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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Pythagoreanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pythagoreanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heraclitus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heraclitus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Heraclitus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heraclitus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eleatic_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eleatic_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Eleatic philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eleatic_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pluralism_and_atomism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pluralism_and_atomism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Pluralism and atomism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pluralism_and_atomism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sophism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sophism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Sophism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sophism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Greek_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Greek_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classical Greek philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classical_Greek_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classical Greek philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classical_Greek_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Socrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Socrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plato" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plato"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Plato</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plato-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aristotle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristotle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Aristotle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristotle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cynicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cynicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Cynicism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cynicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cyrenaicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyrenaicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Cyrenaicism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyrenaicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Megarians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Megarians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Megarians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Megarians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Hellenistic philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hellenistic_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hellenistic philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pyrrhonism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pyrrhonism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Pyrrhonism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pyrrhonism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epicureanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epicureanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Epicureanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epicureanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stoicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stoicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Stoicism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stoicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Platonism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Platonism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Platonism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Platonism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Academic_skepticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_skepticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Academic skepticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_skepticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Platonism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Platonism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Middle Platonism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Platonism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neoplatonism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neoplatonism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>Neoplatonism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neoplatonism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmission_of_Greek_philosophy_in_the_medieval_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission_of_Greek_philosophy_in_the_medieval_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Transmission of Greek philosophy in the medieval period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmission_of_Greek_philosophy_in_the_medieval_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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Available in 57 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-57" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">57 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فلسفة يونانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة يونانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_griega" title="Filosofía griega – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Filosofía griega" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%C9%99dim_yunan_f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99si" title="Qədim yunan fəlsəfəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qədim yunan fəlsəfəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="প্রাচীন গ্রিক দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাচীন গ্রিক দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D2%93%D0%BE_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99%D2%BB%D0%B5" title="Боронғо грек фәлсәфәһе – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Боронғо грек фәлсәфәһе" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%8A%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Древногръцка философия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Древногръцка философия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starogr%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Starogrčka filozofija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Starogrčka filozofija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_grega" title="Filosofia grega – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia grega" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antick%C3%A1_%C5%99eck%C3%A1_filozofie" title="Antická řecká filozofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Antická řecká filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldtidens_gr%C3%A6ske_filosofi" title="Oldtidens græske filosofi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oldtidens græske filosofi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophenschulen_der_Antike" title="Philosophenschulen der Antike – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Philosophenschulen der Antike" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Αρχαία ελληνική φιλοσοφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αρχαία ελληνική φιλοσοφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_griega" title="Filosofía griega – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía griega" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greka_filozofio" title="Greka filozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Greka filozofio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinako_greziar_filosofia" title="Antzinako greziar filosofia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinako greziar filosofia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="فلسفه یونان باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه یونان باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_en_Gr%C3%A8ce_antique" title="Philosophie en Grèce antique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie en Grèce antique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_grega" title="Filosofía grega – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Filosofía grega" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%EA%B7%B8%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4_%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="고대 그리스 철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 그리스 철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF_%D5%B0%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Անտիկ հունական փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անտիկ հունական փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="यूनानी दर्शन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यूनानी दर्शन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starogr%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Starogrčka filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Starogrčka filozofija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasika_filozofio_Greka" title="Klasika filozofio Greka – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Klasika filozofio Greka" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_Yunani_Kuno" title="Filsafat Yunani Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat Yunani Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_grec" title="Philosophia grec – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Philosophia grec" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%ADsk_heimspeki" title="Grísk heimspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Grísk heimspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_greca" title="Filosofia greca – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofia greca" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פילוסופיה יוונית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה יוונית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B3%D1%96_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Ежелгі грек философиясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ежелгі грек философиясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi_analytik_an_Gr%C3%A8s_antik" title="Filozofi analytik an Grès antik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Filozofi analytik an Grès antik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_Greca_Antica" title="Filosofia Greca Antica – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Filosofia Greca Antica" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_Graeca_antiqua" title="Philosophia Graeca antiqua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia Graeca antiqua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senov%C4%97s_Graikijos_filosofija" title="Senovės Graikijos filosofija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senovės Graikijos filosofija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Старогрчка филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Старогрчка филозофија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="فلسفه يونانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فلسفه يونانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Эртний Грекийн философи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Эртний Грекийн философи" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AE%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="ギリシア哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ギリシア哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikkens_greske_filosofi" title="Antikkens greske filosofi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Antikkens greske filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%90_%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="لرغونې يوناني فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لرغونې يوناني فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ienshent_Griik_filasafi" title="Ienshent Griik filasafi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ienshent Griik filasafi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_da_Gr%C3%A9cia_Antiga" title="Filosofia da Grécia Antiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia da Grécia Antiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_greac%C4%83_clasic%C4%83" title="Filozofia greacă clasică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filozofia greacă clasică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Древнегреческая философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древнегреческая философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_e_lasht%C3%AB_greke" title="Filozofia e lashtë greke – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Filozofia e lashtë greke" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ancient Greek philosophy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A9cka_filozofia" title="Grécka filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Grécka filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starogr%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Starogrčka filozofija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Starogrčka filozofija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreikkalainen_filosofia" title="Kreikkalainen filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kreikkalainen filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaunang_pilosopiyang_Griyego" title="Sinaunang pilosopiyang Griyego – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sinaunang pilosopiyang Griyego" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="பண்டைய கிரேக்க மெய்யியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பண்டைய கிரேக்க மெய்யியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antik_Yunan_felsefesi" title="Antik Yunan felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antik Yunan felsefesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Давньогрецька філософія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Давньогрецька філософія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%DB%95%D8%AF%D9%89%D9%85%D9%82%D9%89_%D9%8A%DB%87%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%BE%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%BE%DB%95%D8%B3%D9%89" title="قەدىمقى يۇنان پەلسەپەسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="قەدىمقى يۇنان پەلسەپەسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%BA%BFt_h%E1%BB%8Dc_Hy_L%E1%BA%A1p_c%E1%BB%95_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Triết học Hy Lạp cổ đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Triết học Hy Lạp cổ đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="古希臘哲學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="古希臘哲學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefey_Yunan%C3%AA_Antiki" title="Felsefey Yunanê Antiki – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Felsefey Yunanê Antiki" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古希腊哲学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古希腊哲学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q999259#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophical origins and foundation of Western civilization</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Greek philosophy" redirects here. For later (<a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a>) philosophy in Greek, see <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_philosophy" title="Byzantine philosophy">Byzantine philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_theology" title="Eastern Orthodox theology">Eastern Orthodox theology</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be <b>updated</b>. 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href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Ancient Greek philosophy</b> arose in the 6th century BC. <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a> was used to make sense of the world using reason. It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>. Greek philosophy continued throughout the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> and later evolved into <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Greek philosophy has influenced much of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a> since its inception, and can be found in many aspects of public education. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a> once claimed: "The safest general characterization of the <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European philosophical tradition</a> is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> and Hellenistic philosophers to <a href="/wiki/Roman_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman philosophy">Roman philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>, the European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Greek philosophy was influenced to some extent by the older <a href="/wiki/Wisdom_literature" title="Wisdom literature">wisdom literature</a> and mythological <a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">cosmogonies</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a>, though the extent of this influence is widely debated. The classicist <a href="/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_West" title="Martin Litchfield West">Martin Litchfield West</a> states, "contact with oriental <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> helped to liberate the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">early Greek philosophers'</a> imagination; it certainly gave them many suggestive ideas. But they taught themselves to reason. Philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subsequent philosophic tradition was so influenced by <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> as presented by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> that it is conventional to refer to philosophy developed prior to Socrates as <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">pre-Socratic philosophy</a>. The periods following this, up to and after the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">wars of Alexander the Great</a>, are those of "Classical Greek" and "<a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>", respectively. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Greek_philosophy_(or_pre-Socratic_philosophy)"><span id="Early_Greek_philosophy_.28or_pre-Socratic_philosophy.29"></span>Early Greek philosophy (or pre-Socratic philosophy)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early Greek philosophy (or pre-Socratic philosophy)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Pre-Socratic philosophy</a></div> <p>The <b>convention</b> of terming those <a href="/wiki/Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophers">philosophers</a> who were active prior to the death of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> as the <i>pre-Socratics</i> gained currency with the 1903 publication of <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Alexander_Diels" title="Hermann Alexander Diels">Hermann Diels'</a> <i>Fragmente der Vorsokratiker</i>, although the term did not originate with him.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term is considered useful because what came to be known as the "Athenian school" (composed of Socrates, Plato, and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>) signaled the rise of a new approach to philosophy; <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>'s thesis that this shift began with Plato rather than with Socrates (hence his nomenclature of "pre-Platonic philosophy") has not prevented the predominance of the "pre-Socratic" distinction.<sup id="cite_ref-Whitlock_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitlock-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since 2016, however, current scholarship has transitioned from calling philosophy before the Athenian school "pre-Socratic" to simply "Early Greek Philosophy". André Laks and Glenn W. Most have been partly responsible for popularizing this shift in describing the era preceding the Athenian School through their comprehensive, nine volume Loeb editions of <i>Early Greek Philosophy</i>. In their first volume, they distinguish their systematic approach from that of Hermann Diels, beginning with the choice of "Early Greek Philosophy" over "pre-Socratic philosophy" most notably because Socrates is contemporary and sometimes even prior to philosophers traditionally considered "pre-Socratic" (e.g., the Atomists).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early Greek philosophers (or "pre-Socratics") were primarily concerned with <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, and mathematics. They were distinguished from "non-philosophers" insofar as they rejected mythological explanations in favor of reasoned discourse.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Milesian_school">Milesian school</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Milesian school"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Milesian school">Milesian school</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a>, regarded by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> as the first philosopher,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> held that all things arise from a single material substance, water.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is not because he gave a <a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">cosmogony</a> that <a href="/wiki/John_Burnet_(classicist)" title="John Burnet (classicist)">John Burnet</a> calls him the "first man of science", but because he gave a naturalistic explanation of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a> and supported it with reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to tradition, Thales was able to predict an <a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipse" title="Solar eclipse">eclipse</a> and taught the Egyptians how to measure the height of the <a href="/wiki/Pyramids" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyramids">pyramids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thales inspired the <a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Milesian school">Milesian school</a> of philosophy and was followed by <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a>, who argued that the substratum or <a href="/wiki/Arche#Arche_in_ancient_Greek_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Arche"><i>arche</i></a> could not be water or any of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">classical elements</a> but was instead something "unlimited" or "indefinite" (in Greek, the <i><a href="/wiki/Apeiron_(cosmology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Apeiron (cosmology)">apeiron</a></i>). He began from the observation that the world seems to consist of opposites (e.g., hot and cold), yet a thing can become its opposite (e.g., a hot thing cold). Therefore, they cannot truly be opposites but rather must both be manifestations of some underlying unity that is neither. This underlying unity (substratum, <i>arche</i>) could not be any of the classical elements, since they were one extreme or another. For example, water is wet, the opposite of dry, while fire is dry, the opposite of wet.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This initial state is ageless and imperishable, and everything returns to it according to necessity.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a> in turn held that the <i>arche</i> was air, although John Burnet argues that by this, he meant that it was a transparent mist, the <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)"><i>aether</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite their varied answers, the Milesian school was searching for a natural substance that would remain unchanged despite appearing in different forms, and thus represents one of the first scientific attempts to answer the question that would lead to the development of modern atomic theory; "the Milesians," says Burnet, "asked for the <a href="/wiki/Physis" title="Physis"><i>φύσις</i></a> of all things."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Xenophanes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a></div> <p>Xenophanes was born in <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a>, where the Milesian school was at its most powerful and may have picked up some of the Milesians' cosmological theories as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What is known is that he argued that each of the phenomena had a natural rather than divine explanation in a manner reminiscent of Anaximander's theories and that there was only one god, the world as a whole, and that he ridiculed the <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphism</a> of the Greek religion by claiming that cattle would claim that the gods looked like cattle, horses like horses, and lions like lions, just as the Ethiopians claimed that the gods were snub-nosed and black and the Thracians claimed they were pale and red-haired.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Xenophanes was highly influential to subsequent schools of philosophy. He was seen as the founder of a line of philosophy that culminated in <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> possibly an influence on <a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatic philosophy</a>, and a precursor to <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>' total break between science and religion.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pythagoreanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> lived at approximately the same time that Xenophanes did and, in contrast to the latter, the school that he founded sought to reconcile religious belief and reason. Little is known about his life with any reliability, however, and no writings of his survive, so it is possible that he was simply a <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystic</a> whose successors introduced rationalism into Pythagoreanism, that he was simply a <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> whose successors are responsible for the mysticism in Pythagoreanism, or that he was actually the author of the doctrine; there is no way to know for certain.