Wei territory to cut off the Han exclave of <a href="/wiki/Shangdang" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangdang">Shangdang</a> north of Luoyang and south of Zhao. The Han king agreed to surrender Shangdang, but the local governor refused and presented it to King Xiaocheng of Zhao. Zhao sent out <a href="/wiki/Lian_Po" title="Lian Po">Lian Po</a> who based his armies at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changping" title="Battle of Changping">Changping</a> and Qin sent out general Wang He. Lian Po was too wise to risk a decisive battle with the Qin army and remained inside his fortifications. Qin could not break through and the armies were locked in stalemate for three years. The Zhao king decided that Lian Po was not aggressive enough and sent out <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Kuo" title="Zhao Kuo">Zhao Kuo</a> who promised a decisive battle. At the same time Qin secretly replaced Wang He with the notoriously violent <a href="/wiki/Bai_Qi" title="Bai Qi">Bai Qi</a>. When Zhao Kuo left his fortifications, Bai Qi used a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae" title="Battle of Cannae">Cannae</a> maneuver, falling back in the center and surrounding the Zhao army from the sides. After being surrounded for 46 days, the starving Zhao troops surrendered in September 260 BC. It is said that Bai Qi had all the prisoners killed and that Zhao lost 400,000 men. </p><p>Qin was too exhausted to follow up its victory. Some time later it sent an army to besiege the Zhao capital but the army was destroyed when it was attacked from the rear. Zhao survived, but there was no longer a state that could resist Qin on its own. The other states could have survived if they remained united against Qin, but they did not. </p><p>In 257 BC, Qin army failed to besiege <a href="/wiki/Handan" title="Handan">Handan</a> and was defeated by the allied force of Zhao, Wei and Chu during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Handan" title="Battle of Handan">Battle of Handan</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="End_of_Zhou_dynasty_(256–249_BC)"><span id="End_of_Zhou_dynasty_.28256.E2.80.93249_BC.29"></span>End of Zhou dynasty (256–249 BC)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: End of Zhou dynasty (256–249 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The forces of <a href="/wiki/King_Zhao_of_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="King Zhao of Qin">King Zhao of Qin</a> defeated <a href="/wiki/King_Nan_of_Zhou" title="King Nan of Zhou">King Nan of Zhou</a> and conquered West Zhou in 256 BC, claiming the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Tripod_Cauldrons" title="Nine Tripod Cauldrons">Nine Cauldrons</a> and thereby symbolically becoming The Son of Heaven. </p><p>King Zhao's exceptionally long reign ended in 251 BC. His son <a href="/wiki/King_Xiaowen_of_Qin" title="King Xiaowen of Qin">King Xiaowen</a>, already an old man, died just three days after his coronation and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/King_Zhuangxiang_of_Qin" title="King Zhuangxiang of Qin">King Zhuangxiang of Qin</a>. The new Qin king proceeded to conquer East Zhou, seven years after the fall of West Zhou. Thus the 800-year Zhou dynasty, nominally China's longest-ruling regime, finally came to an end.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> contradicts himself regarding the ultimate fate of the East Zhou court. Chapter 4 (The Annals of Zhou) concludes with the sentence "thus the sacrifices of Zhou ended", but in the following chapter 5 (The Annals of Qin) we learn that "Qin did not prohibit their sacrifices; the Lord of Zhou was allotted a patch of land in Yangren where he could continue his ancestral sacrifices". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qin_unites_China_(247–221_BC)"><span id="Qin_unites_China_.28247.E2.80.93221_BC.29"></span>Qin unites China (247–221 BC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Qin unites China (247–221 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif/300px-De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif/450px-De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif/600px-De_stridande_staterna_animering.gif 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="719" /></a><figcaption>Animated map of the Warring States period<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qin_Unification.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Qin_Unification.png/300px-Qin_Unification.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Qin_Unification.png/450px-Qin_Unification.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Qin_Unification.png/600px-Qin_Unification.png 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Unification of Qin from 230 BC to 221 BC</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Qin%27s_wars_of_unification" title="Qin's wars of unification">Qin's wars of unification</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/King_Zhuangxiang_of_Qin" title="King Zhuangxiang of Qin">King Zhuangxiang of Qin</a> ruled for only three years. He was succeeded by his son Zheng, who unlike the two elderly kings that preceded him was only 13 years old at his coronation. As an adult, Zheng became a brilliant commander who, in the span of just nine years, unified China.<sup id="cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_5_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_5-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conquest_of_Han">Conquest of Han</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Conquest of Han"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 230 BC, Qin conquered <a href="/wiki/Han_(Warring_States)" title="Han (Warring States)">Han</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECotterell201090–91_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterell201090–91-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Han, the weakest of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Warring_States" title="Seven Warring States">Seven Warring States</a>, was adjacent to the much stronger Qin, and had suffered continuous assaults by Qin in earlier years of the Warring States period. This went on until Emperor <a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a> sent general <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jian_(Qin)" title="Wang Jian (Qin)">Wang Jian</a> to attack Zhao. <a href="/wiki/King_An_of_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="King An of Han">King An of Han</a>, frightened by the thought that Han would be the next target of the Qin state, immediately sent diplomats to surrender the entire kingdom without a fight, saving the Han populace from the terrible potential consequences of an unsuccessful resistance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conquest_of_Wei">Conquest of Wei</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Conquest of Wei"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 225 BC, Qin conquered <a href="/wiki/Wei_(state)" title="Wei (state)">Wei</a>. The Qin army led a direct invasion into Wei by besieging its capital <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Daliang</a> but soon realized that the city walls were too tough to break into. They devised a new strategy in which they utilized the power of a local river that was linked to the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>. The river was used to flood the city's walls, causing massive devastation to the city. Upon realizing the situation, King <a href="/wiki/Jia_of_Wei" title="Jia of Wei">Jia of Wei</a> hurriedly came out of the capital and surrendered it to the Qin army in order to avoid further bloodshed of his people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conquest_of_Chu">Conquest of Chu</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Conquest of Chu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Cup(Warring_States_Period)_in_Hangzhou_Museum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Crystal_Cup%28Warring_States_Period%29_in_Hangzhou_Museum.JPG/150px-Crystal_Cup%28Warring_States_Period%29_in_Hangzhou_Museum.