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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Scope of agency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scope_of_agency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authority" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authority"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Authority</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Authority-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Authority subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Authority-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Actual_authority" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Actual_authority"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Actual authority</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Actual_authority-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Express_actual_authority" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Express_actual_authority"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Express actual authority</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Express_actual_authority-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implied_actual_authority" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implied_actual_authority"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Implied actual authority</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implied_actual_authority-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apparent_authority" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apparent_authority"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Apparent authority</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apparent_authority-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Watteau_v_Fenwick_in_the_UK" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Watteau_v_Fenwick_in_the_UK"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span><i>Watteau v Fenwick</i> in the UK</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Watteau_v_Fenwick_in_the_UK-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Liability</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Liability-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Liability subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Liability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Liability_of_agent_to_third_party" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liability_of_agent_to_third_party"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Liability of agent to third party</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liability_of_agent_to_third_party-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liability_of_agent_to_principal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liability_of_agent_to_principal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Liability of agent to principal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liability_of_agent_to_principal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liability_of_principal_to_agent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liability_of_principal_to_agent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Liability of principal to agent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liability_of_principal_to_agent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Duties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Termination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Termination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Termination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Termination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Partnerships_and_companies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Partnerships_and_companies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Partnerships and companies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Partnerships_and_companies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agency_relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agency_relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Agency relationships</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Agency_relationships-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Agency relationships subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Agency_relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agency_relationship_in_a_real_estate_transaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agency_relationship_in_a_real_estate_transaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Agency relationship in a real estate transaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agency_relationship_in_a_real_estate_transaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications_in_jurisdictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications_in_jurisdictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Applications in jurisdictions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications_in_jurisdictions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications in jurisdictions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications_in_jurisdictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_English_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_English_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>In English law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_English_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Irish_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Irish_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>In Irish law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Irish_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allograph" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allograph"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Allograph</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allograph-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled 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href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representaci%C3%B3n_legal" title="Representación legal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Representación legal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EB%A6%AC" title="대리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rappresentanza_legale" title="Rappresentanza legale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rappresentanza legale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Өкілдік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Өкілдік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_(vertegenwoordiger)" title="Agent (vertegenwoordiger) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Agent (vertegenwoordiger)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BB%A3%E7%90%86" title="代理 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="代理" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_(direito)" title="Representação (direito) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Representação (direito)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_(%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5)" title="Представительство (правоотношение) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Представительство (правоотношение)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acente" title="Acente – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Acente" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_l%C3%BD" title="Đại lý – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đại lý" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%84%8F%E4%BB%A3%E7%90%86%E4%BA%BA" title="生意代理人 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="生意代理人" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BB%A3%E7%90%86" title="代理 – Chinese" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Person representing another person in legal matters, and the laws enabling this</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Law_of_agency" title="Talk:Law of agency">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>law of agency</b> is an area of <a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">commercial law</a> dealing with a set of <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contractual</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quasi-contract" title="Quasi-contract">quasi-contractual</a> and non-contractual <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary" title="Fiduciary">fiduciary</a> relationships that involve a person, called the <b>agent</b>, who is authorized to act on behalf of another (called the <a href="/wiki/Principal_(commercial_law)" title="Principal (commercial law)">principal</a>) to create legal relations with a third party.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may be referred to as the equal relationship between a principal and an agent whereby the principal, expressly or implicitly, authorizes the agent to work under their control and on their behalf. The agent is, thus, required to negotiate on behalf of the principal or bring them and third parties into contractual relationship. This branch of law separates and regulates the relationships between: </p> <ul><li>agents and principals (internal relationship), known as the principal-agent relationship;</li> <li>agents and the third parties with whom they deal on their principals' behalf (external relationship); and</li> <li>principals and the third parties when the agents deal.</li></ul> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concepts">Concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reciprocal rights and liabilities between a principal and an agent reflect commercial and legal realities. A business owner often relies on an <a href="/wiki/Employee" class="mw-redirect" title="Employee">employee</a> or another person to conduct a business. In the case of a corporation, since a <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporation</a> can only act through <a href="/wiki/Natural_person" title="Natural person">natural person</a> agents, the principal is bound by the contract entered into by the agent, so long as the agent performs within the scope of the agency. </p><p>A third party may rely in good faith on the representation by a person who identifies himself as an agent for another. It is not always cost effective to check whether someone who is represented as having the authority to act for another actually has such authority. If it is subsequently found that the alleged agent was acting without necessary authority, the agent will generally be held liable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scope_of_agency">Scope of agency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scope of agency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The role of an agent and scope of their authority affect how the agent is described.<sup id="cite_ref-blacks_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blacks-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, </p> <ol><li>Universal agents are authorized to perform all lawful acts that the principal could personally perform.<sup id="cite_ref-blacks_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blacks-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 75">: 75 </span></sup></li> <li>General agents are authorized to transact all of the principal's business in a particular place or of a particular kind, for example, as a partner in business;<sup id="cite_ref-blacks_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blacks-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 73">: 73 </span></sup> and</li> <li>Special agents are authorized to perform either a specific transaction or task.<sup id="cite_ref-blacks_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blacks-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 74">: 74 </span></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Authority">Authority</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Authority"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An agent who acts within the scope of authority conferred by their principal binds the principal in the obligations they create against third parties. There are essentially three kinds of authority recognized in the law: actual authority (whether express or implied), apparent authority, and <a href="/wiki/Apparent_authority#Ratification" title="Apparent authority">ratified authority</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Actual_authority">Actual authority</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Actual authority"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Actual authority can be of two kinds. Either the principal may have expressly conferred authority on the agent, or authority may be implied. Authority arises by consensual agreement, and whether it exists is a question of fact. An agent, as a general rule, is only entitled to indemnity from the principal if they have acted within the scope of their actual authority, and if they act outside of that authority they may be in breach of contract, and liable to a third party for breach of the implied warranty of authority. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Express_actual_authority">Express actual authority</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Express actual authority"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Express actual authority means an agent has been expressly told they may act on behalf of a principal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Implied_actual_authority">Implied actual authority</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Implied actual authority"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Implied actual authority, also called "usual authority", is authority an agent has by virtue of being reasonably necessary to carry out his express authority. As such, it can be inferred by virtue of a position held by an agent. For example, partners have authority to bind the other partners in the firm, their liability being joint and several, and in a corporation, all executives and senior employees with decision-making authority by virtue of their position have authority to bind the corporation. Other forms of implied actual authority include customary authority. This is where customs of a trade imply the agent to have certain powers. In wool buying industries it is customary for traders to purchase in their own names.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also incidental authority, where an agent is supposed to have any authority to complete other tasks which are necessary and incidental to completing the express actual authority. This must be no more than necessary<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apparent_authority">Apparent authority</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Apparent authority"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Apparent_authority" title="Apparent authority">Apparent authority</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estoppel" title="Estoppel">Estoppel</a></div> <p>Apparent authority (also called "ostensible authority") exists where the principal's words or conduct would lead a reasonable person in the third party's position to believe that the agent was authorized to act, even if the principal and the purported agent had never discussed such a relationship. For example, where one person appoints a person to a position which carries with it agency-like powers, those who know of the appointment are entitled to assume that there is apparent authority to do the things ordinarily entrusted to one occupying such a position. If a principal creates the impression that an agent is authorized but there is no actual authority, third parties are protected so long as they have acted reasonably. This is sometimes termed "agency by <a href="/wiki/Estoppel" title="Estoppel">estoppel</a>" or the "doctrine of holding out", where the principal will be estopped from denying the grant of authority if third parties have changed their positions to their detriment in reliance on the representations made.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>Rama Corporation Ltd v Proved Tin and General Investments Ltd</i> [1952] 2 QB 147, Slade J, "Ostensible or apparent authority... is merely a form of estoppel, indeed, it has been termed agency by estoppel and you cannot call in aid an estoppel unless you have three ingredients: (i) a representation, (ii) reliance on the representation, and (iii) an alteration of your position resulting from such reliance."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Watteau_v_Fenwick_in_the_UK"><i>Watteau v Fenwick</i> in the UK</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Watteau v Fenwick in the UK"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Watteau_v_Fenwick" title="Watteau v Fenwick">Watteau v Fenwick</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lord Coleridge CJ on the Queen's Bench concurred with an opinion by Wills J that a third party could hold personally liable a principal who he did not know about when he sold cigars to an agent that was acting outside of its authority. Wills J held that "the principal is liable for all the acts of the agent which are within the authority usually confided to an agent of that character, notwithstanding limitations, as between the principal and the agent, put upon that authority." This decision is heavily criticised and doubted,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though not entirely overruled in the UK. It is sometimes referred to as "usual authority" (though not in the sense used by Lord Denning MR in <i>Hely-Hutchinson</i>, where it is synonymous with "implied actual authority"). It has been explained as a form of apparent authority, or "inherent agency power". </p><p>Authority by virtue of a position held to deter fraud and other harms that may befall individuals dealing with agents, there is a concept of Inherent Agency power, which is power derived solely by virtue of the agency relation.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Partnership" title="Partnership">partners</a> have apparent authority to bind the other partners in the firm, their liability being <a href="/wiki/Joint_and_several_liability" title="Joint and several liability">joint and several</a> (see below), and in a <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporation</a>, all executives and senior employees with decision-making authority by virtue of their declared position have apparent authority to bind the corporation. </p><p>Even if the agent does act without authority, the principal may ratify the transaction and accept liability on the transactions as negotiated. This may be express or implied from the principal's behavior, e.g. if the agent has purported to act in a number of situations and the principal has knowingly acquiesced, the failure to notify all concerned of the agent's lack of authority is an implied ratification to those transactions and an implied grant of authority for future transactions of a similar nature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Liability">Liability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Liability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liability_of_agent_to_third_party">Liability of agent to third party</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Liability of agent to third party"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If the agent has actual or apparent authority, the agent will not be liable for acts performed within the scope of such authority, as long as the relationship of the agency and the identity of the principal have been disclosed. When the agency is undisclosed or partially disclosed, however, both the agent and the principal are liable. Where the principal is not bound because the agent has no actual or apparent authority, the purported agent is liable to the third party for breach of the implied warranty of authority. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liability_of_agent_to_principal">Liability of agent to principal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Liability of agent to principal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If the agent has acted without actual authority, but the principal is nevertheless bound because the agent had apparent authority, the agent is liable to indemnify the principal for any resulting loss or damage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liability_of_principal_to_agent">Liability of principal to agent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Liability of principal to agent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If the agent has acted within the scope of the actual authority given, the principal must indemnify the agent for payments made during the course of the relationship whether the expenditure was expressly authorized or merely necessary in promoting the principal's business. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Duties">Duties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Duties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An agent owes the principal a number of duties. These include: </p> <ul><li>a duty to undertake the task or tasks specified by the terms of the agency;</li> <li>a duty to discharge his duties with care and due diligence;</li></ul> <p>An agent must not accept any new obligations that are inconsistent with the duties owed to the principal. An agent can represent the interests of more than one principal, conflicting or potentially conflicting, only after full disclosure and consent of the principal. An agent must not usurp an opportunity from the principal by taking it for himself or passing it on to a third party. </p><p>In return, the principal must make a full disclosure of all information relevant to the transactions that the agent is authorized to negotiate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Termination">Termination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Termination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The internal agency relationship may be dissolved by agreement. Under sections 201 to 210 of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Contract_Act_1872" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Contract Act 1872">Indian Contract Act 1872</a>, an agency may come to an end in a variety of ways: </p> <ol><li>Withdrawal by the agent – however, the principal cannot revoke an agency coupled with interest to the prejudice of such interest. An agency is coupled with interest when the agent himself has an interest in the subject-matter of the agency, e.g., where the goods are consigned by an upcountry constituent to a commission agent for sale, with poor to recoup himself from the sale proceeds, the advances made by him to the principal against the security of the goods; in such a case, the principal cannot revoke the agent's authority till the goods are actually sold and debts satisfied, nor is the agency terminated by death or insanity (illustrations to s. 201);</li> <li>By the agent renouncing the business of agency;</li> <li>By discharge of the contractual agency obligations.</li></ol> <p>Alternatively, agency may be terminated by operation of law: </p> <ol><li>By the death of either party;</li> <li>By the insanity of either party;</li> <li>By the <a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">bankruptcy</a> (insolvency) of either party;</li></ol> <p>The principal also cannot revoke the agent's authority after it has been partly exercised, so as to bind the principal (s. 204), though he can always do so, before such authority has been so exercised (s. 203). Further, under s. 205, if the agency is for a fixed period, the principal cannot terminate the agency before the time expired, except for sufficient cause. If he does, he is liable to compensate the agent for the loss caused to him thereby. The same rules apply where the agent, renounces an agency for a fixed period. Notice in this connection that want of skill, continuous disobedience of lawful orders, and rude or insulting behavior has been held to be sufficient cause for dismissal of an agent. Further, reasonable notice has to be given by one party to the other; otherwise, damage resulting from want of such notice, will have to be paid (s. 206). Under s. 207, the revocation or renunciation of an agency may be made expressly or implicitly by conduct. The termination does not take effect as regards the agent, till it becomes known to him and as regards third party, till the termination is known to them (s. 208). </p><p>When an agent's authority is terminated, it operates as a termination of subagent also (s. 210).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Partnerships_and_companies">Partnerships and companies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Partnerships and companies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This has become a more difficult area as states are not consistent on the nature of a partnership. Some states opt for the partnership as no more than an aggregate of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_person" title="Natural person">natural persons</a> who have joined the firm. Others treat the partnership as a <a href="/wiki/Business_entity" class="mw-redirect" title="Business entity">business entity</a> and, like a <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporation</a>, vest the partnership with a separate legal personality. Hence, for example, in <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> a partner is the agent of the other partners, whereas in <a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Scots law</a> "a [partnership] is a legal person distinct from the partners of whom it is composed"<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and so a partner is the agent of the partnership <i>per se</i>. This form of agency is inherent in the status of a partner and does not arise out of a contract of agency with a principal.