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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Middle Ages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Early Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>High Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Late Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jews_in_Iberia_under_Islamic_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jews_in_Iberia_under_Islamic_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Jews in Iberia under Islamic rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jews_in_Iberia_under_Islamic_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Early Modern period</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_Modern_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early Modern period subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_Modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Catholic_Spain_and_Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholic_Spain_and_Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Catholic Spain and Portugal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholic_Spain_and_Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amsterdam_as_the_"Dutch_Jerusalem"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amsterdam_as_the_"Dutch_Jerusalem""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Amsterdam as the "Dutch Jerusalem"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amsterdam_as_the_"Dutch_Jerusalem"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-England_re-opens_to_Jewish_Settlement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#England_re-opens_to_Jewish_Settlement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>England re-opens to Jewish Settlement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-England_re-opens_to_Jewish_Settlement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland_as_a_center_of_the_Jewish_community" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland_as_a_center_of_the_Jewish_community"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Poland as a center of the Jewish community</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland_as_a_center_of_the_Jewish_community-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Growth_of_Hasidism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_of_Hasidism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Growth of Hasidism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_of_Hasidism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era,_1750_to_1930" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era,_1750_to_1930"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Modern era, 1750 to 1930</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_era,_1750_to_1930-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern era, 1750 to 1930 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_era,_1750_to_1930-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jewish_emancipation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_emancipation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Jewish emancipation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_emancipation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changing_conditions_for_Jewish_populations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changing_conditions_for_Jewish_populations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Changing conditions for Jewish populations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changing_conditions_for_Jewish_populations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_emigration_from_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_emigration_from_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Jewish emigration from Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_emigration_from_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Zionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Religious organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Demographics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_Holocaust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_and_the_Holocaust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>World War II and the Holocaust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_Holocaust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Post World War II</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post_World_War_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Post World War II subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Post_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Demographics_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Demographics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographics_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_ethnic_subdivisions_of_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_ethnic_subdivisions_of_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Jewish ethnic subdivisions of Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_ethnic_subdivisions_of_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Jews in Europe</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDid%C3%A9_v_evropsk%C3%BDch_zem%C3%ADch" title="Židé v evropských zemích – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Židé v evropských zemích" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_los_jud%C3%ADos_en_Europa" title="Historia de los judíos en Europa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de los judíos en Europa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%A7" title="تاریخ یهودیان در اروپا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ یهودیان در اروپا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juifs_et_juda%C3%AFsme_en_Europe" title="Juifs et judaïsme en Europe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Juifs et judaïsme en Europe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_degli_ebrei_in_Europa" title="Storia degli ebrei in Europa – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia degli ebrei in Europa" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%94%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94" title="יהדות אירופה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יהדות אירופה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_dos_judeus_na_Europa" title="História dos judeus na Europa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História dos judeus na Europa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B2_%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5" title="История евреев в Европе – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История евреев в Европе" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of the Jews in Europe" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eur%C3%B3pske_%C5%BEidovstvo" title="Európske židovstvo – Slovak" lang="sk" 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class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:180%;"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God in Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">names</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvot</a> (<a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">613</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_and_customs_of_the_Land_of_Israel_in_Judaism" title="Laws and customs of the Land of Israel in Judaism"><span class="wrap">Land of Israel</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah"><span class="wrap">Bar and bat mitzvah</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Bereavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_teshuva_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal teshuva movement">Baal teshuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusach_(Jewish_custom)" title="Nusach (Jewish custom)">Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beit_Yosef_(book)" title="Beit Yosef (book)">Beit Yosef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_name_Judea" title="Timeline of the name Judea">Name "Judea"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population" title="Historical Jewish population">Historical population comparisons</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_of_Israel" title="Twelve Tribes of Israel">Twelve Tribes of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah"><span class="wrap">Kingdom of Judah</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Judaism" title="Jerusalem in Judaism">in Judaism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jerusalem" title="Timeline of Jerusalem">timeline</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem"><span class="wrap">Temple in Jerusalem</span></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity"><span class="wrap">Assyrian captivity</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity"><span class="wrap">Babylonian captivity</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty"><span class="wrap">Hasmonean dynasty</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicarii" title="Sicarii">Sicarii</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">Great Revolt</a></span>, <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaspora revolt">Diaspora</a></span>, <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a></span>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a> and Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism"><span class="wrap">Christianity and Judaism</span></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism"><span class="wrap">Hinduism and Judaism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Islamic–Jewish</span> relations</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden Age</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Modern era</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">Sabbateans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Jewish atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Jews in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Arab–Israeli</span> conflict</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Communities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Litvak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Juhurim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romanyotim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Bnei Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marranos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xueta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Mosaic Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noahidism" title="Noahidism">Noahides</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_by_country" title="Judaism by country">Judaism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_by_country" title="Historical Jewish population by country">Historical population by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_of_Jews" title="Genetic studies of Jews">Genetic studies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">New Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Africa" title="History of the Jews in Africa">Africa</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Angola" title="History of the Jews in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Bilad_el-Sudan" title="Jews of Bilad el-Sudan">Bilad-el-Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Botswana" title="History of the Jews in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cameroon" title="History of the Jews in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cape_Verde" title="History of the Jews in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Benin" title="History of the Jews in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Djibouti" title="History of the Jews in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ethiopia" title="History of the Jews in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eritrea" title="History of the Jews in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eswatini" title="History of the Jews in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gabon" title="History of the Jews in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Gambia" title="History of the Jews in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ghana" title="History of the Jews in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea" title="History of the Jews in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of the Jews in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ivory_Coast" title="History of the Jews in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kenya" title="History of the Jews in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya" title="History of the Jews in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malawi" title="History of the Jews in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mali" title="History of the Jews in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mauritius" title="History of the Jews in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moroccan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Moroccan Jews">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mozambique" title="History of the Jews in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Namibia" title="History of the Jews in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Nigeria" title="History of the Jews in Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="History of the Jews in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sierra_Leone" title="History of the Jews in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Africa" title="History of the Jews in South Africa"><span class="wrap">South Africa</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sudan" title="History of the Jews in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tanzania" title="History of the Jews in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tunisia" title="History of the Jews in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uganda" title="History of the Jews in Uganda">Uganda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abayudaya" title="Abayudaya">Abayudaya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zambia" title="History of the Jews in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zimbabwe" title="History of the Jews in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Asia</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bahrain" title="History of the Jews in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cambodia" title="History of the Jews in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India" title="History of the Jews in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Indonesia" title="History of the Jews in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Japan" title="History of the Jews in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jordan" title="History of the Jews in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kuwait" title="History of the Jews in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of the Jews in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lebanon" title="History of the Jews in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malaysia" title="History of the Jews in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mongolia" title="History of the Jews in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Myanmar" title="History of the Jews in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_Nepal" title="Judaism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oman" title="History of the Jews in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pakistan" title="History of the Jews in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Philippines" title="History of the Jews in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Qatar" title="History of the Jews in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Korea" title="History of the Jews in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Singapore" title="History of the Jews in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sri_Lanka" title="History of the Jews in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tajikistan" title="History of the Jews in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Thailand" title="History of the Jews in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the Jews in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uzbekistan" title="History of the Jews in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Vietnam" title="History of the Jews in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemen</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Armenia" title="History of the Jews in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Azerbaijan" title="History of the Jews in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_lands" title="History of the Jews in the Czech lands">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom"><span class="wrap">United Kingdom</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Northern America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Greenland" title="Jews in Greenland">Greenland</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and Caribbean</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Argentina" title="History of the Jews in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bolivia" title="History of the Jews in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brazil" title="History of the Jews in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chile" title="History of the Jews in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Colombia" title="History of the Jews in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cuba" title="History of the Jews in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="History of the Jews in the Dominican Republic"><span class="wrap">Dominican Republic</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ecuador" title="History of the Jews in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_El_Salvador" title="History of the Jews in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guyana" title="History of the Jews in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Haiti" title="History of the Jews in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jamaica" title="History of the Jews in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mexico" title="History of the Jews in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Paraguay" title="History of the Jews in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Peru" title="History of the Jews in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Puerto_Rico" title="History of the Jews in Puerto Rico"><span class="wrap">Puerto Rico</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Suriname" title="History of the Jews in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uruguay" title="History of the Jews in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Venezuela" title="History of the Jews in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oceania" title="History of the Jews in Oceania">Oceania</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Australia" title="History of the Jews in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Fiji" title="History of the Jews in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guam" title="History of the Jews in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_Zealand" title="History of the Jews in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Palau" title="History of the Jews in Palau">Palau</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Denominations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism"><span class="wrap">Reform</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Customs</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_wedding" title="Jewish wedding">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shidduch" title="Shidduch">Shidduch</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism"><span class="wrap">Conversion to Judaism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiloni" title="Hiloni">Hiloni</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_cuisine" title="American Jewish cuisine">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine#Ashkenazi" title="Jewish cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jewish_cuisine" title="Bukharan Jewish cuisine">Bukharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jewish_cuisine" title="Ethiopian Jewish cuisine">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_cuisine" title="Israeli cuisine">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jewish_cuisine" title="Mizrahi Jewish cuisine">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jewish_cuisine" title="Sephardic Jewish cuisine">Sephardic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Ghardaïa Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_politics" title="Judaism and politics">Politics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Jewish political movements</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomism" title="Jewish Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundism" title="Bundism">Bundism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_left" title="Jewish left">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Territorial_Organization" title="Jewish Territorial Organization">Territorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Agudath_Israel" title="World Agudath Israel">World Agudath Israel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Zionism" title="Green Zionism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahanism" title="Kahanism">Kahanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Maximalism" title="Revisionist Maximalism">Maximalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Zionism" title="Neo-Zionism">Neo-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Zionism" title="Post-Zionism">Post-Zionism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Template:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Antisemitism" title="Category:Antisemitism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Yellow_badge" title="Yellow badge"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Yellowbadge_logo.svg/100px-Yellowbadge_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Yellowbadge_logo.svg/150px-Yellowbadge_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Yellowbadge_logo.svg/200px-Yellowbadge_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="503" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Part of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_antisemitism" title="Timeline of antisemitism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_on_antisemitism" title="List of writers on antisemitism">Reference</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);border-top:none;">Definitions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Working_definition_of_antisemitism" title="Working definition of antisemitism">IHRA definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Declaration_on_Antisemitism" title="Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism">Jerusalem Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nexus_Task_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Nexus