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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metapopulations_and_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.9 Metapopulations and migration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metapopulations_and_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Community_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Community_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10 Community ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Community_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecosystem_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecosystem_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11 Ecosystem ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecosystem_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_webs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_webs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.12 Food webs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_webs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trophic_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trophic_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.13 Trophic levels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trophic_levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Keystone_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Keystone_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.14 Keystone species </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Keystone_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complexity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complexity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Complexity </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Complexity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Complexity subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Complexity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Holism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Holism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Holism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Relation to evolution </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relation_to_evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Relation to evolution subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Behavioural_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behavioural_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Behavioural ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Behavioural_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Cognitive ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Social ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coevolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coevolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Coevolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coevolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biogeography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biogeography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Biogeography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biogeography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-r/K_selection_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#r/K_selection_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.1 r/K selection theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-r/K_selection_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molecular_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecular_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Molecular ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecular_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Human ecology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_ecology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Human ecology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Human_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Restoration_Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoration_Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Restoration Ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restoration_Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_the_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_the_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Relation to the environment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relation_to_the_environment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Relation to the environment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_the_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disturbance_and_resilience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disturbance_and_resilience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Disturbance and resilience </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disturbance_and_resilience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metabolism_and_the_early_atmosphere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metabolism_and_the_early_atmosphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Metabolism and the early atmosphere </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metabolism_and_the_early_atmosphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation:_heat,_temperature_and_light" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation:_heat,_temperature_and_light"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Radiation: heat, temperature and light </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation:_heat,_temperature_and_light-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_environments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_environments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Physical environments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_environments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Water </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gravity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gravity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.2 Gravity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gravity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.3 Pressure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wind_and_turbulence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wind_and_turbulence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.4 Wind and turbulence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wind_and_turbulence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.5 Fire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soils" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soils"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.6 Soils </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soils-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biogeochemistry_and_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biogeochemistry_and_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.7 Biogeochemistry and climate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biogeochemistry_and_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_beginnings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_beginnings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Early beginnings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_beginnings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Since_1900" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Since_1900"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Since 1900 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Since_1900-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ecology</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 176 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-176" aria-hidden="true" > 176 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologie" title="Ekologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ekologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96kologie" title="Ökologie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Ökologie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%90_%E1%88%9D%E1%88%85%E1%8B%B3%E1%88%AD" title="ስነ ምህዳር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ስነ ምህዳር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="परिस्थिति-विज्ञान – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="परिस्थिति-विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B0" title="Аекологиа – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Аекологиа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9" title="علم البيئة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم البيئة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecoloch%C3%ADa" title="Ecolochía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ecolochía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="পৰিস্থিতি বিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="পৰিস্থিতি বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolox%C3%ADa" title="Ecoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ecoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekohakuaa" title="Tekohakuaa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tekohakuaa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologiya" title="Ekologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ekologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C" title="اکولوژی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اکولوژی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kungodon" title="Kungodon – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Kungodon" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="বাস্তুবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বাস্তুবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seng-th%C3%A0i-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Seng-thài-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Seng-thài-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Экология – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Экология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Экалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Экалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Экалёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Экалёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80" title="इकोलॉजी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="इकोलॉजी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolohiya" title="Ekolohiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Ekolohiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Екология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Екология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologie" title="Ekologie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Ekologie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologija" title="Ekologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ekologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologiezh" title="Ekologiezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Ekologiezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Экологи – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Экологи" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia" title="Ecologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ecologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Экологи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Экологи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolohiya" title="Ekolohiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Ekolohiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologie" title="Ekologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ekologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruambanhanga" title="Ruambanhanga – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ruambanhanga" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eculugia" title="Eculugia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Eculugia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecoleg" title="Ecoleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ecoleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98kologi" title="Økologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Økologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96kologie" title="Ökologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ökologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%86%DE%AE%DE%8D%DE%AE%DE%96%DE%A9" title="އިކޮލޮޖީ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="އިކޮލޮޖީ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96koloogia" title="Ökoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ökoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Οικολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οικολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolog%C3%ADa" title="Ecología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ecología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologio" title="Ekologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ekologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologia" title="Ekologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ekologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="بوم‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بوم‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Ecology" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistfr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Vistfrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Vistfrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cologie" title="Écologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Écologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekology" title="Ekology – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ekology" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologjie" title="Ecologjie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Ecologjie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89iceola%C3%ADocht" title="Éiceolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Éiceolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eggoaylleeaght" title="Eggoaylleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Eggoaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eag-e%C3%B2las" title="Eag-eòlas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eag-eòlas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolox%C3%ADa" title="Ecoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ecoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Экологи – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Экологи" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A2ng-thai-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Sâng-thai-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sâng-thai-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%ED%83%9C%ED%95%99" title="생태학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생태학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ecology" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81laikaiaola" title="Kālaikaiaola – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Kālaikaiaola" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Էկոլոգիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էկոլոգիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="पारिस्थितिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पारिस्थितिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologija" title="Ekologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ekologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologi" title="Ekologi – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Ekologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Hulontalo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologio" title="Ekologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ekologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolohia" title="Ekolohia – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Ekolohia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologi" title="Ekologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ekologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia" title="Ecologia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Ecologia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologie" title="Ecologie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Ecologie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-ecology" title="I-ecology – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="I-ecology" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Vistfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vistfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia" title="Ecologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ecologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="אקולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אקולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89kologi" title="Ékologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ékologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%89%C9%A9ja%C9%A3y%C9%9B_kp%C9%9Bl%C9%9Bk%CA%8A%CA%8A" title="Ɖɩjaɣyɛ kpɛlɛkʊʊ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Ɖɩjaɣyɛ kpɛlɛkʊʊ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98kologi" title="Økologi – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Økologi" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ეკოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეკოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Экология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Экология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologieth" title="Ekologieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Ekologieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolojia" title="Ekolojia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ekolojia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekoloji" title="Ekoloji – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Ekoloji" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89koloji" title="Ékoloji – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Ékoloji" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekoloj%C3%AE" title="Ekolojî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Ekolojî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Экология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Экология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolojiya" title="Ekolojiya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Ekolojiya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B4%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ນິເວດສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ນິເວດສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apleiczineiba" title="Apleiczineiba – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Apleiczineiba" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="Latgalian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latgaļu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oecologia" title="Oecologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Oecologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolo%C4%A3ija" title="Ekoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ekoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologie" title="Ekologie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Ekologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Экология – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Экология" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologija" title="Ekologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ekologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologie" title="Ecologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Ecologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolojia" title="Ecolojia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Ecolojia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entababutonde" title="Entababutonde – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Entababutonde" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eculugia" title="Eculugia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Eculugia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96kol%C3%B3gia" title="Ökológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ökológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80" title="इकोलोजी – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="इकोलोजी" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Екологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Екологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolojia" title="Ekolojia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Ekolojia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9E%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="ആവാസ വിജ്ഞാനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആവാസ വിജ്ഞാനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolo%C4%A1ija" title="Ekoloġija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Ekoloġija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81tauranga_taupuhi_kaiao" title="Mātauranga taupuhi kaiao – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Mātauranga taupuhi kaiao" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ეკოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ეკოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="ايكولوجيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ايكولوجيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologi" title="Ekologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ekologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%95ng-t%C3%A1i" title="Sĕng-tái – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sĕng-tái" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Экологиясь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Экологиясь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Экологи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Экологи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9F%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဂေဟဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂေဟဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologie" title="Ecologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ecologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekology" title="Ekology – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Ekology" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80" title="इकोलोजी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="इकोलोजी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80" title="इकोलोजी – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="इकोलोजी" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="生態学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生態学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Экологи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Экологи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolojii" title="Ekolojii – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Ekolojii" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98kologi" title="Økologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Økologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98kologi" title="Økologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Økologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Acologie" title="Êcologie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Êcologie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologia" title="Ekologia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Ekologia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia" title="Ecologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ecologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Экологий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Экологий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiinnaannoo" title="Xiinnaannoo – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Xiinnaannoo" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologiya" title="Ekologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ekologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਵਾਤਾਵਰਨ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਾਤਾਵਰਨ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="ایکولوجی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایکولوجی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9F%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဂေဟဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဂေဟဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="چاپېريالپوهنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="چاپېريالپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikalaji" title="Ikalaji – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ikalaji" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%90%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="បរិស្ថានវិទ្យា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="បរិស្ថានវិទ្យា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolosi" title="Ekolosi – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Ekolosi" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96kologie" title="Ökologie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Ökologie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologia" title="Ekologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ekologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia" title="Ecologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ecologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologiya" title="Ekologiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Ekologiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologie" title="Ecologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ecologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawsay_pacha_yachay" title="Kawsay pacha yachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Kawsay pacha yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Еколоґія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Еколоґія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Экология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Экология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Экология – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Экология" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="परिसरविज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="परिसरविज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologie" title="Ecologie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ecologie" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologjia" title="Ekologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ekologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolugg%C3%ACa" title="Ecoluggìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ecoluggìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="පරිසර විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරිසර විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ecology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="ماحوليات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ماحوليات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekol%C3%B3gia" title="Ekológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ekológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologija" title="Ekologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ekologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%95%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="ژینگەناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ژینگەناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Екологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Екологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologija" title="Ekologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ekologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89kologi" title="Ékologi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Ékologi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologia" title="Ekologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ekologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologi" title="Ekologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ekologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolohiya" title="Ekolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ekolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="சூழலியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சூழலியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusnazdu%C9%A3t" title="Tusnazduɣt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tusnazduɣt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Экология – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Экология" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A3_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="జీవావరణ శాస్త్రము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జీవావరణ శాస్త్రము" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="นิเวศวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="นิเวศวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Экология – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Экология" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A1%E1%8E%A7%E1%8E%B6%E1%8E%A9" title="ᎡᎧᎶᎩ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎡᎧᎶᎩ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekoloji" title="Ekoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ekoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologi%C3%BDa" title="Ekologiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Ekologiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Екологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Екологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA(%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85)" title="ماحولیات(نظام) – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ماحولیات(نظام)" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekologii" title="Ekologii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Ekologii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinh_th%C3%A1i_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Sinh thái học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sinh thái học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6olog" title="Köolog – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Köolog" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96koloogia" title="Ökoloogia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Ökoloogia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolodjeye" title="Ecolodjeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Ecolodjeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolohiya" title="Ekolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Ekolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E5%AD%A6" title="生态学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="生态学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="עקאלאגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="עקאלאגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E5%AD%B8" title="生態學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="生態學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolociye" title="Ekolociye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Ekolociye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekuoluog%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Ekuoluogėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Ekuoluogėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%80%81%E5%AD%A6" title="生态学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of organisms and their environment</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ecology_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ecology (disambiguation)">Ecology (disambiguation)</a>. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">etiology</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">deep ecology</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Ecology</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Bufo_boreas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Bufo_boreas.jpg/160px-Bufo_boreas.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Bufo_boreas.jpg/240px-Bufo_boreas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Bufo_boreas.jpg/320px-Bufo_boreas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="604" data-file-height="453" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG/90px-Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG/135px-Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG/180px-Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Hawk_eating_prey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Hawk_eating_prey.jpg/119px-Hawk_eating_prey.jpg" decoding="async" width="119" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Hawk_eating_prey.jpg/179px-Hawk_eating_prey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Hawk_eating_prey.jpg/238px-Hawk_eating_prey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1967" data-file-height="1714" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:European_honey_bee_extracts_nectar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/European_honey_bee_extracts_nectar.jpg/131px-European_honey_bee_extracts_nectar.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/European_honey_bee_extracts_nectar.jpg/197px-European_honey_bee_extracts_nectar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/European_honey_bee_extracts_nectar.jpg/262px-European_honey_bee_extracts_nectar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1620" data-file-height="1280" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Ecology addresses the full scale of life, from tiny bacteria to processes that span the entire planet. Ecologists study many diverse and <a href="/wiki/Interspecific_interactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Interspecific interactions">complex relations</a> among species, such as <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a>. 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:2px solid #90db90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_simple.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/45px-DNA_simple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/68px-DNA_simple.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/DNA_simple.svg/90px-DNA_simple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="114" data-file-height="270" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption">Science of life</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="background:#ddddff;display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: #e7f4e7;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Glossary</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree"> Phylogeny</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li>Properties of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)"> Domains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdoms</a> of life</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukarya</a> (<a href="/wiki/Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Animals">Animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">Plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Protists">Protists</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li>Ecology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">Biologist</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_biologists" title="List of biologists">list)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_awards" title="List of biology awards">List of biology awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">List of journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">List of research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology" title="List of unsolved problems in biology">List of unsolved problems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_sciences" title="Biomedical sciences">Biomedical sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharming_(genetics)" title="Pharming (genetics)"> Pharming</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/16px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/24px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Ecology (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BF%E1%BC%B6%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:οἶκος">οἶκος</a> (oîkos) 'house' and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:-λογία">-λογία</a> (<a href="/wiki/-logy" title="-logy">-logía</a>) 'study of')<a href="#cnote_A">[A]</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> of the relationships among living <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a>. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a>, <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">community</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> levels. Ecology overlaps with the closely related sciences of <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>. Ecology is a branch of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, and is the study of <a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">abundance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a>, and distribution of organisms in the context of the environment. It encompasses life processes, interactions, and <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptations</a>; movement of materials and <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> through living communities; <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">successional</a> development of ecosystems; cooperation, competition, and predation within and between <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>; and patterns of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and its effect on ecosystem processes. Ecology has practical applications in <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</a> management, <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">natural resource management</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">agroecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">agroforestry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries">fisheries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a>), <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a> (<a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">urban ecology</a>), <a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">community health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic science">basic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied science</a>, and human social interaction (<a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">human ecology</a>). The word ecology (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Ökologie) was coined in 1866 by the German scientist <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a>. The science of ecology as we know it today began with a group of American botanists in the 1890s.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolutionary</a> concepts relating to adaptation and <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> are cornerstones of modern <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">ecological theory</a>. Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living (<a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">abiotic</a>) components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrient cycling">nutrient cycling</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">niche construction</a>, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. Ecosystems have <a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">biophysical</a> feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living (<a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">biotic</a>) and abiotic components of the planet. Ecosystems sustain life-supporting functions and provide <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> like <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> production (food, fuel, fiber, and medicine), the regulation of <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, global <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_filtration" class="mw-redirect" title="Water filtration">water filtration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_formation" title="Soil formation">soil formation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> control, flood protection, and many other natural features of scientific, historical, economic, or intrinsic value. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Levels,_scope,_and_scale_of_organization">Levels, scope, and scale of organization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Levels, scope, and scale of organization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div> The scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of organization spanning micro-level (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>) to a planetary scale (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_spheres" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's spheres">biosphere</a>) <a href="/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">phenomena</a>. Ecosystems, for example, contain abiotic <a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">resources</a> and interacting life forms (i.e., individual organisms that aggregate into <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">populations</a> which aggregate into distinct ecological communities). Because ecosystems are dynamic and do not necessarily follow a linear successional route, changes might occur quickly or slowly over thousands of years before specific forest successional stages are brought about by biological processes. An ecosystem's area can vary greatly, from tiny to vast. A single tree is of little consequence to the classification of a forest ecosystem, but is critically relevant to organisms living in and on it.<a href="#cite_note-Stadler98-2">[2]</a> Several generations of an <a href="/wiki/Aphid" title="Aphid">aphid</a> population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf. Each of those aphids, in turn, supports diverse <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacterial</a> communities.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys97-3">[3]</a> The nature of connections in ecological communities cannot be explained by knowing the details of each species in isolation, because the emergent pattern is neither revealed nor predicted until the ecosystem is studied as an integrated whole.<a href="#cite_note-Liere2012-4">[4]</a> Some ecological principles, however, do exhibit collective properties where the sum of the components explain the properties of the whole, such as birth rates of a population being equal to the sum of individual births over a designated time frame.<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-5">[5]</a> The main subdisciplines of ecology, <a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">population</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Community_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Community ecology">community</a>) ecology and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">ecosystem ecology</a>, exhibit a difference not only in scale but also in two contrasting paradigms in the field. The former focuses on organisms' distribution and abundance, while the latter focuses on materials and energy fluxes.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hierarchy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Biological organisation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">Biological classification</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> System behaviors must first be arrayed into different levels of the organization. Behaviors corresponding to higher levels occur at slow rates. Conversely, lower organizational levels exhibit rapid rates. For example, individual tree leaves respond rapidly to momentary changes in light intensity, CO2 concentration, and the like. The growth of the tree responds more slowly and integrates these short-term changes. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">O'Neill et al. (1986)<a href="#cite_note-O'Neill86-7">[7]</a>: 76 </cite> </div> The scale of ecological dynamics can operate like a closed system, such as aphids migrating on a single tree, while at the same time remaining open about broader scale influences, such as atmosphere or climate. Hence, ecologists classify <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a> hierarchically by analyzing data collected from finer scale units, such as <a href="/wiki/Vegetation_association" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetation association">vegetation associations</a>, climate, and <a href="/wiki/Soil_type" title="Soil type">soil types</a>, and integrate this information to identify emergent patterns of uniform organization and processes that operate on local to regional, <a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">landscape</a>, and chronological scales. To structure the study of ecology into a conceptually manageable framework, the biological world is organized into a <a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">nested hierarchy</a>, ranging in scale from <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">populations</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">guilds</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">communities</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biomes</a>, and up to the level of the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nachtomy01-8">[8]</a> This framework forms a <a href="/wiki/Panarchy_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Panarchy (ecology)">panarchy</a><a href="#cite_note-Holling01-9">[9]</a> and exhibits <a href="/wiki/Non-linear" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-linear">non-linear</a> behaviors; this means that "effect and cause are disproportionate, so that small changes to critical variables, such as the number of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixers</a>, can lead to disproportionate, perhaps irreversible, changes in the system properties."<a href="#cite_note-Levin99-10">[10]</a>: 14  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Biodiversity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Biodiversity refers to the variety of life and its processes. It includes the variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, the communities and ecosystems in which they occur, and the ecological and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> processes that keep them functioning, yet ever-changing and adapting. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Noss & Carpenter (1994)<a href="#cite_note-Noss94-11">[11]</a>: 5 </cite> </div> Biodiversity (an abbreviation of "biological diversity") describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. The term has several interpretations, and there are many ways to index, measure, characterize, and represent its complex organization.<a href="#cite_note-Noss90-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Scholes08-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-cardinale2012-14">[14]</a> Biodiversity includes <a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">species diversity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">ecosystem diversity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> and scientists are interested in the way that this diversity affects the complex ecological processes operating at and among these respective levels.<a href="#cite_note-Scholes08-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilson00b-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Purvis00-16">[16]</a> Biodiversity plays an important role in <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> which by definition maintain and improve human quality of life.<a href="#cite_note-cardinale2012-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ostfeld09-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tierney09-18">[18]</a> Conservation priorities and management techniques require different approaches and considerations to address the full ecological scope of biodiversity. <a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">Natural capital</a> that supports populations is critical for maintaining <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a><a href="#cite_note-Ceballos02-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Palumbi09-20">[20]</a> and species <a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">migration</a> (e.g., riverine fish runs and avian insect control) has been implicated as one mechanism by which those service losses are experienced.<a href="#cite_note-Wilcove08-21">[21]</a> An understanding of biodiversity has practical applications for species and ecosystem-level conservation planners as they make management recommendations to consulting firms, governments, and industry.<a href="#cite_note-Hammond09-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habitat">Habitat</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Habitat">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG/170px-Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG/255px-Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG/340px-Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Biodiversity of a <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reef</a>. <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">Corals</a> adapt to and modify their environment by forming <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> skeletons. This provides growing conditions for future generations and forms a habitat for many other species.<a href="#cite_note-Kiessling09-23">[23]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Long-tailed_Broadbill_(Psarisomus_dalhousiae).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Long-tailed_Broadbill_%28Psarisomus_dalhousiae%29.jpg/220px-Long-tailed_Broadbill_%28Psarisomus_dalhousiae%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Long-tailed_Broadbill_%28Psarisomus_dalhousiae%29.jpg/330px-Long-tailed_Broadbill_%28Psarisomus_dalhousiae%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Long-tailed_Broadbill_%28Psarisomus_dalhousiae%29.jpg/440px-Long-tailed_Broadbill_%28Psarisomus_dalhousiae%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3752" data-file-height="2498" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Long-tailed_broadbill" title="Long-tailed broadbill">Long-tailed broadbill</a> building its <a href="/wiki/Bird_nest" title="Bird nest">nest</a></figcaption></figure> The habitat of a species describes the environment over which a species is known to occur and the type of community that is formed as a result.<a href="#cite_note-Whittaker73-24">[24]</a> More specifically, "habitats can be defined as regions in environmental space that are composed of multiple dimensions, each representing a biotic or abiotic environmental variable; that is, any component or characteristic of the environment related directly (e.g. forage biomass and quality) or indirectly (e.g. elevation) to the use of a location by the animal."<a href="#cite_note-Beyer10-25">[25]</a>: 745  For example, a habitat might be an aquatic or terrestrial environment that can be further categorized as a <a href="/wiki/Montane_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Montane ecosystem">montane</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">alpine</a> ecosystem. Habitat shifts provide important evidence of competition in nature where one population changes relative to the habitats that most other individuals of the species occupy. For example, one population of a species of tropical lizard (Tropidurus hispidus) has a flattened body relative to the main populations that live in open savanna. The population that lives in an isolated rock outcrop hides in crevasses where its flattened body offers a selective advantage. Habitat shifts also occur in the developmental <a href="/wiki/Life_history_theory" title="Life history theory">life history</a> of amphibians, and in insects that transition from aquatic to terrestrial habitats. <a href="/wiki/Biotope" title="Biotope">Biotope</a> and habitat are sometimes used interchangeably, but the former applies to a community's environment, whereas the latter applies to a species' environment.