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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history:_966–1385"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Early history: 966–1385 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history:_966–1385-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_early_Jagiellon_era:_1385–1505" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_early_Jagiellon_era:_1385–1505"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 The early Jagiellon era: 1385–1505 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_early_Jagiellon_era:_1385–1505-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Center_of_the_Jewish_world:_1505–1572" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Center_of_the_Jewish_world:_1505–1572"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Center of the Jewish world: 1505–1572 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Center_of_the_Jewish_world:_1505–1572-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth:_1572–1795" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth:_1572–1795"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572–1795 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth:_1572–1795-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572–1795 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-The_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth:_1572–1795-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Decline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_development_of_Judaism_in_Poland_and_the_Commonwealth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_development_of_Judaism_in_Poland_and_the_Commonwealth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_development_of_Judaism_in_Poland_and_the_Commonwealth-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth subsection </button> <ul id="toc-The_development_of_Judaism_in_Poland_and_the_Commonwealth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jewish_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Jewish learning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_rise_of_Hasidism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_rise_of_Hasidism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 The rise of Hasidism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_rise_of_Hasidism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Partitions_of_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Partitions_of_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 The Partitions of Poland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Partitions_of_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jews_of_Poland_within_the_Russian_Empire_(1795–1918)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jews_of_Poland_within_the_Russian_Empire_(1795–1918)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Jews of Poland within the Russian Empire (1795–1918) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Jews_of_Poland_within_the_Russian_Empire_(1795–1918)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Jews of Poland within the Russian Empire (1795–1918) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Jews_of_Poland_within_the_Russian_Empire_(1795–1918)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pale_of_Settlement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pale_of_Settlement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Pale of Settlement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pale_of_Settlement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Pogroms in the Russian Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haskalah_and_Halakha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haskalah_and_Halakha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Haskalah and Halakha </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haskalah_and_Halakha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics_in_Polish_territory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics_in_Polish_territory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Politics in Polish territory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics_in_Polish_territory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interbellum_(1918–39)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interbellum_(1918–39)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Interbellum (1918–39) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interbellum_(1918–39)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Interbellum (1918–39) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Interbellum_(1918–39)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Polish_Jews_and_the_struggle_for_Poland's_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polish_Jews_and_the_struggle_for_Poland's_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Polish Jews and the struggle for Poland's independence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polish_Jews_and_the_struggle_for_Poland's_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Population </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_and_Polish_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_and_Polish_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Jewish and Polish culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_and_Polish_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Between_antisemitism_and_support_for_Zionism_and_Jewish_state_in_Palestine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Between_antisemitism_and_support_for_Zionism_and_Jewish_state_in_Palestine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Between antisemitism and support for Zionism and Jewish state in Palestine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Between_antisemitism_and_support_for_Zionism_and_Jewish_state_in_Palestine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_destruction_of_Polish_Jewry_(1939–45)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_and_the_destruction_of_Polish_Jewry_(1939–45)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 World War II and the destruction of Polish Jewry (1939–45) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-World_War_II_and_the_destruction_of_Polish_Jewry_(1939–45)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle World War II and the destruction of Polish Jewry (1939–45) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_destruction_of_Polish_Jewry_(1939–45)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Polish_September_Campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polish_September_Campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Polish September Campaign </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polish_September_Campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Territories_annexed_by_the_USSR_(1939–1941)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Territories_annexed_by_the_USSR_(1939–1941)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Territories annexed by the USSR (1939–1941) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Territories_annexed_by_the_USSR_(1939–1941)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Holocaust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Holocaust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 The Holocaust </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Holocaust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ghettos_and_death_camps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ghettos_and_death_camps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Ghettos and death camps </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ghettos_and_death_camps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Warsaw_Ghetto_and_its_uprising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Warsaw_Ghetto_and_its_uprising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.1 The Warsaw Ghetto and its uprising </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Warsaw_Ghetto_and_its_uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Białystok_Ghetto_and_its_uprising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Białystok_Ghetto_and_its_uprising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.2 The Białystok Ghetto and its uprising </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Białystok_Ghetto_and_its_uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communist_rule:_1945–1989" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communist_rule:_1945–1989"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Communist rule: 1945–1989 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Communist_rule:_1945–1989-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Communist rule: 1945–1989 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Communist_rule:_1945–1989-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Number_of_Holocaust_survivors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number_of_Holocaust_survivors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Number of Holocaust survivors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Number_of_Holocaust_survivors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Jewish_community_in_post-war_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Jewish_community_in_post-war_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 The Jewish community in post-war Poland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Jewish_community_in_post-war_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anti-Jewish_violence_and_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-Jewish_violence_and_discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 Anti-Jewish violence and discrimination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-Jewish_violence_and_discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_property" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_property"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.2 Jewish property </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_property-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emigration_to_Palestine_and_Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emigration_to_Palestine_and_Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.3 Emigration to Palestine and Israel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emigration_to_Palestine_and_Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rebuilding_Jewish_communities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebuilding_Jewish_communities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.4 Rebuilding Jewish communities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebuilding_Jewish_communities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_March_1968_events_and_their_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_March_1968_events_and_their_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.5 The March 1968 events and their aftermath </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_March_1968_events_and_their_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Since_1989" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Since_1989"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Since 1989 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Since_1989-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numbers_of_Jews_in_Poland_since_1920" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numbers_of_Jews_in_Poland_since_1920"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Numbers of Jews in Poland since 1920 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numbers_of_Jews_in_Poland_since_1920-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 Maps </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_Polish_Jews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_Polish_Jews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.2 History of Polish Jews </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_Polish_Jews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_Holocaust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_and_the_Holocaust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.3 World War II and the Holocaust </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_Holocaust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of the Jews in Poland</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" > 25 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="تاريخ اليهود في بولندا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ اليهود في بولندا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7_%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%82" title="لهیستان‌دا یهودی‌لیق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="لهیستان‌دا یهودی‌لیق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%8F%D1%9E%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%8F%D1%9E_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D1%87%D1%8B" title="Гісторыя яўрэяў Польшчы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя яўрэяў Польшчы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%B2_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%88%D0%B0" title="История на евреите в Полша – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на евреите в Полша" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Juden_in_Polen" title="Geschichte der Juden in Polen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Juden in Polen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%95%CE%B2%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BD_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ιστορία των Εβραίων στην Πολωνία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία των Εβραίων στην Πολωνία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_los_jud%C3%ADos_en_Polonia" title="Historia de los judíos en Polonia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de los judíos en Polonia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a 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.infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Polish Jews <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style>יהודי פולין‎ Polscy Żydzi</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:International_Holocaust_Remembrance_Day_in_Poland,_January_2020_(49449915157).