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pythagoras is said to have been a disciple of <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> and to have imbibed the <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmological</a> concerns of the Ionians, including the idea that the cosmos is constructed of spheres, the importance of the infinite, and that air or aether is the <i>arche</i> of everything.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pythagoreanism also incorporated <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">ascetic</a> ideals, emphasizing purgation, <a href="/wiki/Metempsychosis" title="Metempsychosis">metempsychosis</a>, and consequently a respect for all animal life; much was made of the correspondence between mathematics and the cosmos in a musical harmony.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Heraclitus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></div> <p>Heraclitus must have lived after Xenophanes and Pythagoras, as he condemns them along with <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> as proving that much learning cannot teach a man to think; since <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> refers to him in the past tense, this would place him in the 5th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrary to the <a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Milesian school">Milesian school</a>, which posits one stable <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">element</a> as the <i><a href="/wiki/Arche" class="mw-redirect" title="Arche">arche</a></i>, Heraclitus taught that <i><a href="/wiki/Panta_rhei_(Heraclitus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Panta rhei (Heraclitus)">panta rhei</a></i> ("everything flows"), the closest element to this eternal flux being fire. All things come to pass in accordance with <i>Logos</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which must be considered as "plan" or "formula",<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "the <i>Logos</i> is common".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also posited a <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_opposites" title="Unity of opposites">unity of opposites</a>, expressed through <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>, which structured this flux, such as that seeming opposites in fact are manifestations of a common substrate to good and evil itself.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Heraclitus called the oppositional processes ἔρις (<i><a href="/wiki/Eris_(mythology)" title="Eris (mythology)">eris</a></i>), "strife", and hypothesized that the apparently stable state of δίκη (<i><a href="/wiki/Dike_(mythology)" title="Dike (mythology)">dikê</a></i>), or "justice", is the <a href="/wiki/Harmonia_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmonia (mythology)">harmonic</a> unity of these opposites.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eleatic_philosophy">Eleatic philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Eleatic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Parmenides_of_Elea" class="mw-redirect" title="Parmenides of Elea">Parmenides of Elea</a> cast his philosophy against those who held "it is and is not the same, and all things travel in opposite directions,"—presumably referring to Heraclitus and those who followed him.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas the doctrines of the Milesian school, in suggesting that the substratum could appear in a variety of different guises, implied that everything that exists is corpuscular, Parmenides argued that the first principle of being was One, indivisible, and unchanging.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which <i>is</i> can be thought; a thing which <i>is</i>, moreover, cannot be more or less, and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz. the space into which it moves), the One or Being cannot move, since this would require that "space" both exist and not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While this doctrine is at odds with ordinary sensory experience, where things do indeed change and move, the Eleatic school followed Parmenides in denying that sense phenomena revealed the world as it actually was; instead, the only thing with Being was thought, or the question of whether something exists or not is one of whether it can be thought.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In support of this, Parmenides' pupil <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno of Elea</a> attempted to prove that the concept of <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> was absurd and as such motion did not exist. He also attacked the subsequent development of pluralism, arguing that it was incompatible with Being.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His arguments are known as <a href="/wiki/Zeno%27s_paradoxes" title="Zeno's paradoxes">Zeno's paradoxes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pluralism_and_atomism">Pluralism and atomism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pluralism and atomism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The power of Parmenides' logic was such that some subsequent philosophers abandoned the <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</a> of the Milesians, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Parmenides, where one thing was the <i>arche</i>. In place of this, they adopted <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">pluralism</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were, they said, multiple elements which were not reducible to one another and these were set in motion by love and strife (as in Empedocles) or by Mind (as in Anaxagoras). Agreeing with Parmenides that there is no coming into being or passing away, genesis or decay, they said that things appear to come into being and pass away because the elements out of which they are composed assemble or disassemble while themselves being unchanging.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms. These, by means of their inherent movement, are crossing the void and creating the real material bodies. His theories were not well known by the time of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, however, and they were ultimately incorporated into the work of his student, <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sophism">Sophism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sophism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sophists" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophists">Sophists</a></div> <p>Sophism arose from the juxtaposition of <i><a href="/wiki/Physis" title="Physis">physis</a></i> (nature) and <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nomos" class="extiw" title="wikt:nomos">nomos</a></i> (law). John Burnet posits its origin in the scientific progress of the previous centuries which suggested that Being was radically different from what was experienced by the senses and, if comprehensible at all, was not comprehensible in terms of order; the world in which people lived, on the other hand, was one of law and order, albeit of humankind's own making.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, nature was constant, while what was by law differed from one place to another and could be changed. </p><p>The first person to call themselves a sophist, according to Plato, was <a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a>, whom he presents as teaching that all <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> is conventional. It was Protagoras who claimed that "man is the measure of all things, of the things that are, that they are, and of the things that are not, that they are not," which Plato interprets as a radical <a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">perspectivism</a>, where some things seem to be one way for one person (and so actually are that way) and another way for another person (and so actually are <i>that</i> way as well); the conclusion being that one cannot look to nature for guidance regarding how to live one's life.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Protagoras and subsequent sophists tended to teach <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> as their primary vocation. <a href="/wiki/Prodicus" title="Prodicus">Prodicus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus" title="Thrasymachus">Thrasymachus</a> appear in various <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_dialogues#The_dialogues" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's dialogues">dialogues</a>, sometimes explicitly teaching that while nature provides no ethical guidance, the guidance that the laws provide is worthless, or that nature favors those who act against the laws. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_Greek_philosophy">Classical Greek philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Classical Greek philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socrates">Socrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Socrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg/220px-British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg/330px-British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg/440px-British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="1584" /></a><figcaption>Four Greek philosophers: Socrates, Antisthenes, Chrysippos, Epicurus; British Museum</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, believed to have been born in Athens in the <a href="/wiki/Fifth-century_Athens" title="Fifth-century Athens">5th century BC</a>, marks a watershed in ancient Greek philosophy. Athens was a center of learning, with sophists and philosophers traveling from across Greece to teach rhetoric, astronomy, cosmology, and geometry. </p><p>While philosophy was an established pursuit prior to Socrates, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> credits him as "the first who brought philosophy down from the heavens, placed it in cities, introduced it into families, and obliged it to examine into life and morals, and good and evil."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By this account he would be considered the founder of <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reasons for this turn toward political and ethical subjects remain the object of much study.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fact that many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>) end without having reached a firm conclusion, or <a href="/wiki/Aporia" title="Aporia">aporetically</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has stimulated debate over the meaning of the <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Socrates is said to have pursued this probing question-and-answer style of examination on a number of topics, usually attempting to arrive at a defensible and attractive definition of a <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a>. </p><p>While Socrates' recorded conversations rarely provide a definite answer to the question under examination, several maxims or paradoxes for which he has become known recur. Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad, and so if anyone does something that truly is bad, it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance; consequently, all virtue is knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He frequently remarks on his own ignorance (claiming that he does not know what courage is, for example). <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> presents him as distinguishing himself from the common run of mankind by the fact that, while they know nothing noble and good, they do not <i>know</i> that they do not know, whereas Socrates knows and acknowledges that he knows nothing noble and good.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The great statesman <a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a> was closely associated with this new learning and a friend of <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a>, however, and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers; it became a crime to investigate the things above the heavens or below the earth, subjects considered impious. Anaxagoras is said to have been charged and to have fled into exile when Socrates was about twenty years of age.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a story that <a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a>, too, was forced to flee and that the Athenians burned his books.