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Crystal_Cup%28Warring_States_Period%29_in_Hangzhou_Museum.JPG/225px-Crystal_Cup%28Warring_States_Period%29_in_Hangzhou_Museum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Crystal_Cup%28Warring_States_Period%29_in_Hangzhou_Museum.JPG/300px-Crystal_Cup%28Warring_States_Period%29_in_Hangzhou_Museum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>A drinking cup carved from <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystal</a>, unearthed at Banshan, <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou" title="Hangzhou">Hangzhou</a>, Warring States period, <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_Museum" title="Hangzhou Museum">Hangzhou Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 223 BC, Qin conquered <a href="/wiki/Chu_(state)" title="Chu (state)">Chu</a>. The first invasion was however an utter disaster when 200,000 Qin troops, led by the general, Li Xin, were defeated by 500,000 Chu troops in the unfamiliar territory of Huaiyang, modern-day northern <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> provinces. Xiang Yan, the Chu commander, had lured Qin by allowing a few initial victories, but then counterattacked and burnt two large Qin camps. </p><p>In 222 BC, Wang Jian was recalled to lead a second military invasion with 600,000 men against the Chu state. High in morale after their victory in the previous year, the Chu forces were content to sit back and defend against what they expected to be a <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">siege</a> of Chu. However, Wang Jian decided to weaken Chu's resolve and tricked the Chu army by appearing to be idle in his fortifications whilst secretly training his troops to fight in Chu territory. After a year, the Chu defenders decided to disband due to apparent lack of action from the Qin. Wang Jian invaded at that point, with full force, and overran Huaiyang and the remaining Chu forces. Chu lost the initiative and could only sustain local guerrilla-style resistance until it too was fully conquered with the destruction of <a href="/wiki/Shou_County" title="Shou County">Shouchun</a> and the death of its last leader, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Changping" title="Lord Changping">Lord Changping</a>, in 223 BC. At their peak, the combined armies of Chu and Qin are estimated to have ranged from hundreds of thousands to a million soldiers, more than those involved in the campaign of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis1999626–629_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1999626–629-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conquest_of_Zhao_and_Yan">Conquest of Zhao and Yan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Conquest of Zhao and Yan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 222 BC, Qin conquered <a href="/wiki/Zhao_(state)" title="Zhao (state)">Zhao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yan_(state)" title="Yan (state)">Yan</a>. After the conquest of Zhao, the Qin army turned its attention towards Yan. Realizing the danger and gravity of this situation, <a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Dan" title="Crown Prince Dan">Crown Prince Dan</a> of Yan had sent <a href="/wiki/Jing_Ke" title="Jing Ke">Jing Ke</a> to assassinate <a href="/wiki/King_Zheng_of_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="King Zheng of Qin">King Zheng of Qin</a>, but this failure only helped to fuel the rage and determination of the Qin king, and he increased the number of troops to conquer the Yan state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conquest_of_Qi">Conquest of Qi</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Conquest of Qi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 221 BC, Qin conquered <a href="/wiki/Qi_(state)" title="Qi (state)">Qi</a>, the final unconquered state. It had not previously contributed or helped other states when Qin was conquering them. As soon as Qin's intention to invade it became clear, Qi swiftly surrendered all its cities, completing the <a href="/wiki/Qin%27s_wars_of_unification" title="Qin's wars of unification">unification of China</a> and ushering in the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>. The last Qi king lived out his days in exile in Gong and was not given a posthumous name, therefore he is known to posterity by his personal name Jian. </p><p>The Qin king Ying Zheng declared himself as <i><a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huangdi</a></i>, "The first Sovereign Emperor of Qin".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECotterell201090–91_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterell201090–91-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the rule of the Qin state, the union was based solely on military power. The feudal holdings were abolished, and noble families were forced to live in the capital city Xianyang, in order to be supervised. A national road (as well as greater use of canals) allowed for faster and easier deployment and supply of the army. The peasants were given a wider range of land rights, although they were subject to taxation, creating a large amount of revenue to the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECotterell201090–91_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterell201090–91-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_theory_and_practice">Military theory and practice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Military theory and practice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Warring_States" title="Military of the Warring States">Military of the Warring States</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warring_States_Iron_Sword.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Warring_States_Iron_Sword.jpg/280px-Warring_States_Iron_Sword.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Warring_States_Iron_Sword.jpg/420px-Warring_States_Iron_Sword.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Warring_States_Iron_Sword.jpg/560px-Warring_States_Iron_Sword.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>An iron sword of the Warring States</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:W_Zhou_Yan_helmet.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/W_Zhou_Yan_helmet.JPG/280px-W_Zhou_Yan_helmet.JPG" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/W_Zhou_Yan_helmet.JPG/420px-W_Zhou_Yan_helmet.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/W_Zhou_Yan_helmet.JPG/560px-W_Zhou_Yan_helmet.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>A Chinese soldier's bronze helmet, from the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Yan" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Yan">State of Yan</a>, dated to the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Warring_States_Traction_Trebuchet_Model.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Warring_States_Traction_Trebuchet_Model.jpg/280px-Warring_States_Traction_Trebuchet_Model.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Warring_States_Traction_Trebuchet_Model.jpg/420px-Warring_States_Traction_Trebuchet_Model.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Warring_States_Traction_Trebuchet_Model.jpg/560px-Warring_States_Traction_Trebuchet_Model.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Model of a Warring States period traction <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">trebuchet</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%88%98%E5%9B%BD%E9%87%91%E9%93%B6%E9%94%99%E7%8B%A9%E7%8C%8E%E7%BA%B9%E9%95%9C_%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%87%91%E6%9D%91.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/%E6%88%98%E5%9B%BD%E9%87%91%E9%93%B6%E9%94%99%E7%8B%A9%E7%8C%8E%E7%BA%B9%E9%95%9C_%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%87%91%E6%9D%91.jpg/220px-%E6%88%98%E5%9B%BD%E9%87%91%E9%93%B6%E9%94%99%E7%8B%A9%E7%8C%8E%E7%BA%B9%E9%95%9C_%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%87%91%E6%9D%91.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/%E6%88%98%E5%9B%BD%E9%87%91%E9%93%B6%E9%94%99%E7%8B%A9%E7%8C%8E%E7%BA%B9%E9%95%9C_%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%87%91%E6%9D%91.jpg/330px-%E6%88%98%E5%9B%BD%E9%87%91%E9%93%B6%E9%94%99%E7%8B%A9%E7%8C%8E%E7%BA%B9%E9%95%9C_%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%87%91%E6%9D%91.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/%E6%88%98%E5%9B%BD%E9%87%91%E9%93%B6%E9%94%99%E7%8B%A9%E7%8C%8E%E7%BA%B9%E9%95%9C_%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%87%91%E6%9D%91.jpg/440px-%E6%88%98%E5%9B%BD%E9%87%91%E9%93%B6%E9%94%99%E7%8B%A9%E7%8C%8E%E7%BA%B9%E9%95%9C_%E6%B2%B3%E5%8D%97%E6%B4%9B%E9%98%B3%E9%87%91%E6%9D%91.jpg 2x" data-file-width="733" data-file-height="463" /></a><figcaption>A horse-rider fighting a tiger, depicted on a gilded mirror discovered in Jincun, Luoyang</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Increasing_scale_of_warfare">Increasing scale of warfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Increasing scale of warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Chariot_(Ancient_China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chariot (Ancient China)">chariot</a> remained a major factor in Chinese warfare long after it went out of fashion in the Middle East.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Near the beginning of the Warring States period there is a shift from chariots to massed infantry, possibly associated with the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbow</a>. This had two major effects. First it led the dukes to weaken their chariot-riding nobility so they could get direct access to the peasantry who could be drafted as infantry.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The citation is not specific enough to facilitate source verification (July 2023)">not specific enough to verify</span></a></i>]</sup> This change was associated with the shift from aristocratic to bureaucratic government. Second, it led to a massive increase in the scale of warfare. When the Zhou overthrew the Shang at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Muye" title="Battle of Muye">Battle of Muye</a> they used 45,000 troops and 300 chariots. For the Warring States period the following figures for the military strengths of various states are reported: </p> <ul><li>Qin <br /> 1,000,000 infantry, 1,000 chariots, 10,000 horses;</li> <li>Chu <br /> same numbers;</li> <li>Wei <br /> 200–360,000 infantry, 200,000 spearmen, 100,000 servants, 600 chariots, 5,000 cavalry;</li> <li>Han <br /> 300,000 total;</li> <li>Qi <br /> several hundred thousand;</li></ul> <p>For major battles, the following figures are reported: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maling" title="Battle of Maling">Battle of Maling</a> <br /> 100,000 killed;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yique" title="Battle of Yique">Battle of Yique</a> <br /> 240,000 killed;</li> <li>General <a href="/wiki/Bai_Qi" title="Bai Qi">Bai Qi</a> is said to have been responsible for 890,000 enemy deaths over his career.