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/International_Holocaust_Remembrance_Day_in_Poland%2C_January_2020_%2849449915157%29.jpg/250px-International_Holocaust_Remembrance_Day_in_Poland%2C_January_2020_%2849449915157%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/International_Holocaust_Remembrance_Day_in_Poland%2C_January_2020_%2849449915157%29.jpg/375px-International_Holocaust_Remembrance_Day_in_Poland%2C_January_2020_%2849449915157%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/International_Holocaust_Remembrance_Day_in_Poland%2C_January_2020_%2849449915157%29.jpg/500px-International_Holocaust_Remembrance_Day_in_Poland%2C_January_2020_%2849449915157%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3360" data-file-height="2240" /></a><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Monument_to_the_Ghetto_Heroes" title="Monument to the Ghetto Heroes">Monument to the Ghetto Heroes</a> beside the <a href="/wiki/POLIN_Museum_of_the_History_of_Polish_Jews" title="POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews">POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews</a> in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">est. 1,300,000+</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="infobox-data">10,000–20,000<a href="#cite_note-auto-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-polish-jewish-heritage.org-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></th><td class="infobox-data">1,250,000 (ancestry, passport eligible<a href="#cite_note-3">[a]</a>);<a href="#cite_note-ynet-4">[3]</a> 202,300 (born in Poland or with a Polish-born father)<a href="#cite_note-5">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_Polish_history" title="Category:Jewish Polish history">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:160%;font-weight:normal;background:white;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Jews and Judaism in Poland</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Star_of_David.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Star of David"><img alt="Star of David" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/35px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/53px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/70px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Herb_Polski.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of Arms"><img alt="Coat of Arms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Herb_Polski.svg/35px-Herb_Polski.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Herb_Polski.svg/53px-Herb_Polski.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Herb_Polski.svg/70px-Herb_Polski.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3158" data-file-height="3716" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-size:90%;font-weight:bold;background:white;border-top:1px solid white;"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish-Polish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish-Polish history">Historical Timeline</a> • <a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_Jews" title="List of Polish Jews">List of Jews</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;;font-size:100%;font-weight:normal;background:none;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland_before_the_18th_century" title="History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century">Early history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_18th-century_Poland" title="History of the Jews in 18th-century Poland">18th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_19th-century_Poland" title="History of the Jews in 19th-century Poland">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_20th-century_Poland" title="History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland">20th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Polish_history_(1989%E2%80%93present)" title="Jewish–Polish history (1989–present)">1989–present</a></li></ul> </div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);background:white;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_groups_in_Poland" title="Category:Jewish groups in Poland">Groups</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Orthodox_Judaism_in_Poland" title="Category:Orthodox Judaism in Poland">Orthodox</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minhag_Polin" title="Minhag Polin">Polish-Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musar_movement" title="Musar movement">Musar movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism_in_Poland" title="Hasidic Judaism in Poland">Hasidim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Aleksander (Hasidic dynasty)">Aleksander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biala_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Biala (Hasidic dynasty)">Biala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bluzhev_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Bluzhev (Hasidic dynasty)">Bluzhev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobov_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Bobov (Hasidic dynasty)">Bobov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ger_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Ger (Hasidic dynasty)">Ger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izhbitza-Radzin" title="Izhbitza-Radzin">Izhbitza-Radzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotzk" title="Kotzk">Kotzk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lelov" title="Lelov">Lelov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peshischa" title="Peshischa">Peshischa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radomsk" title="Radomsk">Radomsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanz" title="Sanz">Sanz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sochatchov_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Sochatchov (Hasidic dynasty)">Sochatchov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vurka_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Vurka (Hasidic dynasty)">Vurka</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Zionism_in_Poland" title="Category:Zionism in Poland">Zionist</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Betar" title="Betar">Betar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brit_HaHayal" title="Brit HaHayal">Brit HaHayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poale_Zion" title="Poale Zion">Poale Zion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Communist_Union_(Poalei_Zion)" title="Jewish Communist Union (Poalei Zion)">Komverband</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HeHalutz" title="HeHalutz">HeHalutz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovers_of_Zion" title="Lovers of Zion">Lovers of Zion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarbut" title="Tarbut">Tarbut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_Socialist_Workers_Party" title="Zionist Socialist Workers Party">Zionist Socialist Workers Party</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Other</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund_in_Poland" title="General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland">Bundism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah#Spread" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomism" title="Jewish Autonomism">Jewish Autonomism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folkspartei" title="Folkspartei">Folkspartei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);background:white;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_Polish_history_by_city" title="Category:Jewish Polish history by city">Cities</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Adam%C3%B3w" title="History of the Jews in Adamów">Adamów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beuthen_Jewish_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="Beuthen Jewish Community">Beuthen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bia%C5%82ystok" title="History of the Jews in Białystok">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gda%C5%84sk" title="History of the Jews in Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kalisz" title="History of the Jews in Kalisz">Kalisz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Krak%C3%B3w" title="History of the Jews in Kraków">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_%C5%81%C4%99czna" title="History of the Jews in Łęczna">Łęczna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="History of the Jews in Łódź">Łódź</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_%C5%81uk%C3%B3w" title="History