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Socrates, however, is the only subject recorded as charged under this law, convicted, and sentenced to death in 399 BC (see <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Socrates" title="Trial of Socrates">Trial of Socrates</a>). In the version of his <a href="/wiki/Apology_(Plato)" title="Apology (Plato)">defense speech</a> presented by Plato, he claims that it is the envy he arouses on account of his being a philosopher that will convict him. </p><p>Numerous subsequent philosophical movements were inspired by Socrates or his younger associates. Plato casts Socrates as the main interlocutor in his <a href="/wiki/Plato#Works" title="Plato">dialogues</a>, deriving from them the basis of <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a> (and by extension, <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>). Plato's student <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> in turn criticized and built upon the doctrines he ascribed to Socrates and Plato, forming the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a> founded the school that would come to be known as <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a> and accused Plato of distorting Socrates' teachings. <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a> in turn adapted the ethics of Cynicism to articulate <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> studied with Platonic and <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonist</a> teachers before renouncing all previous philosophers (including <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>, on whose atomism the <a href="/wiki/Epicurean" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicurean">Epicurean</a> philosophy relies). The philosophic movements that were to dominate the intellectual life of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> were thus born in this febrile period following Socrates' activity, and either directly or indirectly influenced by him. They were also absorbed by the expanding Muslim world in the 7th through 10th centuries AD, from which they returned to the West as foundations of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, as discussed below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plato">Plato</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Plato"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></div> <p>Plato was an <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athenian</a> of the generation after <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>. Ancient tradition ascribes thirty-six dialogues and thirteen <a href="/wiki/Epistles_(Plato)" title="Epistles (Plato)">letters</a> to him, although of these only twenty-four of the dialogues are now universally recognized as authentic; most modern scholars believe that at least twenty-eight dialogues and two of the letters were in fact written by Plato, although all of the thirty-six dialogues have some defenders.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further nine dialogues are ascribed to Plato but were considered spurious even in antiquity.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plato's dialogues feature Socrates, although not always as the leader of the conversation. (One dialogue, the <a href="/wiki/Laws_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws (Plato)"><i>Laws</i></a>, instead contains an "Athenian Stranger".) Along with <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>, Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates' life and beliefs and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two. While the Socrates presented in the dialogues is often taken to be Plato's mouthpiece, Socrates' reputation for <a href="/wiki/Irony" title="Irony">irony</a>, his caginess regarding his own opinions in the dialogues, and his occasional absence from or minor role in the conversation serve to conceal Plato's doctrines.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of what is said about his doctrines is derived from what Aristotle reports about them. </p><p>The political doctrine ascribed to Plato is derived from the <a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)"><i>Republic</i></a>, the <a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)"><i>Laws</i></a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Statesman_(dialogue)" title="Statesman (dialogue)"><i>Statesman</i></a>. The first of these contains the suggestion that there will not be justice in cities unless they are ruled by <a href="/wiki/Philosopher_king" title="Philosopher king">philosopher kings</a>; those responsible for enforcing the laws are compelled to hold their women, children, and property in <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">common</a>; and the individual is taught to pursue the common good through <a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">noble lies</a>; the <i>Republic</i> says that such a city is likely impossible, however, generally assuming that philosophers would refuse to rule and the people would refuse to compel them to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-Strauss_Plato_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strauss_Plato-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whereas the <i>Republic</i> is premised on a distinction between the sort of knowledge possessed by the philosopher and that possessed by the king or political man, Socrates explores only the character of the philosopher; in the <i>Statesman</i>, on the other hand, a participant referred to as the Eleatic Stranger discusses the sort of knowledge possessed by the political man, while Socrates listens quietly.<sup id="cite_ref-Strauss_Plato_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strauss_Plato-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law, the wise cannot help but be judged by the unwise, and so in practice, rule by law is deemed necessary. </p><p>Both the <i>Republic</i> and the <i>Statesman</i> reveal the limitations of politics, raising the question of what political order would be best given those constraints; that question is addressed in the <i>Laws</i>, a dialogue that does not take place in Athens and from which Socrates is absent.<sup id="cite_ref-Strauss_Plato_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strauss_Plato-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The character of the society described there is eminently conservative, a corrected or liberalized <a href="/wiki/Timocracy" title="Timocracy">timocracy</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Sparta#Classical_Sparta" title="Sparta">Spartan</a> or <a href="/wiki/History_of_Crete#Classical,_Hellenistic,_Roman,_Byzantine_and_Arab_Crete" title="History of Crete">Cretan</a> model or that of pre-democratic <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Strauss_Plato_55-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strauss_Plato-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plato's dialogues also have <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> themes, the most famous of which is his <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">theory of forms</a>. It holds that non-material abstract (but <a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">substantial</a>) forms (or ideas), and not the material world of change known to us through our physical senses, possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality. He argued extensively in the <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedo" title="Phaedo">Phaedo</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> for the immortality of the soul, and he believed specifically in <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plato often uses long-form <a href="/wiki/Analogies" class="mw-redirect" title="Analogies">analogies</a> (usually <a href="/wiki/Allegories" class="mw-redirect" title="Allegories">allegories</a>) to explain his ideas; the most famous is perhaps the <a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_Cave" class="mw-redirect" title="Allegory of the Cave">Allegory of the Cave</a>. It likens most humans to people tied up in a cave, who look only at shadows on the walls and have no other conception of reality.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If they turned around, they would see what is casting the shadows (and thereby gain a further dimension to their reality). If some left the cave, they would see the outside world illuminated by the sun (representing the ultimate form of goodness and truth). If these travelers then re-entered the cave, the people inside (who are still only familiar with the shadows) would not be equipped to believe reports of this 'outside world'.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This story explains the theory of forms with their different levels of reality, and advances the view that philosopher-kings are wisest while most humans are ignorant.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One student of Plato, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, who would become another of the most influential philosophers of all time, stressed the implication that understanding relies upon first-hand observation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristotle">Aristotle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Aristotle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></div> <p>Aristotle moved to Athens from his native <a href="/wiki/Stageira" class="mw-redirect" title="Stageira">Stageira</a> in 367 BC and began to study philosophy (perhaps even rhetoric, under <a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a>), eventually enrolling at <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Plato's Academy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lord_Intro_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lord_Intro-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He left Athens approximately twenty years later to study <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, became a tutor of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, and ultimately returned to Athens a decade later to establish his own school: the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)" title="Lyceum (classical)">Lyceum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least twenty-nine of his treatises have survived, known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Aristotelicum" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpus Aristotelicum">corpus Aristotelicum</a></i>, and address a variety of subjects including <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, botany, and zoology. </p><p>Aristotle is often portrayed as disagreeing with his teacher Plato (e.g., in <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>'s <a href="/wiki/School_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="School of Athens">School of Athens</a>). He criticizes the <a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">regimes</a> described in Plato's <a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)"><i>Republic</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)"><i>Laws</i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and refers to the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">theory of forms</a> as "empty words and poetic metaphors".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is generally presented as giving greater weight to empirical observation and practical concerns. </p><p>Aristotle's fame was not great during the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> logic was in vogue, but later <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">peripatetic</a> commentators popularized his work, which eventually contributed heavily to Islamic, Jewish, and medieval Christian philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His influence was such that <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> referred to him simply as "the Master"; <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfarabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfarabi">Alfarabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquinas">Aquinas</a> as "the Philosopher". </p><p>Aristotle opposed the utopian style of theorizing, deciding to rely on the understood and observed behaviors of people in reality to formulate his theories. Stemming from an underlying moral assumption that life is valuable, the philosopher makes a point that scarce resources ought to be responsibly allocated to reduce poverty and death. This 'fear of goods' led Aristotle to exclusively support 'natural' trades in which personal satiation was kept at natural limit of consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 'Unnatural' trade, as opposed to the intended limit, was classified as the acquisition of wealth to attain more wealth instead of to purchase more goods.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cutting more along the grain of reality, Aristotle did not only set his mind on how to give people direction to make the right choices but wanted each person equipped with the tools to perform this moral duty. In his own words, "Property should be in a certain sense common, but, as a general rule, private; for, when everyone has a distinct interest, men will not complain of one another, and they will make more progress because everyone will be attending to his own business... And further, there is the greatest pleasure in doing a kindness or service to friends or guests or companions, which can only be rendered when a man has private property. These advantages are lost by excessive unification of the state."