Task Force">Nexus Document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ds_of_antisemitism" title="Three Ds of antisemitism">Three Ds</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);border-top:none;"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_antisemitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of antisemitism">Geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Argentina" title="Antisemitism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Australia" title="Antisemitism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_contemporary_Austria" title="Antisemitism in contemporary Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_contemporary_Belgium" title="Antisemitism in contemporary Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Canada" title="Antisemitism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_China" title="Antisemitism in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Chile" title="Antisemitism in Chile">Chilean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Antisemitism in Costa Rica">Costa Rican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Europe" title="Antisemitism in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_France" title="Antisemitism in France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dreyfus_affair" title="Dreyfus affair">Dreyfus affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_21st-century_France" title="Antisemitism in 21st-century France">21st-century</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_21st-century_Germany" title="Antisemitism in 21st-century Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Greece" title="Antisemitism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_contemporary_Hungary" title="Antisemitism in contemporary Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_21st-century_Italy" title="Antisemitism in 21st-century Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Japan" title="Antisemitism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_New_Zealand" title="Antisemitism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_contemporary_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in contemporary Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Pakistan" title="Antisemitism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Racism in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Romania" title="Antisemitism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Russia" title="Antisemitism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Antisemitism in the Russian Empire">Imperial Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_and_antisemitism" title="Joseph Stalin and antisemitism">Stalinist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Antisemitism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabian_textbook_controversy" title="Saudi Arabian textbook controversy">textbook controversy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_South_Africa" title="Antisemitism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Spain" title="Antisemitism in Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matar_jud%C3%ADos" title="Matar judíos">Matar judíos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Sweden" title="Antisemitism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Turkey" title="Antisemitism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Ukraine" title="Antisemitism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Antisemitism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_UK_Conservative_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in the UK Conservative Party">Conservative Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_UK_Labour_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in the UK Labour Party">Labour Party</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">USA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States_in_the_21st_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century">21st century</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Venezuela" title="Antisemitism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);border-top:none;">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Universities_and_antisemitism" title="Universities and antisemitism">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Arab_world" title="Antisemitism in the Arab world">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_antisemitism" title="Economic antisemitism">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_incidents_during_the_Gaza_War_(2008%E2%80%932009)" title="Antisemitic incidents during the Gaza War (2008–2009)">Gaza War ('08-'09)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_during_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Antisemitism during the Israel–Hamas war">Israel-Hamas war ('23-'24)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_antisemitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish antisemitism">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_antisemitism" title="Medieval antisemitism">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strasserism" title="Strasserism">Strasserism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Olympic_Games" title="Antisemitism in the Olympic Games">Olympic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_antisemitism" title="Racial antisemitism">Racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Christianity" title="Antisemitism in Christianity">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Identity" title="Christian Identity">Christian Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity_(religion)" title="Creativity (religion)">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Islam" title="Antisemitism in Islam">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam_and_antisemitism" title="Nation of Islam and antisemitism">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_antisemitism" title="Secondary antisemitism">Secondary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_antisemitism" title="Zionist antisemitism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_trope" title="Antisemitic trope">Antisemitic tropes</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andinia_Plan" title="Andinia Plan">Andinia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohen_Plan" title="Cohen Plan">Cohen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Bolshevism" title="Cultural Bolshevism">Cultural Bolshevism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Marxism_conspiracy_theory" title="Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory">Cultural Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_deicide" title="Jewish deicide">Deicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_canards#Controlling_the_world_financial_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitic canards">Finance control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Prophecy" title="Franklin Prophecy">Franklin Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_desecration#Medieval_accusations_against_Jews" title="Host desecration">Host desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy" title="International Jewish conspiracy">International<wbr /> Jewish conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_lobby#Viewed_as_antisemitic_and/or_pejorative" title="Jewish lobby">Jewish lobby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_war_conspiracy_theory" title="Jewish war conspiracy theory">Jewish war conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judensau" title="Judensau">Judensau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Bolshevism" title="Jewish Bolshevism">Judeo-Bolshevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBydokomuna" title="Żydokomuna">Żydokomuna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Masonic_conspiracy_theory" title="Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory">Judeo-Masonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosher_tax_conspiracy_theory" title="Kosher tax conspiracy theory">Kosher tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_canards#Controlling_the_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitic canards">Media control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QAnon#Antisemitism" title="QAnon">QAnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rootless_cosmopolitan" title="Rootless cosmopolitan">Rootless cosmopolitan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_plot" title="Doctors' plot">Doctors' plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sl%C3%A1nsk%C3%BD_trial" title="Slánský trial">Slánský trial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-hating_Jew" title="Self-hating Jew">Self-hating Jew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth" title="Stab-in-the-back myth">Stab-in-the-back myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_poisoning#History_of_well_poisoning_as_libel" title="Well poisoning">Well poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory#Neo-Nazis'_accusations_against_Jews" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_Occupation_Government_conspiracy_theory" title="Zionist Occupation Government conspiracy theory">ZOG conspiracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Antisemitic_publications" title="Category:Antisemitic publications">Antisemitic publications</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Barnes_Review" title="The Barnes Review">The Barnes Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Critique_series" title="The Culture of Critique series">Culture of Critique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Currency_Wars" title="Currency Wars">Currency Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dearborn_Independent" title="The Dearborn Independent">The Dearborn Independent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_Cleansing_(video_game)" title="Ethnic Cleansing (video game)">Ethnic Cleansing <i>(video game)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_France_juive" title="La France juive">La France juive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitlers_Zweites_Buch" title="Hitlers Zweites Buch">Hitlers Zweites Buch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunter_(Pierce_novel)" title="Hunter (Pierce novel)">Hunter (William Luther Pierce)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Hamas_charter" title="1988 Hamas charter">1988 Hamas Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_International_Jew" title="The International Jew">The International Jew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Libre_Parole" title="La Libre Parole">La Libre Parole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Light_(newspaper)" title="The Light (newspaper)">The Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Jews_and_Their_Lies" title="On the Jews and Their Lies">On the Jews and Their Lies</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Our_Race_Will_Rule_Undisputed_Over_The_World" title="Our Race Will Rule Undisputed Over The World">Our Race Will Rule<br />Undisputed Over The World</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protocols_of_the_Elders_of_Zion" title="The Protocols of the Elders of Zion">Protocols of the Elders of Zion</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/The_Secret_Relationship_Between_Blacks_and_Jews" title="The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews">The Secret Relationship<br />Between Blacks and Jews</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Mason_book)" title="Siege (Mason book)">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Turner_Diaries" title="The Turner Diaries">The Turner Diaries</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Antisemitism on the Internet</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki//pol/" title="/pol/">4chan (/pol/)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8chan" title="8chan">8chan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Stormer" title="The Daily Stormer">The Daily Stormer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disclose.tv" title="Disclose.tv">Disclose.tv</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Europa:_The_Last_Battle" title="Europa: The Last Battle">Europa: The Last Battle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gab_(social_network)" title="Gab (social network)">Gab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goebbels_Gap" class="mw-redirect" title="Goebbels Gap">Goebbels Gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GoyimTV" class="mw-redirect" title="GoyimTV">GoyimTV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groypers" title="Groypers">Groypers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jew_Watch" title="Jew Watch">Jew Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapedia" title="Metapedia">Metapedia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Occidental_Observer" title="Occidental Observer">The Occidental Observer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Ice" title="Red Ice">Red Ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renegade_Tribune" class="mw-redirect" title="Renegade Tribune">Renegade Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(blog)" title="The Right Stuff (blog)"><i>The Right Stuff</i> (blog)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/StoneToss" title="StoneToss">StoneToss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormfront_(website)" title="Stormfront (website)">Stormfront</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorgram" title="Terrorgram">Terrorgram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_parentheses" title="Triple parentheses">Triple parentheses</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/TruNews" title="TruNews">TruNews</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Unz_Review" title="The Unz Review">The Unz Review</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterans_Today" title="Veterans Today">Veterans Today</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhineland_massacres" title="Rhineland massacres">Rhineland massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews_during_the_Black_Death" title="Persecution of Jews during the Black Death">Black Death persecutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_boycotts" title="Anti-Jewish boycotts">Boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsions_and_exoduses_of_Jews" title="Expulsions and exoduses of Jews">Expulsions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quarter_(diaspora)" title="Jewish quarter (diaspora)">Jewish quarter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_Europe" title="Jewish ghettos in Europe">Ghettos in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mellah" title="Mellah">Mellah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_hat" title="Jewish hat">Jewish hat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judensau" title="Judensau">Judensau</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrdom_in_Judaism" title="Martyrdom in Judaism">Martyrdom in Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogroms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Pogroms in the Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogroms_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Pogroms during the Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusenik" title="Refusenik">Refuseniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_badge" title="Yellow badge">Yellow badge</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Anti-antisemitism" title="Anti-antisemitism">Opposition</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_Against_Antisemitism" title="Campaign Against Antisemitism">Campaign Against Antisemitism</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_Security_Trust" title="Community Security Trust">Community Security Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Rights_Agency" title="Fundamental Rights Agency">Fundamental Rights Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosemitism" title="Philosemitism">Philosemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Wiesenthal_Center" title="Simon Wiesenthal Center">Simon Wiesenthal Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center" title="Southern Poverty Law Center">Southern Poverty Law Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Roth_Institute" title="Stephen Roth Institute">Stephen Roth Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Committee_Against_Antisemitism" title="Swedish Committee Against Antisemitism">Swedish Committee Against Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Councils_for_Soviet_Jews" title="Union of Councils for Soviet Jews">Union of Councils for Soviet Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Watch" title="UN Watch">UN Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._National_Strategy_to_Counter_Antisemitism" title="U.S. National Strategy to Counter Antisemitism">U.S. National Strategy to Counter Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiener_Holocaust_Library" title="Wiener Holocaust Library">Wiener Holocaust Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_definition_of_antisemitism" title="Working definition of antisemitism">Working definition of antisemitism</a> (IHRA) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Declaration_on_Antisemitism" title="Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism">Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ds_of_antisemitism" title="Three Ds of antisemitism">Three Ds of antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Antisemitism" title="Category:Antisemitism">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Antisemitism_sidebar" title="Template:Antisemitism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Antisemitism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Antisemitism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Antisemitism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Antisemitism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:The_Holocaust" title="Category:The Holocaust">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color: black;font-size:160%;; padding:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">The Holocaust</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0827-318,_KZ_Auschwitz,_Ankunft_ungarischer_Juden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0827-318%2C_KZ_Auschwitz%2C_Ankunft_ungarischer_Juden.jpg/225px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0827-318%2C_KZ_Auschwitz%2C_Ankunft_ungarischer_Juden.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0827-318%2C_KZ_Auschwitz%2C_Ankunft_ungarischer_Juden.jpg/338px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0827-318%2C_KZ_Auschwitz%2C_Ankunft_ungarischer_Juden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0827-318%2C_KZ_Auschwitz%2C_Ankunft_ungarischer_Juden.jpg/450px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0827-318%2C_KZ_Auschwitz%2C_Ankunft_ungarischer_Juden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2253" data-file-height="1707" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> on selection ramp at <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a>, May 1944</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></span></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>People</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_major_perpetrators_of_the_Holocaust" title="List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust">Major perpetrators</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_M%C3%BCller_(Gestapo)" title="Heinrich Müller (Gestapo)">Heinrich Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Heydrich" title="Reinhard Heydrich">Reinhard Heydrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Adolf Eichmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odilo_Globocnik" title="Odilo Globocnik">Odilo Globocnik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Eicke" title="Theodor Eicke">Theodor Eicke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Gl%C3%BCcks" title="Richard Glücks">Richard Glücks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kaltenbrunner" title="Ernst Kaltenbrunner">Ernst Kaltenbrunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_H%C3%B6ss" title="Rudolf Höss">Rudolf Höss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wirth" title="Christian Wirth">Christian Wirth</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Organizations</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel"><i>Schutzstaffel</i> (SS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde" title="SS-Totenkopfverbände"><i>Totenkopfverbände</i> (SS-TV)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sturmabteilung" title="Sturmabteilung"><i>Sturmabteilung</i> (SA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS-Verf%C3%BCgungstruppe" title="SS-Verfügungstruppe"><i>Verfügungstruppe</i> (SS-VT)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trawniki_men" title="Trawniki men">Trawniki men</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div style="padding:0.4em 0;"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">Collaborators during World War II</a></dt></dl> </div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_ideologues" title="List of Nazi ideologues">Nazi ideologues</a></dt></dl></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Early policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Racial policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_eugenics" title="Nazi eugenics">Nazi eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haavara_Agreement" title="Haavara Agreement">Haavara Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_Plan" title="Madagascar Plan">Madagascar Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktion_T4" title="Aktion T4">Forced euthanasia</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_victims" title="Holocaust victims">Victims</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_during_World_War_II" title="History of the Jews during World War II">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Romani genocide">Romani people (Gypsies)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_crimes_against_the_Polish_nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi crimes against the Polish nation">Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet POWs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">Slavs in Eastern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany">Homosexuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktion_T4" title="Aktion T4">People with disabilities</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_established_by_Nazi_Germany" title="Jewish ghettos established by Nazi Germany">Ghettos</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C4%99dzin_Ghetto" title="Będzin Ghetto">Będzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto" title="Białystok Ghetto">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_Ghetto" title="Budapest Ghetto">Budapest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kovno_Ghetto" title="Kovno