</li></ul> <p>Many scholars think these numbers are exaggerated (records are inadequate, they are much larger than those from similar societies, soldiers were paid by the number of enemies they killed and the Han dynasty had an interest in exaggerating the bloodiness of the age before China was unified)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="Who says this? (July 2023)">weasel words</span></a></i>]</sup>. Regardless of exaggeration, it seems clear that warfare had become excessive during this period. The bloodshed and misery of the Warring States period goes a long way in explaining China's traditional and current preference for a united throne.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_developments">Military developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Military developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:433_20100912_bt_shanghai_museum_(4987162093).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/433_20100912_bt_shanghai_museum_%284987162093%29.jpg/170px-433_20100912_bt_shanghai_museum_%284987162093%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/433_20100912_bt_shanghai_museum_%284987162093%29.jpg/255px-433_20100912_bt_shanghai_museum_%284987162093%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/433_20100912_bt_shanghai_museum_%284987162093%29.jpg/340px-433_20100912_bt_shanghai_museum_%284987162093%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Warring States swords and spearhead with patterns</figcaption></figure> <p>The Warring States period saw the introduction of many innovations to the art of warfare in China, such as the use of iron and of cavalry. </p><p>Warfare in the Warring States period evolved considerably from the Spring and Autumn period, as most armies made use of infantry and cavalry in battles, and the use of <a href="/wiki/Chariot_(Ancient_China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chariot (Ancient China)">chariots</a> became less widespread. The use of massed infantry made warfare bloodier and reduced the importance of the aristocracy, which in turn made the kings more despotic. From this period onward, as the various states competed with each other by mobilizing their armies to war, nobles in China belonged to the literate class, rather than to the warrior class as had previously been the case. </p><p>The various states fielded massive armies of infantry, cavalry, and chariots. Complex logistical systems maintained by efficient government bureaucracies were needed to supply, train, and control such large forces. The size of the armies ranged from tens of thousands to several hundred thousand men.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iron weapons became more widespread and began to replace bronze. Most armour and weapons of this period were made from iron. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cavalry_and_Horse_Warring_States_period_475-221_BCE_Terracotta_Warriors_2013_exhibit_at_San_Francisco%27s_Asian_Art_Museum_20130320-110726_C4A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Cavalry_and_Horse_Warring_States_period_475-221_BCE_Terracotta_Warriors_2013_exhibit_at_San_Francisco%27s_Asian_Art_Museum_20130320-110726_C4A.jpg/290px-Cavalry_and_Horse_Warring_States_period_475-221_BCE_Terracotta_Warriors_2013_exhibit_at_San_Francisco%27s_Asian_Art_Museum_20130320-110726_C4A.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Cavalry_and_Horse_Warring_States_period_475-221_BCE_Terracotta_Warriors_2013_exhibit_at_San_Francisco%27s_Asian_Art_Museum_20130320-110726_C4A.jpg/435px-Cavalry_and_Horse_Warring_States_period_475-221_BCE_Terracotta_Warriors_2013_exhibit_at_San_Francisco%27s_Asian_Art_Museum_20130320-110726_C4A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Cavalry_and_Horse_Warring_States_period_475-221_BCE_Terracotta_Warriors_2013_exhibit_at_San_Francisco%27s_Asian_Art_Museum_20130320-110726_C4A.jpg/580px-Cavalry_and_Horse_Warring_States_period_475-221_BCE_Terracotta_Warriors_2013_exhibit_at_San_Francisco%27s_Asian_Art_Museum_20130320-110726_C4A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2787" data-file-height="2508" /></a><figcaption>The <i><a href="/wiki/Taerpo_horserider" class="mw-redirect" title="Taerpo horserider">Taerpo horserider</a></i>, a Qin terracotta figurine from a tomb in the Taerpo cemetery (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">塔兒坡秦墓</span></span>) near <a href="/wiki/Xianyang" title="Xianyang">Xianyang</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, 4th–3rd century BC. This is the earliest known representation of a cavalryman in China.<sup id="cite_ref-MK_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MK-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The outfit is of Central Asian style, probably <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Scythian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the rider with his large nose appears to be a foreigner.<sup id="cite_ref-MK_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MK-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King <a href="/wiki/Zheng_of_Qin" class="mw-redirect" title="Zheng of Qin">Zheng of Qin</a> (246–221 BC) is known to have employed steppe cavalry men in his army, as seen in his <a href="/wiki/Terracotta_Army" title="Terracotta Army">Terracotta Army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The first official native Chinese cavalry unit was formed in 307 BC during the military reforms of <a href="/wiki/King_Wuling_of_Zhao" title="King Wuling of Zhao">King Wuling of Zhao</a>, who advocated 'nomadic dress and horse archery'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200629_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200629-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the war chariot still retained its prestige and importance, despite the tactical superiority of cavalry. </p><p>The crossbow was the preferred long-range weapon of this period, due to several reasons. The crossbow could be mass-produced easily, and mass training of crossbowmen was possible. These qualities made it a powerful weapon against the enemy. </p><p>Infantrymen deployed a variety of weapons, but the most popular was the <a href="/wiki/Dagger-axe" title="Dagger-axe">dagger-axe</a>. The dagger-axe came in various lengths, from 9 to 18 feet; the weapon consisted of a thrusting spear with a slashing blade appended to it. Dagger-axes were an extremely popular weapon in various kingdoms, especially for the Qin, who produced 18-foot-long pike-like weapons. </p><p>The Qiang battle spear was named as the king 'wang' of all ancient weapons. It had the biggest impact on the battlefield and was quite difficult to master. The second important weapon of that era was the double-edged battle sword Jian. The fighting methods of using the Qiang spear and Jian sword were very different from what we see in movies or re-enactment shows today. Professional warriors of that era used the military concepts of "Master" Sun Tzu and created several successful "Ge Dou" martial schools. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_thought">Military thought</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Military thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Warring States was a great period for military strategy; of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Military_Classics" title="Seven Military Classics">Seven Military Classics</a> of China, four were written during this period: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_War" title="The Art of War">The Art of War</a></i> <br /> It is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a>, a highly influential study of strategy and tactics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETzuGriffith1963v_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETzuGriffith1963v-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wuzi" title="Wuzi">Wuzi</a></i> <br /> It is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Wu_Qi" title="Wu Qi">Wu Qi</a>, a statesman and commander who served the states of Wei and then Chu.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wei_Liaozi" title="Wei Liaozi">Wei Liaozi</a></i> <br /> of uncertain authorship.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_the_Sima" title="The Methods of the Sima">The Methods of the Sima</a></i> <br /> It is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Sima_Rangju" title="Sima Rangju">Sima Rangju</a>, a commander serving the state of Qi.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture_and_society">Culture and society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Culture and society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cup,_Warring_States_period,_lacquered_wood,_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Cup%2C_Warring_States_period%2C_lacquered_wood%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG/220px-Cup%2C_Warring_States_period%2C_lacquered_wood%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Cup%2C_Warring_States_period%2C_lacquered_wood%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG/330px-Cup%2C_Warring_States_period%2C_lacquered_wood%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Cup%2C_Warring_States_period%2C_lacquered_wood%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG/440px-Cup%2C_Warring_States_period%2C_lacquered_wood%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2645" data-file-height="1465" /></a><figcaption>A Chinese <a href="/wiki/Lacquerware" title="Lacquerware">lacquerware</a> drinking vessel (over wood), Warring States period, <a href="/wiki/Honolulu_Museum_of_Art" title="Honolulu Museum of Art">Honolulu Museum of Art</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pendant_in_the_shape_of_a_Human_Figure,_China,_Warring_States_period,_5th-3rd_century_BC,_nephrite_-_Arthur_M._Sackler_Museum,_Harvard_University_-_DSC00766.