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cynicism">Cynicism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cynicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism (philosophy)</a></div> <p>Cynicism was founded by <a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a>, who was a disciple of Socrates, as well as <a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a>, his contemporary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling201999_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201999-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their aim was to live according to nature and against convention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling201999_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling201999-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Antisthenes was inspired by the ascetism of Socrates, and accused Plato of pride and conceit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019100_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019100-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diogenes, his follower, took the ideas to their limit, living in extreme poverty and engaging in anti-social behaviour. <a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes" title="Crates of Thebes">Crates of Thebes</a> was, in turn, inspired by Diogenes to give away his fortune and live on the streets of Athens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019102_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019102-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cyrenaicism">Cyrenaicism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cyrenaicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a> were founded by <a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a> of Cyrene, who was a pupil of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>. The Cyrenaics were <a href="/wiki/Hedonists" class="mw-redirect" title="Hedonists">hedonists</a> and held that pleasure was the supreme good in life, especially physical pleasure, which they thought more intense and more desirable than mental pleasures.<sup id="cite_ref-annas231_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-annas231-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pleasure is the only good in life and pain is the only evil. <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> had held that <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> was the only human good, but he had also accepted a limited role for its utilitarian side, allowing pleasure to be a secondary goal of moral action.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristippus and his followers seized upon this, and made pleasure the sole final goal of life, denying that virtue had any intrinsic value. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Megarians">Megarians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Megarians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a> flourished in the 4th century BC. It was founded by <a href="/wiki/Euclides_of_Megara" class="mw-redirect" title="Euclides of Megara">Euclides of Megara</a>, one of the pupils of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>. Its ethical teachings were derived from Socrates, recognizing a single <a href="/wiki/Form_of_the_Good" title="Form of the Good">good</a>, which was apparently combined with the <a href="/wiki/Eleatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleatic">Eleatic</a> doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Unity</a>. Their work on <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logical_conditional" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical conditional">logical conditionals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Propositional_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional logic">propositional logic</a> played an important role in the development of logic in antiquity, and were influences on the subsequent creation of <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hellenistic_philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Hellenistic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg/220px-Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg/330px-Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg/440px-Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1480" /></a><figcaption>The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Elis" title="Ancient Elis">Elis</a>, in an anecdote taken from <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a>' <i>Outlines of Pyrrhonism</i><br /><div style="background-color:#EEE9BF;text-align: center;">(upper) PIRRHO • HELIENSIS •<br /> PLISTARCHI • FILIVS<br /> translation (from Latin): Pyrrho • Greek • Son of Plistarchus</div><br /><div style="background-color:#EEE9BF;text-align: center;">(middle) OPORTERE • SAPIENTEM<br /> HANC ILLIVS IMITARI<br /> SECVRITATEM translation (from Latin): It is right wisdom then that all imitate this security (Pyrrho pointing at a peaceful pig munching his food)</div><br /><div style="background-color:#EEE9BF;text-align: center;">(lower) Whoever wants to apply the real wisdom, shall not mind <a href="/wiki/Trepidation" title="Trepidation">trepidation</a> and misery</div></figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> periods, many different schools of thought developed in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic world</a> and then the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> world. The spread of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> throughout the Roman world, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">spread of Islam</a>, ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a>, which was dominated by the three <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> traditions: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">early Islamic philosophy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pyrrhonism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho_of_Elis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrrho of Elis">Pyrrho of Elis</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritean</a> philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">traveled to India</a> with <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s army where Pyrrho was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> teachings, most particularly the <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">three marks of existence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After returning to Greece, Pyrrho started a new school of philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>, which taught that it is one's opinions about non-evident matters (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a>) that prevent one from attaining <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a>. Pyrrhonism places the attainment of <a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">ataraxia</a> (a state of <a href="/wiki/Equanimity" title="Equanimity">equanimity</a>) as the way to achieve eudaimonia. To bring the mind to ataraxia Pyrrhonism uses <a href="/wiki/Epoch%C3%A9" title="Epoché">epoché</a> (<a href="/wiki/Suspension_of_judgment" title="Suspension of judgment">suspension of judgment</a>) regarding all non-evident propositions. Pyrrhonists dispute that the dogmatists – which includes all of Pyrrhonism's rival philosophies – have found <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> regarding non-evident matters. For any non-evident matter, a Pyrrhonist makes arguments for and against such that the matter cannot be concluded, thus suspending belief and thereby inducing ataraxia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Epicureanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> studied in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> with <a href="/wiki/Nausiphanes" title="Nausiphanes">Nausiphanes</a>, who was a follower of <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> and a student of <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho_of_Elis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrrho of Elis">Pyrrho of Elis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019103_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019103-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He accepted Democritus' theory of atomism, with improvements made in response to criticisms by Aristotle and others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019104_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019104-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His ethics were based on "the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019106_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019106-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was, however, not simple <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonism</a>, as he noted that "We do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or of sensuality . . . we mean the <a href="/wiki/Aponia" class="mw-redirect" title="Aponia">absence of pain</a> in the body and trouble in the mind".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019106_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019106-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stoicism">Stoicism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Stoicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></div> <p>The founder of Stoicism, <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a>, was taught by Crates of Thebes, and he took up the Cynic ideals of continence and self-mastery, but applied the concept of <a href="/wiki/Apatheia" title="Apatheia">apatheia</a> (indifference) to personal circumstances rather than social norms, and switched shameless flouting of the latter for a resolute fulfillment of social duties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019107–108_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019107–108-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Logic and physics were also part of early Stoicism, further developed by Zeno's successors <a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019108_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019108-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stoic_physics" title="Stoic physics">Their metaphysics</a> was based in <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>, which was structured by <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a>, reason (but also called God or fate).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019108–109_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019108–109-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stoic_logic" title="Stoic logic">Their logical contributions</a> still feature in contemporary <a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">propositional calculus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019110_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019110-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their ethics was based on pursuing happiness, which they believed was a product of 'living in accordance with nature'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019112_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019112-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This meant accepting those things which one could not change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019112_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019112-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One could therefore choose whether to be happy or not by adjusting one's attitude towards their circumstances, as the freedom from fears and desires was happiness itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019114_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019114-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Platonism">Platonism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Platonism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></div> <p>Platonism is the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, asserting the existence of <a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">abstract objects</a>, which exist in a realm distinct from both the physical world and the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP-P_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-P-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Central to Platonism is the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of Forms</a>, where ideal Forms or perfect archetypes are considered the true reality, with the physical world being an imperfect reflection.<sup id="cite_ref-seyffert481_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seyffert481-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This philosophy has influenced <a href="/wiki/Western_thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Western thought">Western thought</a>, emphasizing the difference between the changing, perceptible world and the unchanging, intelligible realm. Platonism stands in opposition to <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalism</a>, which denies the existence of such abstract entities.