of the Jews in Łuków">Łuków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Wielu%C5%84" title="History of the Jews in Wieluń">Wieluń</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);background:white;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Synagogues_in_Poland" title="Category:Synagogues in Poland">Synagogues</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bielsko_Synagogue" title="Bielsko Synagogue">Bielsko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobov_Synagogue_(Krak%C3%B3w)" title="Bobov Synagogue (Kraków)">Bobov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bydgoszcz_Synagogue" title="Bydgoszcz Synagogue">Bydgoszcz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chabad_Lubavitch_of_Poland" title="Chabad Lubavitch of Poland">Chabad-Lubavitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chachmei_Lublin_Yeshiva_Synagogue" title="Chachmei Lublin Yeshiva Synagogue">Chachmei Lublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Synagogue_(Danzig)" title="Great Synagogue (Danzig)">Danzig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezras_Israel_Synagogue" title="Ezras Israel Synagogue">Ezras Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Synagogue_(%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA)" title="Great Synagogue (Łódź)">Great Synagogue (Łódź)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Synagogue_(Krak%C3%B3w)" title="High Synagogue (Kraków)">High Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inowroc%C5%82aw_Synagogue" title="Inowrocław Synagogue">Inowrocław</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izaak_Synagogue" title="Izaak Synagogue">Izaak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Synagogue_(Jas%C5%82o)" title="Great Synagogue (Jasło)">Jasło</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%84skie_Synagogue" title="Końskie Synagogue">Końskie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kowea_Itim_le-Tora_Synagogue" title="Kowea Itim le-Tora Synagogue">Kowea Itim le-Tora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kupa_Synagogue" title="Kupa Synagogue">Kupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81a%C5%84cut_Synagogue" title="Łańcut Synagogue">Łańcut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesko_Synagogue" title="Lesko Synagogue">Lesko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maharam%27s_Synagogue" title="Maharam's Synagogue">Maharam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Synagogue_(Ostr%C3%B3w_Wielkopolski)" title="New Synagogue (Ostrów Wielkopolski)">New Synagogue (Ostrów)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Synagogue_(Przemy%C5%9Bl)" title="New Synagogue (Przemyśl)">New Synagogue (Przemyśl)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisko_Synagogue" title="Nisko Synagogue">Nisko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomer_Tamid" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomer Tamid">Nomer Tamid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No%C5%BCyk_Synagogue" title="Nożyk Synagogue">Nożyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Synagogue_(Krak%C3%B3w)" title="Old Synagogue (Kraków)">Old Synagogue (Kraków)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Synagogue_(Przemy%C5%9Bl)" title="Old Synagogue (Przemyśl)">Old Synagogue (Przemyśl)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim_Synagogue" title="Oświęcim Synagogue">Oświęcim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piaskower_Synagoge" title="Piaskower Synagoge">Piaskower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Synagogue_(Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski)" title="Great Synagogue (Piotrków Trybunalski)">Piotrków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pi%C5%84cz%C3%B3w_synagogue" class="mw-redirect" title="Pińczów synagogue">Pińczów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Przedb%C3%B3rz_Synagogue" title="Przedbórz Synagogue">Przedbórz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radom_Synagogue" title="Radom Synagogue">Radom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remah_Synagogue" title="Remah Synagogue">Rema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sejny_Synagogue" title="Sejny Synagogue">Sejny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stara_Synagogue_(%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA)" title="Stara Synagogue (Łódź)">Stara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stolp_Synagogue" title="Stolp Synagogue">Stolp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Szyd%C5%82%C3%B3w_Synagogue" title="Szydłów Synagogue">Szydłów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tykocin_Synagogue" title="Tykocin Synagogue">Tykocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Synagogue_(Warsaw)" title="Great Synagogue (Warsaw)">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Stork_Synagogue" title="White Stork Synagogue">White Stork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82odawa_Synagogue" title="Włodawa Synagogue">Włodawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Popper_Synagogue" title="Wolf Popper Synagogue">Wolf Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87_Synagogue" title="Zamość Synagogue">Zamość</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zasanie_Synagogue" title="Zasanie Synagogue">Zasanie</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);background:white;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Organizations</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_Polish_Jews" title="Central Committee of Polish Jews">Central Committee of Polish Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Four_Lands" title="Council of Four Lands">Council of Four Lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Community_Centre_of_Krak%C3%B3w" title="Jewish Community Centre of Kraków">Jewish Community Centre of Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaica_Foundation_%E2%80%93_Center_For_Jewish_Culture" title="Judaica Foundation – Center For Jewish Culture">Judaica Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Jewish_Religious_Communities_in_Poland" title="Union of Jewish Religious Communities in Poland">Union of Jewish Religious Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaad_Rosh_Hashochtim_of_Poland_and_Lithuania" title="Vaad Rosh Hashochtim of Poland and Lithuania">Vaad Rosh Hashochtim</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Yeshivas_of_Poland" title="Category:Yeshivas of Poland">Yeshivas</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chachmei_Lublin_Yeshiva" title="Chachmei Lublin Yeshiva">Chachmei Lublin Yeshiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomza_Yeshiva" title="Lomza Yeshiva">Lomza Yeshiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novardok_Yeshiva" title="Novardok Yeshiva">Novardok Yeshiva</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);background:white;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">The Holocaust</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_ghettos_in_German-occupied_Poland" title="List of Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland">Ghettos</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C4%99dzin_Ghetto" title="Będzin Ghetto">Będzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto" title="Białystok Ghetto">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brzesko_Ghetto" title="Brzesko Ghetto">Brzesko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_Ghetto" title="Częstochowa Ghetto">Częstochowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frysztak_Ghetto" title="Frysztak