Ghetto">Kaunas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Kraków Ghetto">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto" title="Łódź Ghetto">Łódź</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Ghetto" title="Lublin Ghetto">Lublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Lwów Ghetto">Lwów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minsk_Ghetto" title="Minsk Ghetto">Minsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riga_Ghetto" title="Riga Ghetto">Riga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosnowiec_Ghetto" title="Sosnowiec Ghetto">Sosnowiec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilna_Ghetto" title="Vilna Ghetto">Vilnius</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_ghettos_in_German-occupied_Poland" title="List of Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland">Jewish ghettos in<br />German-occupied Poland</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Nazi ghettos">List of selected ghettos</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Camps</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Nazi extermination camps</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_II-Birkenau" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz II-Birkenau">Auschwitz II-Birkenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Be%C5%82%C5%BCec_extermination_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Bełżec extermination camp">Bełżec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jasenovac_concentration_camp" title="Jasenovac concentration camp">Jasenovac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sajmi%C5%A1te_concentration_camp" title="Sajmište concentration camp">Sajmište</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz I">Auschwitz I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp" title="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp">Bergen-Belsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogdanovka_concentration_camp" title="Bogdanovka concentration camp">Bogdanovka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp" title="Buchenwald concentration camp">Buchenwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora" class="mw-redirect" title="Mittelbau-Dora">Dora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonars_concentration_camp" title="Gonars concentration camp">Gonars (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross-Rosen_concentration_camp" title="Gross-Rosen concentration camp">Gross-Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herzogenbusch_concentration_camp" title="Herzogenbusch concentration camp">Herzogenbusch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janowska_concentration_camp" title="Janowska concentration camp">Janowska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiserwald_concentration_camp" title="Kaiserwald concentration camp">Kaiserwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauthausen-Gusen_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp">Mauthausen-Gusen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuengamme_concentration_camp" title="Neuengamme concentration camp">Neuengamme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rab_concentration_camp" title="Rab concentration camp">Rab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravensbr%C3%BCck_concentration_camp" title="Ravensbrück concentration camp">Ravensbrück</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sachsenhausen_concentration_camp" title="Sachsenhausen concentration camp">Sachsenhausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salaspils_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Salaspils concentration camp">Salaspils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stutthof_concentration_camp" title="Stutthof concentration camp">Stutthof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_Governorate#The_Holocaust" title="Transnistria Governorate">Transnistria (Romania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theresienstadt_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Theresienstadt concentration camp">Theresienstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uckermark_concentration_camp" title="Uckermark concentration camp">Uckermark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_concentration_camp" title="Warsaw concentration camp">Warsaw</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Transit and collection camps</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <dl><dt>Belgium</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Breendonk" title="Fort Breendonk">Breendonk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechelen_transit_camp" title="Mechelen transit camp">Mechelen</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Internment_camps_in_France#World_War_II_camps" title="Internment camps in France">France</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gurs_internment_camp" title="Gurs internment camp">Gurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drancy_internment_camp" title="Drancy internment camp">Drancy</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Italy</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bolzano_Transit_Camp" title="Bolzano Transit Camp">Bolzano</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Netherlands</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amersfoort_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Amersfoort concentration camp">Amersfoort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westerbork_transit_camp" title="Westerbork transit camp">Westerbork</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Slovakia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sere%C4%8F_concentration_camp" title="Sereď concentration camp">Sereď</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Divisions</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde" title="SS-Totenkopfverbände">SS-Totenkopfverbände</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_Camps_Inspectorate" title="Concentration Camps Inspectorate">Concentration Camps Inspectorate</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politische_Abteilung" title="Politische Abteilung">Politische Abteilung</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sanit%C3%A4tswesen" title="Sanitätswesen">Sanitätswesen</a></i></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Extermination methods</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_gas_van" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi gas van">Gas van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber#Nazi_Germany" title="Gas chamber">Gas chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_through_labour" title="Extermination through labour">Extermination through labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Human medical experimentation</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Atrocities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Pogrom#Nazi-occupied_Europe" title="Pogrom">Pogroms</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_rebellion_and_Bucharest_pogrom" title="Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom">Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorohoi_pogrom" title="Dorohoi pogrom">Dorohoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i_pogrom" title="Iași pogrom">Iași</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izieu" title="Izieu">Izieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Szczuczyn_pogrom" title="Szczuczyn pogrom">Szczuczyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom" title="Jedwabne pogrom">Jedwabne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plung%C4%97_massacre" title="Plungė massacre">Plungė</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radzi%C5%82%C3%B3w_pogrom" title="Radziłów pogrom">Radziłów pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_pogrom" title="Kaunas pogrom">Kaunas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lviv_pogroms_(1941)" title="Lviv pogroms (1941)">Lviv (Lvov)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_up_of_Marseille" class="mw-redirect" title="Round up of Marseille">Marseille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_murders_in_Tykocin" title="Mass murders in Tykocin">Tykocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C4%85sosz_pogrom" title="Wąsosz pogrom">Wąsosz</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Death_(Bydgoszcz)" title="Valley of Death (Bydgoszcz)">Bydgoszcz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_massacre" title="Częstochowa massacre">Częstochowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi_massacre" title="Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre">Kamianets-Podilskyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Fort" title="Ninth Fort">Ninth Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Odessa_massacre" title="1941 Odessa massacre">Odessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_in_Pia%C5%9Bnica" title="Massacres in Piaśnica">Piaśnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponary_massacre" title="Ponary massacre">Ponary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumbula_massacre" title="Rumbula massacre">Rumbula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktion_Erntefest" class="mw-redirect" title="Aktion Erntefest">Erntefest</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>"<a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>"</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogilev_Conference" title="Mogilev Conference">Mogilev Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Reinhard" title="Operation Reinhard">Operation "Reinhard"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_train" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust train">Holocaust trains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination camps</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">End of World War II</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wola_massacre" title="Wola massacre">Wola massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_marches_(Holocaust)" class="mw-redirect" title="Death marches (Holocaust)">Death marches</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_Protocols" title="Auschwitz Protocols">Auschwitz Protocols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vrba%E2%80%93Wetzler_report" title="Vrba–Wetzler report">Vrba–Wetzler report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Mordowicz" title="Czesław Mordowicz">Czesław Mordowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Tabeau" title="Jerzy Tabeau">Jerzy Tabeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Vrba" title="Rudolf Vrba">Rudolf Vrba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfr%C3%A9d_Wetzler" title="Alfréd Wetzler">Alfréd Wetzler</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricha" title="Bricha">Bricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_partisans" title="Jewish partisans">Jewish partisans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonderkommando_photographs" title="Sonderkommando photographs"><i>Sonderkommando</i> photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witold_Pilecki" title="Witold Pilecki">Witold Pilecki</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement_in_Auschwitz" title="Resistance movement in Auschwitz">Resistance movement in Auschwitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zwi%C4%85zek_Organizacji_Wojskowej" class="mw-redirect" title="Związek Organizacji Wojskowej">Związek Organizacji Wojskowej</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witold%27s_Report" title="Witold's Report">Witold's Report</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghetto uprising">Ghetto uprisings</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto_uprising" title="Białystok Ghetto uprising">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81achwa_Ghetto" title="Łachwa Ghetto">Łachwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_Ghetto_uprising" title="Częstochowa Ghetto uprising">Częstochowa</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">International response</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Joint_Declaration_by_Members_of_the_United_Nations" title="Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations">Joint Declaration by Members of<br />the United Nations</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_bombing_debate" title="Auschwitz bombing debate">Auschwitz bombing debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MS_St._Louis" title="MS St. Louis">MS <i>St. Louis</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denazification" title="Denazification">Denazification</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bricha" title="Bricha">Bricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%27erit_ha-Pletah" title="Sh'erit ha-Pletah">Displaced persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_survivors" title="Holocaust survivors">Survivors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Liberated_Jews" title="Central Committee of the Liberated Jews">Central Committee of the Liberated Jews</a></li></ul> <div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Reparations_Agreement_between_Israel_and_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany" title="Reparations Agreement between Israel and the Federal Republic of Germany">Reparations Agreement between<br />Israel and the Federal Republic of Germany</a></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_survivors" title="List of Holocaust survivors">Holocaust survivors</a></li></ul> <div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_deportations_of_French_Jews_to_death_camps" title="Timeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps">Deportations of French Jews<br />to death camps</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_survivors_of_Sobibor" title="List of survivors of Sobibor">Survivors of Sobibor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Timeline of Treblinka extermination camp">Timeline of Treblinka extermination camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_victims_of_Nazism" title="List of victims of Nazism">Victims of Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescuers_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust">Rescuers of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_memorials_and_museums" title="List of Holocaust memorials and museums">Memorials and museums</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Resources</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_The_Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of The Holocaust">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="List of books about Nazi Germany">List of books about Nazi Germany</a></li></ul> <div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Destruction_of_the_European_Jews" title="The Destruction of the European Jews">The Destruction of the<br />European Jews</a></i></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Camps_and_Ghettos,_1933%E2%80%931945" title="Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945">Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos</a></i></li></ul> <div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Functionalism%E2%80%93intentionalism_debate" title="Functionalism–intentionalism debate">Functionalism versus<br />intentionalism</a></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Remembrance</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Memorial_Days" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Memorial Days">Days of remembrance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_memorials_and_museums" title="List of Holocaust memorials and museums">Memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:The_Holocaust_sidebar" title="Template:The Holocaust sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:The_Holocaust_sidebar" title="Template talk:The Holocaust sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:The_Holocaust_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:The Holocaust sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of the Jews in Europe</b> spans a period of over two thousand years. <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Semitic_people" title="Semitic people">Semitic</a> people descending from the <a href="/wiki/Ioudaios" title="Ioudaios">Judeans</a> of <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Levant" title="Southern Levant">Southern Levant</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-WhoAreTheJews_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WhoAreTheJews-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pnas.org_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas.org-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nytimes-chromosome-study_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytimes-chromosome-study-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tony-frudakis-book_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tony-frudakis-book-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> began migrating to Europe just before the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (27 BC). Although <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Alexandria" title="History of the Jews in Alexandria">Alexandrian Jews</a> had already migrated to <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Rome</a>, and with few <a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">Gentiles</a> undergone <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Judaization</a> in few occasions. A notable early event in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Roman Empire">history of the Jews in the Roman Empire</a> was the 63 BCE <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(63_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)">siege of Jerusalem</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> had interfered in the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmonean Civil War">Hasmonean civil war</a>. </p><p>Jews have had a significant presence in European cities and countries since the fall of the Roman Empire, including <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">the Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a>. In Spain and Portugal in the late fifteenth century, the monarchies forced Jews to either convert to Christianity or leave and they established offices of the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> to enforce Catholic orthodoxy of converted Jews. These actions shattered Jewish life in Iberia and saw mass migration of <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardic Jews</a> to escape religious persecution. Many resettled in the Netherlands and re-judaized, starting in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. In the <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">religiously tolerant</a>, Protestant <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> Amsterdam prospered economically and as a center of Jewish cultural life, the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_of_the_West" title="Jerusalem of the West">"Dutch Jerusalem"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> lived in communities under continuous rabbinic authority. In Europe Jewish communities were largely self-governing autonomous under Christian rulers, usually with restrictions on residence and economic activities. In Poland, from 1264 (from 1569 also in Lithuania as part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), under the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Kalisz" title="Statute of Kalisz">Statute of Kalisz</a> until the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, Jews were guaranteed legal rights and privileges. The law in Poland after 1264 (in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in consequence) toward Jews was one of the most inclusive in Europe. The <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> removed legal restrictions on Jews, making them full citizens. <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_and_the_Jews" title="Napoleon and the Jews">Napoleon</a> implemented <a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Jewish emancipation</a> as his armies conquered much of Europe. Emancipation often brought more opportunities for Jews and many integrated into larger European society and became more secular rather than remaining in cohesive Jewish communities. </p><p>The pre-<a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> Jewish population of Europe is estimated to have been close to 9 million,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or 57% of the world's Jewish population.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 6 million Jews were killed in the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, which was followed by the emigration of much of the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_survivors" title="Holocaust survivors">surviving population</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Jewish population of Europe in 2010 was estimated to be approximately 1.4 million (0.2% of the European population), or 10% of the world's Jewish population.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe,<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia and Ukraine.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the Holocaust, Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe, as a percentage of its population. This was followed by Lithuania, Hungary, Latvia and Romania.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_period">Ancient period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ancient period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Jews">Roman Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Jews">Byzantine Jews</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewishdiaspora.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Jewishdiaspora.png/220px-Jewishdiaspora.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Jewishdiaspora.png/330px-Jewishdiaspora.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Jewishdiaspora.png/440px-Jewishdiaspora.png 2x" data-file-width="1393" data-file-height="937" /></a><figcaption>Routes of Jewish ancient expulsion and deportation</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a>, originating from <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, was present throughout the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> even before the <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a>. Large numbers of Jews lived in Greece (including the Greek isles in the Aegean and <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>) as early as the beginning of the 3rd century <a href="/wiki/BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="BCE">BCE</a>. The first recorded mention of Judaism in Greece dates from 300 to 250 BCE, on the island of <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SephardicStudies3_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SephardicStudies3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the wake of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s conquests, Jews migrated from the Middle East to Greek settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean, spurred on by the opportunities they expected.