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Pendant_in_the_shape_of_a_Human_Figure%2C_China%2C_Warring_States_period%2C_5th-3rd_century_BC%2C_nephrite_-_Arthur_M._Sackler_Museum%2C_Harvard_University_-_DSC00766.jpg/170px-Pendant_in_the_shape_of_a_Human_Figure%2C_China%2C_Warring_States_period%2C_5th-3rd_century_BC%2C_nephrite_-_Arthur_M._Sackler_Museum%2C_Harvard_University_-_DSC00766.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Pendant_in_the_shape_of_a_Human_Figure%2C_China%2C_Warring_States_period%2C_5th-3rd_century_BC%2C_nephrite_-_Arthur_M._Sackler_Museum%2C_Harvard_University_-_DSC00766.jpg/255px-Pendant_in_the_shape_of_a_Human_Figure%2C_China%2C_Warring_States_period%2C_5th-3rd_century_BC%2C_nephrite_-_Arthur_M._Sackler_Museum%2C_Harvard_University_-_DSC00766.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Pendant_in_the_shape_of_a_Human_Figure%2C_China%2C_Warring_States_period%2C_5th-3rd_century_BC%2C_nephrite_-_Arthur_M._Sackler_Museum%2C_Harvard_University_-_DSC00766.jpg/340px-Pendant_in_the_shape_of_a_Human_Figure%2C_China%2C_Warring_States_period%2C_5th-3rd_century_BC%2C_nephrite_-_Arthur_M._Sackler_Museum%2C_Harvard_University_-_DSC00766.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1198" data-file-height="1680" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Nephrite" title="Nephrite">nephrite</a> pendant in the shape of a man wearing <a href="/wiki/Hanfu" title="Hanfu">silk robes</a>, 5th–3rd centuries BC, Warring States period, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Sackler_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur M. Sackler Museum">Arthur M. Sackler Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Changshadragon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Changshadragon.jpg/250px-Changshadragon.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="344" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Changshadragon.jpg/375px-Changshadragon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Changshadragon.jpg/500px-Changshadragon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1789" /></a><figcaption>A painting on <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a> depicting a <i><a href="/wiki/Silk_painting_depicting_a_man_riding_a_dragon" title="Silk painting depicting a man riding a dragon">man riding a dragon</a></i> from Zidanku Tomb no. 1 in <a href="/wiki/Changsha" title="Changsha">Changsha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a> Province (5th–3rd century BC)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Warring States period was an era of warfare in ancient China, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation; the major states, ruling over large territories, quickly sought to consolidate their powers, leading to the final erosion of the Zhou court's prestige. As a sign of this shift, the rulers of all the major states (except for Chu, which had claimed kingly title much earlier) abandoned their former feudal titles for the title of 王, or King, claiming equality with the rulers of the Zhou. </p><p>At the same time, the constant conflict and need for innovative social and political models led to the development of many philosophical doctrines, later known as the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a>. The most notable schools of thought include <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a> (expounded by <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a>), <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> (represented by <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xunzi</a>), <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a> (represented by <a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> (represented by <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lao_Tzu" class="mw-redirect" title="Lao Tzu">Lao Tzu</a>). </p><p>The many states that were competing between each other attempted to display their power not only militarily but in their courts and in state philosophy. Many differing rulers adopted the differing philosophies to their own advantage or that of their kingdom. </p><p>Mencius attempted to instate Confucianism as a state philosophy, proposing that through the governing of moral principles like benevolence and righteousness, the state would win popular support from one state and those neighboring, eliminating the need of a war altogether. Mencius had attempted to convince King Hui of Liang, although was unsuccessful since the king saw no advantage in the period of wars.<sup id="cite_ref-Haw_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haw-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mohism was developed by Mozi (468–376 BC) and it provided a unified moral and political philosophy based on impartiality and benevolence.<sup id="cite_ref-sep-mohism_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sep-mohism-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mohists had the belief that people change depending on environments around. The same was applied to rulers, which is why one must be cautious of foreign influences. Mozi was very much against warfare, although he was a great tactician in defense. He defended the small state of Song from many attempts of the Chu state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuKe2012_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuKe2012-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Taoism was advocated by Laozi, and believed that human nature was good and can achieve perfection by returning to original state. It believed that like a baby, humans are simple and innocent although with development of civilizations it lost its innocence only to be replaced by fraud and greed. Contrarily to other schools, it did not want to gain influence in the offices of states and Laozi even refused to be in the minister of the state of Chu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuKe2012_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELuKe2012-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Legalism created by Shang Yang in 338 BC, rejected all notions of religion and practices, and believed a nation should be governed by strict law. Not only were severe punishments applied, but they would be grouped with the families and made mutually responsible for criminal act. It proposed radical reforms, and established a society based on solid ranks. Peasants were encouraged to practice agriculture as occupation, and military performance was rewarded. Laws were also applied to all ranks with no exception; even the king was not above punishment. The philosophy was adapted by the Qin state and it created it into an organized, centralized state with a bureaucracy chosen on the basis of merit.<sup id="cite_ref-Haw_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haw-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period is most famous for the establishment of complex bureaucracies and centralized governments, as well as a clear legal system. The developments in political and military organization were the basis of the power of the Qin state,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> which conquered the other states and unified them under the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> in 221 BC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nobles,_bureaucrats_and_reformers"><span id="Nobles.2C_bureaucrats_and_reformers"></span>Nobles, bureaucrats and reformers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Nobles, bureaucrats and reformers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The phenomenon of intensive warfare, based on mass formations of infantry rather than the traditional chariots, was one major trend which led to the creation of strong central bureaucracies in each of the major states. At the same time, the process of secondary feudalism which permeated the Spring and Autumn period, and led to such events as the partition of Jin and the usurpation of Qi by the Tian clan, was eventually reversed by the same process of bureaucratisation. </p><p>Under the demands of warfare, the states adopted bureaucratic reforms in the Warring States period. Wei adopted these in 445 BC, Zhao in 403 BC, Chu in 390 BC, Han in 355 BC, Qi in 357 BC and Qin in 350 BC. Power was centralised by curbing the landed aristocrats and sinecures and creating a new hierarchy based on meritorious service to the state, which were drawn from the lower rungs of society. Systematic auditing and reporting systems, and fixed salaries for officials were created.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reforms of Shang Yang in Qin, and of Wu Qi in Chu, both centred on increased centralisation, the suppression of the nobility, and a vastly increased scope of government based on Legalist ideals, which were necessary to mobilise the large armies of the period.