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Is it not that the contract is so plain as not to need explicit statement? It is surely a contract none the less? Or is 'this form of agency' the form of agency in Scotland only, deriving from Partnership Act s. 4 and not from contract? But then s. 4 is only engaged when persons enter into a partnership relationship, so we're back where we were with an implied (but real) contract of agency when persons enter a partnership. (November 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Partnership_Act_1890" title="Partnership Act 1890">Partnership Act 1890</a> of the United Kingdom (which includes both England and Scotland) provides that a partner who acts within the scope of his actual authority (express or implied) will bind the partnership when he does anything in the ordinary course of carrying on partnership business. Even if that implied authority has been revoked or limited, the partner will have apparent authority unless the third party knows that the authority has been compromised. Hence, if the partnership wishes to limit any partner's authority, it must give express notice of the limitation to the world. However, there would be little substantive difference if English law was amended:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> partners will bind the partnership rather than their fellow partners individually. For these purposes, the knowledge of the partner acting will be <a href="/wiki/Imputation_(law)" title="Imputation (law)">imputed</a> to the other partners, or to the firm if a separate personality. The other partners or the firm are the principal and third parties are entitled to assume that the principal has been informed of all relevant information. This causes problems when one partner acts fraudulently or <a href="/wiki/Negligence" title="Negligence">negligently</a> and causes loss to clients of the firm. In most states, a distinction is drawn between knowledge of the firm's general business activities and the confidential affairs as they affect one client. Thus, there is no imputation if the partner is acting against the interests of the firm as a fraud. There is more likely to be liability in <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a> if the partnership benefited by receiving fee income for the work negligently performed, even if only as an aspect of the standard provisions of vicarious liability. Whether the injured party wishes to sue the partnership or the individual partners is usually a matter for the plaintiff since, in most jurisdictions, their liability is <a href="/wiki/Joint_and_several_liability" title="Joint and several liability">joint and several</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Agency_relationships">Agency relationships</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Agency relationships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Agency relationships are common in many <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">professional</a> areas. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employment</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_advisor" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial advisor">financial advice</a> (insurance agency, <a href="/wiki/Brokerage_firm" class="mw-redirect" title="Brokerage firm">stock brokerage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accountancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Accountancy">accountancy</a>)</li> <li>contract negotiation and <a href="/wiki/Promotion_(marketing)" title="Promotion (marketing)">promotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Business_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Business management">business management</a>) such as for <a href="/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">publishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fashion_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion model">fashion model</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Movies" class="mw-redirect" title="Movies">movies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">theatre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Show_business" title="Show business">show business</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sport" title="Sport">sport</a>.</li></ul> <p>An <i>agent</i> in <a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">commercial law</a> (also referred to as a <i>manager</i>) is a person who is authorized to act on behalf of another (called the <a href="/wiki/Principal_(commercial_law)" title="Principal (commercial law)"><i>principal</i></a> or <i>client</i>) to create a <a href="/wiki/Legal_relationship" title="Legal relationship">legal relationship</a> with a third party. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Legal_person" title="Legal person">legal entity</a> may also act as an agent: For example, two corporate groups may assign the task of intermediating an <a href="/wiki/M%26A" class="mw-redirect" title="M&A">M&A</a> transaction to a business agency, that acts as a 3rd party, in order to finalize the deal. This happens for example when you move over an entity to an intermediary holding company, before settling it into its final destination entity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agency_relationship_in_a_real_estate_transaction">Agency relationship in a real estate transaction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Agency relationship in a real estate transaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">Real estate</a> transactions refer to <a href="/wiki/Real_estate_broker" class="mw-redirect" title="Real estate broker">real estate brokerage</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mortgage_broker" title="Mortgage broker">mortgage brokerage</a>. In real estate brokerage, the buyers or sellers are the principals themselves and the broker or his salesperson who represents each principal is his agent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications_in_jurisdictions">Applications in jurisdictions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Applications in jurisdictions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_English_law">In English law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: In English law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Agency_in_English_law" title="Agency in English law">Agency in English law</a></div> <p>Agency law in the United Kingdom is a component of <a href="/wiki/UK_commercial_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK commercial law">UK commercial law</a>, and forms a core set of rules necessary for the smooth functioning of business. Agency law is primarily governed by the Common law and to a lesser extent by statutory instruments. </p><p>In 1986, the European Communities enacted Directive 86/653/EEC on self-employed commercial agents. In the UK, this was <a href="/wiki/Transposition_(law)" title="Transposition (law)">implemented into national law</a> in the Commercial Agents Regulations 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, agent and principals in a commercial agency relationship are subject both to the Common law and the Commercial Agents Regulations. </p><p>The Commercial Agents Regulations require agents to act “dutifully and in good faith” in performing their activities (Reg. 3); co-extensively, principals are required principals to act “dutifully and in good faith” in