Ghetto">Frysztak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorlice_Ghetto" title="Gorlice Ghetto">Gorlice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kielce_Ghetto" title="Kielce Ghetto">Kielce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Kraków Ghetto">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81om%C5%BCa_Ghetto" title="Łomża Ghetto">Łomża</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%C5%84sk_Mazowiecki_Ghetto" title="Mińsk Mazowiecki Ghetto">Mińsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nowy_S%C4%85cz_Ghetto" title="Nowy Sącz Ghetto">Nowy Sącz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olkusz_Ghetto" title="Olkusz Ghetto">Olkusz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opat%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Opatów Ghetto">Opatów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski_Ghetto" title="Piotrków Trybunalski Ghetto">Piotrków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radom_Ghetto" title="Radom Ghetto">Radom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siedlce_Ghetto" title="Siedlce Ghetto">Siedlce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosnowiec_Ghetto" title="Sosnowiec Ghetto">Sosnowiec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Stanisławów Ghetto">Stanisławów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarn%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Tarnów Ghetto">Tarnów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/German_camps_in_occupied_Poland_during_World_War_II" title="German camps in occupied Poland during World War II">Concentration camps</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monowitz_concentration_camp" title="Monowitz concentration camp">Monowitz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross-Rosen_concentration_camp" title="Gross-Rosen concentration camp">Gross-Rosen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mittelsteine" title="Mittelsteine">Mittelsteine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w-P%C5%82asz%C3%B3w_concentration_camp" title="Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp">Kraków-Płaszów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipowa_7_camp" title="Lipowa 7 camp">Lipowa 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poniatowa_concentration_camp" title="Poniatowa concentration camp">Poniatowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potulice_concentration_camp" title="Potulice concentration camp">Potulice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldau_concentration_camp" title="Soldau concentration camp">Soldau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stutthof_concentration_camp" title="Stutthof concentration camp">Stutthof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Szebnie_concentration_camp" title="Szebnie concentration camp">Szebnie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trawniki_concentration_camp" title="Trawniki concentration camp">Trawniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_concentration_camp" title="Warsaw concentration camp">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Death camps</a> and mass murder sites</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp#Auschwitz_II-Birkenau" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz-Birkenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belzec_extermination_camp" title="Belzec extermination camp">Belzec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Death_(Bydgoszcz)" title="Valley of Death (Bydgoszcz)">Valley of Death</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-Jewish_pogroms_in_Poland_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="List of anti-Jewish pogroms in Poland during World War II">Massacres</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_massacre" title="Częstochowa massacre">Częstochowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easter_Pogrom" title="Easter Pogrom">Easter Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom" title="Jedwabne pogrom">Jedwabne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kielce_cemetery_massacre" title="Kielce cemetery massacre">Kielce Cemetery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_murders_in_Tykocin" title="Mass murders in Tykocin">Tykocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_in_Dyn%C3%B3w" title="Massacre in Dynów">Dynów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Harvest_Festival" title="Operation Harvest Festival">Operation Harvest Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radzi%C5%82%C3%B3w_pogrom" title="Radziłów pogrom">Radziłów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Szczuczyn_pogrom" title="Szczuczyn pogrom">Szczuczyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C4%85sosz_pogrom" title="Wąsosz pogrom">Wąsosz</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Resistance</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto_uprising" title="Białystok Ghetto uprising">Białystok Ghetto uprising</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fascist_Military_Organisation" title="Anti-Fascist Military Organisation">Anti-Fascist Military Organisation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_Ghetto_uprising" title="Częstochowa Ghetto uprising">Częstochowa Ghetto uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement_in_Auschwitz" title="Resistance movement in Auschwitz">Resistance movements in Auschwitz</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_Combat_Group" title="Auschwitz Combat Group">Auschwitz Combat Group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Combat_Organization" title="Jewish Combat Organization">Jewish Combat Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Military_Union" title="Jewish Military Union">Jewish Military Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ringelblum_Archive" title="Ringelblum Archive">Oyneg Shabbos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Poles_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust">Rescue of Jews by Poles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Polish Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/25px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="29" class="mw-file-element" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:180%;"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God in Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">names</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvot</a> (<a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">613</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_and_customs_of_the_Land_of_Israel_in_Judaism" title="Laws and customs of the Land of Israel in Judaism">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah">Bar and bat mitzvah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Bereavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_teshuva_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal teshuva movement">Baal teshuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusach_(Jewish_custom)" title="Nusach (Jewish custom)">Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beit_Yosef_(book)" title="Beit Yosef (book)">Beit Yosef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_name_Judea" title="Timeline of the name Judea">Name "Judea"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population" title="Historical Jewish population">Historical population comparisons</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_of_Israel" title="Twelve Tribes of Israel">Twelve Tribes of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Judaism" title="Jerusalem in Judaism">in Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jerusalem" title="Timeline