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sophisticated_arithmetic">Sophisticated arithmetic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Sophisticated arithmetic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qinghuajian,_Suan_Biao.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Qinghuajian%2C_Suan_Biao.jpg/200px-Qinghuajian%2C_Suan_Biao.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Qinghuajian%2C_Suan_Biao.jpg/300px-Qinghuajian%2C_Suan_Biao.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Qinghuajian%2C_Suan_Biao.jpg/400px-Qinghuajian%2C_Suan_Biao.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1528" data-file-height="2096" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tsinghua_Bamboo_Slips" title="Tsinghua Bamboo Slips">Tsinghua Bamboo Slips</a>, containing the world's earliest <a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">decimal</a> <a href="/wiki/Multiplication_table" title="Multiplication table">multiplication table</a>, dated 305 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>A bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the <a href="/wiki/Tsinghua_Bamboo_Slips" title="Tsinghua Bamboo Slips">Tsinghua</a> collection dated to 305<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC are the world's earliest example of a two digit <a href="/wiki/Tsinghua_Bamboo_Slips#Decimal_multiplication_table" title="Tsinghua Bamboo Slips">decimal multiplication table</a>, indicating that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rod_numeral" class="mw-redirect" title="Rod numeral">Rod numerals</a> were used to represent both negative and positive integers, and rational numbers, a true positional number system, with a blank for zero dating back to the Warring States period. </p><p>The nine linked-rings puzzle, an advanced puzzle device which requires mathematical analysis to solve, was invented during the period.<sup id="cite_ref-GuoEymanSun_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GuoEymanSun-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An important literary achievement of the Warring States period is the <a href="/wiki/Zuo_Zhuan" title="Zuo Zhuan">Zuo Commentary</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Spring and Autumn Annals</a>, which summarizes the preceding Spring and Autumn period. The less famous work <a href="/wiki/Guoyu_(book)" title="Guoyu (book)">Guoyu</a> is thought to be by the same author. </p><p>Many sayings of Spring and Autumn philosophers, which had previously been circulated orally, were put into writing in the Warring States. These include the <a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_War" title="The Art of War">The Art of War</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_developments">Economic developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Economic developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Warring States period saw the proliferation of <a href="/wiki/History_of_ferrous_metallurgy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ferrous metallurgy">iron working</a> in China, replacing <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> as the dominant type of metal used in warfare. Areas such as <a href="/wiki/Shu_(state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shu (state)">Shu</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Yue_(state)" title="Yue (state)">Yue</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>) were also brought into the Chinese cultural sphere during this time. <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">Trade</a> also became important, and some merchants had considerable power in politics, the most prominent of which was <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Buwei" title="Lü Buwei">Lü Buwei</a>, who rose to become Chancellor of Qin and was a key supporter of the eventual Qin Shihuang.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At the same time, the increased resources of consolidated, bureaucratic states, coupled with the logistical needs of mass levies and large-scale warfare, led to the proliferation of economic projects such as large-scale waterworks. Major examples of such waterworks include the <a href="/wiki/Dujiangyan_Irrigation_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Dujiangyan Irrigation System">Dujiangyan Irrigation System</a>, which controlled the <a href="/wiki/Min_River_(Sichuan)" title="Min River (Sichuan)">Min River</a> in Sichuan and turned the former backwater region into a major Qin logistical base, and the <a href="/wiki/Zhengguo_Canal" title="Zhengguo Canal">Zhengguo Canal</a> which irrigated large areas of land in the Guanzhong Plain, again increasing Qin's agricultural output. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a> is considered one of the most foundational texts of the developing political economy in the Warring States period.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It addresses principles of price regulation in the context of effectively dealing with commodities that are "light" (connoting a commodity which is unimportant, non-essential, or inexpensive) or "heavy" (a commodity which is important, essential, or expensive) and how whether a commodity is "light" or "heavy" is understood in relation to other commodities.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sengoku_period" title="Sengoku period">Sengoku period</a> – A period in Japanese history named after this period</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCartwright2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cartwright, Mark (July 12, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Warring_States_Period/">"Warring States Period"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Warring+States+Period&rft.btitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.date=2017-07-12&rft.aulast=Cartwright&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FWarring_States_Period%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook2010" class="citation journal cs1">Cook, Scott (2010). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"San De" and Warring States Views on Heavenly Retribution". <i>Journal of Chinese Philosophy</i>. <b>37</b>: 101–123. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-6253.2010.01622.x">10.1111/j.1540-6253.2010.01622.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.atitle=%22San+De%22+and+Warring+States+Views+on+Heavenly+Retribution&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=101-123&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-6253.2010.01622.x&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_15_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shi Ji, chapter 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_46-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_46_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_46_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_46_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shi Ji, chapter 46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shi Ji, chapter 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_4_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shi Ji, chapter 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_5-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_5_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_5_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shi Ji, chapter 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shi_Ji,_chapter_69-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_69_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shi_Ji,_chapter_69_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shi Ji, chapter 69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mdbg.net/chindict/chindict.php?page=worddict&wdrst=0&wdqb=战国策">"MDBG"</a>, Sökord: 战国策</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECotterell201090–91-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECotterell201090–91_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECotterell201090–91_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECotterell201090–91_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCotterell2010">Cotterell (2010)</a>, pp. 90–91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1999626–629-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis1999626–629_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis1999">Lewis (1999)</a>, pp. 626–629.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoeweShaughnessy1999" class="citation book cs1">Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999). <i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China</i>. p. 625.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Ancient+China&rft.pages=625&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Loewe&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Shaughnessy%2C+Edward+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)</a>, p. ?