<a href="#cite_note-Whittaker73-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schoener75-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vitt97-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Niche">Niche</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Niche">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Termite_mound-Tanzania.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Termite_mound-Tanzania.jpg/170px-Termite_mound-Tanzania.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Termite_mound-Tanzania.jpg/255px-Termite_mound-Tanzania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Termite_mound-Tanzania.jpg/340px-Termite_mound-Tanzania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1203" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">Termite</a> mounds with varied heights of chimneys regulate gas exchange, temperature and other environmental parameters that are needed to sustain the internal physiology of the entire colony.<a href="#cite_note-Laland99-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hughes08-29">[29]</a></figcaption></figure> Definitions of the niche date back to 1917,<a href="#cite_note-Wiens05-30">[30]</a> but <a href="/wiki/G._Evelyn_Hutchinson" title="G. Evelyn Hutchinson">G. Evelyn Hutchinson</a> made conceptual advances in 1957<a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson57-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson57b-32">[32]</a> by introducing a widely adopted definition: "the set of biotic and abiotic conditions in which a species is able to persist and maintain stable population sizes."<a href="#cite_note-Wiens05-30">[30]</a>: 519  The ecological niche is a central concept in the ecology of organisms and is sub-divided into the fundamental and the realized niche. The fundamental niche is the set of environmental conditions under which a species is able to persist. The realized niche is the set of environmental plus ecological conditions under which a species persists.<a href="#cite_note-Wiens05-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson57b-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Begon05-33">[33]</a> The Hutchinsonian niche is defined more technically as a "<a href="/wiki/Euclidean_space" title="Euclidean space">Euclidean</a> <a href="/wiki/N-dimensional_space" class="mw-redirect" title="N-dimensional space">hyperspace</a> whose dimensions are defined as environmental variables and whose size is a function of the number of values that the environmental values may assume for which an organism has positive fitness."<a href="#cite_note-Hardesty75-34">[34]</a>: 71  <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeographical</a> patterns and <a href="/wiki/Range_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Range (biology)">range</a> distributions are explained or predicted through knowledge of a species' <a href="/wiki/Trait_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trait (biology)">traits</a> and niche requirements.<a href="#cite_note-Pearman08-35">[35]</a> Species have functional traits that are uniquely adapted to the ecological niche. A trait is a measurable property, <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">characteristic</a> of an organism that may influence its survival. Genes play an important role in the interplay of development and environmental expression of traits.<a href="#cite_note-Levins80-36">[36]</a> Resident species evolve traits that are fitted to the selection pressures of their local environment. This tends to afford them a competitive advantage and discourages similarly adapted species from having an overlapping geographic range. The <a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">competitive exclusion principle</a> states that two species cannot coexist indefinitely by living off the same limiting <a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">resource</a>; one will always out-compete the other. When similarly adapted species overlap geographically, closer inspection reveals subtle ecological differences in their habitat or dietary requirements.<a href="#cite_note-Hardin60-37">[37]</a> Some models and empirical studies, however, suggest that disturbances can stabilize the co-evolution and shared niche occupancy of similar species inhabiting species-rich communities.<a href="#cite_note-Scheffer06-38">[38]</a> The habitat plus the niche is called the <a href="/wiki/Ecotope" title="Ecotope">ecotope</a>, which is defined as the full range of environmental and biological variables affecting an entire species.<a href="#cite_note-Whittaker73-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Niche_construction">Niche construction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Niche construction">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem engineering">Ecosystem engineering</a></div> Organisms are subject to environmental pressures, but they also modify their habitats. The <a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">regulatory feedback</a> between organisms and their environment can affect conditions from local (e.g., a <a href="/wiki/Beaver" title="Beaver">beaver</a> <a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">pond</a>) to global scales, over time and even after death, such as decaying logs or <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> skeleton deposits from marine organisms.<a href="#cite_note-Hastings07-39">[39]</a> The process and concept of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem engineering">ecosystem engineering</a> are related to <a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">niche construction</a>, but the former relates only to the physical modifications of the habitat whereas the latter also considers the evolutionary implications of physical changes to the environment and the feedback this causes on the process of natural selection. Ecosystem engineers are defined as: "organisms that directly or indirectly modulate the availability of resources to other species, by causing physical state changes in biotic or abiotic materials. In so doing they modify, maintain and create habitats."<a href="#cite_note-Jones94-40">[40]</a>: 373  The ecosystem engineering concept has stimulated a new appreciation for the influence that organisms have on the ecosystem and evolutionary process. The term "niche construction" is more often used in reference to the under-appreciated feedback mechanisms of natural selection imparting forces on the abiotic niche.<a href="#cite_note-Laland99-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Write06-41">[41]</a> An example of natural selection through ecosystem engineering occurs in the nests of <a href="/wiki/Social_insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Social insects">social insects</a>, including ants, bees, wasps, and termites. There is an emergent <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Homeorhesis" title="Homeorhesis">homeorhesis</a> in the structure of the nest that regulates, maintains and defends the physiology of the entire colony. Termite mounds, for example, maintain a constant internal temperature through the design of air-conditioning chimneys. The structure of the nests themselves is subject to the forces of natural selection. Moreover, a nest can survive over successive generations, so that progeny inherit both genetic material and a legacy niche that was constructed before their time.<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Laland99-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hughes08-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biome">Biome</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biome">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></div> Biomes are larger units of organization that categorize regions of the Earth's ecosystems, mainly according to the structure and composition of vegetation.<a href="#cite_note-Palmer94-42">[42]</a> There are different methods to define the continental boundaries of biomes dominated by different functional types of vegetative communities that are limited in distribution by climate, precipitation, weather, and other environmental variables. Biomes include <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">tropical rainforest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest">temperate broadleaf and mixed forest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperate_deciduous_forest" title="Temperate deciduous forest">temperate deciduous forest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">taiga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hot_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot desert">hot desert</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polar_desert" title="Polar desert">polar desert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Prentice92-43">[43]</a> Other researchers have recently categorized other biomes, such as the human and oceanic <a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">microbiomes</a>. To a <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microbe</a>, the human body is a habitat and a landscape.<a href="#cite_note-Turnbaugh07-44">[44]</a> Microbiomes were discovered largely through advances in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">molecular genetics</a>, which have revealed a hidden richness of microbial diversity on the planet. The oceanic microbiome plays a significant role in the ecological biogeochemistry of the planet's oceans.<a href="#cite_note-DeLong09-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biosphere">Biosphere</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Biosphere">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_spheres" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's spheres">Earth's spheres</a></div> The largest scale of ecological organization is the biosphere: the total sum of ecosystems on the planet. <a href="/wiki/Ecological_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological relationship">Ecological relationships</a> regulate the flux of energy, nutrients, and climate all the way up to the planetary scale. For example, the dynamic history of the planetary atmosphere's CO2 and O2 composition has been affected by the biogenic flux of gases coming from respiration and photosynthesis, with levels fluctuating over time in relation to the ecology and evolution of plants and animals.<a href="#cite_note-igamberdiev06-46">[46]</a> Ecological theory has also been used to explain self-emergent regulatory phenomena at the planetary scale: for example, the <a href="/wiki/Gaia_hypothesis" title="Gaia hypothesis">Gaia hypothesis</a> is an example of <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holism</a> applied in ecological theory.<a href="#cite_note-Lovelock73-47">[47]</a> The Gaia hypothesis states that there is an emergent <a href="/wiki/Feedback_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedback loop">feedback loop</a> generated by the <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">metabolism</a> of living organisms that maintains the core temperature of the Earth and atmospheric conditions within a narrow self-regulating range of tolerance.<a href="#cite_note-Lovelock03-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_ecology">Population ecology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Population ecology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_organisms_by_population" title="Lists of organisms by population">Lists of organisms by population</a></div> Population ecology studies the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the wider environment.<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-5">[5]</a> A population consists of individuals of the same species that live, interact, and migrate through the same niche and habitat.<a href="#cite_note-Waples06-49">[49]</a> A primary law of population ecology is the <a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a><a href="#cite_note-Turchin01-50">[50]</a> which states, "a population will grow (or decline) exponentially as long as the environment experienced by all individuals in the population remains constant."<a href="#cite_note-Turchin01-50">[50]</a>: 18  Simplified population <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">models</a> usually starts with four variables: death, birth, <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">immigration</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">emigration</a>. An example of an introductory population model describes a closed population, such as on an island, where immigration and emigration does not take place. Hypotheses are evaluated with reference to a null hypothesis which states that <a href="/wiki/Random" class="mw-redirect" title="Random">random</a> processes create the observed data. In these island models, the rate of population change is described by: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\operatorname {d} N(t)}{\operatorname {d} t}}=bN(t)-dN(t)=(b-d)N(t)=rN(t),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>d</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>d</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\operatorname {d} N(t)}{\operatorname {d} t}}=bN(t)-dN(t)=(b-d)N(t)=rN(t),}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/130d5288a7969ee80c1cf07823c837d58d8c6e4c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:48.986ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\operatorname {d} N(t)}{\operatorname {d} t}}=bN(t)-dN(t)=(b-d)N(t)=rN(t),}"></dd></dl> where N is the total number of individuals in the population, b and d are the per capita rates of birth and death respectively, and r is the per capita rate of population change.<a href="#cite_note-Turchin01-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vandermeer03-51">[51]</a> Using these modeling techniques, Malthus' population principle of growth was later transformed into a model known as the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_population_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of population growth">logistic equation</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Verhulst" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Verhulst">Pierre Verhulst</a>: <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\operatorname {d} N(t)}{\operatorname {d} t}}=rN(t)-\alpha N(t)^{2}=rN(t)\left({\frac {K-N(t)}{K}}\right),}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>α</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>K</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mi>K</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\operatorname {d} N(t)}{\operatorname {d} t}}=rN(t)-\alpha N(t)^{2}=rN(t)\left({\frac {K-N(t)}{K}}\right),}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e93f256e8e471902e53682bc4bfeafb2eb3c16f3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:50.34ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\operatorname {d} N(t)}{\operatorname {d} t}}=rN(t)-\alpha N(t)^{2}=rN(t)\left({\frac {K-N(t)}{K}}\right),}"></dd></dl> where N(t) is the number of individuals measured as <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> density as a function of time, t, r is the maximum per-capita rate of change commonly known as the intrinsic rate of growth, and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \alpha }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>α</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \alpha }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b79333175c8b3f0840bfb4ec41b8072c83ea88d3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.488ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \alpha }"> is the crowding coefficient, which represents the reduction in population growth rate per individual added. The formula states that the rate of change in population size (<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} N(t)/\mathrm {d} t}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>t</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} N(t)/\mathrm {d} t}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b1ec6a8071e4a69463e3f1134fe690366f4670a4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.3ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} N(t)/\mathrm {d} t}">) will grow to approach equilibrium, where (<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} N(t)/\mathrm {d} t=0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>N</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} N(t)/\mathrm {d} t=0}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/637ea45212c6b30cc467b40b30ff87e670cb4176" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.561ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} N(t)/\mathrm {d} t=0}">), when the rates of increase and crowding are balanced, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r/\alpha }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>α</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r/\alpha }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/966a8d657644b08232ad64efd6b563b69b6110f2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.699ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r/\alpha }">. A common, analogous model fixes the equilibrium, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r/\alpha }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>α</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r/\alpha }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/966a8d657644b08232ad64efd6b563b69b6110f2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.699ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r/\alpha }"> as K, which is known as the "carrying capacity." Population ecology builds upon these introductory models to further understand demographic processes in real study populations. Commonly used types of data include <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fecundity" title="Fecundity">fecundity</a>, and survivorship, and these are analyzed using mathematical techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">matrix algebra</a>. The information is used for managing wildlife stocks and setting harvest quotas.<a href="#cite_note-Vandermeer03-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berryman92-52">[52]</a> In cases where basic models are insufficient, ecologists may adopt different kinds of statistical methods, such as the <a href="/wiki/Akaike_information_criterion" title="Akaike information criterion">Akaike information criterion</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Anderson00-53">[53]</a> or use models that can become mathematically complex as "several competing hypotheses are simultaneously confronted with the data."<a href="#cite_note-Johnson04-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metapopulations_and_migration">Metapopulations and migration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Metapopulations and migration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">Animal migration</a></div> The concept of metapopulations was defined in 1969<a href="#cite_note-Levins69-55">[55]</a> as "a population of populations which go extinct locally and recolonize".<a href="#cite_note-Levins70-56">[56]</a>: 105  Metapopulation ecology is another statistical approach that is often used in <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation research</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smith05-57">[57]</a> Metapopulation models simplify the landscape into patches of varying levels of quality,<a href="#cite_note-Hanski98-58">[58]</a> and metapopulations are linked by the migratory behaviours of organisms. Animal migration is set apart from other kinds of movement because it involves the seasonal departure and return of individuals from a habitat.<a href="#cite_note-Nebel10-59">[59]</a> Migration is also a population-level phenomenon, as with the migration routes followed by plants as they occupied northern post-glacial environments. Plant ecologists use pollen records that accumulate and stratify in wetlands to reconstruct the timing of plant migration and dispersal relative to historic and contemporary climates. These migration routes involved an expansion of the range as plant populations expanded from one area to another. There is a larger taxonomy of movement, such as commuting, foraging, territorial behavior, stasis, and ranging. Dispersal is usually distinguished from migration because it involves the one-way permanent movement of individuals from their birth population into another population.<a href="#cite_note-Clark98-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dingle96-61">[61]</a> In metapopulation terminology, migrating individuals are classed as emigrants (when they leave a region) or immigrants (when they enter a region), and sites are classed either as sources or sinks. A site is a generic term that refers to places where ecologists sample populations, such as ponds or defined sampling areas in a forest. Source patches are productive sites that generate a seasonal supply of <a href="/wiki/Juvenile_(organism)" title="Juvenile (organism)">juveniles</a> that migrate to other patch locations. Sink patches are unproductive sites that only receive migrants; the population at the site will disappear unless rescued by an adjacent source patch or environmental conditions become more favorable. Metapopulation models examine patch dynamics over time to answer potential questions about spatial and demographic ecology. The ecology of metapopulations is a dynamic process of extinction and colonization. Small patches of lower quality (i.e., sinks) are maintained or rescued by a seasonal influx of new immigrants. A dynamic metapopulation structure evolves from year to year, where some patches are sinks in dry years and are sources when conditions are more favorable. Ecologists use a mixture of computer models and <a href="/wiki/Field_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Field study">field studies</a> to explain metapopulation structure.<a href="#cite_note-Hanski04-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacKenzie06-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Community_ecology">Community ecology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Community ecology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Male_Lion_and_Cub_Chitwa_South_Africa_Luca_Galuzzi_2004_edit1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Male_Lion_and_Cub_Chitwa_South_Africa_Luca_Galuzzi_2004_edit1.jpg/220px-Male_Lion_and_Cub_Chitwa_South_Africa_Luca_Galuzzi_2004_edit1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Male_Lion_and_Cub_Chitwa_South_Africa_Luca_Galuzzi_2004_edit1.jpg/330px-Male_Lion_and_Cub_Chitwa_South_Africa_Luca_Galuzzi_2004_edit1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Male_Lion_and_Cub_Chitwa_South_Africa_Luca_Galuzzi_2004_edit1.jpg/440px-Male_Lion_and_Cub_Chitwa_South_Africa_Luca_Galuzzi_2004_edit1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a><figcaption>Interspecific interactions such as <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a> are a key aspect of <a href="/wiki/Community_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Community ecology">community ecology</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Community_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Community ecology">Community ecology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:25%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Community ecology examines how interactions among species and their environment affect the abundance, distribution and diversity of species within communities. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Johnson & Stinchcomb (2007)<a href="#cite_note-Johnson07-64">[64]</a>: 250 </cite> </div> Community ecology is the study of the interactions among a collection of species that inhabit the same geographic area. Community ecologists study the determinants of patterns and processes for two or more interacting species. Research in community ecology might measure <a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">species diversity</a> in grasslands in relation to soil fertility. It might also include the analysis of predator-prey dynamics, competition among similar plant species, or mutualistic interactions between crabs and corals. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecosystem_ecology">Ecosystem ecology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ecosystem ecology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:25%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> These ecosystems, as we may call them, are of the most various kinds and sizes. They form one category of the multitudinous physical systems of the universe, which range from the universe as a whole down to the atom. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Tansley (1935)<a href="#cite_note-Tansley35-65">[65]</a>: 299 </cite> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ecoecolfigure1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/44/Ecoecolfigure1.jpg/220px-Ecoecolfigure1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/44/Ecoecolfigure1.jpg/330px-Ecoecolfigure1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/44/Ecoecolfigure1.jpg/440px-Ecoecolfigure1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="569" data-file-height="372" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Riparian_forest" title="Riparian forest">riparian forest</a> in the <a href="/wiki/White_Mountains_(New_Hampshire)" class="mw-redirect" title="White Mountains (New Hampshire)">White Mountains, New Hampshire</a> (US) is an example of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">ecosystem ecology</a></figcaption></figure> Ecosystems may be habitats within biomes that form an integrated whole and a dynamically responsive system having both physical and biological complexes. Ecosystem ecology is the science of determining the fluxes of materials (e.g. carbon, phosphorus) between different pools (e.g., tree biomass, soil organic material). Ecosystem ecologists attempt to determine the underlying causes of these fluxes. Research in ecosystem ecology might measure <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a> (g C/m^2) in a <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</a> in relation to decomposition and consumption rates (g C/m^2/y). This requires an understanding of the community connections between plants (i.e., primary producers) and the decomposers (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> and bacteria).