their “relations” with their commercial agents (Reg 4). Though there is no statutory definition of this obligation to act “dutifully and in good faith”, it has been suggested that it requires principals and agents to act "with honesty, openness and regard for the interests of the other party to the transaction". Two "normative precepts" <sup id="cite_ref-Tosato_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tosato-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> assist in concretising this standard of conduct: </p><p>"Firstly, expressing honesty and openness, commercial agents and principals must mutually co-operate in the performance of their agreement. Conduct in good faith requires that each party proactively take action to assist the other in the realisation of their bargain, as opposed to mere abstention from obstructive behaviour. However, whether a party has acted in good faith must not be determined by reference to a moral or metaphysical notion of co-operation; this assessment must be based on an objective appraisal of the actual commercial agency relationship. Accordingly, the intensity of the required co-operation will vary, depending on the terms of the contract and the pertinent commercial practices. </p><p>Secondly, commercial agents and principals must not exploit asymmetries in their agency relationship in such a manner that frustrates the legitimate expectations of the other party. In this respect, whether a conduct is in breach of the Obligation must be appraised holistically, considering all aspects of the relationship; material facts will include the contractual and commercial leverage of each party, their objective intentions as enshrined in the contract, and the business practices of the sector in question. Nevertheless, the starting axiom of this investigation must be that these are commercial relationships in which professionals are expected to be self-reliant and must be free to pursue their self-interest. Critically, this will not be an estimation aimed at achieving ontological fairness, a just bargain or equilibrium between the giving and receiving of commercial agents and principals".<sup id="cite_ref-Tosato_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tosato-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Irish_law">In Irish law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: In Irish law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Ireland, Directive 86/653/EEC was implemented in the Commercial Agents Regulations of 1994 and 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In India, for the purposes of contractual law, section 182 of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Contract_Act_1872" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Contract Act 1872">Contract Act 1872</a> defines agent as “a person employed to do any act for another or to represent another in dealings with third persons”.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to section 184 as between the principal and third persons, any person (whether he has contractual capacity or not) may become an agent. Thus, a minor or a person of unsound mind can also become an agent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Allograph">Allograph</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Allograph"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An allograph may be the opposite of an <a href="/wiki/Autograph" title="Autograph">autograph</a> – i.e. a person's words or name (<a href="/wiki/Signature" title="Signature">signature</a>) written by someone else.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In law, an allograph is a writing or signature made by an agent on behalf of a principal.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In American law, <a href="/wiki/Cheque" title="Cheque">checks</a> written by an agent of behalf of, and with the authority of, a principal are allographs for that principal.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 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a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trans-lex.org/911000">"Document-Id: 911000"</a>, <i>Trans-Lex.org</i>, <q>Restatement of Agency (Second) § 1. Agency; Principal; Agent. "(1) Agency is the fiduciary relation which results from the manifestation of consent by one person to another that the other shall act on his or her behalf and subject to her control, and consent by the other so to act. (2) The one for whom action is to be taken is the principal. (3) The one who is to act is the agent."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trans-Lex.org&rft.atitle=Document-Id%3A+911000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.trans-lex.org%2F911000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+agency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-blacks-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-blacks_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blacks_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blacks_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blacks_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Black's law dictionary</i> (9th ed.). St. Paul, MN: West. 2009. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0314199492" title="Special:BookSources/978-0314199492"><bdi>978-0314199492</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black%27s+law+dictionary&rft.place=St.+Paul%2C+MN&rft.pages=74&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=West&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0314199492&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+agency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cropper v Cook 1867</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rosenbaum v Belson 1900</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trans-lex.org/911000">"Document-Id: 911000"</a>, <i>Trans-Lex.org</i>, <q>Restatement of Agency (Second)§ 27: "Except for the execution of instruments under seal or for the conduct of transactions required by statute to be authorized in a particular way, apparent authority to do an act is created as to a third person by written or spoken words or any other conduct of the principal which, reasonably interpreted, causes the third person to believe that the principal consents to have the act done on his behalf by the person purporting to act for him."