of Jerusalem">timeline</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a> (<a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity">Assyrian captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicarii" title="Sicarii">Sicarii</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">Great Revolt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diaspora_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaspora revolt">Diaspora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a> and Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christianity and Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Hinduism and Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islamic–Jewish relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden Age</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Modern era</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">Sabbateans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Jewish atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Jews in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Communities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Litvak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Juhurim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romanyotim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Bnei Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marranos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xueta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Mosaic Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noahidism" title="Noahidism">Noahides</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_by_country" title="Judaism by country">Judaism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_by_country" title="Historical Jewish population by country">Historical population by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_of_Jews" title="Genetic studies of Jews">Genetic studies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">New Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Africa" title="History of the Jews in Africa">Africa</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Angola" title="History of the Jews in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Bilad_el-Sudan" title="Jews of Bilad el-Sudan">Bilad-el-Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Botswana" title="History of the Jews in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cameroon" title="History of the Jews in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cape_Verde" title="History of the Jews in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Benin" title="History of the Jews in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Djibouti" title="History of the Jews in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ethiopia" title="History of the Jews in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eritrea" title="History of the Jews in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eswatini" title="History of the Jews in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gabon" title="History of the Jews in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Gambia" title="History of the Jews in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ghana" title="History of the Jews in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea" title="History of the Jews in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of the Jews in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ivory_Coast" title="History of the Jews in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kenya" title="History of the Jews in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya" title="History of the Jews in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malawi" title="History of the Jews in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mali" title="History of the Jews in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mauritius" title="History of the Jews in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moroccan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Moroccan Jews">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mozambique" title="History of the Jews in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Namibia" title="History of the Jews in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Nigeria" title="History of the Jews in Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="History of the Jews in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sierra_Leone" title="History of the Jews in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Africa" title="History of the Jews in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sudan" title="History of the Jews in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tanzania" title="History of the Jews in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tunisia" title="History of the Jews in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uganda" title="History of the Jews in Uganda">Uganda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abayudaya" title="Abayudaya">Abayudaya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zambia" title="History of the Jews in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zimbabwe" title="History of the Jews in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Asia</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bahrain" title="History of the Jews in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cambodia" title="History of the Jews in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India" title="History of the Jews in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Indonesia" title="History of the Jews in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Japan" title="History of the Jews in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jordan" title="History of the Jews in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kuwait" title="History of the Jews in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of the Jews in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lebanon" title="History of the Jews in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malaysia" title="History of the Jews in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mongolia" title="History of the Jews in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Myanmar" title="History of the Jews in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_Nepal" title="Judaism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oman" title="History of the Jews in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pakistan" title="History of the Jews in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Philippines" title="History of the Jews in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Qatar" title="History of the Jews in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Korea" title="History of the Jews in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Singapore" title="History of the Jews in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sri_Lanka" title="History of the Jews in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tajikistan" title="History of the Jews in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Thailand" title="History of the Jews in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the Jews in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uzbekistan" title="History of the Jews in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Vietnam" title="History of the Jews in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemen</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Armenia" title="History