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As early as the middle of the 2nd century BCE, the Jewish author of the third book of the <a href="/wiki/Sibylline_oracles" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibylline oracles">Oracula Sibyllina</a>, addressing the "<a href="/wiki/Chosen_people" title="Chosen people">chosen people</a>", says: "Every land is full of thee and every sea." The most diverse witnesses, such as <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, all mention <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish populations</a> in the cities of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean Basin</a>. Most Jewish population centers of this period were, however, still in the Levant, and <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in Egypt was by far the most important of the Jewish communities, with the Jews in <a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a>'s time inhabiting two of the five sections of the city. Nevertheless, a Jewish community is recorded to have existed in Rome at least since the 1st century BCE, although there may even have been an established community there as early as the second century BCE, for in the year 139 BCE, the praetor <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hispanus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hispanus (page does not exist)">Hispanus</a> issued a decree expelling all Jews who were not Roman citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the commencement of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Caesar_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar Augustus">Caesar Augustus</a> in 27 BCE, there were over 7,000 Jews in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>: this is the number that escorted the envoys who came to demand the deposition of <a href="/wiki/Herod_Archelaus" title="Herod Archelaus">Archelaus</a>. The Jewish historian <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> confirms that as early as 90 CE there were two <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelite</a> tribes living in Europe, Judah and Benjamin. Thus, he writes in his <i>Antiquities</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> " ...there are but two tribes in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Asia Minor</a> and Europe subject to the Romans, while the ten tribes are beyond Euphrates till now and are an immense multitude." According to <a href="/wiki/E._Mary_Smallwood" title="E. Mary Smallwood">E. Mary Smallwood</a>, the appearance of Jewish settlements in southern Europe during the Roman era was probably mostly a result of migration due to commercial opportunities, writing that "no date or origin can be assigned to the numerous settlements eventually known in the west, and some may have been founded as a result of the dispersal of Judean Jews after the revolts of CE 66–70 and 132–135, but it is reasonable to conjecture that many, such as the settlement in <a href="/wiki/Pozzuoli" title="Pozzuoli">Pozzuoli</a> attested in 4 BCE, went back to the late republic or early empire and originated in voluntary emigration and the lure of trade and commerce."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Jews migrated to Rome from Alexandria as a result of the close trade relations between the two cities. When the Roman Empire <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(63_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)">captured Jerusalem</a> in 63 BCE, thousands of Jewish prisoners of war were brought from Judea to Rome, where they were sold into slavery. Following the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(37_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC)">capture of Jerusalem</a> by the forces of <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod the Great</a> with assistance from Roman forces in 37 BCE, it is likely that Jews were again taken to Rome as slaves. It is known that Jewish war captives were sold into slavery after the suppression of a minor Jewish revolt in 53 BCE, and some were probably taken to southern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the enslaved Jews gained their freedom, they permanently settled in Rome on the right bank of the <a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a> as traders, and some immigrated north later.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> period presence of Jews in modern-day Croatia dates to the 2nd century, in <a href="/wiki/Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonia</a> to the 3rd to 4th century. A finger ring with a <a href="/wiki/Temple_menorah" title="Temple menorah">menorah</a> depiction found in <a href="/wiki/Augusta_Raurica" title="Augusta Raurica">Augusta Raurica</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaiseraugst" title="Kaiseraugst">Kaiseraugst</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>) in 2001 attests to Jewish presence in <a href="/wiki/Germania_Superior" title="Germania Superior">Germania Superior</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence in towns north of the <a href="/wiki/Loire" title="Loire">Loire</a> or in southern <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> date to the 5th century and 6th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By late antiquity, Jewish communities were found in modern-day France and Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-museenkoeln.de_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-museenkoeln.de-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Taman_Peninsula" title="Taman Peninsula">Taman Peninsula</a>, modern day <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, Jewish presence dates back to the first century. Evidence of Jewish presence in <a href="/wiki/Phanagoria" title="Phanagoria">Phanagoria</a> includes tombstones with carved images of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_menorah" title="Temple menorah">menorah</a> and inscriptions with references to the synagogue.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution of Jews</a> in Europe begins with the presence of Jews in regions that later became known as the lands of Latin Christendom (c. 8th century CE)<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and modern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Encarta_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encarta-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not only were Jewish Christians <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_New_Testament" title="Persecution of Christians in the New Testament">persecuted according to the New Testament</a>, but also as a matter of historical fact. Anti-Jewish <a href="/wiki/Pogroms" class="mw-redirect" title="Pogroms">pogroms</a> occurred not only in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> (325 CE), <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> (351 CE), <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> (250 CE), <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> (415), but also in Italy (224 CE), <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> (379 CE) and <a href="/wiki/Menorca" title="Menorca">Menorca</a> (418 CE), <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> (489), <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Daphne-Antioch</a> (506), <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> (519), amongst other places. <a href="/wiki/Split_of_early_Christianity_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Split of early Christianity and Judaism">Hostility between Christians and Jews grew over the generations</a> under <a href="/wiki/Imperium_Romanum" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperium Romanum">Roman</a> sovereignty and beyond; eventually <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">forced conversion</a>, confiscation of propertly, burning of synagogues, expulsion, <a href="/wiki/Stake_burning" class="mw-redirect" title="Stake burning">stake burning</a>, enslavement and <a href="/wiki/Outlaw" title="Outlaw">outlawing</a> of Jews—even whole Jewish communities—occurred countless times in the lands of Latin Christendom.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-STR-JewishPersecution_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STR-JewishPersecution-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GrosserHalperin_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrosserHalperin-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">History of European Jews in the Middle Ages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Expulsion_judios-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expulsion_judios-en.svg/310px-Expulsion_judios-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expulsion_judios-en.svg/465px-Expulsion_judios-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expulsion_judios-en.svg/620px-Expulsion_judios-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="8960" data-file-height="6672" /></a><figcaption>Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GermanJews1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/GermanJews1.jpg" decoding="async" width="201" height="378" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="201" data-file-height="378" /></a><figcaption>Jews of Germany, 13th century</figcaption></figure> <p>The early medieval period was a time of flourishing Jewish culture. Jewish and Christian life evolved in 'diametrically opposite directions' during the final centuries of Roman empire. Jewish life became autonomous, decentralized, community-centered. Christian life became a hierarchical system under the supreme authority of the Pope and the Roman Emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jewish life can be characterized as democratic. Rabbis in the Talmud interpreted Deut. 29:9, "your heads, your tribes, your elders, and your officers, even all the men of Israel" and "Although I have appointed for you heads, elders, and officers, you are all equal before me" (Tanhuma) to stress political shared power. Shared power entailed responsibilities: "you are all responsible for one another. If there be only one righteous man among you, you will all profit from his merits, and not you alone, but the entire world...But if one of you sins, the whole generation will suffer."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, persecution of Jews also continued in the lands of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Latin Christendom</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> converted from more tolerant <a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">non-trinitarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a> to the stricter <a href="/wiki/Trinitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitarian">trinitarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Nicene Christianity</a> of Rome, in 612 CE and again in 642 CE, expulsions of all Jews were decreed in the Visigoth Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Catholic <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingian dynasty</a> decreed <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">forced conversion</a> for Jews in 582 and 629 CE. Under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Toledo" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toledo">Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Toledo</a>, multiple persecutions (633, 653, 693 CE) and stake burnings of Jews (638 CE) occurred; the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Toledo" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Toledo">Kingdom of Toledo</a> followed up on this tradition in 1368, 1391, 1449, and 1486–1490 CE, including forced conversions and mass murder, and there was rioting and a blood bath against the Jews of Toledo in 1212 CE. Jewish pogroms occurred in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Diocese_of_Clement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diocese of Clement (page does not exist)">Diocese of Clement</a> (France, 554 CE) and in the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Uzes" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Uzes">Diocese of Uzes</a> (France, 561 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-STR-JewishPersecution_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STR-JewishPersecution-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GrosserHalperin_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrosserHalperin-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>European Jews were at first concentrated largely in southern Europe. During the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High</a> and <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a>, they migrated north. There is historical evidence of Jewish communities north of the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyrenees" title="Pyrenees">Pyrenees</a> in the 8th and 9th centuries. By the 11th century, Jewish settlers from southern Europe, Jewish immigrants from <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi Jewish</a> traders from <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> were settling in western and central Europe, particularly in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and along the <a href="/wiki/Rhine_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine River">Rhine River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-britannica_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This Jewish migration was motivated by economic opportunities and often at the invitation of local Christian rulers, who perceived the Jews as having the know-how and capacity to jump-start the economy, improve revenue, and enlarge trade.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_Middle_Ages">High Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Persecution of Jews in Europe increased in the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a> in the context of the Christian <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> (1096), flourishing communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed; see <a href="/wiki/German_Crusade,_1096" class="mw-redirect" title="German Crusade, 1096">German Crusade, 1096</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" title="Second Crusade">Second Crusade</a>, (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the <a href="/wiki/Shepherds%27_Crusade_(1251)" title="Shepherds' Crusade (1251)">Shepherds' Crusades of 1251</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shepherds%27_Crusade_(1320)" title="Shepherds' Crusade (1320)">1320</a>. The Crusades were followed by expulsions, including in 1290 the banishing of all Jews from the Kingdom of England by King <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Expulsion" title="Edict of Expulsion">Edict of Expulsion</a>. In 1394, 100,000 Jews were <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France#Expulsion_of_1394" title="History of the Jews in France">expelled from France</a>. Thousands more were <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria#Deportation_from_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">deported from Austria</a> in 1421. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Jews were also <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Jews_from_Spain" title="Expulsion of Jews from Spain">expelled from Spain</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">Alhambra Decree</a> in 1492. </p><p>In relations with Christian society, they were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration, and medicine. Christian scholars interested in the Bible would consult with Talmudic rabbis. All of this changed with the reforms and strengthening of the Roman Catholic Church and the rise of competitive middle-class, town dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests were using the Passion Plays at Easter time, which depicted Jews, in contemporary dress, killing Christ, to teach the general populace to hate and murder Jews. It was at this point that persecution and exile became endemic. As a result of persecution, expulsions and massacres carried out by the Crusaders, Jews gradually migrated to Central and Eastern Europe, settling in Poland, Lithuania, and Russia, where they found greater security and a renewal of prosperity.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Middle_Ages">Late Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Late Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pogrom_de_Strasbourg_1349.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Pogrom_de_Strasbourg_1349.jpg/290px-Pogrom_de_Strasbourg_1349.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Pogrom_de_Strasbourg_1349.jpg/435px-Pogrom_de_Strasbourg_1349.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Pogrom_de_Strasbourg_1349.jpg/580px-Pogrom_de_Strasbourg_1349.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1608" data-file-height="1110" /></a><figcaption>Pogrom of Strasbourg by Emile Schweitzer</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a>, in the mid-14th century, the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> epidemics devastated Europe, annihilating 30–50 percent of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an oft-told myth that due to better nutrition and greater cleanliness, Jews were not infected in similar numbers; Jews were indeed infected in numbers similar to their non-Jewish neighbors<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet they were still made <a href="/wiki/Scapegoat#Political/sociological_scapegoating" title="Scapegoat">scapegoats</a>. Rumors spread that Jews caused the disease by deliberately <a href="/wiki/Well_poisoning" title="Well poisoning">poisoning wells</a>. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence. Although <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_VI" title="Pope Clement VI">Pope Clement VI</a> tried to protect them with his 6 July 1348 <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> and another papal bull in 1348, several months later, 900 Jews were <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg_massacre" title="Strasbourg massacre">burnt alive in Strasbourg</a>, where the plague had not yet reached the city.<sup id="cite_ref-Black_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Black-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christian <a href="/wiki/Host_desecration#Medieval_accusations_against_Jews" title="Host desecration">accusations of host desecration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">blood libels</a> were made against Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pogroms followed, and the destruction of Jewish communities yielded the funds for many <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a> churches or chapels throughout the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Werner_of_Oberwesel" title="Werner of Oberwesel">Saint Werner's</a> Chapels of Bacharach, Oberwesel, Womrath; <a href="/wiki/Deggendorf" title="Deggendorf">Deggendorfer Gnad in Bavaria</a>). </p><p>Jewish survival in the face of external pressures from the Roman Catholic empire and the Persian Zoroastrian empire is seen as 'enigmatic' by historians.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Salo_Wittmayer_Baron" title="Salo Wittmayer Baron">Salo Wittmayer Baron</a> credits Jewish survival to eight factors: </p> <ol><li>Messianic faith: Belief in an ultimately positive outcome and restoration to them of the Land of Israel.</li> <li>The doctrine of the World-to-Come increasingly elaborated: Jews were reconciled to suffering in this world, which helped them resist outside temptations to convert.</li> <li>Suffering was given meaning through hope-inducing interpretation of their history and their destiny.</li> <li>The doctrine of martyrdom and inescapability of persecution transformed it into a source of communal solidarity.</li> <li>Jewish daily life was very satisfying. Jews lived among Jews. In practice, in a lifetime, individuals encountered overt persecution only on a few dramatic occasions. Jews mostly lived under discrimination that affected everyone, and to which they were habituated. Daily life was governed by a multiplicity of ritual requirements, so that each Jew was constantly aware of God throughout the day. "For the most part, he found this all-encompassing Jewish way of life so eminently satisfactory that he was prepared to sacrifice himself...for the preservation of its fundamentals."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those commandments for which Jews had sacrificed their lives, such as defying idolatry, not eating pork, observing circumcision, were the ones most strictly adhered to.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The corporate development and segregationist policies of the late Roman empire and Persian empire, helped keep Jewish community organization strong.</li> <li>Talmud provided an extremely effective force to sustain Jewish ethics, law and culture, judicial and social welfare system, universal education, regulation of strong family life and religious life from birth to death.</li> <li>The concentration of Jewish masses within 'the lower middle class',<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the middle class virtues of sexual self-control. There was a moderate path between asceticism and licentiousness. Marriage was considered to be the foundation of ethnic, and ethical, life.</li></ol> <p>Outside hostility only helped cement Jewish unity and internal strength and commitment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jews_in_Iberia_under_Islamic_rule">Jews in Iberia under Islamic rule</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Jews in Iberia under Islamic rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)</a></div> <p>The Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain refers to a period of history during the <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Muslim rule of Iberia</a> in which Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural and economic life blossomed. This "Golden Age" is variously dated from the 8th to 12th centuries. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> was a key center of Jewish life during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, producing important scholars and one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities. A number of famous <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophers</a> and scholars flourished during this time, most notably <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Modern_period">Early Modern period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early Modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern period">Early Modern period</a> was one of considerable transition in European Jewry, with forced expulsions and religious persecution in many Christian kingdoms, but there were significant political and cultural changes that saw more favorable conditions for Jewish populations. One in particular, the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> was founded with <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">religious tolerance</a> as a core value, such that Jews could practice their religion openly and generally without restriction and there were opportunities for Jewish merchants to compete on an equal basis in a burgeoning world economy. Culturally, there were changes seen in the way that Jews were depicted in art, particularly in the 17th century. Pejorative tropes of Jews in the Medieval period did not entirely disappear, but there were now straightforward scenes of Jewish religious worship and everyday life, indicating more tolerant attitudes by larger Western European society.