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trans-Lex.org&rft.atitle=Document-Id%3A+911000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.trans-lex.org%2F911000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+agency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[1893] 1 QB 346</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. GHL Fridman, 'The Demise of Watteau v Fenwick: Sign-O-Lite Ltd v Metropolitan Life Insurance Co' (1991) 70 <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Bar_Association" title="Canadian Bar Association">Canadian Bar</a> Review 329</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Restatement of Agency (Second) § 8A. Inherent Agency Power. "Inherent agency power is a term used in the restatement of this subject to indicate the power of an agent which is derived not from authority, apparent authority or estoppel, but solely from the agency relation and exists for the protection of persons harmed by or dealing with a servant or other agent."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pandia – Principles of Mercantile Law, 8th edition, by Ramkrishna R. Vyas.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/53-54/39/section/4">Partnership Act 1890, s. 4. </a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nationalarchives.gov.uk-webarchive.info/-/www.lawcom.gov.uk/docs/lc283.pdf">Law Commission Report 283 (Archived)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndrea_Tosato2010" class="citation cs2">Andrea Tosato (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.i-law.com/ilaw/doc/view.htm?id=330056"><i>An exploration of the European dimension of the Commercial Agents Regulations</i></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+exploration+of+the+European+dimension+of+the+Commercial+Agents+Regulations&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Andrea+Tosato&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.i-law.com%2Filaw%2Fdoc%2Fview.htm%3Fid%3D330056&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+agency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tosato-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tosato_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tosato_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTosato2016" class="citation journal cs1">Tosato, Andrea (2016-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180719134844/http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/34741/1/%5BUoN%5DCommercial%20Agency%20and%20the%20duty%20to%20act%20in%20good%20faith.pdf">"Commercial Agency and the Duty to Act in Good Faith"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Oxford Journal of Legal Studies</i>. <b>36</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">661–</span>695. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fojls%2Fgqv040">10.1093/ojls/gqv040</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0143-6503">0143-6503</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/34741/1/%5BUoN%5DCommercial%20Agency%20and%20the%20duty%20to%20act%20in%20good%20faith.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2018-07-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Journal+of+Legal+Studies&rft.atitle=Commercial+Agency+and+the+Duty+to+Act+in+Good+Faith&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E661-%3C%2Fspan%3E695&rft.date=2016-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fojls%2Fgqv040&rft.issn=0143-6503&rft.aulast=Tosato&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.nottingham.ac.uk%2F34741%2F1%2F%255BUoN%255DCommercial%2520Agency%2520and%2520the%2520duty%2520to%2520act%2520in%2520good%2520faith.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+agency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Donovan, D., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.orpenfranks.ie/commercial-agents-directive-termination-of-commercial-agency/">Commercial Agents Directive - Termination of Commercial Agency</a>, Orpen Franks Solicitors, accessed 2 December 2020</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trans-lex.org/911000">"Document-Id: 911000"</a>, <i>Trans-Lex.org</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trans-Lex.org&rft.atitle=Document-Id%3A+911000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.trans-lex.org%2F911000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+agency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJeremy_Hawthorn2000" class="citation cs2">Jeremy Hawthorn (2000), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/glossaryofcontem04edhawt"><i>A Glossary of Contemporary Literary Theory</i></a></span>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-76195-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-76195-4"><bdi>0-340-76195-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Glossary+of+Contemporary+Literary+Theory&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-340-76195-4&rft.au=Jeremy+Hawthorn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fglossaryofcontem04edhawt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+agency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlackGarner2009" class="citation book cs1">Black, Henry Campbell; Garner, Bryan Andrew (2009). <i>Black's law dictionary</i> (9th ed.). St. Paul, Minn: West. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0314199492" title="Special:BookSources/978-0314199492"><bdi>978-0314199492</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black%27s+law+dictionary&rft.place=St.+Paul%2C+Minn&rft.pages=88&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=West&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0314199492&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Henry+Campbell&rft.au=Garner%2C+Bryan+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+agency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/law/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/allograph">"Allograph"</a>. <i>West's Encyclopedia of American Law</i> – via encyclopedia.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Allograph&rft.btitle=West%27s+Encyclopedia+of+American+Law&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Flaw%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Fallograph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+agency" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_agency&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>LS Sealy and RJA Hooley, <i>Commercial Law: Text, Cases and Materials</i> (4th edn OUP 2009)</li></ul> <div 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law519" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_civil_law_(common_law)" title="Outline of civil law (common law)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">Public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution and unjust enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drugs law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-made_law" title="Man-made law">Man-made law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" 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