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Academic_skepticism">Academic skepticism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Academic skepticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic skepticism</a></div> <p>Around 266 BC, <a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a> became head of the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Platonic Academy</a>, and adopted skepticism as a central tenet of <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a>, making Platonism nearly the same as <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Arcesilaus, Academic skepticism diverged from Pyrrhonism.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This skeptical period of ancient Platonism, from <a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a> to <a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a>, became known as the <a href="/wiki/New_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="New Academy">New Academy</a>, although some ancient authors added further subdivisions, such as a <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy#Middle_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Middle Academy</a>. The Academic skeptics did not doubt the existence of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>; they just doubted that humans had the capacities for obtaining it.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith:Arcesilaus_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith:Arcesilaus-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They based this position on Plato's <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedo_(dialogue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phaedo (dialogue)">Phaedo</a></i>, sections 64–67,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which Socrates discusses how knowledge is not accessible to mortals.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the objective of the Pyrrhonists was the attainment of <a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">ataraxia</a>, after Arcesilaus the Academic skeptics did not hold up ataraxia as the central objective. The Academic skeptics focused on criticizing the <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogmas</a> of other schools of philosophy, in particular of the dogmatism of the <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a>. They acknowledged some vestiges of a moral law within, at best but a plausible guide, the possession of which, however, formed the real distinction between the <a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">sage</a> and the fool.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith:Arcesilaus_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith:Arcesilaus-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slight as the difference may appear between the positions of the Academic skeptics and the Pyrrhonists, a comparison of their lives leads to the conclusion that a practical philosophical moderation was the characteristic of the Academic skeptics<sup id="cite_ref-Smith:Arcesilaus_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith:Arcesilaus-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas the objectives of the Pyrrhonists were more psychological. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Middle_Platonism">Middle Platonism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Middle Platonism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></div> <p>Following the end of the skeptical period of the Academy with <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus of Ascalon</a>, Platonic thought entered the period of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a>, which absorbed ideas from the Peripatetic and Stoic schools. More extreme <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> was done by <a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a>, who combined it with <a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Neoplatonism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></div> <p>Also affected by the neopythagoreans, the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">neoplatonists</a>, first of them <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>, argued that mind exists before matter, and that the universe has a singular cause which must therefore be a single mind.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019124_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019124-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, neoplatonism became essentially a <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, and had great impact on <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Gnosticism" title="Neoplatonism and Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Christianity" title="Neoplatonism and Christianity">Christian theology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019124_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019124-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Transmission_of_Greek_philosophy_in_the_medieval_period">Transmission of Greek philosophy in the medieval period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Transmission of Greek philosophy in the medieval period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arab_transmission_of_the_Classics_to_the_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab transmission of the Classics to the West">Arab transmission of the Classics to the West</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">Latin translations of the 12th century</a></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, Greek ideas were largely forgotten in Western Europe due to the decline in <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, however, Greek ideas were preserved and studied. <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a> (Alkindus), <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a> (Alpharabius), Ibn Sina (<a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>) and Ibn Rushd (<a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>) also reinterpreted these works after the <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliphs</a> authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige. During the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a> Greek philosophy re-entered the West through both <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">translations from Arabic to Latin</a> and original Greek manuscripts from the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The re-introduction of these philosophies, accompanied by the new Arabic commentaries, had a great influence on <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_philosophy" title="Byzantine philosophy">Byzantine philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_philosophy" title="Definitions of philosophy">Definitions of philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_words_of_Greek_origin" title="English words of Greek origin">English words of Greek origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary" title="International scientific vocabulary">International scientific vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="List of ancient Greek philosophers">List of ancient Greek philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translingualism" title="Translingualism">Translingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transliteration_of_Greek_into_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Transliteration of Greek into English">Transliteration of Greek into English</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hellenism.net/greece/ancient-greek-literature/greek-philosophers/">"Ancient Greek philosophy, Herodotus, famous ancient Greek philosophers. Ancient Greek philosophy at Hellenism.Net"</a>. <i>www.hellenism.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-01-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hellenism.net&rft.atitle=Ancient+Greek+philosophy%2C+Herodotus%2C+famous+ancient+Greek+philosophers.+Ancient+Greek+philosophy+at+Hellenism.Net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hellenism.net%2Fgreece%2Fancient-greek-literature%2Fgreek-philosophers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alfred North Whitehead (1929), <i><a href="/wiki/Process_and_Reality" title="Process and Reality">Process and Reality</a></i>, Part II, Chap. I, Sect. I.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kevinscharp.com/Kevin%20Scharp%20-%20%20Diagrams.htm">Kevin Scharp (Department of Philosophy, Ohio State University) – Diagrams</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141031222017/http://kevinscharp.com/Kevin%20Scharp%20-%20%20Diagrams.htm">Archived</a> 2014-10-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffinBoardmanMurray2001" class="citation book cs1">Griffin, Jasper; Boardman, John; Murray, Oswyn (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7fY2eCEFkKgC&pg=PA140"><i>The Oxford history of Greece and the Hellenistic world</i></a>. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280137-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280137-1"><bdi>978-0-19-280137-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+history+of+Greece+and+the+Hellenistic+world&rft.place=Oxford+%5BOxfordshire%5D&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280137-1&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Jasper&rft.au=Boardman%2C+John&rft.au=Murray%2C+Oswyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7fY2eCEFkKgC%26pg%3DPA140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greg Whitlock, preface to <i>The Pre-Platonic Philosophers</i>, by Friedrich Nietzsche (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), xiv–xvi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whitlock-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whitlock_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greg Whitlock, preface to <i>The Pre-Platonic Philosophers</i>, by Friedrich Nietzsche (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), xiii–xix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <i>Early Greek Philosophy, Volume 1: Introductory and Reference Material</i>, Edited and Translated by André Laks and Glenn W. Most, Loeb Classical Library 524 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016) 6–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy: Thales to Plato</i>, 3rd ed. (London: A & C Black Ltd., 1920), 3–16. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/p1greekphilosoph00burnuoft#page/n9/mode/2up">Scanned version from Internet Archive</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)"><i>Metaphysics Alpha</i></a>, 983b18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i>Metaphysics Alpha</i>, 983 b6 8–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 3–4, 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 18–20; <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)"><i>Histories</i></a>, I.74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 22–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuthrieGuthrie1978" class="citation book cs1">Guthrie, W. K. C.; Guthrie, William Keith Chambers (May 14, 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ogUR3V9wbbIC&pg=PA83"><i>A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 1, The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521294201" title="Special:BookSources/9780521294201"><bdi>9780521294201</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Greek+Philosophy%3A+Volume+1%2C+The+Earlier+Presocratics+and+the+Pythagoreans&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978-05-14&rft.isbn=9780521294201&rft.aulast=Guthrie&rft.aufirst=W.+K.+C.&rft.au=Guthrie%2C+William+Keith+Chambers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DogUR3V9wbbIC%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 35; Diels-Kranz, <i>Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker</i>, Xenophanes frs. 15–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Praeparatio_Evangelica" class="mw-redirect" title="Praeparatio Evangelica">Praeparatio Evangelica</a></i> Chapter XVII</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 33, 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 37–38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 38–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 40–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C.M. Bowra 1957 <i>The Greek experience</i> p. 166"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DK B1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">pp. 419ff., <a href="/wiki/W.K.C._Guthrie" class="mw-redirect" title="W.K.C. Guthrie">W.K.C. Guthrie</a>, <i>A History of Greek Philosophy</i>, vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, 1962.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DK B2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 57–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DK B80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 66–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 105–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnet, <i>Greek Philosophy</i>, 113–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Marcus Tullius Cicero</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tusculan_Disputations" class="mw-redirect" title="Tusculan Disputations">Tusculan Disputations</a></i>, V 10–11 (or V IV).