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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p><b>Photothermal spectroscopy</b> is a group of high sensitivity <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> techniques used to measure optical absorption and thermal characteristics of a sample. The basis of photothermal spectroscopy is the change in thermal state of the sample resulting from the absorption of radiation. Light absorbed and not lost by emission results in heating. The heat raises temperature thereby influencing the thermodynamic properties of the sample or of a suitable material adjacent to it. Measurement of the temperature, pressure, or density changes that occur due to optical absorption are ultimately the basis for the photothermal spectroscopic measurements. </p><p>As with <a href="/wiki/Photoacoustic_spectroscopy" title="Photoacoustic spectroscopy">photoacoustic spectroscopy</a>, photothermal spectroscopy is an indirect method for measuring <a href="/wiki/Optical_absorption" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical absorption">optical absorption</a>, because it is not based on the direct measure of the light which is involved in the absorption. In another sense, however, photothermal (and photoacoustic) methods measure <i>directly</i> the absorption, rather than e.g. calculate it from the transmission, as is the case of more usual (transmission) spectroscopic techniques. And it is this fact that gives the technique its high sensitivity, because in transmission techniques the <a href="/wiki/Absorbance" title="Absorbance">absorbance</a> is calculated as the difference between total light impinging on the sample and the <a href="/wiki/Transmittance" title="Transmittance">transmitted</a> (plus <a href="/wiki/Reflection_(physics)" title="Reflection (physics)">reflected</a>, plus <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_reflection" title="Diffuse reflection">scattered</a>) light, with the usual problems of accuracy when one deals with small differences between large numbers, if the absorption is small. In photothermal spectroscopies, instead, the signal is essentially proportional to the absorption, and is zero when there is zero <i>true</i> absorption, even in the presence of reflection or scattering. </p><p>There are several methods and techniques used in photothermal spectroscopy. Each of these has a name indicating the specific physical effect measured. </p> <ul><li>Photothermal lens spectroscopy (PTS or TLS) measures the thermal blooming that occurs when a beam of light heats a transparent sample. It is typically applied for measuring minute quantities of substances in homogeneous gas and liquid solutions.</li> <li>Photothermal deflection spectroscopy (PDS), also called the <a href="/wiki/Mirage" title="Mirage">mirage</a> effect, measures the bending of light due to optical absorption. This technique is particularly useful for measuring surface absorption and for profiling thermal properties in layered materials.</li> <li>Photothermal diffraction, a type of <a href="/wiki/Four_wave_mixing" class="mw-redirect" title="Four wave mixing">four wave mixing</a>, monitors the effect of transient <a href="/wiki/Diffraction_grating" title="Diffraction grating">diffraction gratings</a> "written" into the sample with coherent lasers. It is a form of real-time <a href="/wiki/Holography" title="Holography">holography</a>.</li> <li>Photothermal emission measures an increase in sample <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> <a href="/wiki/Radiance" title="Radiance">radiance</a> occurring as a consequence of absorption. Sample emission follows <a href="/wiki/Stefan%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan's law">Stefan's law</a> of thermal emission. This methods is used to measure the thermal properties of solids and layered materials.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photothermal_optical_microscopy" title="Photothermal optical microscopy">Photothermal single particle microscopy</a>. This technique allows the detection of single absorbing nanoparticles via the creation of a spherically symmetric thermal lens for imaging and correlation spectroscopy.</li></ul> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Photothermal_deflection_spectroscopy">Photothermal deflection spectroscopy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photothermal_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Photothermal deflection spectroscopy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Photothermal deflection spectroscopy</b> is a kind of <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> that measures the change in refractive index due to heating of a medium by light. It works via a sort of "<a href="/wiki/Mirage" title="Mirage">mirage</a> effect"<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where a refractive index gradient exists adjacent to the test sample surface. A probe laser beam is refracted or bent in a manner proportional to the temperature gradient of the transparent medium near the surface. From this deflection, a measure of the absorbed excitation radiation can be determined. The technique is useful when studying optically thin samples, because sensitive measurements can be obtained of whether absorption is occurring. It is of value in situations where "pass through" or transmission spectroscopy can't be used.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are two main forms of PDS: Collinear and Transverse. Collinear PDS was introduced in a 1980 paper by A.C. Boccara, D. Fournier, et al.<sup id="cite_ref-opticsletters_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-opticsletters-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In collinear, two beams pass through and intersect in a medium. The pump beam heats the material and the probe beam is deflected. This technique only works for transparent media. In transverse, the pump beam heats come in normal to the surface, and the probe beam passes parallel. In a variation on this, the probe beam may reflect off the surface, and measure buckling due to heating. Transverse PDS can be done in Nitrogen, but better performance is gained in a liquid cell: usually an inert, non-absorbing material such as a <a href="/wiki/Perfluorocarbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfluorocarbon">perfluorocarbon</a> is used.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In both collinear and transverse PDS, the surface is heated using a periodically modulated light source, such as an optical beam passing through a mechanical chopper or regulated with a function generator. A lock-in amplifier is then used to measure deflections found at the modulation frequency. Another scheme uses a pulsed laser as the excitation source. In that case, a boxcar average can be used to measure the temporal deflection of the probe beam to the excitation radiation. The signal falls off exponentially as a function of frequency, so frequencies around 1-10 hertz are frequently used. A full theoretical analysis of the PDS system was published by Jackson, Amer, et al. in 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-applied_optics_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-applied_optics-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same paper also discussed the use of PDS as a form of microscopy, called "Photothermal Deflection Microscopy", which can yield information about impurities and the surface topology of materials.