<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2012)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MK-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MK_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MK_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhayutina2013" class="citation journal cs1">Khayutina, Maria (Autumn 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iias.asia/sites/iias/files/nwl_article/2019-05/IIAS_NL65_1213.pdf">"From wooden attendants to terracotta warriors"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bernisches Historisches Museum the Newsletter</i> (65): 2, Fig.4. <q>Other noteworthy terracotta figurines were found in 1995 in a 4th–3rd century BCE tomb in the Taerpo cemetery near Xianyang in Shaanxi Province, where the last Qin capital of the same name was located from 350 to 207 BCE. These are the earliest representations of cavalrymen in China discovered up to this day. One of this pair can now be seen at the exhibition in Bern (Fig. 4). A small, ca. 23 cm tall, figurine represents a man sitting on a settled horse. He stretches out his left hand, whereas his right hand points downwards. Holes pierced through both his fists suggest that he originally held the reins of his horse in one hand and a weapon in the other. The rider wears a short jacket, trousers and boots – elements of the typical outfit of the inhabitants of the Central Asian steppes. Trousers were first introduced in the early Chinese state of Zhao during the late 4th century BCE, as the Chinese started to learn horse riding from their nomadic neighbours. The state of Qin should have adopted the nomadic clothes about the same time. But the figurine from Taerpo also has some other features that may point to its foreign identity: a hood-like headgear with a flat wide crown framing his face and a high, pointed nose.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bernisches+Historisches+Museum+the+Newsletter&rft.atitle=From+wooden+attendants+to+terracotta+warriors&rft.ssn=fall&rft.issue=65&rft.pages=2%2C+Fig.4&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Khayutina&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iias.asia%2Fsites%2Fiias%2Ffiles%2Fnwl_article%2F2019-05%2FIIAS_NL65_1213.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span> Also in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhayutina2013" class="citation book cs1">Khayutina, Maria (2013). <i>Qin: the eternal emperor and his terracotta warriors</i> (1. Aufl ed.). Zürich: Neue Zürcher Zeitung. p. cat. no. 314. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-03823-838-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-03823-838-6"><bdi>978-3-03823-838-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Qin%3A+the+eternal+emperor+and+his+terracotta+warriors&rft.place=Z%C3%BCrich&rft.pages=cat.+no.+314&rft.edition=1.+Aufl&rft.pub=Neue+Z%C3%BCrcher+Zeitung&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-03823-838-6&rft.aulast=Khayutina&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQingbo2023" class="citation journal cs1">Qingbo, Duan (January 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/3F6506262A9ED57C9DC3827EEAA6B230/S2059163222000251a.pdf/sino-western-cultural-exchange-as-seen-through-the-archaeology-of-the-first-emperors-necropolis.pdf">"Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Chinese History</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 26 Fig.1, 27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fjch.2022.25">10.1017/jch.2022.25</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251690411">251690411</a>. <q>In terms of formal characteristics and style of dress and adornment, the closest parallels to the Warring States-period Qin figurines are found in the Scythian culture. Wang Hui 王輝 has examined the exchanges between the cultures of the Yellow River valley and the Scythian culture of the steppe. During a 2007 exhibition on the Scythians in Berlin, there was a bronze hood on display labeled a "Kazakh military cap." This bronze hood and the clothing of the nomads in kneeling posture [also depicted in the exhibition] are very similar in form to those of the terracotta figurines from the late Warring States Qin-period tomb at the Taerpo site (see Figure 1). The style of the Scythian bronze horse figures and the saddle, bridle, and other accessories on their bodies are nearly identical to those seen on the Warring States-period Qin figurines and a similar type of artifact from the Ordos region, and they all date to the fifth to third centuries BCE.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+History&rft.atitle=Sino-Western+Cultural+Exchange+as+Seen+through+the+Archaeology+of+the+First+Emperor%27s+Necropolis&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=26+Fig.1%2C+27&rft.date=2023-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fjch.2022.25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A251690411%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Qingbo&rft.aufirst=Duan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fservices%2Faop-cambridge-core%2Fcontent%2Fview%2F3F6506262A9ED57C9DC3827EEAA6B230%2FS2059163222000251a.pdf%2Fsino-western-cultural-exchange-as-seen-through-the-archaeology-of-the-first-emperors-necropolis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawson2017" class="citation journal cs1">Rawson, Jessica (April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315991114">"China and the steppe: reception and resistance"</a>. <i>Antiquity</i>. <b>91</b> (356): 386. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15184%2Faqy.2016.276">10.15184/aqy.2016.276</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165092308">165092308</a>. <q>King Zheng of Qin (246–221 BC), who was to be the First Emperor (221–210 BC), took material from many regions. As he unified the territory, he employed steppe cavalry men in his army, as we now recognise from the terracotta warriors guarding his tomb (Khayutina 2013: cat. no. 314), whose dress resembles that of the steppe leaders known to the Achaemenids and Parthians (Curtis 2000: front cover), but he proclaimed his conquest in the language of the Central Plains: Chinese. The First Emperor must have had advisors who knew something of the seals, weights and measures of Central Asia and Iran (Khayutina 2013: cat. nos 115–17), and also retained craftsmen who had mastered Western technologies and cast bronze birds for his tomb in hitherto unknown life-like forms (Mei et al. 2014). He also exploited mounted horsemen and iron weaponry originally from the steppe, and agriculture and settlements of the Central Plains, turning to the extraordinary organisation of people and manufacturing from this area to create a unified state. This could only be achieved by moving towards the centre, as the Emperor indeed did.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=China+and+the+steppe%3A+reception+and+resistance&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=356&rft.pages=386&rft.date=2017-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15184%2Faqy.2016.276&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165092308%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rawson&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F315991114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200629-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEbreyWalthallPalais200629_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006)</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETzuGriffith1963v-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETzuGriffith1963v_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTzuGriffith1963">Tzu & Griffith (1963)</a>, p. v.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haw-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haw_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haw_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaw2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Haw" title="Stephen G. Haw">Haw, Stephen G.</a> (2008). <i>A traveller's history of China</i>. Canada: Interlink Books. pp. 64–71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+traveller%27s+history+of+China&rft.place=Canada&rft.pages=64-71&rft.pub=Interlink+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Haw&rft.aufirst=Stephen+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sep-mohism-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sep-mohism_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraser2015" class="citation web cs1">Fraser, Chris (1 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mohism/">"Mohism"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Mohism&rft.date=2015-01-01&rft.aulast=Fraser&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmohism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELuKe2012-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuKe2012_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELuKe2012_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLuKe2012">Lu & Ke (2012)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdgar_KiserYong_Cai2003" class="citation journal cs1">Edgar Kiser; Yong Cai (Aug 2003). "War and Bureaucratization in Qin China: Exploring an Anomalous Case". <i>American Sociological Review</i>. <b>68</b> (4): 527–528.