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Strauss, <i>Natural Right and History</i> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seth Benardete, <i>The Argument of the Action</i> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 277–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laurence Lampert, <i>How Philosophy Became Socratic</i> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)"><i>Republic</i></a> 336c & 337a, <a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)" title="Theaetetus (dialogue)"><i>Theaetetus</i></a> 150c, <a href="/wiki/Apology_(Plato)" title="Apology (Plato)"><i>Apology of Socrates</i></a> 23a; <a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memorabilia_(Xenophon)" title="Memorabilia (Xenophon)"><i>Memorabilia</i></a> 4.4.9; <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">Sophistical Refutations</a></i> 183b7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/W.K.C._Guthrie" class="mw-redirect" title="W.K.C. Guthrie">W.K.C. Guthrie</a>, <i>The Greek Philosophers</i> (London: Methuen, 1950), 73–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Terence_Irwin" title="Terence Irwin">Terence Irwin</a>, <i>The Development of Ethics</i>, vol. 1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007), 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerasimos Santas, "The Socratic Paradoxes", <i>Philosophical Review</i> 73 (1964): 147–64, 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Apology_(Plato)" title="Apology (Plato)"><i>Apology of Socrates</i></a> 21d.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Debra Nails, <i>The People of Plato</i> (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2002), 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nails, <i>People of Plato</i>, 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John M. Cooper, ed., <i>Complete Works</i>, by Plato (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997), v–vi, viii–xii, 1634–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cooper, ed., <i>Complete Works</i>, by Plato, v–vi, viii–xii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a>, <i>The City and Man</i> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 50–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strauss_Plato-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Strauss_Plato_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strauss_Plato_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strauss_Plato_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strauss_Plato_55-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo Strauss, "Plato", in <i>History of Political Philosophy</i>, ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1987): 33–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Kamtekar,_Rachana" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamtekar, Rachana">Kamtekar, Rachana</a>. “The Soul’s (After-) Life,” <i>Ancient Philosophy</i> 36 (2016): 1–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classicalastrologer.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/plato-allegory-of-the-cave.pdf">"Plato – Allegory of the cave"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>classicalastrologer.files.wordpress.com</i>.</cite><span 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=washington.edu&rft.atitle=Allegory+of+the+Cave&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.washington.edu%2Fsmcohen%2F320%2Fcave.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKemerling" class="citation web cs1">Kemerling, Garth. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/2h.htm">"Plato: The Republic 5–10"</a>. <i>philosophypages.com</i>.</cite><span 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 14,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jstor&rft.atitle=PLATONISM+VERSUS+NOMINALISM%3A+CARNAP+AND+GOODMAN&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Haack&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27902552&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a>, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.232</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.225–231</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith:Arcesilaus-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith:Arcesilaus_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith:Arcesilaus_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith:Arcesilaus_87-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1870" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(lexicographer)" title="William Smith (lexicographer)">Smith, William</a>, ed. 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"Arcesilaus". <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Biography_and_Mythology" title="Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology">Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arcesilaus&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Biography+and+Mythology&rft.date=1870&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0170:text=Phaedo:page=64">"Plato, Phaedo, page 64"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Plato%2C+Phaedo%2C+page+64&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DPhaedo%3Apage%3D64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeres2009" class="citation journal cs1">Veres, Máté (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1774036">"Carlos Lévy, Les Scepticismes; Markus Gabriel, Antike und moderne Skepsis zur Einführung"</a>. <i>Rhizai. A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 107.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rhizai.+A+Journal+for+Ancient+Philosophy+and+Science&rft.atitle=Carlos+L%C3%A9vy%2C+Les+Scepticismes%3B+Markus+Gabriel%2C+Antike+und+moderne+Skepsis+zur+Einf%C3%BChrung&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=107&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Veres&rft.aufirst=M%C3%A1t%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1774036&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 111">: 111 </span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eduard Zeller, <i>Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy</i>, 13th Edition, page 309</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019124-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019124_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrayling2019124_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrayling2019">Grayling 2019</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindberg, David. (1992) <i>The Beginnings of Western Science</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dPUBAkIm2lUC&pg=PA162">p. 162</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBairdKaufmann2008" class="citation book cs1">Baird, Forrest E.; Kaufmann, Walter (2008). <i>From Plato to Derrida</i>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-158591-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-158591-1"><bdi>978-0-13-158591-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Plato+to+Derrida&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-13-158591-1&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=Forrest+E.&rft.au=Kaufmann%2C+Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kamtekar, Rachana. "The Soul's (After-) Life", <i>Ancient Philosophy</i> 36 (2016): 1–18.</li> <li>Campbell, Douglas R. "Plato's Theory of Reincarnation: Eschatology and Natural Philosophy", <i>Review of Metaphysics</i> 75 (4): 643–665. 2022.</li> <li>Nikolaos Bakalis (2005). <i>Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments</i>, Trafford Publishing <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4120-4843-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-4120-4843-5">1-4120-4843-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Burnet_(classicist)" title="John Burnet (classicist)">John Burnet</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150206043421/http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/burnet/index.htm"><i>Early Greek Philosophy</i></a> (archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/burnet/index.htm">the original</a>, 6 February 2015), 1930.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman1996" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Charles (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/egyptgreecerome00free"><i>Egypt, Greece and Rome</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815003-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815003-9"><bdi>978-0-19-815003-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt%2C+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-815003-9&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fegyptgreecerome00free&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrayling2019" class="citation book cs1">Grayling, A. C. (2019-11-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b0mHDwAAQBAJ"><i>The History of Philosophy</i></a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9848-7875-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9848-7875-5"><bdi>978-1-9848-7875-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2019-11-05&rft.isbn=978-1-9848-7875-5&rft.aulast=Grayling&rft.aufirst=A.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db0mHDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>William Keith Chambers Guthrie, <i>A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 1, The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans</i>, 1962.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Concept_of_Irony_with_Continual_Reference_to_Socrates" title="On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates">On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates</a></i>, 1841.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=A.A._Long&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A.A. Long (page does not exist)">A.A. Long</a>. <i>Hellenistic Philosophy.</i> University of California, 1992. (2nd Ed.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_West" title="Martin Litchfield West">Martin Litchfield West</a>, <i>Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient</i>, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Litchfield_West" title="Martin Litchfield West">Martin Litchfield West</a>, <i>The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth</i>, Oxford [England]; New York: Clarendon Press, 1997.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Clark, Stephen. 2012. <i>Ancient Mediterranean Philosophy: An Introduction.</i> New York: Bloomsbury.</li> <li>Curd, Patricia, and D.W. Graham, eds. 2008. <i>The Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy.</i> New York: Oxford Univ. Press.</li> <li>Gaca, Kathy L. 2003. <i>The Making of Fornication: Eros, Ethics, and Political Reform in Greek Philosophy and Early Christianity.</i> Berkeley: University of California Press.</li> <li>Garani, Myrto and David Konstan eds. 2014. <i>The Philosophizing Muse: The Influence of Greek Philosophy on Roman Poetry.</i> Pierides, 3. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.</li> <li>Kamtekar, Rachana. “The Soul’s (After-) Life,” <i>Ancient Philosophy</i> 36 (2016): 1–18.</li> <li>Campbell, Douglas R. "Plato's Theory of Reincarnation: Eschatology and Natural Philosophy," <i>Review of Metaphysics</i> 75 (4): 643–665. 2022.</li> <li>Gill, Mary Louise, and Pierre Pellegrin. 2009. <i>A Companion to Ancient Greek Philosophy.</i> Oxford: Blackwell.</li> <li>Hankinson, R.J. 1999. <i>Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought.</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettany_Hughes" title="Bettany Hughes">Hughes, Bettany</a>. 2010. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hemlock_Cup:_Socrates,_Athens_and_the_Search_for_the_Good_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="The Hemlock Cup: Socrates, Athens and the Search for the Good Life">The Hemlock Cup: Socrates, Athens and the Search for the Good Life</a>.</i> London: Jonathan Cape.</li> <li>Kahn, C.H. 1994. <i>Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology.</i> Indianapolis, IN: Hackett</li> <li>Luchte, James. 2011. <i>Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn.</i> New York: Continuum.</li> <li>Martín-Velasco, María José and María José García Blanco eds. 2016. <i>Greek Philosophy and Mystery Cults.</i> Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.</li> <li>Nightingale, Andrea W. 2004. <i>Spectacles of Truth in Classical Greek Philosophy: Theoria in its Cultural Context.</i> Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_O%27Grady" title="Patricia O'Grady">O’Grady, Patricia</a>. 2002. <i>Thales of Miletus</i>. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.</li> <li>Preus, Anthony. 2010. <i>The A to Z of Ancient Greek Philosophy.</i> Lanham, MD: Scarecrow.</li> <li>Reid, Heather L. 2011. <i>Athletics and Philosophy in the Ancient World: Contests of Virtue.</i> Ethics and Sport. London; New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>.</li> <li>Wolfsdorf, David. 2013. <i>Pleasure in Ancient Greek Philosophy. Key Themes in Ancient Philosophy.