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the close of period, the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> abolished restrictions against Jews and made them full citizens. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catholic_Spain_and_Portugal">Catholic Spain and Portugal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Catholic Spain and Portugal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">History of the Jews in Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">History of the Jews in Portugal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G%C3%B6ke_(1495)_the_flagship_of_Kemal_Reis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/G%C3%B6ke_%281495%29_the_flagship_of_Kemal_Reis.jpg/220px-G%C3%B6ke_%281495%29_the_flagship_of_Kemal_Reis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/G%C3%B6ke_%281495%29_the_flagship_of_Kemal_Reis.jpg/330px-G%C3%B6ke_%281495%29_the_flagship_of_Kemal_Reis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/G%C3%B6ke_%281495%29_the_flagship_of_Kemal_Reis.jpg/440px-G%C3%B6ke_%281495%29_the_flagship_of_Kemal_Reis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="517" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Sultan <a href="/wiki/Bayezid_II" title="Bayezid II">Bayezid II</a> sent <a href="/wiki/Kemal_Reis" title="Kemal Reis">Kemal Reis</a> to save the <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardic Jews</a> of <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> in 1492, and granted them permission to settle in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The fall of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Granada" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Granada">Kingdom of Granada</a> the last Muslim kingdom in Iberia in 1492 to the conquering <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a> initiated period of religious change in Spain. There had already been considerable pressure for Jews to convert to Christianity and to monitor that their conversions were sincere and orthodox, the Holy Office of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> was established in 1478 by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella</a> to maintain <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> orthodoxy. It was not definitively abolished until 1834, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Isabel_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabel II">Isabel II</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> was an ecclesiastical tribunal, had jurisdiction only over baptized <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a>. Christian converts (<i><a href="/wiki/Converso" title="Converso">conversos</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Marranos" class="mw-redirect" title="Marranos">Marranos</a></i>) came under scrutiny. The <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">Alhambra Decree</a> of 1492 forced Jews to decide whether to stay and be baptized Christians or to leave immediately, often forfeited considerable economic resources along with severing connections to their relatives who stayed. Some left for the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, where they could continue under Muslim authority and with particular rights that they had exercised in Muslim Iberia. Many more Spanish Jews left for the adjoining <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a>, where there was also a large resident Jewish population. However, in 1496–97, Jews in Portugal were forced to convert to Christianity, but unlike Spain, there was no <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese Inquisition</a> and one was not established until 1536. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amsterdam_as_the_"Dutch_Jerusalem""><span id="Amsterdam_as_the_.22Dutch_Jerusalem.22"></span>Amsterdam as the "Dutch Jerusalem"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Amsterdam as the "Dutch Jerusalem""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">History of the Jews in the Netherlands</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Interieur_van_de_Portugese_Synagoge_te_Amsterdam,_ca._1695_Tempel_der_Joden_in_Amsteldam_Templo_o_Sinagoga_de_los_Judias_en_Amsteldam_(titel_op_object),_RP-P-AO-24-29.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Interieur_van_de_Portugese_Synagoge_te_Amsterdam%2C_ca._1695_Tempel_der_Joden_in_Amsteldam_Templo_o_Sinagoga_de_los_Judias_en_Amsteldam_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-AO-24-29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Interieur_van_de_Portugese_Synagoge_te_Amsterdam%2C_ca._1695_Tempel_der_Joden_in_Amsteldam_Templo_o_Sinagoga_de_los_Judias_en_Amsteldam_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-AO-24-29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Interieur_van_de_Portugese_Synagoge_te_Amsterdam%2C_ca._1695_Tempel_der_Joden_in_Amsteldam_Templo_o_Sinagoga_de_los_Judias_en_Amsteldam_%28titel_op_object%29%2C_RP-P-AO-24-29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5654" data-file-height="4688" /></a><figcaption>Interior of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Synagogue_(Amsterdam)" title="Portuguese Synagogue (Amsterdam)">Portuguese Synagogue</a>, Amsterdam in 1695 by <a href="/wiki/Romeyn_de_Hooghe" title="Romeyn de Hooghe">Romeyn de Hooghe</a></figcaption></figure> <p>When the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> revolted against Catholic Spain in what became the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a>, Portuguese and Spanish Jews forced to convert to Catholicism (<i><a href="/wiki/Converso" title="Converso">conversos</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marranos</a></i>) began migrating to the northern provinces of the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">Religious tolerance</a>, the freedom of conscience to practice one's religion without impediment, was a core Dutch Protestant value. These <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardic migrants</a> established a thriving community in Amsterdam, which became known as the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_of_the_West" title="Jerusalem of the West">"Dutch Jerusalem"</a><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three Sephardic congregations merged and built a huge synagogue, the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Synagogue_(Amsterdam)" title="Portuguese Synagogue (Amsterdam)">Portuguese Synagogue</a>, opening in 1675. Prosperous Jewish merchants built opulent houses among successful non-Jewish merchants, since there was no restriction of Jews to particular residential quarters. The Iberian Jews strongly identified both as Jews and as ethnically Portuguese, calling themselves "Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amsterdam's Portuguese Jewish merchants created a huge trade network in the Americas, with Portuguese Jews emigrating to the Caribbean and to Brazil.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ashkenazi Jews settled in Amsterdam as well but were generally poorer than the Sephardim and dependent of their charity. However, Amsterdam's prosperity faltered in the late seventeenth century, as did the fortunes and number of Sephardic Jews, while the Ashkenazi Jews' numbers continued to rise and have dominated the Netherlands ever since. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="England_re-opens_to_Jewish_Settlement">England re-opens to Jewish Settlement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: England re-opens to Jewish Settlement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_England" title="History of the Jews in England">History of the Jews in England</a></div> <p>England expelled its small Jewish population (ca. 2,000) in 1290, but in the seventeenth century, prominent Portuguese Jewish rabbi <a href="/wiki/Menasseh_ben_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Menasseh ben Israel">Menasseh ben Israel</a> petition <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a> to permit Jews to live and work in England. The modern Jewish presence in England dates from 1656. In the 16th century some merchants were <i><a href="/wiki/New_Christian" title="New Christian">New Christians</a></i> (converted Jews), but only in the 17th c. were the English receptive to the idea of Jewish resettlement. Those who migrated to England were from the <a href="/wiki/Sephardic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardic">Sephardic</a> Jews of Amsterdam, where they lived openly as Jews in the <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religiously tolerant</a> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>, where merchants prospered in as international trade of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic world">Atlantic world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland_as_a_center_of_the_Jewish_community">Poland as a center of the Jewish community</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Poland as a center of the Jewish community"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PolishJews3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/PolishJews3.jpg/150px-PolishJews3.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/PolishJews3.jpg/225px-PolishJews3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/PolishJews3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="309" /></a><figcaption>A Jewish couple, Poland, c. 1765</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">History of the Jews in Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland_before_the_18th_century" title="History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century">History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">The expulsion of the Jews from Spain</a> in 1492, as well as expulsion from <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian Jews">Hungary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Germany">Germany</a>, stimulated a widespread Jewish migration to the much more tolerant Poland. Indeed, with the expulsion of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Jews from Spain</a>, Poland became the recognized haven for exiles from the rest of Europe; and the resulting accession to the ranks of <a href="/wiki/Polish_Jewry" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Jewry">Polish Jewry</a> made it a cultural and spiritual center of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish people">Jewish people</a> in Europe. </p><p>The most prosperous period for Polish Jews began following this new influx of Jews with the reign of <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_I_the_Old" title="Sigismund I the Old">Sigismund I the Old</a> (r. 1506–1548), who protected the Jews in his realm. His son, <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_II_Augustus" title="Sigismund II Augustus">Sigismund II Augustus</a> (r. 1548–1572), mainly followed the tolerant policy of his father and also granted autonomy to the Jews in the matter of communal administration, laying the foundation for the power of the <i><a href="/wiki/Qahal" title="Qahal">Qahal</a></i>, or autonomous Jewish community. This period led to the creation of a proverb about Poland being a "heaven for the Jews". According to some sources, about three-quarters of all the Jews in Europe lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Sanford_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanford-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EJC_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EJC-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-relations_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-relations-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the middle of the 16th century, Poland welcomed Jewish newcomers from <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, mostly of <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi</a> origin; while some of the immigrants from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> claimed to be <a href="/wiki/Mizrahim" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizrahim">Mizrahim</a>. Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. In 1503, the Polish monarchy appointed Rabbi Jacob Polak, the official Rabbi of Poland, marking the emergence of the Chief Rabbinate. Around 1550, many Sephardi Jews travelled across Europe to find a haven in Poland. Therefore, the Polish Jews are said to be of many ethnic origins including Ashkenazic, Sephardic, and Mizrahi. During the 16th and 17th century Poland had the largest Jewish population in the whole of Europe. </p><p>By 1551, Polish Jews were given permission to choose their own Chief Rabbi. The Chief Rabbinate held power over law and finance, appointing judges and other officials. Other powers were shared with local councils. The Polish government permitted the Rabbinate to grow in power and used it for tax collection purposes. Only 30% of the money raised by the Rabbinate went to the Jewish communities. The rest went to the Crown for protection. In this period Poland-Lithuania became the main center for Ashkenazi Jewry, and its <i><a href="/wiki/Yeshivot" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeshivot">yeshivot</a></i> achieved fame from the early 16th century. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Moses_Isserles" title="Moses Isserles">Moses Isserles</a> (1520–1572), an eminent <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmudist</a> of the 16th century, established his <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">yeshiva</a> in <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>. In addition to being a renowned Talmudic and <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">legal scholar</a>, Isserles was also learned in <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a>, and studied history, astronomy, and philosophy. </p><p>The culture and intellectual output of the Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. Some Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as <i>Polania</i> or <i>Polin</i> in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, and as <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliterated</a> into Hebrew. These names for Poland were interpreted as "good omens" because <i>Polania</i> can be broken down into three Hebrew words: <i>po</i> ("here"), <i>lan</i> ("dwells"), <i>ya</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">God</a>"), and <i>Polin</i> into two words of: <i>po</i> ("here") <i>lin</i> ("[you should] dwell"). The "message" was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. During the time from the rule of <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_I_the_Old" title="Sigismund I the Old">Sigismund I the Old</a> until the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, Poland would be at the center of Jewish religious life. </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">Yeshivot</a></i> were established, under the direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Such schools were officially known as <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(school)" title="Gymnasium (school)">gymnasiums</a>, and their rabbi principals as <a href="/wiki/Rector_(academia)" title="Rector (academia)">rectors</a>. Important <i>yeshivot</i> existed in Kraków, Poznań, and other cities. Jewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the 16th century. In 1530, a <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <a href="/wiki/Pentateuch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a> (<a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>) was printed in Kraków; and at the end of the 16th century the Jewish printing houses of that city and <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a> issued a large number of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character. The growth of <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmudic scholarship</a> in Poland was coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish Jews; and because of their communal autonomy educational development was wholly one-sided and along Talmudic lines. Exceptions are recorded, however, where Jewish youth sought secular instruction in the European universities. The learned rabbis became not merely expounders of the Law, but also spiritual advisers, teachers, judges, and legislators; and their authority compelled the communal leaders to make themselves familiar with the abstruse questions of <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a>. Polish Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influence was felt in the home, in school, and in the synagogue. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zamosc_Synagogue2011_IMGP0609.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Zamosc_Synagogue2011_IMGP0609.jpg/220px-Zamosc_Synagogue2011_IMGP0609.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Zamosc_Synagogue2011_IMGP0609.jpg/330px-Zamosc_Synagogue2011_IMGP0609.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Zamosc_Synagogue2011_IMGP0609.jpg/440px-Zamosc_Synagogue2011_IMGP0609.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3589" data-file-height="2533" /></a><figcaption>Late renaissance <a href="/wiki/Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87_Synagogue" title="Zamość Synagogue">synagogue in Zamość</a>, Poland (1610–1620)</figcaption></figure> <p>In the first half of the 16th century the seeds of Talmudic learning had been transplanted to Poland from <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, particularly from the school of <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Pollak" title="Jacob Pollak">Jacob Pollak</a>, the creator of <i><a href="/wiki/Pilpul" title="Pilpul">Pilpul</a></i> ("sharp reasoning"). <a href="/wiki/Shalom_Shachna" title="Shalom Shachna">Shalom Shachna</a> (c. 1500 – 1558), a pupil of Pollak, is counted among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland. He lived and died in <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>, where he was the head of the <i>yeshivah</i> which produced the rabbinical celebrities of the following century. Shachna's son Israel became rabbi of Lublin on the death of his father, and Shachna's pupil <a href="/wiki/Moses_Isserles" title="Moses Isserles">Moses Isserles</a> (known as the <i>ReMA</i>) (1520–1572) achieved an international reputation among the Jews as the author of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mappah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mappah (page does not exist)">Mappah</a>, which adapted the <i><a href="/wiki/Shulkhan_Arukh" class="mw-redirect" title="Shulkhan Arukh">Shulkhan Arukh</a></i> to meet the needs of the Ashkenazi community. His contemporary and correspondent <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Luria" title="Solomon Luria">Solomon Luria</a> (1510–1573) of Lublin also enjoyed widespread popularity among his co-religionists; and the authority of both was recognized by the Jews throughout Europe. Heated religious disputations were common, and Jewish scholars participated in them. At the same time, the <i><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></i> had become entrenched under the protection of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinism</a>; and such scholars as <a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Jaffe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mordecai Jaffe">Mordecai Jaffe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoel_Sirkis" class="mw-redirect" title="Yoel Sirkis">Yoel Sirkis</a> devoted themselves to its study. This period of great Rabbinical scholarship was interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Khmelnytsky Uprising</a> and the <a href="/wiki/The_Deluge_(Polish_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Deluge (Polish history)">Swedish Deluge</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Growth_of_Hasidism">Growth of Hasidism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Growth of Hasidism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/History of the Jews in Europe">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic Judaism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_Rabbis" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Polish Rabbis">List of Polish Rabbis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Besht_Signature.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Besht_Signature.jpg/220px-Besht_Signature.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Besht_Signature.jpg/330px-Besht_Signature.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Besht_Signature.jpg/440px-Besht_Signature.jpg 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="136" /></a><figcaption>Israel ben Eliezer's autograph</figcaption></figure> <p>The decade from the <a href="/wiki/Chmielnicki_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Chmielnicki Uprising">Cossacks' uprising</a> until after the <a href="/wiki/The_Deluge_(Polish_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Deluge (Polish history)">Deluge period</a> (1648–1658) left a deep and lasting impression not only on the social life of the Polish-Lithuanian Jews, but on their spiritual life as well. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Talmudic learning which up to that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only. What religious study there was became overly formalized, some rabbis busied themselves with quibbles concerning religious laws; others wrote commentaries on different parts of the Talmud in which hair-splitting arguments were raised and discussed; and at times these arguments dealt with matters which were of no practical importance. At the same time, many miracle workers made their appearance among the Jews of Poland, culminating in a series of false "Messianic" movements, most famously <a href="/wiki/Sabbatai_Zevi" title="Sabbatai Zevi">Sabbateanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Frank" title="Jacob Frank">Frankism</a>. </p><p>Into this time of <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a> and overly formal rabbinism came the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Israel_ben_Eliezer" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel ben Eliezer">Israel ben Eliezer</a>, known as the <i>Baal Shem Tov</i>, or <i>BeShT</i>, (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> and Poland in particular.