<sup id="cite_ref-applied_optics_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-applied_optics-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>PDS analysis of thin films can also be performed using a patterned substrate that supports optical resonances, such as guided-mode resonance and whispering-gallery modes. The probe beam is coupled into a resonant mode and the coupling efficiency is highly sensitive to the incidence angle. Due to the photoheating effect, the coupling efficiency is changed and characterized to indicate the thin film absorption. <sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photothermal_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photothermal_effect" title="Photothermal effect">Photothermal effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photothermal_microspectroscopy" title="Photothermal microspectroscopy">Photothermal microspectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photothermal_optical_microscopy" title="Photothermal optical microscopy">Photothermal optical microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbach_energy" title="Urbach energy">Urbach energy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photothermal_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the <i>true</i> mirage, however, a light ray is bent gradually until it is <i><a href="/wiki/Total_reflection" class="mw-redirect" title="Total reflection">totally reflected</a></i> by the very hot air near soil. Here, instead, there is no reflection, and the ray is bent in a smooth way by the refraction index gradient, which acts like a <a href="/wiki/Prism_(optics)" title="Prism (optics)">prism</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-opticsletters-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-opticsletters_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBoccaraFournier,_D.Jackson,_WarrenAmer,_Nabil.1980" class="citation journal cs1">Boccara, A.C.; Fournier, D.; Jackson, Warren; Amer, Nabil. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc842461/">"Sensitive photothermal deflection technique for measuring absorption in optically thin media"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Optics_Letters" title="Optics Letters">Optics Letters</a></i>. <b>5</b> (9): 377–379. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980OptL....5..377B">1980OptL....5..377B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FOL.5.000377">10.1364/OL.5.000377</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19693234">19693234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Optics+Letters&rft.atitle=Sensitive+photothermal+deflection+technique+for+measuring+absorption+in+optically+thin+media&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=377-379&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19693234&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1364%2FOL.5.000377&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980OptL....5..377B&rft.aulast=Boccara&rft.aufirst=A.C.&rft.au=Fournier%2C+D.&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Warren&rft.au=Amer%2C+Nabil.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc842461%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotothermal+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-applied_optics-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-applied_optics_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-applied_optics_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacksonAmer,_N.M.Boccara,_A.C.Fournier,_D.1981" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, W.B.; Amer, N.M.; Boccara, A.C.; Fournier, D. (1981-04-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc827884/">"Photothermal deflection spectroscopy and detection"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Applied_Optics" title="Applied Optics">Applied Optics</a></i>. <b>20</b> (8): 1333–1344. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981ApOpt..20.1333J">1981ApOpt..20.1333J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FAO.20.001333">10.1364/AO.20.001333</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20309309">20309309</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Optics&rft.atitle=Photothermal+deflection+spectroscopy+and+detection&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1333-1344&rft.date=1981-04-15&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20309309&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1364%2FAO.20.001333&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981ApOpt..20.1333J&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=W.B.&rft.au=Amer%2C+N.M.&rft.au=Boccara%2C+A.C.&rft.au=Fournier%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc827884%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotothermal+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhaoLiuZhaoLu2016" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao Y, Liu L, Zhao X, Lu M (2016). "Enhanced photothermal lens using a photonic crystal surface". <i>Applied Physics Letters</i>. <b>109</b> (7): 071108. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ApPhL.109g1108Z">2016ApPhL.109g1108Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.4961376">10.1063/1.4961376</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Physics+Letters&rft.atitle=Enhanced+photothermal+lens+using+a+photonic+crystal+surface&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=071108&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.4961376&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016ApPhL.109g1108Z&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Liu%2C+L&rft.au=Zhao%2C+X&rft.au=Lu%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotothermal+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li>J. A. Sell <i>Photothermal Investigations of Solids and Fluids</i> Academic Press, New York <b>1989</b></li> <li>D. P. Almond and P. M. Patel <i>Photothermal Science and Techniques</i> Chapman and Hall, London <b>1996</b></li> <li>S. E. Bialkowski <i>Photothermal Spectroscopy Methods for Chemical Analysis</i> John Wiley, New York <b>1996</b></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Photothermal_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080907135449/http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/76/6/1083/">Quantities, terminology, and symbols in photothermal and related spectroscopies (IUPAC Recommendations 2004)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090125093201/http://www.chem.usu.edu/~sbialkow/book/bookframe.html">on-line version Chapter 1 of Stephen E. Bialkowski's <i>Photothermal Spectroscopy Methods for Chemical Analysis</i> John Wiley, New York <b>1996</b></a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output 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title="Fluorescence spectroscopy">Fluorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_vapour_atomic_fluorescence_spectroscopy" title="Cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectroscopy">Cold vapour atomic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibronic_spectroscopy" title="Vibronic