<a href="#cite_note-Brinson81-66">[66]</a> The underlying concept of an ecosystem can be traced back to 1864 in the published work of <a href="/wiki/George_Perkins_Marsh" title="George Perkins Marsh">George Perkins Marsh</a> ("Man and Nature").<a href="#cite_note-Marsh64-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-O'Neil01-68">[68]</a> Within an ecosystem, organisms are linked to the physical and biological components of their environment to which they are adapted.<a href="#cite_note-Tansley35-65">[65]</a> Ecosystems are complex adaptive systems where the interaction of life processes form self-organizing patterns across different scales of time and space.<a href="#cite_note-Levin98-69">[69]</a> Ecosystems are broadly categorized as <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem">terrestrial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">freshwater</a>, atmospheric, or <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">marine</a>. Differences stem from the nature of the unique physical environments that shapes the biodiversity within each. A more recent addition to ecosystem ecology are <a href="/wiki/Technoecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Technoecosystems">technoecosystems</a>, which are affected by or primarily the result of human activity.<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_webs">Food webs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Food webs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg/360px-Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg" decoding="async" width="360" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg/540px-Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Chesapeake_Waterbird_Food_Web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="565" data-file-height="440" /></a><figcaption>Generalized food web of waterbirds from <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a></figcaption></figure> A food web is the archetypal <a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">ecological network</a>. Plants capture <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a> and use it to synthesize <a href="/wiki/Simple_sugars" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple sugars">simple sugars</a> during <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. As plants grow, they accumulate nutrients and are eaten by grazing <a href="/wiki/Herbivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivores">herbivores</a>, and the energy is transferred through a chain of organisms by consumption. The simplified linear feeding pathways that move from a basal <a href="/wiki/Trophic_species" title="Trophic species">trophic species</a> to a top consumer is called the <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a>. Food chains in an ecological community create a complex food web. Food webs are a type of <a href="/wiki/Concept_map" title="Concept map">concept map</a> that is used to illustrate and study pathways of energy and material flows.<a href="#cite_note-O'Neill86-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pimm02-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pimm91-71">[71]</a> Empirical measurements are generally restricted to a specific habitat, such as a cave or a pond, and principles gleaned from small-scale studies are extrapolated to larger systems.<a href="#cite_note-Worm03-72">[72]</a> Feeding relations require extensive investigations, e.g. into the gut contents of organisms, which can be difficult to decipher, or stable isotopes can be used to trace the flow of nutrient diets and energy through a food web.<a href="#cite_note-McCann07-73">[73]</a> Despite these limitations, food webs remain a valuable tool in understanding community ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-Wilbur97-74">[74]</a> Food webs illustrate important principles of ecology: some species have many weak feeding links (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Omnivores" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnivores">omnivores</a>) while some are more specialized with fewer stronger feeding links (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">primary predators</a>). Such linkages explain how ecological communities remain stable over time<a href="#cite_note-Emmerson-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kraus03-76">[76]</a> and eventually can illustrate a "complete" web of life.<a href="#cite_note-Pimm91-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Egerton07b-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shurin06-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Edwards83-79">[79]</a> The disruption of food webs may have a dramatic impact on the ecology of individual species or whole ecosystems. For instance, the replacement of an <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ant</a> species by another (invasive) ant species has been shown to affect how <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephants</a> reduce tree cover and thus the predation of <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lions</a> on <a href="/wiki/Zebra" title="Zebra">zebras</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trophic_levels">Trophic levels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Trophic levels">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TrophicWeb.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/TrophicWeb.jpg/450px-TrophicWeb.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/TrophicWeb.jpg/675px-TrophicWeb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/TrophicWeb.jpg/900px-TrophicWeb.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3260" data-file-height="1350" /></a><figcaption>A trophic pyramid (a) and a food-web (b) illustrating <a href="/wiki/Ecological_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological relationship">ecological relationships</a> among creatures that are typical of a northern <a href="/wiki/Boreal_ecosystem" title="Boreal ecosystem">boreal</a> terrestrial ecosystem. The trophic pyramid roughly represents the biomass (usually measured as total dry-weight) at each level. Plants generally have the greatest biomass. Names of trophic categories are shown to the right of the pyramid. Some ecosystems, such as many wetlands, do not organize as a strict pyramid, because aquatic plants are not as productive as long-lived terrestrial plants such as trees. Ecological trophic pyramids are typically one of three kinds: 1) pyramid of numbers, 2) pyramid of biomass, or 3) pyramid of energy.<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-5">[5]</a>: 598 </figcaption></figure> A trophic level (from Greek troph, τροφή, trophē, meaning "food" or "feeding") is "a group of organisms acquiring a considerable majority of its energy from the lower adjacent level (according to <a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">ecological pyramids</a>) nearer the abiotic source."<a href="#cite_note-Hariston93-82">[82]</a>: 383  Links in food webs primarily connect feeding relations or <a href="/wiki/Trophism" class="mw-redirect" title="Trophism">trophism</a> among species. Biodiversity within ecosystems can be organized into trophic pyramids, in which the vertical dimension represents feeding relations that become further removed from the base of the food chain up toward top predators, and the horizontal dimension represents the <a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">abundance</a> or biomass at each level.<a href="#cite_note-Duffy07-83">[83]</a> When the relative abundance or biomass of each species is sorted into its respective trophic level, they naturally sort into a 'pyramid of numbers'.<a href="#cite_note-Elton27-84">[84]</a> Species are broadly categorized as <a href="/wiki/Autotrophs" class="mw-redirect" title="Autotrophs">autotrophs</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Primary_producers" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary producers">primary producers</a>), <a href="/wiki/Heterotrophs" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophs">heterotrophs</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">consumers</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Decomposers" class="mw-redirect" title="Decomposers">decomposers</a>). Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food (production is greater than respiration) by photosynthesis or <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthesis</a>. Heterotrophs are organisms that must feed on others for nourishment and energy (respiration exceeds production).<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-5">[5]</a> Heterotrophs can be further sub-divided into different functional groups, including <a href="/wiki/Primary_consumers" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary consumers">primary consumers</a> (strict herbivores), <a href="/wiki/Trophic_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Trophic dynamics">secondary consumers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carnivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnivorous">carnivorous</a> predators that feed exclusively on herbivores), and tertiary consumers (predators that feed on a mix of herbivores and predators).<a href="#cite_note-David03-85">[85]</a> Omnivores do not fit neatly into a functional category because they eat both plant and animal tissues. It has been suggested that omnivores have a greater functional influence as predators because compared to herbivores, they are relatively inefficient at grazing.<a href="#cite_note-Oksanen91-86">[86]</a> Trophic levels are part of the <a href="/wiki/Holistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Holistic">holistic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Complex_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex systems">complex systems</a> view of ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-Loehle88-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ulanowicz79-88">[88]</a> Each trophic level contains unrelated species that are grouped together because they share common ecological functions, giving a macroscopic view of the system.<a href="#cite_note-Li00-89">[89]</a> While the notion of trophic levels provides insight into energy flow and top-down control within food webs, it is troubled by the prevalence of omnivory in real ecosystems. This has led some ecologists to "reiterate that the notion that species clearly aggregate into discrete, homogeneous trophic levels is fiction."<a href="#cite_note-Polis96-90">[90]</a>: 815  Nonetheless, recent studies have shown that real trophic levels do exist, but "above the herbivore trophic level, food webs are better characterized as a tangled web of omnivores."<a href="#cite_note-Thompson07-91">[91]</a>: 612  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Keystone_species">Keystone species</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Keystone species">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_otters_holding_hands,_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sea_otters_holding_hands%2C_cropped.jpg/220px-Sea_otters_holding_hands%2C_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sea_otters_holding_hands%2C_cropped.jpg/330px-Sea_otters_holding_hands%2C_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sea_otters_holding_hands%2C_cropped.jpg/440px-Sea_otters_holding_hands%2C_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="978" data-file-height="418" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">Sea otters</a>, an example of a keystone species</figcaption></figure> A keystone species is a species that is connected to a disproportionately large number of other species in the <a href="/wiki/Food-web" class="mw-redirect" title="Food-web">food-web</a>. Keystone species have lower levels of biomass in the trophic pyramid relative to the importance of their role. The many connections that a keystone species holds means that it maintains the organization and structure of entire communities. The loss of a keystone species results in a range of dramatic cascading effects (termed trophic cascades) that alters trophic dynamics, other food web connections, and can cause the extinction of other species.<a href="#cite_note-Fisher06-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Libralato06-93">[93]</a> The term keystone species was coined by Robert Paine in 1969 and is a reference to the <a href="/wiki/Keystone_(architecture)" title="Keystone (architecture)">keystone</a> architectural feature as the removal of a keystone species can result in a community collapse just as the removal of the keystone in an arch can result in the arch's loss of stability.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">Sea otters</a> (Enhydra lutris) are commonly cited as an example of a keystone species because they limit the density of <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchins" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea urchins">sea urchins</a> that feed on <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</a>. If sea otters are removed from the system, the urchins graze until the kelp beds disappear, and this has a dramatic effect on community structure.<a href="#cite_note-Mills93-95">[95]</a> Hunting of sea otters, for example, is thought to have led indirectly to the extinction of the <a href="/wiki/Steller%27s_sea_cow" title="Steller's sea cow">Steller's sea cow</a> (Hydrodamalis gigas).<a href="#cite_note-Anderson95-96">[96]</a> While the keystone species concept has been used extensively as a <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation</a> tool, it has been criticized for being poorly defined from an operational stance. It is difficult to experimentally determine what species may hold a keystone role in each ecosystem. Furthermore, food web theory suggests that keystone species may not be common, so it is unclear how generally the keystone species model can be applied.<a href="#cite_note-Mills93-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Polis00-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Complexity">Complexity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Complexity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Complexity" title="Complexity">Complexity</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></div> Complexity is understood as a large computational effort needed to piece together numerous interacting parts exceeding the iterative memory capacity of the human mind. Global patterns of biological diversity are complex. This <a href="/wiki/Biocomplexity" title="Biocomplexity">biocomplexity</a> stems from the interplay among ecological processes that operate and influence patterns at different scales that grade into each other, such as transitional areas or <a href="/wiki/Ecotones" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecotones">ecotones</a> spanning landscapes. Complexity stems from the interplay among levels of biological organization as energy, and matter is integrated into larger units that superimpose onto the smaller parts. "What were wholes on one level become parts on a higher one."<a href="#cite_note-Novikoff45-98">[98]</a>: 209  Small scale patterns do not necessarily explain large scale phenomena, otherwise captured in the expression (coined by Aristotle) 'the sum is greater than the parts'.<a href="#cite_note-Schneider01-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Molnar04-100">[100]</a><a href="#cnote_E">[E]</a> "Complexity in ecology is of at least six distinct types: spatial, temporal, structural, process, behavioral, and geometric."<a href="#cite_note-Loehle04-101">[101]</a>: 3  From these principles, ecologists have identified <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Self-organization#Biology" title="Self-organization">self-organizing</a> phenomena that operate at different environmental scales of influence, ranging from molecular to planetary, and these require different explanations at each <a href="/wiki/Integrative_level" title="Integrative level">integrative level</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lovelock03-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Odum1977-102">[102]</a> Ecological complexity relates to the dynamic resilience of ecosystems that transition to multiple shifting steady-states directed by random fluctuations of history.<a href="#cite_note-Holling01-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carpenter01-103">[103]</a> Long-term ecological studies provide important track records to better understand the complexity and resilience of ecosystems over longer temporal and broader spatial scales. These studies are managed by the International Long Term Ecological Network (LTER).<a href="#cite_note-urlWelcome_to_ILTER_–_ILTER-104">[104]</a> The longest experiment in existence is the <a href="/wiki/Park_Grass_Experiment" title="Park Grass Experiment">Park Grass Experiment</a>, which was initiated in 1856.<a href="#cite_note-Siverton06-105">[105]</a> Another example is the <a href="/wiki/Hubbard_Brook_Experimental_Forest" title="Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest">Hubbard Brook study</a>, which has been in operation since 1960.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Holism">Holism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Holism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></div> Holism remains a critical part of the theoretical foundation in contemporary ecological studies. Holism addresses the <a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">biological organization</a> of life that <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">self-organizes</a> into layers of emergent whole systems that function according to non-reducible properties. This means that higher-order patterns of a whole functional system, such as an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>, cannot be predicted or understood by a simple summation of the parts.<a href="#cite_note-Liu09-107">[107]</a> "New properties emerge because the components interact, not because the basic nature of the components is changed."<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-5">[5]</a>: 8  Ecological studies are necessarily holistic as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Reductionistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductionistic">reductionistic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Levins80-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Odum1977-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mikkelson10-108">[108]</a> Holism has three scientific meanings or uses that identify with ecology: 1) the mechanistic complexity of ecosystems, 2) the practical description of patterns in quantitative reductionist terms where correlations may be identified but nothing is understood about the causal relations without reference to the whole system, which leads to 3) a <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> hierarchy whereby the causal relations of larger systems are understood without reference to the smaller parts. Scientific holism differs from <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a> that has appropriated the same term. An example of metaphysical holism is identified in the trend of increased exterior thickness in shells of different species. The reason for a thickness increase can be understood through reference to principles of natural selection via predation without the need to reference or understand the <a href="/wiki/Biomolecular" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomolecular">biomolecular</a> properties of the exterior shells.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson88-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_evolution">Relation to evolution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Relation to evolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></div> Ecology and evolutionary biology are considered sister disciplines of the life sciences. <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Populations" class="mw-redirect" title="Populations">populations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">inheritance</a> are examples of concepts that thread equally into ecological and evolutionary theory. Morphological, behavioural, and genetic traits, for example, can be mapped onto evolutionary trees to study the historical development of a species in relation to their functions and roles in different ecological circumstances. In this framework, the analytical tools of ecologists and evolutionists overlap as they organize, classify, and investigate life through common systematic principles, such as <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean system of taxonomy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Miles93-110">[110]</a> The two disciplines often appear together, such as in the title of the journal <a href="/wiki/Trends_in_Ecology_and_Evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Trends in Ecology and Evolution">Trends in Ecology and Evolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TREE-111">[111]</a> There is no sharp boundary separating ecology from evolution, and they differ more in their areas of applied focus. Both disciplines discover and explain emergent and unique properties and processes operating across different spatial or temporal scales of organization.<a href="#cite_note-Levins80-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lovelock03-48">[48]</a> While the boundary between ecology and evolution is not always clear, ecologists study the abiotic and biotic factors that influence evolutionary processes,<a href="#cite_note-Allee49-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ricklefs96-113">[113]</a> and evolution can be rapid, occurring on ecological timescales as short as one generation.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Behavioural_ecology">Behavioural ecology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Behavioural ecology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioural ecology">Behavioural ecology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chameleon_spectra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chameleon_spectra.jpg/350px-Chameleon_spectra.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chameleon_spectra.jpg/525px-Chameleon_spectra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chameleon_spectra.jpg/700px-Chameleon_spectra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4102" data-file-height="2101" /></a><figcaption>Social display and colour variation in differently adapted species of <a href="/wiki/Chameleons" class="mw-redirect" title="Chameleons">chameleons</a> (Bradypodion spp.). Chameleons change their skin colour to match their background as a behavioural defence mechanism and also use colour to communicate with other members of their species, such as dominant (left) versus submissive (right) patterns shown in the three species (A-C) above.<a href="#cite_note-Stuart-Fox08-115">[115]</a></figcaption></figure> All organisms can exhibit behaviours. Even plants express complex behaviour, including memory and communication.<a href="#cite_note-Karban08-116">[116]</a> Behavioural ecology is the study of an organism's behaviour in its environment and its ecological and evolutionary implications. Ethology is the study of observable movement or behaviour in animals. This could include investigations of motile <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> of plants, mobile <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a> swimming toward the female egg, the cultivation of fungi by <a href="/wiki/Weevils" class="mw-redirect" title="Weevils">weevils</a>, the mating dance of a <a href="/wiki/Salamander" title="Salamander">salamander</a>, or social gatherings of <a href="/wiki/Amoeba" title="Amoeba">amoeba</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tinbergen63-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hamner85-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Strassmann00-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sakurai85-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anderson61-121">[121]</a> Adaptation is the central unifying concept in behavioural ecology.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Behaviours can be recorded as traits and inherited in much the same way that eye and hair colour can. Behaviours can evolve by means of natural selection as adaptive traits conferring functional utilities that increases reproductive fitness.<a href="#cite_note-Gould82-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilson00-124">[124]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Common_jassid_nymphs_and_ants02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Common_jassid_nymphs_and_ants02.jpg/170px-Common_jassid_nymphs_and_ants02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Common_jassid_nymphs_and_ants02.jpg/255px-Common_jassid_nymphs_and_ants02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Common_jassid_nymphs_and_ants02.jpg/340px-Common_jassid_nymphs_and_ants02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Mutualism: <a href="/wiki/Leafhopper" title="Leafhopper">Leafhoppers</a> (Eurymela fenestrata) are protected by <a href="/wiki/Meat_ant" title="Meat ant">ants</a> (Iridomyrmex purpureus) in a <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic</a> relationship. The ants protect the leafhoppers from predators and stimulate feeding in the leafhoppers, and in return, the leafhoppers feeding on plants exude honeydew from their anus that provides energy and nutrients to tending ants.<a href="#cite_note-Eastwood04-125">[125]</a></figcaption></figure> Predator-prey interactions are an introductory concept into food-web studies as well as behavioural ecology.