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His disciples taught and encouraged a new fervent brand of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> based on <i><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></i> known as <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidism</a>. The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond had a great influence on the rise of <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi Judaism</a> all over the world,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a continuous influence through its many <a href="/wiki/List_of_Hasidic_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Hasidic dynasties">Hasidic dynasties</a> including those of <a href="/wiki/Chabad-Lubavitch" class="mw-redirect" title="Chabad-Lubavitch">Chabad-Lubavitch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleksander_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Aleksander (Hasidic dynasty)">Aleksander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bobov_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Bobov (Hasidic dynasty)">Bobov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ger_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Ger (Hasidic dynasty)">Ger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nadvorna_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Nadvorna (Hasidic dynasty)">Nadvorna</a>. More recent <i>rebbes</i> of Polish origin include Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Yosef_Yitzchok_Schneersohn" class="mw-redirect" title="Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn">Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn</a> (1880–1950), the sixth head of the <a href="/wiki/Chabad_Lubavitch" class="mw-redirect" title="Chabad Lubavitch">Chabad Lubavitch</a> Hasidic movement, who lived in Warsaw until 1940 when he moved <a href="/wiki/Yosef_Yitzchok_Schneersohn#1940:_Settling_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn">Lubavitch from Warsaw to the United States</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_era,_1750_to_1930"><span id="Modern_era.2C_1750_to_1930"></span>Modern era, 1750 to 1930</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modern era, 1750 to 1930"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_emancipation">Jewish emancipation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Jewish emancipation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her,_30._Mai_1806.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her%2C_30._Mai_1806.jpg/200px-Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her%2C_30._Mai_1806.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her%2C_30._Mai_1806.jpg/300px-Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her%2C_30._Mai_1806.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her%2C_30._Mai_1806.jpg/400px-Napoleon_stellt_den_israelitischen_Kult_wieder_her%2C_30._Mai_1806.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2174" data-file-height="1908" /></a><figcaption>An 1806 French print depicts <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> emancipating the Jews</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Jewish emancipation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_and_the_Jews" title="Napoleon and the Jews">Napoleon and the Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_question" class="mw-redirect" title="The Jewish question">The Jewish question</a></div> <p>As part of the egalitarian principles of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, Jews became full citizens without restrictions. Napoleon expanded the egalitarian principles in the places his armies conquered. Even in the Netherlands, which had a well-established tradition of religious tolerance, when it came under French sway, Jewish religious leaders no longer could exercise authority in an autonomous community. The so-called <a href="/wiki/Jewish_question" title="Jewish question">Jewish question</a> was active exploration of a potentially new vision of the Jews' place in European states. The <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Jewish Enlightentment</a> produced an important body of knowledge and speculation on a range of questions regarding Jewish identity. A leading figure was German Jewish philosopher <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changing_conditions_for_Jewish_populations">Changing conditions for Jewish populations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Changing conditions for Jewish populations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_showing_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland,_c._1905.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Map_showing_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland%2C_c._1905.png/220px-Map_showing_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland%2C_c._1905.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Map_showing_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland%2C_c._1905.png/330px-Map_showing_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland%2C_c._1905.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Map_showing_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland%2C_c._1905.png/440px-Map_showing_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland%2C_c._1905.png 2x" data-file-width="608" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Jewish population within the Russian Empire in 1905</figcaption></figure> <p>By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Russia was the European country with the largest Jewish population, following annexation of <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Poland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1897, according to <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Empire Census">Russian census of 1897</a>, the total Jewish population of Russia was 5.1 million people, which was 4.13% of the total population. Of this total, the vast majority lived within the <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jews faced widespread discrimination and oppression. As the Czarist monarchy was openly <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Russia" title="Antisemitism in Russia">antisemitic</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> various <a href="/wiki/Pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Pogroms in the Russian Empire">pogroms</a>, which were large-scale violent protests directed at Jews, took place across the western part of the vast empire since late 19th century,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to several deaths and waves of emigration.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Difficult conditions in Eastern Europe and the possibility of bettering their lot elsewhere triggered Jewish migration to Western Europe, particularly where Jews were already living in conditions of <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious toleration</a>, such as the Netherlands and England, where there were also more economic opportunities for impoverished Eastern European Jews. In England, the original Sephardic Jewish community of bankers and brokers after England re-opened settlement to Jews, went from a small community in the 18th century, to a prosperous one in the first two-thirds of the 19th century. In the late 19th century up to the outbreak of World War I, English-born Jews, who had integrated well were now, had waves of poorer, more religious Eastern European Jews settle in great numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Netherlands had already experienced migration of Eastern European Jews, mainly from Germany, starting in the 17th century. While the Portuguese-speaking Jews had been economically and culturally dominant in the 17th century, they declined in numbers and economic clout when the poorer Asheknazic population was increasing and remained numerically dominant going forward. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a> the early 19th century, in the reform age the progressive nobility set many goals of innovation, such as the emancipation of the Hungarian Jewry. Hungarian Jews were able to play a part in the economy by assuming an important role in industrial and trading development. For example, <a href="/wiki/Izs%C3%A1k_L%C5%91wy" title="Izsák Lőwy">Izsák Lőwy</a> (1793–1847) founded his leather factory on a previously purchased piece of land in 1835, and created a new, modern town, with independent authority, religious equality and industrial freedom independent from the guilds. The town, which was given the name Újpest (New Pest), soon became a very important settlement. Its first synagogue was built in 1839. (Újpest, the current capital's 4th district is in the northern part of Budapest. During the time of the Holocaust 20,000 Jews were deported from here.) Mór Fischer Farkasházi (1800–1880) founded his world-famous porcelain factory in Herend in 1839, its fine porcelains decorated, among others, <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>'s table.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Juden_1881.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Juden_1881.JPG/290px-Juden_1881.JPG" decoding="async" width="290" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Juden_1881.JPG/435px-Juden_1881.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Juden_1881.JPG/580px-Juden_1881.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4782" data-file-height="3936" /></a><figcaption>The Jews in Central Europe (1881)</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghettos</a>. Until the 1840s, they were required to regularly attend sermons urging their conversion to Christianity. Only Jews were taxed to support state boarding schools for Jewish converts to Christianity. It was illegal to convert from Christianity to Judaism. Sometimes Jews were baptized involuntarily, and, even when such baptisms were illegal, forced to practice the Christian religion. In many such cases the state separated them from their families. See <a href="/wiki/Edgardo_Mortara" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgardo Mortara">Edgardo Mortara</a> for an account of one of the most widely publicized instances of acrimony between Catholics and Jews in the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> in the second half of the 19th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_emigration_from_Europe">Jewish emigration from Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Jewish emigration from Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">History of the Jews in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a></div> <p>Starting in the 19th century after Jewish emancipation, European Jews left the continent in huge numbers, especially for the United States and some other countries, to pursue better opportunity and to escape religious persecution, including <a href="/wiki/Pogroms" class="mw-redirect" title="Pogroms">pogroms</a>, and to flee violence. Jews coming to the U.S. in the early to mid-19th century were mostly from central Europe, especially <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, Western <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Posen_(region)" title="Posen (region)">Posen</a>. They were not the poorest of the poor and a significant number came as families (husband, wife, children). Non-Jewish Germans also immigrated in great numbers at the same time, because of conditions in Europe and the lure of better conditions in the U.S. Although the non-Jewish Germans then began to come in lower numbers, Jewish immigration continued to be robust into the twentieth century, an estimated 250,000.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Jews emigrated to Palestine controlled by European powers, and, following World War II, the European Jews emigrated to the newly established <a href="/wiki/State_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Israel">State of Israel</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zionism">Zionism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Zionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theodor_Herzl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Theodor_Herzl.jpg/220px-Theodor_Herzl.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Theodor_Herzl.jpg/330px-Theodor_Herzl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Theodor_Herzl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Herzl" title="Theodor Herzl">Theodor Herzl</a> was the founder of the Modern Zionist movement and envisioned the founding of a future independent Jewish state</figcaption></figure> <p>The movement of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> originates in the late 19th century. In 1883, <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Birnbaum" title="Nathan Birnbaum">Nathan Birnbaum</a> founded <i>Kadimah</i>, the first Jewish student association in Vienna. In 1884, the first issue of <i>Selbstemanzipation</i> (Self <a href="/wiki/Political_emancipation" class="mw-redirect" title="Political emancipation">Emancipation</a>) appeared, printed by Birnbaum himself. The <a href="/wiki/Dreyfus_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreyfus Affair">Dreyfus Affair</a>, which erupted in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> in 1894, profoundly shocked emancipated Jews. The depth of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> in a country thought of as the home of enlightenment and liberty led many to question their future security in Europe. Among those who witnessed the Affair was an Austro-Hungarian (born in <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>, lived in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>) Jewish journalist, <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Herzl" title="Theodor Herzl">Theodor Herzl</a>, who published his pamphlet <i><a href="/wiki/Der_Judenstaat" title="Der Judenstaat">Der Judenstaat</a></i> ("The Jewish State") in 1896<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Old_New_Land" title="The Old New Land">Altneuland</a></i> ("The Old New Land") in 1897.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He described the Affair as a personal turning point, Before the Affair, Herzl had been <a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Zionist">anti-Zionist</a>; afterwards he became ardently pro-Zionist. In line with the ideas of 19th-century German nationalism Herzl believed in a Jewish state for the Jewish nation. In that way, he argued, the Jews could become a people like all other peoples, and antisemitism would cease to exist.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Herzl" title="Theodor Herzl">Herzl</a> infused political Zionism with a new and practical urgency. He brought the <a href="/wiki/World_Zionist_Organization" title="World Zionist Organization">World Zionist Organization</a> into being and, together with Nathan Birnbaum, planned its First Congress at <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a> in 1897.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first four years, the <a href="/wiki/World_Zionist_Organization" title="World Zionist Organization">World Zionist Organization</a> (WZO) met every year, then, up to the Second World War, they gathered every second year. Since the war, the Congress has met every four years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_organizations">Religious organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Religious organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Jewish religious movements</a></div> <p>In 1868/69, three major Jewish organizations were founded: the largest group were the more modern congressional or neolog Jews, the very traditional minded joined the orthodox movement, and the conservatives formed the status quo organization. The neolog <a href="/wiki/Doh%C3%A1ny_Street_Synagogue" title="Dohány Street Synagogue">Grand Synagogue</a> had been built earlier, in 1859, in the Dohány Street. The main status quo temple, the nearby Rumbach Street Synagogue was constructed in 1872. The Budapest orthodox synagogue is located on Kazinczy Street, along with the orthodox community's headquarters and <a href="/wiki/Mikveh" title="Mikveh">mikveh</a>. </p><p>In May 1923, in the presence of President <a href="/wiki/Michael_Hainisch" title="Michael Hainisch">Michael Hainisch</a>, the <a href="/wiki/First_World_Congress_of_Jewish_Women" title="First World Congress of Jewish Women">First World Congress of Jewish Women</a> was inaugurated at the <a href="/wiki/Hofburg" title="Hofburg">Hofburg</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, Austria.<sup id="cite_ref-Ben-GavriêlBen-Gavrîʾēl1999_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ben-GavriêlBen-Gavrîʾēl1999-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demographics">Demographics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Demographics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jewish population in interwar Europe, approximately as of 1933:<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Country</th> <th>Jewish population</th> <th>as % of national<br /> population</th> <th>as % of total Jewish<br /> population in Europe </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg/21px-Flag_of_Albania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg/32px-Flag_of_Albania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg/42px-Flag_of_Albania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a></td> <td>200</td> <td>0.0</td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a></td> <td>191,000</td> <td>2.8</td> <td>2.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></td> <td>60,300</td> <td>0.7</td> <td>0.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></td> <td>48,500</td> <td>0.8</td> <td>0.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a></td> <td>357,000</td> <td>2.4</td> <td>3.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_Danzig.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_Danzig.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_Danzig.svg/34px-Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_Danzig.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_Danzig.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Free_City_of_Danzig.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="397" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Danzig</a></td> <td>10,000</td> <td>3.6</td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></td> <td>5,700</td> <td>0.1</td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="630" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a></td> <td>4,600</td> <td>0.4</td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></td> <td>1,800</td> <td>0.1</td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td> <td>250,000</td> <td>0.6</td> <td>2.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></td> <td>525,000</td> <td>0.8</td> <td>5.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></td> <td>73,000</td> <td>1.2</td> <td>0.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a></td> <td>445,000</td> <td>5.1</td> <td>4.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_Iceland_%281918%E2%80%931944%29.svg/21px-Flag_of_Iceland_%281918%E2%80%931944%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_Iceland_%281918%E2%80%931944%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iceland_%281918%E2%80%931944%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_Iceland_%281918%E2%80%931944%29.svg/42px-Flag_of_Iceland_%281918%E2%80%931944%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="900" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iceland" title="Kingdom of Iceland">Iceland</a></td> <td>10</td> <td>0.0</td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></td> <td>3,600</td> <td>0.1</td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></td> <td>48,000</td> <td>0.1</td> <td>0.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a></td> <td>95,600</td> <td>4.9</td> <td>1.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/46px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a></td> <td>155,000</td> <td>7.6</td> <td>1.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/23px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/35px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/46px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></td> <td>1,200</td> <td>0.4</td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flag_of_Monaco.svg/23px-Flag_of_Monaco.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flag_of_Monaco.svg/35px-Flag_of_Monaco.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flag_of_Monaco.svg/46px-Flag_of_Monaco.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Monaco" title="Monaco">Monaco</a></td> <td>300</td> <td>1.4</td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></td> <td>156,000</td> <td>1.8</td> <td>1.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/21px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/41px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a></td> <td>1,400</td> <td>0.1</td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a></td> <td>3,000,000</td> <td>9.5</td> <td>32.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a></td> <td>1,200</td> <td>0.0</td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a></td> <td>756,000</td> <td>4.2</td> <td>8.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a></td> <td>4,000</td> <td>0.0</td> <td>0.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>2,525,000</td> <td>3.4</td> <td>27.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></td> <td>6,700</td> <td>0.1</td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span>  </span><a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></td> <td>21,000</td> <td>0.5</td> <td>0.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>50,000</td> <td>0.7</td> <td>0.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> <td>300,000</td> <td>0.7</td> <td>3.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281918%E2%80%931941%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281918%E2%80%931941%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281918%E2%80%931941%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281918%E2%80%931941%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281918%E2%80%931941%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Yugoslavia_%281918%E2%80%931941%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></td> <td>68,000</td> <td>0.5</td> <td>0.7 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II_and_the_Holocaust">World War II and the Holocaust</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: World War II and the Holocaust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_during_World_War_II" title="History of the Jews during World War II">History of the Jews during World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emigration_of_Jews_from_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Emigration of Jews from Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Emigration of Jews from Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holocaustdeathtoll%25.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Holocaustdeathtoll%25.png/220px-Holocaustdeathtoll%25.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Holocaustdeathtoll%25.png/330px-Holocaustdeathtoll%25.