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=War+and+Bureaucratization+in+Qin+China%3A+Exploring+an+Anomalous+Case&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=527-528&rft.date=2003-08&rft.au=Edgar+Kiser&rft.au=Yong+Cai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQiu2014" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_Qiu" title="Jane Qiu">Qiu, Jane</a> (7 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/news/ancient-times-table-hidden-in-chinese-bamboo-strips-1.14482">"Ancient times table hidden in Chinese bamboo strips: The 2,300-year-old matrix is the world's oldest decimal multiplication table"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature.2014.14482">10.1038/nature.2014.14482</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130132289">130132289</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Ancient+times+table+hidden+in+Chinese+bamboo+strips%3A+The+2%2C300-year-old+matrix+is+the+world%27s+oldest+decimal+multiplication+table&rft.date=2014-01-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature.2014.14482&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A130132289%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Qiu&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnews%2Fancient-times-table-hidden-in-chinese-bamboo-strips-1.14482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GuoEymanSun-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GuoEymanSun_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuoEymanSun2024" class="citation book cs1">Guo, Li; Eyman, Douglas; Sun, Hongmei (2024). "Introduction". In Guo, Li; Eyman, Douglas; Sun, Hongmei (eds.). <i>Games & Play in Chinese & Sinophone Cultures</i>. Seattle, WA: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington_Press" title="University of Washington Press">University of Washington Press</a>. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780295752402" title="Special:BookSources/9780295752402"><bdi>9780295752402</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Games+%26+Play+in+Chinese+%26+Sinophone+Cultures&rft.place=Seattle%2C+WA&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=9780295752402&rft.aulast=Guo&rft.aufirst=Li&rft.au=Eyman%2C+Douglas&rft.au=Sun%2C+Hongmei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeber2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Isabella_Weber" title="Isabella Weber">Weber, Isabella</a> (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1228187814"><i>How China escaped shock therapy : the market reform debate</i></a>. Abingdon, Oxon: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-49012-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-49012-5"><bdi>978-0-429-49012-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1228187814">1228187814</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+China+escaped+shock+therapy+%3A+the+market+reform+debate&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxon&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1228187814&rft.isbn=978-0-429-49012-5&rft.aulast=Weber&rft.aufirst=Isabella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1228187814&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeber2021" class="citation book cs1">Weber, Isabella (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1228187814"><i>How China escaped shock therapy : the market reform debate</i></a>. Abingdon, Oxon: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 19–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-49012-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-49012-5"><bdi>978-0-429-49012-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1228187814">1228187814</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+China+escaped+shock+therapy+%3A+the+market+reform+debate&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxon&rft.pages=19-20&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1228187814&rft.isbn=978-0-429-49012-5&rft.aulast=Weber&rft.aufirst=Isabella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1228187814&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotterell2010" class="citation cs2">Cotterell, Arthur (2010), <i>Asia, a Concise History</i>, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-82959-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-82959-2"><bdi>978-0-470-82959-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia%2C+a+Concise+History&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-470-82959-2&rft.aulast=Cotterell&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="citation cs2">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YukVl8fUr48C"><i>Pre-Modern East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</i></a>, Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin Company, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-13386-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-13386-0"><bdi>0-618-13386-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pre-Modern+East+Asia%3A+A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+History&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=Houghton-Mifflin+Company&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-618-13386-0&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rft.au=Walthall%2C+Anne&rft.au=Palais%2C+James+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYukVl8fUr48C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1999" class="citation cs2">Lewis, Mark Edward (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&pg=PA587">"Warring States Political History"</a>, in Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.), <i>The Cambridge history of ancient China: from the origins of civilization to 221 B.C.</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. 587–649, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8"><bdi>978-0-521-47030-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Warring+States+Political+History&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+ancient+China%3A+from+the+origins+of+civilization+to+221+B.C.&rft.pages=587-649&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47030-8&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Mark+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcHA7Ey0-pbEC%26pg%3DPA587&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuKe2012" class="citation cs2">Lu, Liqing; Ke, Jinhua (2012), "A Concise History of Chinese Psychology of Religion", <i>Pastoral Psychology</i>, <b>61</b> (5–6): 623–639, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11089-011-0395-y">10.1007/s11089-011-0395-y</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144556354">144556354</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pastoral+Psychology&rft.atitle=A+Concise+History+of+Chinese+Psychology+of+Religion&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=623-639&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11089-011-0395-y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144556354%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lu&rft.aufirst=Liqing&rft.au=Ke%2C+Jinhua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTzuGriffith1963" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Tzu, Sun</a>; Griffith, Samuel B. (1963), <i>The Art of War</i>, New York, NY: Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+War&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Tzu&rft.aufirst=Sun&rft.au=Griffith%2C+Samuel+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi_Xueqin1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Li_Xueqin" title="Li Xueqin">Li Xueqin</a> (1985). <i>Eastern Zhou and Qin Civilizations</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Kwang-chih_Chang" title="Kwang-chih Chang">Chang, K.C.</a> New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-03286-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-03286-2"><bdi>0-300-03286-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+Zhou+and+Qin+Civilizations&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-300-03286-2&rft.au=Li+Xueqin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYap2009" class="citation book cs1">Yap, Joseph P. (2009). <i>Wars with the Xiongnu: A Translation from </i>Zizhi Tongjian<i><span></span></i>. Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.: AuthorHouse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4490-0604-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4490-0604-4"><bdi>978-1-4490-0604-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wars+with+the+Xiongnu%3A+A+Translation+from+Zizhi+Tongjian&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana%2C+U.S.&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4490-0604-4&rft.aulast=Yap&rft.aufirst=Joseph+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSima_Guang2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Sima Guang (2016). <i><span></span></i>Zizhi Tongjian<i>: Warring States and Qin</i>. Vol. 1 to 8 - 403-207 BCE. Translated by Yap, Joseph P. CreateSpace. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1533086938" title="Special:BookSources/978-1533086938"><bdi>978-1533086938</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2016908788">2016908788</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zizhi+Tongjian%3A+Warring+States+and+Qin&rft.pub=CreateSpace&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2016908788&rft.isbn=978-1533086938&rft.au=Sima+Guang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarring+States+period" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_period&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Chinese_Text_Project" title="Chinese Text Project">Chinese Text Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y24k">China's Warring States period</a>, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Chris Cullen, Vivienne Lo & Carol Michaelson (<i>In Our Time</i>, Apr. 1, 2004)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://23news.co/warring-states-wine-made-more-than-2300-years-ago-as-deep-as-the-sea/">Warring States wine made more than 2,300 years ago, as deep as the sea</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Chinese_states" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Zhou_dynasty_topics" title="Template:Zhou dynasty topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Zhou_dynasty_topics" title="Template talk:Zhou dynasty topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Zhou_dynasty_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Zhou dynasty topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Chinese_states" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_states" title="Ancient Chinese states">Ancient Chinese states</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Zhou_dynasty_states" title="List of Zhou dynasty states">Zhou dynasty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cai_(state)" title="Cai (state)">Cai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cao_(state)" title="Cao (state)">Cao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_(state)" title="Chen (state)">Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chu_(state)" title="Chu (state)">Chu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_(Chinese_state)" title="Jin (Chinese state)">Jin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_(state)" title="Lu (state)">Lu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi_(state)" title="Qi (state)">Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_(kingdom)" title="Shu (kingdom)">Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_(state)" title="Song (state)">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wey_(state)" title="Wey (state)">Wey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_(state)" title="Wu (state)">Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_(state)" title="Yan (state)">Yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yue_(state)" title="Yue (state)">Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_(state)" title="Zheng (state)">Zheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minor states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba_(state)" title="Ba (state)">Ba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bei_(state)" title="Bei (state)">Bei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chao_(state)" title="Chao (state)">Chao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dao_(state)" title="Dao (state)">Dao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_(Spring_and_Autumn_period)" title="Dai (Spring and Autumn period)">Dai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_(state)" title="Deng (state)">Deng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E_(state)" title="E (state)">E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Guo" title="Eastern Guo">Eastern Guo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Guo" title="Western Guo">Western Guo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gumie" title="Gumie">Gumie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guzhu" title="Guzhu">Guzhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_(NW_Zhou_state)" title="Han (NW Zhou state)">Han (NW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_(SE_Zhou_state)" title="Han (SE Zhou state)">Han (SE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua_(state)" title="Hua (state)">Hua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_(state)" title="Huang (state)">Huang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huo_(state)" title="Huo (state)">Huo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_(state_in_modern_Beijing)" title="Ji (state in modern Beijing)">Ji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_(state_in_modern_Shandong)" title="Ji (state in modern Shandong)"> Ji</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jia_(state)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jia (state) (page does not exist)">Jia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ju_(state)" title="Ju (state)">Ju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_(state)" title="Lai (state)">Lai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_(state)" title="Liang (state)">Liang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_(Zhou_dynasty_state)" title="Liao (Zhou dynasty state)">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_(state)" title="Lü (state)">Lü</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_(state)" title="Luo (state)">Luo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na_(Chinese_state)" title="Na (Chinese state)">Na</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peng_(Western_Zhou_state)" title="Peng (Western Zhou state)">Peng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pi_(state)" title="Pi (state)">Pi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi_(Henan)" title="Qi (Henan)">Qǐ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quan_(state)" title="Quan (state)">Quan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rui_(state)" title="Rui (state)">Rui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruo_(state)" title="Ruo (state)">Ruo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_(state)" title="Shen (state)">Shēn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C4%9Bn_(state)" title="Shěn (state)">Shěn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_(state)" title="Sui (state)">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tan_(state)" title="Tan (state)">Tan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_(Chinese_state)" title="Jin (Chinese state)">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teng_(state)" title="Teng (state)">Teng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_(state)" title="Xi (state)">Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xian_(state)" title="Xian (state)">Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xing_(state)" title="Xing (state)">Xing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_(state)" title="Xu (state)">Xu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X%C7%94_(state)" title="Xǔ (state)">Xǔ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_(state)" title="Yang (state)">Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ying_(state)" title="Ying (state)"> Ying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiqu" title="Yiqu">Yiqu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duke_Xian_of_Jin#Conquests_of_Yu_and_Guo" title="Duke Xian of Jin">Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeng_(state)" title="Zeng (state)">Zeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongli_(state)" title="Zhongli (state)">Zhongli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_(state)" title="Zhongshan (state)">Zhongshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhoulai" title="Zhoulai">Zhoulai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zou_(state)" title="Zou (state)">Zou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warring States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Seven_Warring_States" title="Seven Warring States">Seven states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chu_(state)" title="Chu (state)">Chu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_(Warring_States)" title="Han (Warring States)">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi_(state)" title="Qi (state)">Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_(state)" title="Wei (state)">Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_(state)" title="Yan (state)">Yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_(state)" title="Zhao (state)">Zhao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Minor states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba_(state)" title="Ba (state)">Ba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai_(state)" title="Cai (state)">Cai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_(Warring_States_period)" title="Dai (Warring States period)">Dai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou_(state)" title="Eastern Zhou (state)">Eastern Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_(state)" title="Lu (state)">Lu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_(kingdom)" title="Shu (kingdom)">Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_(state)" title="Song (state)">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teng_(state)" title="Teng (state)">Teng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou_(state)" title="Western Zhou (state)">Western Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wey_(state)" title="Wey (state)">Wey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiqu" title="Yiqu">Yiqu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yue_(state)" title="Yue (state)">Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zheng_(state)" title="Zheng (state)">Zheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhongshan_(state)" title="Zhongshan (state)">Zhongshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zou_(state)" title="Zou 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1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-c8xbz","timestamp":"20241124150601","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Warring States period","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warring_States_period","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q185063","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q185063","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-03-15T06:38:35Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T18:28:20Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/ca\/EN-WarringStatesAll260BCE.jpg","headline":"period in Chinese history from approximately 475 to 221 BCE"}</script> 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