<a href="#cite_note-Ives04-126">[126]</a> Prey species can exhibit different kinds of behavioural adaptations to predators, such as avoid, flee, or defend. Many prey species are faced with multiple predators that differ in the degree of danger posed. To be adapted to their environment and face predatory threats, organisms must balance their energy budgets as they invest in different aspects of their life history, such as growth, feeding, mating, socializing, or modifying their habitat. Hypotheses posited in behavioural ecology are generally based on adaptive principles of conservation, optimization, or efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-Begon05-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Allee49-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Krebs93-127">[127]</a> For example, "[t]he threat-sensitive predator avoidance hypothesis predicts that prey should assess the degree of threat posed by different predators and match their behaviour according to current levels of risk"<a href="#cite_note-Webb10-128">[128]</a> or "[t]he optimal <a href="/wiki/Escape_distance" class="mw-redirect" title="Escape distance">flight initiation distance</a> occurs where expected postencounter fitness is maximized, which depends on the prey's initial fitness, benefits obtainable by not fleeing, energetic escape costs, and expected fitness loss due to predation risk."<a href="#cite_note-Cooper10-129">[129]</a> Elaborate sexual <a href="/wiki/Display_(zoology)" title="Display (zoology)">displays</a> and posturing are encountered in the behavioural ecology of animals. The <a href="/wiki/Birds-of-paradise" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds-of-paradise">birds-of-paradise</a>, for example, sing and display elaborate ornaments during <a href="/wiki/Courtship" title="Courtship">courtship</a>. These displays serve a dual purpose of signalling healthy or well-adapted individuals and desirable genes. The displays are driven by <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a> as an advertisement of quality of traits among <a href="/wiki/Suitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Suitors">suitors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kodric-Brown84-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_ecology">Cognitive ecology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cognitive ecology">edit</a>]</div> Cognitive ecology integrates theory and observations from <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">evolutionary ecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiology">neurobiology</a>, primarily <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, in order to understand the effect that animal interaction with their habitat has on their cognitive systems and how those systems restrict behavior within an ecological and evolutionary framework.<a href="#cite_note-Palacios-131">[131]</a> "Until recently, however, cognitive scientists have not paid sufficient attention to the fundamental fact that cognitive traits evolved under particular natural settings. With consideration of the selection pressure on cognition, cognitive ecology can contribute intellectual coherence to the multidisciplinary study of cognition."<a href="#cite_note-Dukas-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dukas2-133">[133]</a> As a study involving the 'coupling' or interactions between organism and environment, cognitive ecology is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">enactivism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Palacios-131">[131]</a> a field based upon the view that "...we must see the organism and environment as bound together in reciprocal specification and selection...".<a href="#cite_note-Varela-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_ecology">Social ecology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Social ecology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(academic_field)" title="Social ecology (academic field)">Social ecology (academic field)</a></div> Social-ecological behaviours are notable in the <a href="/wiki/Social_insects" class="mw-redirect" title="Social insects">social insects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slime_moulds" class="mw-redirect" title="Slime moulds">slime moulds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_spider" title="Social spider">social spiders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Human society">human society</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Naked_mole-rat" title="Naked mole-rat">naked mole-rats</a> where <a href="/wiki/Eusocialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusocialism">eusocialism</a> has evolved. Social behaviours include reciprocally beneficial behaviours among kin and nest mates<a href="#cite_note-Strassmann00-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilson00-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sherman95-135">[135]</a> and evolve from kin and group selection. <a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> explains altruism through genetic relationships, whereby an altruistic behaviour leading to death is rewarded by the survival of genetic copies distributed among surviving relatives. The social insects, including <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wasp" title="Wasp">wasps</a> are most famously studied for this type of relationship because the male drones are <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clones</a> that share the same genetic make-up as every other male in the colony.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson00-124">[124]</a> In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">group selectionists</a> find examples of altruism among non-genetic relatives and explain this through selection acting on the group; whereby, it becomes selectively advantageous for groups if their members express altruistic behaviours to one another. Groups with predominantly altruistic members survive better than groups with predominantly selfish members.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson00-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilson07-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coevolution">Coevolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Coevolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bombus_6867.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bombus_6867.JPG/220px-Bombus_6867.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Bombus_6867.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="298" data-file-height="207" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bumblebee" title="Bumblebee">Bumblebees</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flowers</a> they <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollinate</a> have coevolved so that both have become dependent on each other for survival.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parasitismus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Parasitismus.jpg/170px-Parasitismus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Parasitismus.jpg/255px-Parasitismus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Parasitismus.jpg/340px-Parasitismus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1442" /></a><figcaption>Parasitism: A harvestman <a href="/wiki/Arachnid" title="Arachnid">arachnid</a> being parasitized by <a href="/wiki/Mite" title="Mite">mites</a>. The harvestman is being consumed, while the mites benefit from traveling on and feeding off of their host.</figcaption></figure> Ecological interactions can be classified broadly into a <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a> and an associate relationship. A host is any entity that harbours another that is called the associate.<a href="#cite_note-Page91-137">[137]</a> Relationships <a href="/wiki/Interspecific_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Interspecific interaction">between species</a> that are mutually or reciprocally beneficial are called <a href="/wiki/Mutualisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutualisms">mutualisms</a>. Examples of mutualism include <a href="/wiki/Fungus-growing_ants" title="Fungus-growing ants">fungus-growing ants</a> employing agricultural symbiosis, bacteria living in the guts of insects and other organisms, the <a href="/wiki/Fig_wasp" title="Fig wasp">fig wasp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prodoxidae" title="Prodoxidae">yucca moth</a> pollination complex, <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichens</a> with fungi and photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a> with photosynthetic algae.<a href="#cite_note-Herre99-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert90-139">[139]</a> If there is a physical connection between host and associate, the relationship is called <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a>. Approximately 60% of all plants, for example, have a symbiotic relationship with <a href="/wiki/Arbuscular_mycorrhizal_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi">arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi</a> living in their roots forming an exchange network of carbohydrates for <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">mineral nutrients</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kiers06-140">[140]</a> Indirect mutualisms occur where the organisms live apart. For example, trees living in the equatorial regions of the planet supply oxygen into the atmosphere that sustains species living in distant polar regions of the planet. This relationship is called <a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">commensalism</a> because many others receive the benefits of clean air at no cost or harm to trees supplying the oxygen.<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> If the associate benefits while the host suffers, the relationship is called <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitism</a>. Although parasites impose a cost to their host (e.g., via damage to their reproductive organs or <a href="/wiki/Propagule" title="Propagule">propagules</a>, denying the services of a beneficial partner), their net effect on host fitness is not necessarily negative and, thus, becomes difficult to forecast.<a href="#cite_note-Bronstein01-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-Irwin10-143">[143]</a> Co-evolution is also driven by competition among species or among members of the same species under the banner of reciprocal antagonism, such as grasses competing for growth space. The <a href="/wiki/Red_Queen_Hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Queen Hypothesis">Red Queen Hypothesis</a>, for example, posits that parasites track down and specialize on the locally common genetic defense systems of its host that drives the evolution of sexual reproduction to diversify the genetic constituency of populations responding to the antagonistic pressure.<a href="#cite_note-Boucher82-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-King09-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biogeography">Biogeography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Biogeography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></div> Biogeography (an amalgamation of biology and geography) is the comparative study of the geographic distribution of organisms and the corresponding evolution of their traits in space and time.<a href="#cite_note-Parenti90-146">[146]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Biogeography" title="Journal of Biogeography">Journal of Biogeography</a> was established in 1974.<a href="#cite_note-JBiog-147">[147]</a> Biogeography and ecology share many of their disciplinary roots. For example, <a href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">the theory of island biogeography</a>, published by the Robert MacArthur and <a href="/wiki/Edward_O._Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward O. Wilson">Edward O. Wilson</a> in 1967<a href="#cite_note-MacArthur67-148">[148]</a> is considered one of the fundamentals of ecological theory.<a href="#cite_note-Wiens04-149">[149]</a> Biogeography has a long history in the natural sciences concerning the spatial distribution of plants and animals. Ecology and evolution provide the explanatory context for biogeographical studies.<a href="#cite_note-Parenti90-146">[146]</a> Biogeographical patterns result from ecological processes that influence range distributions, such as <a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">migration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_dispersal" title="Biological dispersal">dispersal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wiens04-149">[149]</a> and from historical processes that split populations or species into different areas. The biogeographic processes that result in the natural splitting of species explain much of the modern distribution of the Earth's biota. The splitting of lineages in a species is called <a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">vicariance biogeography</a> and it is a sub-discipline of biogeography.<a href="#cite_note-Morrone95-150">[150]</a> There are also practical applications in the field of biogeography concerning ecological systems and processes. For example, the range and distribution of biodiversity and invasive species responding to climate change is a serious concern and active area of research in the context of <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Svennin08-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Landhäusser09-152">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="r/K_selection_theory">r/K selection theory</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: r/K selection theory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">r/K selection theory</a></div> A population ecology concept is r/K selection theory,<a href="#cnote_D">[D]</a> one of the first predictive models in ecology used to explain <a href="/wiki/Life_history_theory" title="Life history theory">life-history evolution</a>. The premise behind the r/K selection model is that natural selection pressures change according to <a href="/wiki/Population_densities" class="mw-redirect" title="Population densities">population density</a>. For example, when an island is first colonized, density of individuals is low. The initial increase in population size is not limited by competition, leaving an abundance of available <a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">resources</a> for rapid population growth. These early phases of <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a> experience density-independent forces of natural selection, which is called r-selection. As the population becomes more crowded, it approaches the island's carrying capacity, thus forcing individuals to compete more heavily for fewer available resources. Under crowded conditions, the population experiences density-dependent forces of natural selection, called K-selection.<a href="#cite_note-Reznick02-153">[153]</a> In the r/K-selection model, the first variable r is the intrinsic rate of natural increase in population size and the second variable K is the carrying capacity of a population.<a href="#cite_note-Begon05-33">[33]</a> Different species evolve different life-history strategies spanning a continuum between these two selective forces. An r-selected species is one that has high birth rates, low levels of parental investment, and high rates of mortality before individuals reach maturity. Evolution favours high rates of <a href="/wiki/Fecundity" title="Fecundity">fecundity</a> in r-selected species. Many kinds of insects and <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> exhibit r-selected <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_trait" title="Phenotypic trait">characteristics</a>. In contrast, a K-selected species has low rates of fecundity, high levels of parental investment in the young, and low rates of mortality as individuals mature. Humans and elephants are examples of species exhibiting K-selected characteristics, including longevity and efficiency in the conversion of more resources into fewer offspring.<a href="#cite_note-MacArthur67-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pianka72-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molecular_ecology">Molecular ecology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Molecular ecology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Molecular_ecology" title="Molecular ecology">Molecular ecology</a></div> The important relationship between ecology and genetic inheritance predates modern techniques for molecular analysis. Molecular ecological research became more feasible with the development of rapid and accessible genetic technologies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction (PCR)</a>. The rise of molecular technologies and the influx of research questions into this new ecological field resulted in the publication <a href="/wiki/Molecular_Ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular Ecology">Molecular Ecology</a> in 1992.<a href="#cite_note-MolEcol-155">[155]</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecular_ecology" title="Molecular ecology">Molecular ecology</a> uses various analytical techniques to study genes in an evolutionary and ecological context. In 1994, <a href="/wiki/John_Avise" title="John Avise">John Avise</a> also played a leading role in this area of science with the publication of his book, Molecular Markers, Natural History and Evolution.<a href="#cite_note-Avise94-156">[156]</a> Newer technologies opened a wave of genetic analysis into organisms once difficult to study from an ecological or evolutionary standpoint, such as bacteria, fungi, and <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a>. Molecular ecology engendered a new research paradigm for investigating ecological questions considered otherwise intractable. Molecular investigations revealed previously obscured details in the tiny intricacies of nature and improved resolution into probing questions about behavioural and biogeographical ecology.<a href="#cite_note-Avise94-156">[156]</a> For example, molecular ecology revealed <a href="/wiki/Promiscuity#Other_animals" title="Promiscuity">promiscuous</a> sexual behaviour and multiple male partners in <a href="/wiki/Tree_swallow" title="Tree swallow">tree swallows</a> previously thought to be socially <a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">monogamous</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Obryan07-157">[157]</a> In a biogeographical context, the marriage between genetics, ecology, and evolution resulted in a new sub-discipline called <a href="/wiki/Phylogeography" title="Phylogeography">phylogeography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Avise00-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_ecology">Human ecology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Human ecology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatleft" style="width:25%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> The history of life on Earth has been a history of interaction between living things and their surroundings. To a large extent, the physical form and the habits of the earth's vegetation and its animal life have been molded by the environment. Considering the whole span of earthly time, the opposite effect, in which life actually modifies its surroundings, has been relatively slight. Only within the moment of time represented by the present century has one species man acquired significant power to alter the nature of his world. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Rachel Carson, "Silent Spring"<a href="#cite_note-Carson-159">[159]</a></cite> </div> Ecology is as much a biological science as it is a human science.<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-5">[5]</a> Human ecology is an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> investigation into the ecology of our species. "Human ecology may be defined: (1) from a bioecological standpoint as the study of man as the ecological dominant in plant and animal communities and systems; (2) from a bioecological standpoint as simply another animal affecting and being affected by his physical environment; and (3) as a human being, somehow different from animal life in general, interacting with physical and modified environments in a distinctive and creative way. A truly interdisciplinary human ecology will most likely address itself to all three."<a href="#cite_note-Young74-160">[160]</a>: 3  The term was formally introduced in 1921, but many sociologists, geographers, psychologists, and other disciplines were interested in human relations to natural systems centuries prior, especially in the late 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-Young74-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gross04-161">[161]</a> The ecological complexities human beings are facing through the technological transformation of the planetary biome has brought on the <a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a>. The unique set of circumstances has generated the need for a new unifying science called <a href="/wiki/Coupled_human_and_natural_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Coupled human and natural systems">coupled human and natural systems</a> that builds upon, but moves beyond the field of human ecology.<a href="#cite_note-Liu09-107">[107]</a> Ecosystems tie into human societies through the critical and all-encompassing life-supporting functions they sustain. In recognition of these functions and the incapability of traditional economic valuation methods to see the value in ecosystems, there has been a surge of interest in <a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">social</a>-<a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">natural capital</a>, which provides the means to put a value on the stock and use of information and materials stemming from <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem goods and services</a>. Ecosystems produce, regulate, maintain, and supply services of critical necessity and beneficial to human health (cognitive and physiological), economies, and they even provide an information or reference function as a living library giving opportunities for science and cognitive development in children engaged in the complexity of the natural world. Ecosystems relate importantly to human ecology as they are the ultimate base foundation of global economics as every commodity, and the capacity for exchange ultimately stems from the ecosystems on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Liu09-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-MEA05-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-de_Groot02-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aguirre09-164">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Restoration_Ecology">Restoration Ecology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Restoration Ecology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Natural resource management</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Ecosystem management is not just about science nor is it simply an extension of traditional resource management; it offers a fundamental reframing of how humans may work with nature. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Grumbine (1994)<a href="#cite_note-Grumbine94-165">[165]</a>: 27 </cite> </div> Ecology is an employed science of restoration, repairing disturbed sites through human intervention, in natural resource management, and in <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">environmental impact assessments</a>. Edward O. Wilson predicted in 1992 that the 21st century "will be the era of restoration in ecology".<a href="#cite_note-Wilson92-166">[166]</a> Ecological science has boomed in the industrial investment of restoring ecosystems and their processes in abandoned sites after disturbance. Natural resource managers, in <a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">forestry</a>, for example, employ ecologists to develop, adapt, and implement <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_management" title="Ecosystem management">ecosystem based methods</a> into the planning, operation, and restoration phases of land-use. Another example of conservation is seen on the east coast of the United States in Boston, MA. The city of Boston implemented the Wetland Ordinance,<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> improving the stability of their wetland environments by implementing soil amendments that will improve groundwater storage and flow, and trimming or removal of vegetation that could cause harm to water quality.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Ecological science is used in the methods of sustainable harvesting, disease, and fire outbreak management, in fisheries stock management, for integrating land-use with protected areas and communities, and conservation in complex geo-political landscapes.<a href="#cite_note-Hammond09-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grumbine94-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-Slocombe93-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hobbs01-169">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_the_environment">Relation to the environment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Relation to the environment">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></div> The environment of ecosystems includes both physical parameters and biotic attributes. It is dynamically interlinked and contains <a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">resources</a> for organisms at any time throughout their life cycle.<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mason57-170">[170]</a> Like ecology, the term environment has different conceptual meanings and overlaps with the concept of nature. Environment "includes the physical world, the social world of human relations and the built world of human creation."