spectroscopy">Vibronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-infrared_spectroscopy" title="Near-infrared spectroscopy">Near-infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonance-enhanced_multiphoton_ionization" title="Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization">Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization</a> (REMPI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherent_anti-Stokes_Raman_spectroscopy" title="Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy">Coherent anti-Stokes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_optical_activity" title="Raman optical activity">Raman optical activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser-induced_breakdown_spectroscopy" title="Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy">Laser-induced breakdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_spectroscopy" title="Atomic spectroscopy">Atomic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_emission_spectroscopy" title="Atomic emission spectroscopy">emission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glow-discharge_optical_emission_spectroscopy" title="Glow-discharge optical emission spectroscopy">Glow-discharge optical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy" title="Atomic absorption spectroscopy">absorption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_ring-down_spectroscopy" title="Cavity ring-down spectroscopy">Cavity ring-down spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturated_absorption_spectroscopy" title="Saturated absorption spectroscopy">Saturated absorption spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">X-ray and Gamma ray</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_spectroscopy" title="X-ray spectroscopy">X-ray</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy-dispersive_X-ray_spectroscopy" title="Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy">Energy-dispersive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_emission_spectroscopy" title="X-ray emission spectroscopy">Emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_X-ray_absorption_fine_structure" title="Extended X-ray absorption fine structure">Extended X-ray absorption fine structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_spectroscopy" title="Gamma spectroscopy">Gamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy" title="Mössbauer spectroscopy">Mössbauer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_electron_M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy" title="Conversion electron Mössbauer spectroscopy">Conversion electron</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electron</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photoemission_spectroscopy" title="Photoemission spectroscopy">Photoelectron/photoemission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy">X-ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy">UV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle-resolved_photoemission_spectroscopy" title="Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy">Angle-resolved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-photon_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="Two-photon photoelectron spectroscopy">Two-photon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auger_electron_spectroscopy" title="Auger electron spectroscopy">Auger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_phenomenological_spectroscopy" title="Electron phenomenological spectroscopy">phenomenological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_paramagnetic_resonance" title="Electron paramagnetic resonance">paramagnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta spectroscopy">Beta spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nucleon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-particle_spectroscopy" title="Alpha-particle spectroscopy">Alpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inelastic_neutron_scattering" class="mw-redirect" title="Inelastic neutron scattering">Inelastic neutron scattering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_spin_echo" title="Neutron spin echo">Neutron spin echo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiowave</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two-dimensional_nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">2D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terahertz_spectroscopy_and_technology" title="Terahertz spectroscopy and technology">Terahertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_paramagnetic_resonance" title="Electron paramagnetic resonance">ESR/EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetic_resonance" title="Ferromagnetic resonance">Ferromagnetic resonance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Data collection, processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fourier-transform_spectroscopy" title="Fourier-transform spectroscopy">Fourier-transform spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperspectral_imaging" title="Hyperspectral imaging">Hyperspectral imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">Spectrophotometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_stretch_analog-to-digital_converter" class="mw-redirect" title="Time stretch analog-to-digital converter">Time-stretch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-resolved_spectroscopy" title="Time-resolved spectroscopy">Time-resolved spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_spectroscopy" title="Video spectroscopy">Video spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measured phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Acoustic resonance spectroscopy">Acoustic resonance spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_dichroism" title="Circular dichroism">Circular dichroism spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-level_transient_spectroscopy" title="Deep-level transient spectroscopy">Deep-level transient spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual-polarization_interferometry" title="Dual-polarization interferometry">Dual-polarization interferometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadron_spectroscopy" title="Hadron spectroscopy">Hadron spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inelastic_electron_tunneling_spectroscopy" title="Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy">Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_spectroscopy" title="Scanning tunneling spectroscopy">Scanning tunneling spectroscopy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoacoustic_spectroscopy" title="Photoacoustic spectroscopy">Photoacoustic spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Photothermal spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pump%E2%80%93probe_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pump–probe spectroscopy">Pump–probe spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_spectroscopy" title="Astronomical spectroscopy">Astronomical spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_spectroscopy" title="Force spectroscopy">Force spectroscopy</a> (a misnomer)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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