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Holocaustdeathtoll%25.png/440px-Holocaustdeathtoll%25.png 2x" data-file-width="2457" data-file-height="2049" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_genocides_by_death_toll#List_of_genocides" class="mw-redirect" title="List of genocides by death toll">death toll</a> as a percentage of the total pre-war Jewish population in Europe</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_Jewish_%25_change_1945_2010.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Europe_Jewish_%25_change_1945_2010.png/220px-Europe_Jewish_%25_change_1945_2010.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Europe_Jewish_%25_change_1945_2010.png/330px-Europe_Jewish_%25_change_1945_2010.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Europe_Jewish_%25_change_1945_2010.png/440px-Europe_Jewish_%25_change_1945_2010.png 2x" data-file-width="2458" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The Jewish population growth/decline by country between 1945–1946 and 2010. The countries with the greatest Jewish population losses since 1945 were primarily those in <a href="/wiki/Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Holocaust of the Jewish people (from the Greek ὁλόκαυστον (<i>holókauston</i>): <i>holos</i>, "completely" and <i>kaustos</i>, "burnt"), also known as <i>Ha-Shoah</i> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">השואה</span>), or <i>Churben</i> (<a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a>: <span lang="yi" dir="rtl">חורבן</span>), as described in June 2013 at Auschwitz by <a href="/wiki/Avner_Shalev" title="Avner Shalev">Avner Shalev</a> (Director of <a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a>) is the term generally used to describe the murder of approximately 6,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, as part of a program of deliberate attempt to annihilate the Jewish people, executed by the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi</a> regime in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and its accomplices; the result of the Shoah or the Holocaust of the Jewish people was the destruction of hundreds of Jewish communities in continental Europe—two out of three Jews of Europe were murdered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post_World_War_II">Post World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Post World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demographics_2">Demographics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Demographics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Jewish population by country</a></div> <p>The Jewish population of Europe in 2010 was estimated to be approximately 1.4 million (0.2% of the European population) or 10% of the world's Jewish population.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 21st century, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> has the largest <a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Jewish population</a> in Europe,<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Country</th> <th data-sort-type="number">Core Jewish population in 2010<sup id="cite_ref-jewishdatabank.org_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jewishdatabank.org-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Enlarged Jewish population in 2010<sup id="cite_ref-jewishdatabank.org_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jewishdatabank.org-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Jewish groups</th> <th>Jewish history</th> <th>Lists of Jews </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg/21px-Flag_of_Albania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg/32px-Flag_of_Albania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg/42px-Flag_of_Albania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a></td> <td data-sort-value="0">43</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Albania" title="History of the Jews in Albania">Albania</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_South-East_European_Jews" title="List of South-East European Jews">South-East European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Andorra.svg/22px-Flag_of_Andorra.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Andorra.svg/33px-Flag_of_Andorra.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Andorra.svg/43px-Flag_of_Andorra.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Andorra" title="Andorra">Andorra</a></td> <td data-sort-value="0"><100</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Andorra" title="History of the Jews in Andorra">Andorra</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a></td> <td>9,000</td> <td>15,000</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Austrian_Jews" title="List of Austrian Jews">Austrian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belarus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belarus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg/46px-Flag_of_Belarus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a></td> <td>12,926 (Belarus census (2009))</td> <td>33,000</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jews_from_Russia,_Ukraine_and_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jews from Russia, Ukraine and Belarus">Russia, Ukraine and Belarus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></td> <td>30,300</td> <td>40,000</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium" title="History of the Jews in Belgium">Belgium</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_West_European_Jews" title="List of West European Jews">West European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></td> <td>500</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="History of the Jews in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_South-East_European_Jews" title="List of South-East European Jews">South-East European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></td> <td>2,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_South-East_European_Jews" title="List of South-East European Jews">South-East European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a></td> <td>1,700</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Croatia" title="History of the Jews in Croatia">Croatia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_South-East_European_Jews" title="List of South-East European Jews">South-East European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></td> <td data-sort-value="0">3,500 (2018)</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_South-East_European_Jews" title="List of South-East European Jews">South-East European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></td> <td>30,900</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Carpathian_Ruthenia" title="History of the Jews in Carpathian Ruthenia">Carpathian Ruthenia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Czech_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Czech Jews">Czech, Slovak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></td> <td>2,400</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_European_Jews" title="List of North European Jews">North European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="630" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a></td> <td>1,800</td> <td>3,000</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_European_Jews" title="List of North European Jews">North European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></td> <td>1,100</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_European_Jews" title="List of North European Jews">North European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td> <td>483,500</td> <td>580,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_Jews" title="List of French Jews">French</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Georgia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Georgia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Georgia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></td> <td>3,200</td> <td>6,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgian Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></td> <td>119,000</td> <td>250,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_Jews" title="List of German Jews">German</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg/23px-Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg/35px-Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg/46px-Flag_of_Gibraltar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></td> <td>600</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Jews" title="British Jews">British Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gibraltar" title="History of the Jews in Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iberian_Jews" title="List of Iberian Jews">Iberian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></td> <td>4,500</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Romaniotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Romaniotes">Romaniotes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_South-East_European_Jews" title="List of South-East European Jews">South-East European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a></td> <td>48,600</td> <td>100,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Oberlander_Jews" title="Oberlander Jews">Oberlander Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satmar_(Hasidic_dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Satmar (Hasidic dynasty)">Satmar Hasidic dynasty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neolog_Judaism" title="Neolog Judaism">Neolog</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Carpathian_Ruthenia" title="History of the Jews in Carpathian Ruthenia">Carpathian Ruthenia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hungarian_Jews" title="List of Hungarian Jews">Hungarian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/21px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/42px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="900" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a></td> <td data-sort-value="20">10–30</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Radhanite" title="Radhanite">Radhanites</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iceland" title="History of the Jews in Iceland">Iceland</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_European_Jews" title="List of North European Jews">North European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></td> <td>2,600</td> <td>4,476</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ireland" title="History of the Jews in Ireland">Ireland</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_West_European_Jews" title="List of West European Jews">West European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></td> <td>28,400</td> <td>45,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italian Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_West_European_Jews" title="List of West European Jews">West European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Kosovo.svg/21px-Flag_of_Kosovo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Kosovo.svg/32px-Flag_of_Kosovo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_Kosovo.svg/42px-Flag_of_Kosovo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="840" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kosovo" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a></td> <td data-sort-value="0"><100</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kosovo" title="History of the Jews in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_South-East_European_Jews" title="List of South-East European Jews">South-East European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a></td> <td>6,437 (Latvian census of 2011)</td> <td>19,000</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_European_Jews" title="List of North European Jews">North European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg/23px-Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg/35px-Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg/46px-Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein" title="Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></td> <td data-sort-value="0"><100</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Liechtenstein" title="History of the Jews in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/46px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a></td> <td>3,400<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (2011 estimate)</td> <td>5,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Jews">Lithuanian Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_European_Jews" title="List of North European Jews">North European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/23px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/35px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/46px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></td> <td>600</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Luxembourg" title="History of the Jews in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_West_European_Jews" title="List of West European Jews">West European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg/35px-Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg/46px-Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">Republic of North Macedonia</a></td> <td>100</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_Republic_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in the Republic of Macedonia">Macedonian</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_South-East_European_Jews" title="List of South-East European Jews">South-East European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malta.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg/35px-Flag_of_Malta.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg/45px-Flag_of_Malta.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a></td> <td data-sort-value="0"><100</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malta" title="History of the Jews in Malta">Malta</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/23px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/35px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/46px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="900" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a></td> <td>4,100</td> <td>8,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bessarabian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Bessarabian Jews">Bessarabian Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_East_European_Jews" title="List of East European Jews">East European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flag_of_Monaco.svg/19px-Flag_of_Monaco.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flag_of_Monaco.svg/29px-Flag_of_Monaco.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flag_of_Monaco.svg/38px-Flag_of_Monaco.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Monaco" title="Monaco">Monaco</a></td> <td data-sort-value="0"><100</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Monaco" title="History of the Jews in Monaco">Monaco</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_West_European_Jews" title="List of West European Jews">West European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Montenegro.svg/23px-Flag_of_Montenegro.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Montenegro.svg/35px-Flag_of_Montenegro.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Montenegro.svg/46px-Flag_of_Montenegro.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a></td> <td data-sort-value="0">12</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Montenegro" title="History of the Jews in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_South-East_European_Jews" title="List of South-East European Jews">South-East European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></td> <td>30,000</td> <td>43,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews in the Netherlands">Sephardi</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands#Cultural_distinctions" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Ashkenazi</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chuts" title="Chuts">Chuts</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_West_European_Jews" title="List of West European Jews">West European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/21px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/41px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a></td> <td>1,200</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Norway">Jews in Norway</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_European_Jews" title="List of North European Jews">North European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a></td> <td>21,200</td> <td>30,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Jewish_Polish_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronology of Jewish Polish history">Chronology of Jewish Polish history</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_Jews" title="List of Polish Jews">Polish</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a></td> <td>500</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Spanish and Portuguese Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iberian_Jews" title="List of Iberian Jews">Iberian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a></td> <td>9,700</td> <td>18,000</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romanian_Jews" title="List of Romanian Jews">Romanian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a></td> <td>157,673 (including Asiatic Russia) (<a href="/wiki/Russian_Census_(2010)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Census (2010)">Russian Census (2010)</a>)</td> <td>400,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jews_from_Russia,_Ukraine,_and_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jews from Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus">Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_San_Marino.svg/20px-Flag_of_San_Marino.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_San_Marino.svg/31px-Flag_of_San_Marino.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Flag_of_San_Marino.svg/40px-Flag_of_San_Marino.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/San_Marino" title="San Marino">San Marino</a></td> <td data-sort-value="0"><100</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_San_Marino" title="History of the Jews in San Marino">San Marino</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a></td> <td>1,400</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_South-East_European_Jews" title="List of South-East European Jews">South-East European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a></td> <td>9,600</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Oberlander_Jews" title="Oberlander Jews">Oberlander Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Slovakia" title="History of the Jews in Slovakia">Slovakia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Carpathian_Ruthenia" title="History of the Jews in Carpathian Ruthenia">Carpathian Ruthenia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Czech_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Czech Jews">Czech, Slovak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a></td> <td>100</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Slovenia" title="History of the Jews in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_South-East_European_Jews" title="List of South-East European Jews">South-East European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a></td> <td>12,000</td> <td>15,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a>, Moroccan Jews, Jews from Latin America</td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">golden age</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iberian_Jews" title="List of Iberian Jews">Iberian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></td> <td>15,000</td> <td>25,000</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_European_Jews" title="List of North European Jews">North European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span>  </span><a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></td> <td>17,600</td> <td>25,000</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Switzerland" title="History of the Jews in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_West_European_Jews" title="List of West European Jews">West European</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></td> <td>17,600</td> <td>21,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkish Jews</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sephardic_Jews" title="List of Sephardic Jews">Sephardic</a><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a></td> <td>71,500</td> <td>145,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Carpathian_Ruthenia" title="History of the Jews in Carpathian Ruthenia">Carpathian Ruthenia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jews_from_Russia,_Ukraine_and_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jews from Russia, Ukraine and Belarus">Russia, Ukraine and Belarus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> <td>292,000</td> <td>350,000</td> <td><a href="/wiki/British_Jews" title="British Jews">British Jews</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_Jews" title="List of British Jews">British</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_ethnic_subdivisions_of_Europe">Jewish ethnic subdivisions of Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Jewish ethnic subdivisions of Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Jewish ethnic divisions</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian Jews">Armenian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazim" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazim">Ashkenazim</a> (Yiddish speaking Jews)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a> (Crimean Jews)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italian Jews</a> (also known as <i>Bnei Roma</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Romaniotes">Romaniotes</a> (Greek Jews)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardim" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardim">Sephardim</a> (Spanish/Portuguese Jews)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish Jews">Turkish Jews</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Kalisz" title="Statute of Kalisz">Statute of Kalisz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_YIVO_Encyclopedia_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Europe" title="The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe">The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-WhoAreTheJews-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WhoAreTheJews_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJared_Diamond1993" class="citation web cs1">Jared Diamond (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721133548/http://ftp.beitberl.ac.il/~bbsite/misc/ezer_anglit/klali/05_123.pdf">"Who are the Jews?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 8,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Who+are+the+Jews%3F&rft.date=1993&rft.au=Jared+Diamond&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.beitberl.ac.il%2F~bbsite%2Fmisc%2Fezer_anglit%2Fklali%2F05_123.