<a href="#cite_note-Kleese01-171">[171]</a>: 62  The physical environment is external to the level of biological organization under investigation, including <a href="/wiki/Abiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Abiotic">abiotic</a> factors such as temperature, radiation, light, chemistry, <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> and geology. The biotic environment includes genes, cells, organisms, members of the same species (<a href="/wiki/Conspecific" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspecific">conspecifics</a>) and other species that share a habitat.<a href="#cite_note-Campbell06-172">[172]</a> The distinction between external and internal environments, however, is an abstraction parsing life and environment into units or facts that are inseparable in reality. There is an interpenetration of cause and effect between the environment and life. The laws of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, for example, apply to ecology by means of its physical state. With an understanding of metabolic and thermodynamic principles, a complete accounting of energy and material flow can be traced through an ecosystem. In this way, the environmental and ecological relations are studied through reference to conceptually manageable and isolated <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">material</a> parts. After the effective environmental components are understood through reference to their causes; however, they conceptually link back together as an integrated whole, or holocoenotic system as it was once called. This is known as the <a href="/wiki/Dialectical" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical">dialectical</a> approach to ecology. The dialectical approach examines the parts but integrates the organism and the environment into a dynamic whole (or <a href="/wiki/Umwelt" title="Umwelt">umwelt</a>). Change in one ecological or environmental factor can concurrently affect the dynamic state of an entire ecosystem.<a href="#cite_note-Levins80-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kormondy95-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disturbance_and_resilience">Disturbance and resilience</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Disturbance and resilience">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Resilience_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resilience (ecology)">Resilience (ecology)</a></div> A disturbance is any process that changes or removes biomass from a community, such as a fire, flood, drought, or predation.<a href="#cite_note-Hughes10-174">[174]</a> Disturbances are both the cause and product of natural fluctuations within an ecological community.<a href="#cite_note-Levin92-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hughes10-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-Holling73-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-Folke04-177">[177]</a> Biodiversity can protect ecosystems from disturbances.<a href="#cite_note-Folke04-177">[177]</a> The effect of a disturbance is often hard to predict, but there are numerous examples in which a single species can massively disturb an ecosystem. For example, a single-celled <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoan</a> has been able to kill up to 100% of <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a> in some <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> and Western <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. Sea urchins enable complex reef ecosystems to thrive by eating <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> that would otherwise inhibit coral growth.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> can wreak havoc on ecosystems. For instance, invasive <a href="/wiki/Burmese_python" title="Burmese python">Burmese pythons</a> have caused a 98% decline of small <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Everglades" title="Everglades">Everglades</a>.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metabolism_and_the_early_atmosphere">Metabolism and the early atmosphere</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Metabolism and the early atmosphere">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Early atmosphere">Early atmosphere</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Metabolism – the rate at which energy and material resources are taken up from the environment, transformed within an organism, and allocated to maintenance, growth and reproduction – is a fundamental physiological trait. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Ernest et al.<a href="#cite_note-Ernest03-180">[180]</a>: 991 </cite> </div> The Earth was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Allègre95-181">[181]</a> As it cooled and a crust and oceans formed, its atmosphere transformed from being dominated by <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> to one composed mostly of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>. Over the next billion years, the metabolic activity of life transformed the atmosphere into a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, and water vapor. These gases changed the way that light from the sun hit the Earth's surface and greenhouse effects trapped heat. There were untapped sources of free energy within the mixture of <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reducing and oxidizing</a> gasses that set the stage for primitive ecosystems to evolve and, in turn, the atmosphere also evolved.<a href="#cite_note-Wills01-182">[182]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/220px-Leaf_1_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/330px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/440px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> is the primary site of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> in many higher plants.</figcaption></figure> Throughout history, the Earth's atmosphere and <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycles" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogeochemical cycles">biogeochemical cycles</a> have been in a <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_equilibrium" title="Dynamic equilibrium">dynamic equilibrium</a> with planetary ecosystems. The history is characterized by periods of significant transformation followed by millions of years of stability.<a href="#cite_note-Goldblatt06-183">[183]</a> The evolution of the earliest organisms, likely anaerobic <a href="/wiki/Methanogen" title="Methanogen">methanogen</a> microbes, started the process by converting atmospheric hydrogen into methane (4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O). <a href="/wiki/Anoxygenic_photosynthesis" title="Anoxygenic photosynthesis">Anoxygenic photosynthesis</a> reduced hydrogen concentrations and increased <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane">atmospheric methane</a>, by converting <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> into water or other sulfur compounds (for example, 2H2S + CO2 + hv → CH2O + H2O + 2S). Early forms of <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">fermentation</a> also increased levels of atmospheric methane. The transition to an oxygen-dominant atmosphere (the <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Oxygenation Event">Great Oxidation</a>) did not begin until approximately 2.4–2.3 billion years ago, but photosynthetic processes started 0.3 to 1 billion years prior.<a href="#cite_note-Goldblatt06-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-Catling05-184">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation:_heat,_temperature_and_light">Radiation: heat, temperature and light</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Radiation: heat, temperature and light">edit</a>]</div> The biology of life operates within a certain range of temperatures. Heat is a form of energy that regulates temperature. Heat affects growth rates, activity, behaviour, and <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a>. Temperature is largely dependent on the incidence of <a href="/wiki/Solar_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">solar radiation</a>. The latitudinal and longitudinal spatial variation of <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> greatly affects climates and consequently the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and levels of primary production in different ecosystems or biomes across the planet. Heat and temperature relate importantly to metabolic activity. <a href="/wiki/Poikilotherms" class="mw-redirect" title="Poikilotherms">Poikilotherms</a>, for example, have a body temperature that is largely regulated and dependent on the temperature of the external environment. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Homeotherms" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeotherms">homeotherms</a> regulate their internal body temperature by expending <a href="/wiki/Food_energy" title="Food energy">metabolic energy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Allee49-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ricklefs96-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kormondy95-173">[173]</a> There is a relationship between light, primary production, and ecological <a href="/wiki/Energy_budget" title="Energy budget">energy budgets</a>. Sunlight is the primary input of energy into the planet's ecosystems. Light is composed of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic energy">electromagnetic energy</a> of different <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a>. <a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">Radiant energy</a> from the sun generates heat, provides photons of light measured as active energy in the chemical reactions of life, and also acts as a catalyst for <a href="/wiki/Genetic_mutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic mutation">genetic mutation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Allee49-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ricklefs96-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kormondy95-173">[173]</a> Plants, algae, and some bacteria absorb light and assimilate the energy through <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. Organisms capable of assimilating energy by photosynthesis or through inorganic fixation of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">H2S</a> are <a href="/wiki/Autotrophs" class="mw-redirect" title="Autotrophs">autotrophs</a>. Autotrophs—responsible for primary production—assimilate light energy which becomes metabolically stored as <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential energy</a> in the form of biochemical <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpic</a> bonds.<a href="#cite_note-Allee49-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ricklefs96-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kormondy95-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_environments">Physical environments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Physical environments">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Water">Water</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Water">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystem</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Wetland conditions such as shallow water, high plant productivity, and anaerobic substrates provide a suitable environment for important physical, biological, and chemical processes. Because of these processes, wetlands play a vital role in global nutrient and element cycles. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Cronk & Fennessy (2001)<a href="#cite_note-Cronk01-185">[185]</a>: 29 </cite> </div> Diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen is approximately 10,000 times slower in water than in air. When soils are flooded, they quickly lose oxygen, becoming <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">hypoxic</a> (an environment with O2 concentration below 2 mg/liter) and eventually completely <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">anoxic</a> where <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaerobic bacteria">anaerobic bacteria</a> thrive among the roots. Water also influences the intensity and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">spectral composition</a> of light as it reflects off the water surface and submerged particles.<a href="#cite_note-Cronk01-185">[185]</a> Aquatic plants exhibit a wide variety of morphological and physiological adaptations that allow them to survive, compete, and diversify in these environments. For example, their roots and stems contain large air spaces (<a href="/wiki/Aerenchyma" title="Aerenchyma">aerenchyma</a>) that regulate the efficient transportation of gases (for example, CO2 and O2) used in respiration and photosynthesis. Salt water plants (<a href="/wiki/Halophyte" title="Halophyte">halophytes</a>) have additional specialized adaptations, such as the development of special organs for shedding salt and <a href="/wiki/Osmoregulation" title="Osmoregulation">osmoregulating</a> their internal salt (NaCl) concentrations, to live in <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuarine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brackish" class="mw-redirect" title="Brackish">brackish</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceanic</a> environments. Anaerobic soil <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> in aquatic environments use <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese ions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferric" title="Ferric">ferric ions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic compounds">organic compounds</a>; other microorganisms are <a href="/wiki/Facultative_anaerobes" class="mw-redirect" title="Facultative anaerobes">facultative anaerobes</a> and use oxygen during respiration when the soil becomes drier. The activity of soil microorganisms and the chemistry of the water reduces the <a href="/wiki/Reduction_potential" title="Reduction potential">oxidation-reduction</a> potentials of the water. Carbon dioxide, for example, is reduced to methane (CH4) by methanogenic bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-Cronk01-185">[185]</a> The physiology of fish is also specially adapted to compensate for environmental salt levels through osmoregulation. Their gills form <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_gradient" title="Electrochemical gradient">electrochemical gradients</a> that mediate salt excretion in salt water and uptake in fresh water.<a href="#cite_note-Evans99-186">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gravity">Gravity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Gravity">edit</a>]</div> The shape and energy of the land are significantly affected by gravitational forces. On a large scale, the distribution of gravitational forces on the earth is uneven and influences the shape and movement of <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plates" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plates">tectonic plates</a> as well as influencing <a href="/wiki/Geomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomorphic">geomorphic</a> processes such as <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogeny</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>. These forces govern many of the geophysical properties and distributions of ecological biomes across the Earth. On the organismal scale, gravitational forces provide directional cues for plant and fungal growth (<a href="/wiki/Gravitropism" title="Gravitropism">gravitropism</a>), orientation cues for animal migrations, and influence the <a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">biomechanics</a> and size of animals.<a href="#cite_note-Allee49-112">[112]</a> Ecological traits, such as allocation of biomass in trees during growth are subject to mechanical failure as gravitational forces influence the position and structure of branches and leaves.<a href="#cite_note-Swenson08-187">[187]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">cardiovascular systems</a> of animals are functionally adapted to overcome the pressure and gravitational forces that change according to the features of organisms (e.g., height, size, shape), their behaviour (e.g., diving, running, flying), and the habitat occupied (e.g., water, hot deserts, cold tundra).<a href="#cite_note-Garnter10-188">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pressure">Pressure</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Pressure">edit</a>]</div> Climatic and <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic pressure</a> places <a href="/wiki/Physiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological">physiological</a> constraints on organisms, especially those that fly and respire at high altitudes, or dive to deep ocean depths.<a href="#cite_note-Neri-189">[189]</a> These constraints influence vertical limits of ecosystems in the biosphere, as organisms are physiologically sensitive and adapted to atmospheric and osmotic water pressure differences.<a href="#cite_note-Allee49-112">[112]</a> For example, oxygen levels decrease with decreasing pressure and are a limiting factor for life at higher altitudes.<a href="#cite_note-Jacobsen08-190">[190]</a> <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">Water transportation</a> by plants is another important <a href="/wiki/Ecophysiology" title="Ecophysiology">ecophysiological</a> process affected by osmotic pressure gradients.<a href="#cite_note-Strook08-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pockman95-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zimmermann02-193">[193]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fluid_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluid pressure">Water pressure</a> in the depths of oceans requires that organisms adapt to these conditions. For example, diving animals such as <a href="/wiki/Whale" title="Whale">whales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dolphin" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seal_(animal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal (animal)">seals</a> are specially adapted to deal with changes in sound due to water pressure differences.<a href="#cite_note-Kastak98-194">[194]</a> Differences between <a href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfish</a> species provide another example of adaptation to deep-sea pressure through specialized protein adaptations.<a href="#cite_note-Nishiguchi10-195">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wind_and_turbulence">Wind and turbulence</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Wind and turbulence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grassflowers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Grassflowers.jpg/220px-Grassflowers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Grassflowers.jpg/330px-Grassflowers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Grassflowers.jpg/440px-Grassflowers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1371" data-file-height="1248" /></a><figcaption>The architecture of the <a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> in grasses is subject to the physical pressures of wind and shaped by the forces of natural selection facilitating wind-pollination (<a href="/wiki/Anemophily" title="Anemophily">anemophily</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Friedman04-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harder09-197">[197]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Turbulent_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Turbulent forces">Turbulent forces</a> in air and water affect the environment and ecosystem distribution, form, and dynamics. On a planetary scale, ecosystems are affected by circulation patterns in the global <a href="/wiki/Trade_winds" title="Trade winds">trade winds</a>. Wind power and the turbulent forces it creates can influence heat, nutrient, and biochemical profiles of ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-Allee49-112">[112]</a> For example, wind running over the surface of a lake creates turbulence, mixing the <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">water column</a> and influencing the environmental profile to create <a href="/wiki/Thermally_layered_zones" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermally layered zones">thermally layered zones</a>, affecting how fish, algae, and other parts of the <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">aquatic ecosystem</a> are structured.<a href="#cite_note-Shimeta95-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-Etemad01-199">[199]</a> Wind speed and turbulence also influence <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration_rates" class="mw-redirect" title="Evapotranspiration rates">evapotranspiration rates</a> and energy budgets in plants and animals.<a href="#cite_note-Cronk01-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wolf96-200">[200]</a> Wind speed, temperature and moisture content can vary as winds travel across different land features and elevations. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Westerlies" title="Westerlies">westerlies</a> come into contact with the <a href="/wiki/Coastal" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal">coastal</a> and interior mountains of western North America to produce a <a href="/wiki/Rain_shadow" title="Rain shadow">rain shadow</a> on the leeward side of the mountain. The air expands and moisture condenses as the winds increase in elevation; this is called <a href="/wiki/Orographic_lift" title="Orographic lift">orographic lift</a> and can cause precipitation. This environmental process produces spatial divisions in biodiversity, as species adapted to wetter conditions are range-restricted to the coastal mountain valleys and unable to migrate across the <a href="/wiki/Xeric" class="mw-redirect" title="Xeric">xeric</a> ecosystems (e.g., of the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River_Drainage_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbia River Drainage Basin">Columbia Basin</a> in western North America) to intermix with sister lineages that are segregated to the interior mountain systems.<a href="#cite_note-Daubenmire75-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-Steele05-202">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fire">Fire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Fire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fire_ecology" title="Fire ecology">Fire ecology</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:313px;max-width:313px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:159px;max-width:159px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosaic_fire_burn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mosaic_fire_burn.jpg/157px-Mosaic_fire_burn.jpg" decoding="async" width="157" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mosaic_fire_burn.jpg/236px-Mosaic_fire_burn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mosaic_fire_burn.jpg/314px-Mosaic_fire_burn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1999" data-file-height="1277" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:150px;max-width:150px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Lodgepole_pine_cone_after_fire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Lodgepole_pine_cone_after_fire.jpg/148px-Lodgepole_pine_cone_after_fire.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Lodgepole_pine_cone_after_fire.jpg/222px-Lodgepole_pine_cone_after_fire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Lodgepole_pine_cone_after_fire.jpg/296px-Lodgepole_pine_cone_after_fire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1999" data-file-height="1355" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Forest fires modify the land by leaving behind an environmental mosaic that diversifies the landscape into different <a href="/wiki/Seral_community" title="Seral community">seral</a> stages and habitats of varied quality (left). Some species are adapted to forest fires, such as pine trees that open their cones only after fire exposure (right).</div></div></div></div> Plants convert carbon dioxide into biomass and emit oxygen into the atmosphere. By approximately 350 million years ago (the end of the <a href="/wiki/Devonian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Devonian period">Devonian period</a>), photosynthesis had brought the concentration of atmospheric oxygen above 17%, which allowed combustion to occur.<a href="#cite_note-Lenton00-203">[203]</a> Fire releases CO2 and converts fuel into ash and tar. Fire is a significant ecological parameter that raises many issues pertaining to its control and suppression.<a href="#cite_note-Lobert93-204">[204]</a> While the issue of fire in relation to ecology and plants has been recognized for a long time,<a href="#cite_note-Garren43-205">[205]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Cooper_(ecologist)" title="Charles F. Cooper (ecologist)">Charles Cooper</a> brought attention to the issue of forest fires in relation to the ecology of forest fire suppression and management in the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper60-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cooper61-207">[207]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native North Americans</a> were among the first to influence fire regimes by controlling their spread near their homes or by lighting fires to stimulate the production of herbaceous foods and basketry materials.<a href="#cite_note-Wagtendonk07-208">[208]</a> Fire creates a heterogeneous ecosystem age and canopy structure, and the altered soil nutrient supply and cleared canopy structure opens new ecological niches for seedling establishment.