</i> Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Greek schools of philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proto-philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epimenides_of_Knossos" class="mw-redirect" title="Epimenides of Knossos">Epimenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pherecydes_of_Syros" title="Pherecydes of Syros">Pherecydes</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Seven_Sages" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece" title="Seven Sages of Greece">Seven Sages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solon_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Solon of Athens">Solon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pittacus_of_Mytilene" title="Pittacus of Mytilene">Pittacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_Priene" title="Bias of Priene">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periander_of_Corinth" class="mw-redirect" title="Periander of Corinth">Periander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleobulus_of_Lindos" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleobulus of Lindos">Cleobulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilon_of_Sparta" title="Chilon of Sparta">Chilon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Pre-Socratic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ionian" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Milesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Apollonia" title="Diogenes of Apollonia">Diogenes</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Italian" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippasus" title="Hippasus">Hippasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamiskos" title="Lamiskos">Lamiskos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton" title="Alcmaeon of Croton">Alcmaeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brontinus" title="Brontinus">Brontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theano_(philosopher)" title="Theano (philosopher)">Theano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damo_(philosopher)" title="Damo (philosopher)">Damo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliphon_of_Croton" title="Calliphon of Croton">Calliphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermotimus_of_Clazomenae" title="Hermotimus of Clazomenae">Hermotimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Cos" title="Metrodorus of Cos">Metrodorus of Cos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arignote" title="Arignote">Arignote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myia" title="Myia">Myia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurytus_(Pythagorean)" title="Eurytus (Pythagorean)">Eurytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pythagoreans" title="Category:Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeniades" title="Xeniades">Xeniades</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melissus_of_Samos" title="Melissus of Samos">Melissus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippo_(philosopher)" title="Hippo (philosopher)">Hippo</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">Pluralist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archelaus_(philosopher)" title="Archelaus (philosopher)">Archelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_elder)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the elder)">Metrodorus of Lampsacus</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acron" title="Acron">Acron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Sicily" title="Pausanias of Sicily">Pausanias</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prodicus" title="Prodicus">Prodicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus" title="Thrasymachus">Thrasymachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damon_of_Athens" title="Damon of Athens">Damon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callicles" title="Callicles">Callicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophron_(sophist)" title="Lycophron (sophist)">Lycophron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysodorus_(sophist)" title="Dionysodorus (sophist)">Dionysodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_of_Chios" title="Euthydemus of Chios">Euthydemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek philosophy">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Pupils_of_Socrates" title="Category:Pupils of Socrates">students</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes" title="Crates of Thebes">Crates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menippus" title="Menippus">Menippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Cynic_philosophers" title="List of Cynic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus_the_Younger" title="Aristippus the Younger">Aristippus the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_the_Atheist" title="Theodorus the Atheist">Theodorus the Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegesias_of_Cyrene" title="Hegesias of Cyrene">Hegesias of Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniceris" title="Anniceris">Anniceris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cyrenaic_philosophers" title="Category:Cyrenaic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phaedo_of_Elis" title="Phaedo of Elis">Phaedo of Elis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menedemus" title="Menedemus">Menedemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiades_of_Phlius" title="Asclepiades of Phlius">Asclepiades of Phlius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euclid_of_Megara" title="Euclid of Megara">Euclid of Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyas" title="Ichthyas">Ichthyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus_of_Corinth" title="Thrasymachus of Corinth">Thrasymachus of Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilpo" title="Stilpo">Stilpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicarete_of_Megara" title="Nicarete of Megara">Nicarete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasicles_of_Thebes" title="Pasicles of Thebes">Pasicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryson_of_Achaea" title="Bryson of Achaea">Bryson</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dialecticians" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Dialecticians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinomachus" title="Clinomachus">Clinomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_Cronus" title="Apollonius Cronus">Apollonius Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphantus" title="Euphantus">Euphantus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Chalcedon" title="Dionysius of Chalcedon">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_the_Dialectician" title="Philo the Dialectician">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexinus" title="Alexinus">Alexinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthoides" title="Panthoides">Panthoides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peripatetic_philosophers" title="Category:Peripatetic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Phlius" title="Timon of Phlius">Timon of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aenesidemus" title="Aenesidemus">Aenesidemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_the_Skeptic" title="Agrippa the Skeptic">Agrippa the Skeptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Skeptic_philosophers" title="Category:Ancient Skeptic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Annaeus_Cornutus" title="Lucius Annaeus Cornutus">Lucius Annaeus Cornutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musonius_Rufus" class="mw-redirect" title="Musonius Rufus">Musonius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philodemus" title="Philodemus">Philodemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Oenoanda" title="Diogenes of Oenoanda">Diogenes of Oenoanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Epicurean_philosophers" title="List of Epicurean philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" 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Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neo-Pythagoreans" title="Category:Neo-Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Saccas" title="Ammonius Saccas">Ammonius Saccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_students_of_Plotinus" title="List of students of Plotinus">students</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a 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Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favorinus" title="Favorinus">Favorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Roman-era_Sophists" title="Category:Roman-era Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_philosophical_concepts" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greek_philosophical_concepts" title="Template:Ancient Greek philosophical concepts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greek_philosophical_concepts" title="Template talk:Ancient Greek philosophical concepts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_philosophical_concepts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek philosophical concepts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_philosophical_concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Greek philosophical concepts</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adiaphora" title="Adiaphora"><i>Adiaphora</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(indifferent)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aletheia" title="Aletheia"><i>Aletheia</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(truth)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apeiron" title="Apeiron"><i>Apeiron</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(infinite)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporia" title="Aporia"><i>Aporia</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(problem)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arche" class="mw-redirect" title="Arche"><i>Arche</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(first principle)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete"><i>Arete</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(excellence)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia"><i>Ataraxia</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(tranquility)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos"><i>Cosmos</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(order)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diairesis" title="Diairesis"><i>Diairesis</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(division)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa"><i>Doxa</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(opinion)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episteme" title="Episteme"><i>Episteme</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(knowledge)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos"><i>Ethos</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(character)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia"><i>Eudaimonia</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(flourishing)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychia" title="Hesychia"><i>Hesychia</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(stillness)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos"><i>Logos</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(reason)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis"><i>Mimesis</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(imitation)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)"><i>Monad</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(unit)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous"><i>Nous</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(intellect)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia"><i>Ousia</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(substance)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos"><i>Pathos</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(passion)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis"><i>Phronesis</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(prudence)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physis" title="Physis"><i>Physis</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(nature)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophia_(wisdom)" title="Sophia (wisdom)"><i>Sophia</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(wisdom)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophrosyne" title="Sophrosyne"><i>Sophrosyne</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(temperance)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)"><i>Sophós</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(sage)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Techne" title="Techne"><i>Techne</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(craft)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos"><i>Telos</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(goal)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thumos" title="Thumos"><i>Thumos</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(temper)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox 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