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Europe" class="Z3988"></span> Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pnas.org-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pnas.org_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammerReddWood2000" class="citation journal cs1">Hammer, MF; Redd, AJ; Wood, ET; et al. 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(1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w1wIAAAAIAAJ&q=Anti-Semitism:+Causes+%26+Effects+of+a+Prejudice+629"><i>Anti-Semitism : the causes and effectos of a prejudice</i></a>. Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0806507039" title="Special:BookSources/0806507039"><bdi>0806507039</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Poland&rft.pub=Jewish+Publication+Society&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0827600164&rft.aulast=Weinryb&rft.aufirst=Bernard+Dov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK2DgBdSCQnsC%26q%3Db%2Bweinryb%2Bthe%2Bjews%2Bof%2Bpoland%2Ba%2Bsocio%2Beconomic%2Bhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Europe" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodworth" class="citation web cs1">Woodworth, Cherie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019151232/http://www.yale.edu/ccr/woodworth/woodworth_Yiddish_Jan2010.pdf">"Where Did the East European Jews Come From?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Yale University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yale.edu/ccr/woodworth/woodworth_Yiddish_Jan2010.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 19 October 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Where+Did+the+East+European+Jews+Come+From%3F&rft.pub=Yale+University&rft.aulast=Woodworth&rft.aufirst=Cherie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yale.edu%2Fccr%2Fwoodworth%2Fwoodworth_Yiddish_Jan2010.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, Norman F.. The Last Knight: The Twilight of the Middle Ages and the Birth of the Modern Era. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7432-2688-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7432-2688-7">0-7432-2688-7</a> Free Press 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeWitte2014" class="citation journal cs1">DeWitte, Sharon N. (2014-05-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4013036">"Mortality Risk and Survival in the Aftermath of the Medieval Black Death"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>9</b> (5): e96513. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PLoSO...996513D">2014PLoSO...996513D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0096513">10.1371/journal.pone.0096513</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203">1932-6203</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4013036">4013036</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24806459">24806459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=Mortality+Risk+and+Survival+in+the+Aftermath+of+the+Medieval+Black+Death&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=e96513&rft.date=2014-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4013036%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PLoSO...996513D&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24806459&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0096513&rft.issn=1932-6203&rft.aulast=DeWitte&rft.aufirst=Sharon+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4013036&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jane S. Gerber, "The Jews of Spain," p. 112 The Free Press, 1992.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Black-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Black_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, <i>La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire</i> ("The greatest epidemics in history"), in <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Histoire" title="L'Histoire">L'Histoire</a></i> magazine, n°310, June 2006, p. 47 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoth2005" class="citation book cs1">Roth, Norman (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/dailylifeofjewsi0000roth"><i>Daily life of the Jews in the Middle Ages</i></a>. Westport, Connecticut, USA: Greenwood Press. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32865-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32865-7"><bdi>978-0-313-32865-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+life+of+the+Jews+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut%2C+USA&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32865-7&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifeofjewsi0000roth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Salo Wittmayer Baron, "A Social and Religious History of the Jews," Volume II, Ancient Times, Part II. p. 215 Jewish Publication Society of America, 1952.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baron, p. 216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baron, pp. 216–217</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baron, p. 217</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cohen, R.I. <i>Jewish Icons: Art and Society in Modern Europe</i>. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1998</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ettinger, S. "The Beginning of Change in the Attitude of European Society Towards the Jews", <i>Scripta Hierosolymitana</i> 7 (1961), 192-219</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaplan, Yosef. "For Whom did Emanuel de Witte Paint his Three Pictures of the Sephardic Synagogue of Amsterdam?" <i>Studia Rosenthaliana</i> 32, 2 (1998) 133-154</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swetschinski, Daniel M. <i>Reluctant Cosmopolitans: The Portuguese Jews of Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam</i>. London: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization 2000, 54-101</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ridley Haim Herschell. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ghcFAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22jerusalem+of+the+west%22&pg=PA27">The Voice of Israel</a>, 1845. pg. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bodian, Miriam. <i>Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation: Conversos and Community in Early Modern Amsterdam</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University 1997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swetschinski, Daniel M. <i>Reluctant Cosmopolitans</i>, 102-164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Endelman, Todd M. <i>The Jews of Britain, 1656 to 2000</i>. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 2002, 15-40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sanford-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sanford_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Sanford, <i>Historical Dictionary of Poland</i> (2nd ed.) 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Böhlau Verlag Wien. pp. 473–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-205-99137-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-205-99137-3"><bdi>978-3-205-99137-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tageb%C3%BCcher+1915+bis+1927&rft.pages=473-&rft.pub=B%C3%B6hlau+Verlag+Wien&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-3-205-99137-3&rft.aulast=Ben-Gavri%C3%AAl&rft.aufirst=Moshe+Yaacov&rft.au=Ben-Gavr%C3%AE%CA%BE%C4%93l%2C+Mo%C5%A1e+Ya%CA%BFaqov&rft.au=Wallas%2C+Armin+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn_LwUNv72jQC%26pg%3DPA473&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/jewish-population-of-europe-in-1933-population-data-by-country">Jewish Population of Europe in 1933: Population Data by Country</a></i>, [in:] <i>Holocaust Encyclopedia</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">European part only</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">European part only</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jewishdatabank.org-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jewishdatabank.org_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jewishdatabank.org_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDellaPergola" class="citation web cs1">DellaPergola, Sergio. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101126155152/http://www.jewishdatabank.org/Reports/World_Jewish_Population_2010.pdf">"World Jewish Population, 2010"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Hebrew University of Jerusalem</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishdatabank.org/Reports/World_Jewish_Population_2010.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2010-11-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Hebrew+University+of+Jerusalem&rft.atitle=World+Jewish+Population%2C+2010&rft.aulast=DellaPergola&rft.aufirst=Sergio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishdatabank.org%2FReports%2FWorld_Jewish_Population_2010.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131014172519/http://db1.stat.gov.lt/statbank/default.asp?w=1920">"Archived copy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://db1.stat.gov.lt/statbank/default.asp?w%3D1920">the original</a> on 2013-10-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdb1.stat.gov.lt%2Fstatbank%2Fdefault.asp%3Fw%253D1920&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Europe" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Jews#Notable_Turkish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish Jews">Turkish Jews#Notable Turkish Jews</a> Turkish</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartal2011" class="citation book cs1">Bartal, Israel (2011). <i>The Jews of Eastern Europe, 1772–1881</i>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0081-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0081-2"><bdi>978-0-8122-0081-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Eastern+Europe%2C+1772%E2%80%931881&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-0081-2&rft.aulast=Bartal&rft.aufirst=Israel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bodian, Miriam. <i>Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation: Conversos and Community in Early Modern Amsterdam</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1997.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaumann2002" class="citation book cs1">Haumann, Heiko (2002). <i>A History of East European Jews</i>. Central European University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9241-26-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9241-26-8"><bdi>978-963-9241-26-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+East+European+Jews&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-963-9241-26-8&rft.aulast=Haumann&rft.aufirst=Heiko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrill2018" class="citation book cs1">Grill, Tobias, ed. (2018). <i>Jews and Germans in Eastern Europe: Shared and Comparative Histories</i>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-048977-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-048977-4"><bdi>978-3-11-048977-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvbkk4bs">j.ctvbkk4bs</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+and+Germans+in+Eastern+Europe%3A+Shared+and+Comparative+Histories&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctvbkk4bs%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-3-11-048977-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kaplan, Yosef. "The Self-Definition of the Sephardic Jews of Western Europe and their Relation to the Alien and the Stranger", in: B. R. Gampel (ed.), <i>Crisis and Creativity in the Sephardic World, 1391-1648</i>, (New York 1997), p. 121-145.</li> <li>Karady, Victor. <i>The Jews of Europe in the Modern Era: A Socio-historical Outline</i>. Budapest: Central European University Press 2004.</li> <li>Lambert, Nick. <i>Jews and Europe in the Twenty-First Century</i>. London: Vallentine Mitchell 2008.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuderman2010" class="citation book cs1">Ruderman, David B. (2010). <i>Early Modern Jewry: A New Cultural History</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-3469-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-3469-3"><bdi>978-1-4008-3469-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Modern+Jewry%3A+A+New+Cultural+History&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-3469-3&rft.aulast=Ruderman&rft.aufirst=David+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Europe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Vital. David. <i>A People Apart: The Jews in Europe 1789-1939</i>. New York: Oxford University Press 1999.</li> <li>Wasserstein, Bernard. <i>Vanishing Diaspora: The Jews in Europe since 1945</i>.Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press 1996.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_diasporas" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:European_diasporas" title="Template:European diasporas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:European_diasporas" title="Template talk:European diasporas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:European_diasporas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:European diasporas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_diasporas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/European_emigration" title="European emigration">European diasporas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/British_diaspora" title="British diaspora">Britain</a> and Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_diaspora" title="Cornish diaspora">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_diaspora" title="English diaspora">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_diaspora" title="Irish diaspora">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_people" title="Manx people">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_diaspora" title="Scottish diaspora">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_people#Welsh_emigration" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Caucasus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_diaspora" title="Armenian diaspora">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_diaspora" title="Azerbaijani diaspora">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_diaspora" title="Circassian diaspora">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_diaspora" title="Chechen diaspora">Chechens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_diaspora" title="Georgian diaspora">Georgians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrians_Abroad" title="Austrians Abroad">Austrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_diaspora" title="Czech diaspora">Czechs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_diaspora" title="Croatian diaspora">Croats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_diaspora" title="German diaspora">Germans</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Volksdeutsche" title="Volksdeutsche">Volksdeutsche</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_diaspora" title="Hungarian diaspora">Hungarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashubian_diaspora" title="Kashubian diaspora">Kashubians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_diaspora" title="Polish diaspora">Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_diaspora" title="Slovak diaspora">Slovaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_diaspora" title="Slovene diaspora">Slovenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_abroad" title="Swiss abroad">Swiss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_diaspora" title="Belarusian diaspora">Belarusians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_diaspora" title="Crimean Tatar diaspora">Crimean Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_diaspora" title="Russian diaspora">Russians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_diaspora" title="Ukrainian diaspora">Ukrainians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danes#Diaspora" title="Danes">Danes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonians#Emigration" title="Estonians">Estonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_diaspora" title="Finnish diaspora">Finns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_diaspora" title="Icelandic diaspora">Icelanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_diaspora" title="Latvian diaspora">Latvians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanians#Diaspora" title="Lithuanians">Lithuanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_diaspora" title="Norwegian diaspora">Norwegians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_diaspora" title="Swedish diaspora">Swedes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southeastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_diaspora" title="Albanian diaspora">Albanians</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_Kosovo" title="Emigration from Kosovo">Kosovars</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_diaspora" title="Aromanian diaspora">Aromanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_diaspora" title="Bosnian diaspora">Bosnians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_diaspora" title="Bulgarian diaspora">Bulgarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Cyprus" title="Demographics of Cyprus">Cypriots</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Greek_Cypriot_diaspora" title="Greek Cypriot diaspora">Greek Cypriots</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot_diaspora" title="Turkish Cypriot diaspora">Turkish Cypriots</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_diaspora" title="Greek diaspora">Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_diaspora" title="Macedonian diaspora">Macedonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_diaspora" title="Romanian diaspora">Romanians</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Moldovan_diaspora" title="Moldovan diaspora">Moldovans</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_diaspora" title="Serbian diaspora">Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_diaspora" title="Turkish diaspora">Turks</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_diaspora#Diaspora_of_Meskhetian_Turks" title="Turkish diaspora">Meskhetian Turks</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southwestern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Italians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_people#Maltese_emigration_and_expatriation" title="Maltese people">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese diaspora">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_diaspora" title="Spanish diaspora">Spaniards</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asturians#Emigration" title="Asturians">Asturians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_diaspora" title="Basque diaspora">Basques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle%C3%B1os" title="Isleños">Canarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalans" title="Catalans">Catalans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_diaspora" title="Galician diaspora">Galicians</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian diaspora">Belgians</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Flemish_people#Diaspora" title="Flemish people">Flanders</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Walloon_people#Diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Walloon people">Walloons</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_diaspora" title="Dutch diaspora">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_diaspora" title="French diaspora">French</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Quebec_diaspora" title="Quebec diaspora">Quebecois</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_people#Breton_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Breton people">Bretons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsican_people#The_Corsican_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Corsican people">Corsicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgers#Location" title="Luxembourgers">Luxembourgers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Comprehensive group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Americans" title="European Americans">America</a></li> <li><a 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Europe_topic" title="Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topic" title="Template talk:Europe topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Europe_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of the Jews in Europe </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Albania" title="History of the Jews in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Andorra" title="History of the Jews in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Armenia" title="History of the Jews in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Azerbaijan" title="History of the Jews in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium" title="History of the Jews in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="History of the Jews in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Croatia" title="History of the Jews in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iceland" title="History of the Jews in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Liechtenstein" title="History of the Jews in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Luxembourg" title="History of the Jews in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malta" title="History of the Jews in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Monaco" title="History of the Jews in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Montenegro" title="History of the Jews in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_North_Macedonia" title="History of the Jews in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_San_Marino" title="History of the Jews in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Slovakia" title="History of the Jews in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Slovenia" title="History of the Jews in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Switzerland" title="History of the Jews in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Abkhazia" title="History of the Jews in Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kosovo" title="History of the Jews in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Ossetia" title="History of the Jews in South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Transnistria" title="History of the Jews in Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Faroe_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the Faroe Islands (page does not exist)">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gibraltar" title="History of the Jews in Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guernsey" title="History of the Jews in Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Jews in the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jersey" title="History of the Jews in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority 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