<a href="#cite_note-Boerner82-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-Goubitz03-210">[210]</a> Most ecosystems are adapted to natural fire cycles. Plants, for example, are equipped with a variety of adaptations to deal with forest fires. Some species (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Pinus_halepensis" title="Pinus halepensis">Pinus halepensis</a>) cannot <a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">germinate</a> until after their seeds have lived through a fire or been exposed to certain compounds from smoke. Environmentally triggered germination of seeds is called <a href="/wiki/Serotiny" title="Serotiny">serotiny</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Neeman04-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-Flematti04-212">[212]</a> Fire plays a major role in the persistence and <a href="/wiki/Resilience_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resilience (ecology)">resilience</a> of ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-Holling73-176">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Soils">Soils</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Soils">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soil_ecology" title="Soil ecology">Soil ecology</a></div> Soil is the living top layer of mineral and organic dirt that covers the surface of the planet. It is the chief organizing centre of most ecosystem functions, and it is of critical importance in agricultural science and ecology. The <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposition</a> of dead organic matter (for example, leaves on the forest floor), results in soils containing <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a> and nutrients that feed into plant production. The whole of the planet's soil ecosystems is called the <a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">pedosphere</a> where a large biomass of the Earth's biodiversity organizes into trophic levels. Invertebrates that feed and shred larger leaves, for example, create smaller bits for smaller organisms in the feeding chain. Collectively, these organisms are the <a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">detritivores</a> that regulate soil formation.<a href="#cite_note-Coleman04-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson09-214">[214]</a> Tree roots, fungi, bacteria, worms, ants, beetles, centipedes, spiders, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and other less familiar creatures all work to create the trophic web of life in soil ecosystems. Soils form composite phenotypes where inorganic matter is enveloped into the physiology of a whole community. As organisms feed and migrate through soils they physically displace materials, an ecological process called <a href="/wiki/Bioturbation" title="Bioturbation">bioturbation</a>. This aerates soils and stimulates heterotrophic growth and production. Soil <a href="/wiki/Microorganisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Microorganisms">microorganisms</a> are influenced by and are fed back into the trophic dynamics of the ecosystem. No single axis of causality can be discerned to segregate the biological from geomorphological systems in soils.<a href="#cite_note-Phillips09-215">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reinhard10-216">[216]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">Paleoecological</a> studies of soils places the origin for bioturbation to a time before the Cambrian period. Other events, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tree#Evolutionary_history" title="Tree">evolution of trees</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_land" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonization of land">colonization of land</a> in the Devonian period played a significant role in the early development of ecological trophism in soils.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson09-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davic04-217">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hasiotis03-218">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biogeochemistry_and_climate">Biogeochemistry and climate</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Biogeochemistry and climate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></div> Ecologists study and measure nutrient budgets to understand how these materials are regulated, flow, and <a href="/wiki/Recycling_(ecological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Recycling (ecological)">recycled</a> through the environment.<a href="#cite_note-Allee49-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ricklefs96-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kormondy95-173">[173]</a> This research has led to an understanding that there is global feedback between ecosystems and the physical parameters of this planet, including minerals, soil, pH, ions, water, and atmospheric gases. Six major elements (<a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>; H, C, N, O, S, and P) form the constitution of all biological macromolecules and feed into the Earth's geochemical processes. From the smallest scale of biology, the combined effect of billions upon billions of ecological processes amplify and ultimately regulate the <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycles</a> of the Earth. Understanding the relations and cycles mediated between these elements and their ecological pathways has significant bearing toward understanding global biogeochemistry.<a href="#cite_note-Falkowoski08-219">[219]</a> The ecology of global carbon budgets gives one example of the linkage between biodiversity and biogeochemistry. It is estimated that the Earth's oceans hold 40,000 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon, that vegetation and soil hold 2070 Gt, and that fossil fuel emissions are 6.3 Gt carbon per year.<a href="#cite_note-Grace04-220">[220]</a> There have been major restructurings in these global carbon budgets during the Earth's history, regulated to a large extent by the ecology of the land. For example, through the early-mid Eocene volcanic <a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">outgassing</a>, the oxidation of methane stored in wetlands, and seafloor gases increased atmospheric CO2 (carbon dioxide) concentrations to levels as high as 3500 <a href="/wiki/Parts_per_million" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts per million">ppm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson00-221">[221]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a>, from twenty-five to thirty-two million years ago, there was another significant restructuring of the global <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a> as grasses evolved a new mechanism of photosynthesis, <a href="/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation" title="C4 carbon fixation">C4 photosynthesis</a>, and expanded their ranges. This new pathway evolved in response to the drop in atmospheric CO2 concentrations below 550 ppm.<a href="#cite_note-Pagani05-222">[222]</a> The relative abundance and distribution of biodiversity alters the dynamics between organisms and their environment such that ecosystems can be both cause and effect in relation to climate change. Human-driven modifications to the planet's ecosystems (e.g., disturbance, <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>, agriculture) contributes to rising atmospheric greenhouse gas levels. Transformation of the global carbon cycle in the next century is projected to raise planetary temperatures, lead to more extreme fluctuations in weather, alter species distributions, and increase extinction rates. The effect of global warming is already being registered in melting glaciers, melting mountain ice caps, and rising sea levels. Consequently, species distributions are changing along waterfronts and in continental areas where migration patterns and breeding grounds are tracking the prevailing shifts in climate. Large sections of <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> are also melting to create a new mosaic of flooded areas having increased rates of soil decomposition activity that raises methane (CH4) emissions. There is concern over increases in atmospheric methane in the context of the global carbon cycle, because methane is a <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> that is 23 times more effective at absorbing long-wave radiation than CO2 on a 100-year time scale.<a href="#cite_note-Zhuan07-223">[223]</a> Hence, there is a relationship between global warming, decomposition and respiration in soils and wetlands producing significant climate feedbacks and globally altered biogeochemical cycles.<a href="#cite_note-Liu09-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cox00-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-Erwin09-225">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bamber12-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heiman08-227">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davidson06-228">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_ecology" title="History of ecology">History of ecology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_beginnings">Early beginnings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Early beginnings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> By ecology, we mean the whole science of the relations of the organism to the environment including, in the broad sense, all the "conditions of existence". Thus, the theory of evolution explains the housekeeping relations of organisms mechanistically as the necessary consequences of effectual causes; and so forms the <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> groundwork of ecology. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Ernst Haeckel (1866)<a href="#cite_note-Stauffer57-229">[229]</a>: 140  <a href="#cnote_B">[B]</a></cite> </div> Ecology has a complex origin, due in large part to its interdisciplinary nature.<a href="#cite_note-Egerton01-230">[230]</a> Ancient Greek philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> were among the first to record observations on natural history. However, they viewed life in terms of <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a>, where species were conceptualized as static unchanging things while varieties were seen as aberrations of an <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealized type</a>. This contrasts against the modern understanding of <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">ecological theory</a> where varieties are viewed as the real phenomena of interest and having a role in the origins of adaptations by means of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Benson00-231">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sober80-232">[232]</a> Early conceptions of ecology, such as a balance and regulation in nature can be traced to <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> (died c. 425 BC), who described one of the earliest accounts of <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualism</a> in his observation of "natural dentistry". Basking <a href="/wiki/Nile_crocodile" title="Nile crocodile">Nile crocodiles</a>, he noted, would open their mouths to give <a href="/wiki/Sandpiper" title="Sandpiper">sandpipers</a> safe access to pluck <a href="/wiki/Leech" title="Leech">leeches</a> out, giving nutrition to the sandpiper and oral hygiene for the crocodile.<a href="#cite_note-Egerton01-230">[230]</a> Aristotle was an early influence on the philosophical development of ecology. He and his student <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> made extensive observations on plant and animal migrations, biogeography, physiology, and their behavior, giving an early analogue to the modern concept of an ecological niche.<a href="#cite_note-Hughes85-233">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hughes75-234">[234]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Nowhere can one see more clearly illustrated what may be called the sensibility of such an organic complex, – expressed by the fact that whatever affects any species belonging to it, must speedily have its influence of some sort upon the whole assemblage. He will thus be made to see the impossibility of studying any form completely, out of relation to the other forms, – the necessity for taking a comprehensive survey of the whole as a condition to a satisfactory understanding of any part. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Stephen Forbes (1887)<a href="#cite_note-Forbes1887-235">[235]</a></cite> </div> <div class="thumb tleft" style="background:#f9f9f9; padding:5px; border:1px solid gray; margin:0em 2em 0em 0em; font-size:11px;"> <a href="/wiki/File:Nicola_Perscheid_-_Ernst_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Nicola_Perscheid_-_Ernst_Haeckel.jpg/90px-Nicola_Perscheid_-_Ernst_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Nicola_Perscheid_-_Ernst_Haeckel.jpg/135px-Nicola_Perscheid_-_Ernst_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Nicola_Perscheid_-_Ernst_Haeckel.jpg/180px-Nicola_Perscheid_-_Ernst_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="966" data-file-height="1308" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Warming,Eugen-c1900.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Warming%2CEugen-c1900.jpg/90px-Warming%2CEugen-c1900.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Warming%2CEugen-c1900.jpg/135px-Warming%2CEugen-c1900.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Warming%2CEugen-c1900.jpg/180px-Warming%2CEugen-c1900.jpg 2x" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="287" /></a> <div style="border: none; width:180px;"><div class="thumbcaption"> <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Eugenius_Warming" title="Eugenius Warming">Eugenius Warming</a> (right), two founders of ecology</div></div></div> Ecological concepts such as food chains, population regulation, and productivity were first developed in the 1700s, through the published works of microscopist <a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> (1632–1723) and botanist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bradley_(botanist)" title="Richard Bradley (botanist)">Richard Bradley</a> (1688?–1732).<a href="#cite_note-Odum05-5">[5]</a> Biogeographer <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> (1769–1859) was an early pioneer in ecological thinking and was among the first to recognize ecological gradients, where species are replaced or altered in form along <a href="/wiki/Environmental_gradient" title="Environmental gradient">environmental gradients</a>, such as a <a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">cline</a> forming along a rise in elevation. Humboldt drew inspiration from <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, as he developed a form of "terrestrial physics". In Newtonian fashion, he brought a scientific exactitude for measurement into natural history and even alluded to concepts that are the foundation of a modern ecological law on species-to-area relationships.<a href="#cite_note-Kingsland04-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rosenzweig03-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hawkins01-238">[238]</a> Natural historians, such as Humboldt, <a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> (among others) laid the foundations of the modern ecological sciences.<a href="#cite_note-McIntosh85-239">[239]</a> The term "ecology" (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Oekologie, Ökologie) was coined by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> in his book Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (1866).<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> Haeckel was a zoologist, artist, writer, and later in life a professor of comparative anatomy.<a href="#cite_note-Stauffer57-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-Friederichs58-241">[241]</a> Opinions differ on who was the founder of modern ecological theory. Some mark Haeckel's definition as the beginning;<a href="#cite_note-Hinchman07-242">[242]</a> others say it was <a href="/wiki/Eugenius_Warming" title="Eugenius Warming">Eugenius Warming</a> with the writing of <a href="/wiki/Plantesamfund" title="Plantesamfund">Oecology of Plants: An Introduction to the Study of Plant Communities</a> (1895),<a href="#cite_note-Goodland75-243">[243]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a>' principles on the economy of nature that matured in the early 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-Egerton07-244">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kormandy78-245">[245]</a> Linnaeus founded an early branch of ecology that he called the economy of nature.<a href="#cite_note-Egerton07-244">[244]</a> His works influenced Charles Darwin, who adopted Linnaeus' phrase on the economy or polity of nature in <a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_Species" class="mw-redirect" title="The Origin of Species">The Origin of Species</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stauffer57-229">[229]</a> Linnaeus was the first to frame the <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">balance of nature</a> as a testable hypothesis. Haeckel, who admired Darwin's work, defined ecology in reference to the economy of nature, which has led some to question whether ecology and the economy of nature are synonymous.<a href="#cite_note-Kormandy78-245">[245]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darwin_EcoExperiment.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Darwin_EcoExperiment.JPG/220px-Darwin_EcoExperiment.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Darwin_EcoExperiment.JPG/330px-Darwin_EcoExperiment.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Darwin_EcoExperiment.JPG/440px-Darwin_EcoExperiment.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1034" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption>The layout of the first ecological experiment, carried out in a grass garden at <a href="/wiki/Woburn_Abbey" title="Woburn Abbey">Woburn Abbey</a> in 1816, was noted by Charles Darwin in The Origin of Species. The experiment studied the performance of different mixtures of species planted in different kinds of soils.<a href="#cite_note-Hector02-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sinclair26-247">[247]</a></figcaption></figure> From Aristotle until Darwin, the natural world was predominantly considered static and unchanging. Prior to The Origin of Species, there was little appreciation or understanding of the dynamic and reciprocal relations between organisms, their adaptations, and the environment.<a href="#cite_note-Benson00-231">[231]</a> An exception is the 1789 publication Natural History of Selborne by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">Gilbert White</a> (1720–1793), considered by some to be one of the earliest texts on ecology.<a href="#cite_note-May99-248">[248]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> is mainly noted for his treatise on evolution,<a href="#cite_note-Darwin-249">[249]</a> he was one of the founders of <a href="/wiki/Soil_ecology" title="Soil ecology">soil ecology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Meysman06-250">[250]</a> and he made note of the first ecological experiment in The Origin of Species.<a href="#cite_note-Hector02-246">[246]</a> Evolutionary theory changed the way that researchers approached the ecological sciences.<a href="#cite_note-Acot97-251">[251]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Since_1900">Since 1900</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Since 1900">edit</a>]</div> Modern ecology is a young science that first attracted substantial scientific attention toward the end of the 19th century (around the same time that evolutionary studies were gaining scientific interest). The scientist <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Swallow_Richards" title="Ellen Swallow Richards">Ellen Swallow Richards</a> adopted the term "<a href="/wiki/Oekology" class="mw-redirect" title="Oekology">oekology</a>" (which eventually morphed into <a href="/wiki/Home_economics" title="Home economics">home economics</a>) in the U.S. as early as 1892.<a href="#cite_note-Hunt-252">[252]</a> In the early 20th century, ecology transitioned from a more <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">descriptive form</a> of <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> to a more <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">analytical form</a> of scientific natural history.<a href="#cite_note-Kingsland04-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh85-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Clements" title="Frederic Clements">Frederic Clements</a> published the first American ecology book in 1905,<a href="#cite_note-Clements05-254">[254]</a> presenting the idea of plant communities as a <a href="/wiki/Superorganism" title="Superorganism">superorganism</a>. This publication launched a debate between ecological holism and individualism that lasted until the 1970s. Clements' superorganism concept proposed that ecosystems progress through regular and determined stages of <a href="/wiki/Seral_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Seral development">seral development</a> that are analogous to the developmental stages of an organism. The Clementsian paradigm was challenged by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Gleason" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Gleason">Henry Gleason</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Simberloff80-255">[255]</a> who stated that ecological communities develop from the unique and coincidental association of individual organisms. This perceptual shift placed the focus back onto the life histories of individual organisms and how this relates to the development of community associations.<a href="#cite_note-Gleason26-256">[256]</a> The Clementsian superorganism theory was an overextended application of an <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealistic form</a> of holism.<a href="#cite_note-Levins80-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilson88-109">[109]</a> The term "holism" was coined in 1926 by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Smuts" title="Jan Smuts">Jan Christiaan Smuts</a>, a South African general and polarizing historical figure who was inspired by Clements' superorganism concept.<a href="#cite_note-Foster08-257">[257]</a><a href="#cnote_C">[C]</a> Around the same time, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sutherland_Elton" title="Charles Sutherland Elton">Charles Elton</a> pioneered the concept of food chains in his classical book Animal Ecology.<a href="#cite_note-Elton27-84">[84]</a> Elton<a href="#cite_note-Elton27-84">[84]</a> defined ecological relations using concepts of food chains, food cycles, and food size, and described numerical relations among different functional groups and their relative abundance. Elton's 'food cycle' was replaced by 'food web' in a subsequent ecological text.<a href="#cite_note-Allee32-258">[258]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_J._Lotka" title="Alfred J. Lotka">Alfred J. Lotka</a> brought in many theoretical concepts applying thermodynamic principles to ecology. In 1942, <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Lindeman" title="Raymond Lindeman">Raymond Lindeman</a> wrote a landmark paper on the <a href="/wiki/Trophic_dynamics#Trophic_dynamics_and_multitrophic_interactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Trophic dynamics">trophic dynamics</a> of ecology, which was published posthumously after initially being rejected for its theoretical emphasis. Trophic dynamics became the foundation for much of the work to follow on energy and material flow through ecosystems. <a href="/wiki/Robert_MacArthur" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert MacArthur">Robert MacArthur</a> advanced mathematical theory, predictions, and tests in ecology in the 1950s, which inspired a resurgent school of theoretical mathematical ecologists.<a href="#cite_note-McIntosh85-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cook77-259">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-Odum68-260">[260]</a> Ecology also has developed through contributions from other nations, including Russia's <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Vernadsky" title="Vladimir Vernadsky">Vladimir Vernadsky</a> and his founding of the biosphere concept in the 1920s<a href="#cite_note-Ghilarov95-261">[261]</a> and Japan's <a href="/wiki/Kinji_Imanishi" title="Kinji Imanishi">Kinji Imanishi</a> and his concepts of harmony in nature and habitat segregation in the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-Itô91-262">[262]</a> Scientific recognition of contributions to ecology from non-English-speaking cultures is hampered by language and translation barriers.<a href="#cite_note-Ghilarov95-261">[261]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> This whole chain of poisoning, then, seems to rest on a base of minute plants which must have been the original concentrators. But what of the opposite end of the food chain—the human being who, in probable ignorance of all this sequence of events, has rigged his fishing tackle, caught a string of fish from the waters of Clear Lake, and taken them home to fry for his supper? </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">Rachel Carson (1962)<a href="#cite_note-Carson62-263">[263]</a>: 48 </cite> </div> Ecology surged in popular and scientific interest during the 1960–1970s <a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">environmental movement</a>. There are strong historical and scientific ties between ecology, environmental management, and protection.<a href="#cite_note-McIntosh85-239">[239]</a> The historical emphasis and poetic naturalistic writings advocating the protection of wild places by notable ecologists in the history of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Aldo_Leopold" title="Aldo Leopold">Aldo Leopold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Tansley" title="Arthur Tansley">Arthur Tansley</a>, have been seen as far removed from urban centres where, it is claimed, the concentration of pollution and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a> is located.<a href="#cite_note-McIntosh85-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-Palamar08-264">[264]</a> Palamar (2008)<a href="#cite_note-Palamar08-264">[264]</a> notes an overshadowing by mainstream environmentalism of pioneering women in the early 1900s who fought for urban health ecology (then called <a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">euthenics</a>)<a href="#cite_note-Hunt-252">[252]</a> and brought about changes in environmental legislation. Women such as <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Swallow_Richards" title="Ellen Swallow Richards">Ellen Swallow Richards</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julia_Lathrop" title="Julia Lathrop">Julia Lathrop</a>, among others, were precursors to the more popularized environmental movements after the 1950s. In 1962, marine biologist and ecologist <a href="/wiki/Rachel_Carson" title="Rachel Carson">Rachel Carson</a>'s book <a href="/wiki/Silent_Spring" title="Silent Spring">Silent Spring</a> helped to mobilize the environmental movement by alerting the public to toxic <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">bioaccumulating</a> in the environment. Carson used ecological science to link the release of environmental toxins to human and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_health" title="Ecosystem health">ecosystem health</a>. Since then, ecologists have worked to bridge their understanding of the degradation of the planet's ecosystems with environmental politics, law, restoration, and natural resources management.<a href="#cite_note-Hammond09-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh85-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-Palamar08-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-Krebs99-265">[265]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/48px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/64px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/48px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/64px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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href="/wiki/Ecological_overshoot" title="Ecological overshoot">Ecological overshoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_psychology" title="Ecological psychology">Ecological psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecology movement">Ecology movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosophy" title="Ecosophy">Ecosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopsychology" title="Ecopsychology">Ecopsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_ecology" title="Information ecology">Information ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology" title="Philosophy of ecology">Philosophy of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_ecology" title="Sensory ecology">Sensory ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_ecology" title="Spiritual ecology">Spiritual ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Lists</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Glossary of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index of biology articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecologists" title="List of ecologists">List of ecologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ecology_terminology" title="Category:Ecology terminology">Terminology of ecology</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <div style="column-width: 30em;"><ol class="references" style="list-style-type:upper-alpha;"> <li id="cnote_A"><a href="#ref_A_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">In Ernst Haeckel's (1866) footnote where the term ecology originates, he also gives attribute to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: χώρας, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Ancient Greek">romanized</a>: khōrā, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'χωρα', meaning "dwelling place, distributional area" —quoted from Stauffer (1957).</div></li> <li id="cnote_B"><a href="#ref_B_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">This is a copy of Haeckel's original definition (Original: Haeckel, E. (1866) Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Allgemeine Grundzige der organischen Formen- Wissenschaft, mechanisch begriindet durch die von Charles Darwin reformirte Descendenz-Theorie. 2 vols. Reimer, Berlin.) translated and quoted from Stauffer (1957).</div></li> <li id="cnote_C"><a href="#ref_C_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">Foster & Clark (2008) note how Smut's holism contrasts starkly against his racial political views as the father of <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a>.</div></li> <li id="cnote_D"><a href="#ref_D_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">First introduced in MacArthur & Wilson's (1967) book of notable mention in the history and theoretical science of ecology, <a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Island_Biogeography" title="The Theory of Island Biogeography">The Theory of Island Biogeography</a>.</div></li> <li id="cnote_E"><a href="#ref_E_1">^</a> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">Aristotle wrote about this concept in <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a> (Quoted from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.mb.txt">The Internet Classics Archive</a> translation by <a href="/wiki/W._D._Ross" title="W. D. Ross">W. D. Ross</a>. Book VIII, Part 6): "To return to the difficulty which has been stated with respect both to definitions and to numbers, what is the cause of their unity? In the case of all things which have several parts and in which the totality is not, as it were, a mere heap, but the whole is something besides the parts, there is a cause; for even in bodies contact is the cause of unity in some cases and in others viscosity or some other such quality."</div></li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> S. E. Kingsland, "Foundational Papers: Defining Ecology as a Science", in L. A. Real and J. H. Brown, eds., Foundations of Ecology: Classic Papers with Commentaries. Chicago: U of Chicago Press, 1991. pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stadler98-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Stadler98_2-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStadlerMichalzikMüller1998" class="citation journal cs1">Stadler, B.; Michalzik, B.; Müller, T. 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BioScience. 48 (1): 13–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1313224">10.2307/1313224</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1313224">1313224</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110706210036/http://www.mathstat.ualberta.ca/~mlewis/publications/25Clark1998B.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 6 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=Reid%27s+paradox+of+rapid+plant+migration&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-24&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1313224&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1313224%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rft.au=Fastie%2C+C.&rft.au=Hurtt%2C+G.&rft.au=Jackson%2C+S.+T.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+C.&rft.au=King%2C+G.+A.&rft.au=Lewis%2C+M.&rft.au=Lynch%2C+J.&rft.au=Pacala%2C+S.&rft.au=Prentice%2C+Colin&rft.au=Schupp%2C+Eugene+W.&rft.au=Webb%2C+Thompson&rft.au=Wyckoff%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mathstat.ualberta.ca%2F~mlewis%2Fpublications%2F25Clark1998B.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dingle96-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Dingle96_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDingle1996" class="citation book cs1">Dingle, H. (18 January 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=adguyA_ZlAMC">Migration: The Biology of Life on the Move</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 480. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-509723-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-509723-8"><bdi>0-19-509723-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150318130627/http://books.google.com/books?id=adguyA_ZlAMC">Archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2015. 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London: Elsevier Academic Press. p. 324. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-088766-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-088766-8"><bdi>978-0-12-088766-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150318130712/http://books.google.com/books?id=RaCmF9PioCIC">Archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2015. 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Biology Research. 36 (1): 95–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4067%2FS0716-97602003000100008">10.4067/S0716-97602003000100008</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12795209">12795209</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+Research&rft.atitle=An+%22enactive%22+approach+to+integrative+and+comparative+biology%3A+Thoughts+on+the+table&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=95-99&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4067%2FS0716-97602003000100008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12795209&rft.au=Adrian+G+Palacios%2C+Francisco+Bozinovic&rft.au=Bozinovic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4067%252FS0716-97602003000100008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dukas-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Dukas_132-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReuven_Dukas1998" class="citation book cs1">Reuven Dukas (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nNRXQM7_R0UC&pg=PA4">"§1.3 Why study cognitive ecology?"</a>. In Reuven Dukas (ed.). Cognitive Ecology: The Evolutionary Ecology of Information Processing and Decision Making. University of Chicago Press. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-16932-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-16932-3"><bdi>978-0-226-16932-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150318140450/http://books.google.com/books?id=nNRXQM7_R0UC&pg=PA4">Archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2015. 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University of Chicago Press. pp. 1 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-16937-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-16937-8"><bdi>978-0-226-16937-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150318133553/http://books.google.com/books?id=TAiAcZ0Q9LQC&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2015. 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Retrieved 8 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Ecology+Review&rft.atitle=The+justice+of+ecological+restoration%3A+Environmental+history%2C+health%2C+ecology%2C+and+justice+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=82-94&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Palamar&rft.aufirst=C.+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanecologyreview.org%2Fpastissues%2Fher151%2Fpalamar.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcology" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krebs99-265"><a href="#cite_ref-Krebs99_265-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrebsWilsonBradburySiriwardena1999" class="citation journal cs1">Krebs, J. R.; Wilson, J. D.; Bradbury, R. B.; Siriwardena, G. M. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hillnet.com/silent_spring.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 31 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+second+Silent+Spring&rft.volume=400&rft.issue=6745&rft.pages=611-612&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9929695%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F23127&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999Natur.400..611K&rft.aulast=Krebs&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rft.au=Wilson%2C+J.+D.&rft.au=Bradbury%2C+R.+B.&rft.au=Siriwardena%2C+G.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hillnet.com%2Fsilent_spring.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEcology" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ecology&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style 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sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Ecology at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Ecology" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Ecology">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ecology" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Ecology">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Ecology" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Ecology">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ecology" class="extiw" title="q:Ecology">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Ecology" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Ecology">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ecology" class="extiw" title="b:Ecology">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ecology" class="extiw" title="v:Ecology">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ecology/">"Ecology"</a> entry by Alkistis Elliott-Graves in the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/ecology-102">The Nature Education Knowledge Project: Ecology</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nature" title="Template talk:Nature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Elements_of_nature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Elements of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">geological</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia_hypothesis" title="Gaia hypothesis">Gaia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere (Earth)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Clouds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlight" title="Moonlight">Moonlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">Wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin (abiogenesis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">astrobiology</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protista</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nature" title="Category:Nature">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_biology" title="Template talk:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">Branches of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biology_nav" title="Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biology_nav" title="Template talk:Biology nav"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biology_nav" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biology nav"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Introduction (<a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></li> <li>Properties (<a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> (<a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law"> Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">Alga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">in vivo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li>Ecology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glossaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecological terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Plant morphology terms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/16px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/24px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Biology">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Biology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Biology">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Earth" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Earth" title="Template:Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Earth" title="Template talk:Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Earth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Earth" title="Outline of Earth">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_atmosphere" title="Prebiotic atmosphere">Prebiotic atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">Troposphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">Stratosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesosphere" title="Mesosphere">Mesosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermosphere" title="Thermosphere">Thermosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exosphere" title="Exosphere">Exosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Energy balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">Continents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_in_culture" title="Earth in culture">Culture and society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">List of sovereign states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">dependent territories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_in_culture" title="Earth in culture">In culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Day" title="Earth Day">Earth Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Earth" title="Flag of Earth">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_symbol" title="Earth symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">World economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth#Etymology" title="Earth">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">World history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_zone" title="Time zone">Time zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World" title="World">World</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycles</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopositioning" title="Geopositioning">Geopositioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_globe" title="Virtual globe">Virtual globe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Earth structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_fluid_dynamics" title="Geophysical fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Geomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_imaging" title="Geophysical imaging">Tomography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Age of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremes_on_Earth" title="Extremes on Earth">Extremes on Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">Geologic record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">The Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Evolution of the Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_solar_terrestrial_planets" title="Geology of solar terrestrial planets">Geology of solar terrestrial planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Location_of_Earth" title="Location of Earth">Location in the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Earth" title="Category:Earth">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Environmental_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Environmental_science" title="Template:Environmental science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Environmental_science" title="Template talk:Environmental science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Environmental_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Geosciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_soil_science" title="Environmental soil science">Soil science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/100px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/150px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/200px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">green</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">Environmental design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">epidemiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_statistics" title="Environmental statistics">Environmental statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicology" title="Environmental toxicology">Environmental toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioecology" title="Radioecology">Radioecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_science" title="Sustainability science">Sustainability science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Natural resource management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollution control">Pollution control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">Public transport encouragement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">Remediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">Road ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">Sewage treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">Water purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_degrees" title="List of environmental degrees">Degrees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_journals#Environmental_sciences" title="List of environmental journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_research_institutes" title="List of environmental research institutes">Research institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" title="Glossary of environmental science">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_environment" title="List of years in the environment">Environment by year</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technogaianism" title="Technogaianism">Technogaianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_science" title="Category:Environmental science">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_scientists" title="Category:Environmental scientists">scientists</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Environmental sciences">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Environment" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Environment">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense, counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">r/K selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_ecology" style="border-spacing:0.2em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_ecology" title="Template:Branches of ecology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_ecology" title="Template talk:Branches of ecology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_ecology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of ecology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_ecology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology#Subdisciplines_of_ecology,_and_subdiscipline_classification" title="Outline of ecology">Branches of ecology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">Methodology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">Field ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_ecology" title="Quantitative ecology">Quantitative ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_scale" title="Spatial scale">Spatial scale</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microecology" title="Microecology">Microecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Organisation</a> or scope</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autecology" title="Autecology">Autecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Synecology">Synecology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Community ecology">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_ecology" title="Insect ecology">Insect ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a> or <a href="/wiki/Biogeographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogeographic">biogeographical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ecology" title="Polar ecology">Polar ecology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_ecology" title="Arctic ecology">Arctic ecology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_ecology" title="Desert ecology">Desert ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">Forest ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_ecology" title="Soil ecology">Soil ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_ecology" title="Tropical ecology">Tropical ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phenomena#Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">Ecological phenomena</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behavioral ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_ecology" title="Chemical ecology">Chemical ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_ecology" title="Disease ecology">Disease ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecophysiology" title="Ecophysiology">Ecophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotoxicology" title="Ecotoxicology">Ecotoxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ecology" title="Fire ecology">Fire ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_ecology" title="Genetic ecology">Genetic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_ecology" title="Molecular ecology">Molecular ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">Paleoecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(academic_field)" title="Social ecology (academic field)">Social ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_ecology" title="Thermal ecology">Thermal ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ecology" title="History of ecology">History of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Glossary of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ecology" title="Applied ecology">Applied ecology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosophy" title="Ecosophy">Ecosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output 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class="sister-bar-header">Ecology at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ecology" class="extiw" title="wikt:ecology">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ecology" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Ecology">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Ecology" class="extiw" title="q:Ecology">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ecology" class="extiw" title="b:Ecology">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4043207-5">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh99005735">United States</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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