of the Jews in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Azerbaijan" title="History of the Jews in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_lands" title="History of the Jews in the Czech lands">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Northern America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Greenland" title="Jews in Greenland">Greenland</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and Caribbean</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Argentina" title="History of the Jews in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bolivia" title="History of the Jews in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brazil" title="History of the Jews in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chile" title="History of the Jews in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Colombia" title="History of the Jews in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cuba" title="History of the Jews in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="History of the Jews in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ecuador" title="History of the Jews in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_El_Salvador" title="History of the Jews in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guyana" title="History of the Jews in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Haiti" title="History of the Jews in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jamaica" title="History of the Jews in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mexico" title="History of the Jews in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Paraguay" title="History of the Jews in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Peru" title="History of the Jews in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Puerto_Rico" title="History of the Jews in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Suriname" title="History of the Jews in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uruguay" title="History of the Jews in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Venezuela" title="History of the Jews in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oceania" title="History of the Jews in Oceania">Oceania</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Australia" title="History of the Jews in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Fiji" title="History of the Jews in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guam" title="History of the Jews in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_Zealand" title="History of the Jews in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Palau" title="History of the Jews in Palau">Palau</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Denominations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Customs</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_wedding" title="Jewish wedding">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shidduch" title="Shidduch">Shidduch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Conversion to Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiloni" title="Hiloni">Hiloni</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_cuisine" title="American Jewish cuisine">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine#Ashkenazi" title="Jewish cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jewish_cuisine" title="Bukharan Jewish cuisine">Bukharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jewish_cuisine" title="Ethiopian Jewish cuisine">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_cuisine" title="Israeli cuisine">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jewish_cuisine" title="Mizrahi Jewish cuisine">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jewish_cuisine" title="Sephardic Jewish cuisine">Sephardic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Ghardaïa Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_politics" title="Judaism and politics">Politics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Jewish political movements</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomism" title="Jewish Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundism" title="Bundism">Bundism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_left" title="Jewish left">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Territorial_Organization" title="Jewish Territorial Organization">Territorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Agudath_Israel" title="World Agudath Israel">World Agudath Israel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Zionism" title="Green Zionism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahanism" title="Kahanism">Kahanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Maximalism" title="Revisionist Maximalism">Maximalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Zionism" title="Neo-Zionism">Neo-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Zionism" title="Post-Zionism">Post-Zionism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Template:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The history of the Jews in Poland dates back at least 1,000 years. For centuries, <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> was home to the largest and most significant <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi Jew">Ashkenazi Jewish</a> community in the world. Poland was a principal center of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a>, because of the long period of statutory <a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">religious tolerance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qahal" title="Qahal">social autonomy</a> which ended after the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a> in the 18th century. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> there was a nearly complete <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocidal</a> destruction of the Polish Jewish community by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and its collaborators of various nationalities,<a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a> during the <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Poland">German occupation of Poland</a> between 1939 and 1945, called the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>. Since the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of communism in Poland">fall of communism in Poland</a>, there has been a renewed interest in Jewish culture, featuring an annual <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Culture_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Culture Festival">Jewish Culture Festival</a>, new study programs at Polish secondary schools and universities, and the opening of <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_History_of_Polish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of the History of Polish Jews">Museum of the History of Polish Jews</a>. From the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1025%E2%80%931385)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)">Kingdom of Poland</a> in 1025 until the early years of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin" title="Union of Lublin">created in 1569</a>, Poland was the most tolerant country in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Hugh-8">[6]</a> Historians have used the label <a href="/wiki/Heaven_for_the_nobles,_Purgatory_for_the_townspeople,_Hell_for_the_peasants,_and_Paradise_for_the_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Heaven for the nobles, Purgatory for the townspeople, Hell for the peasants, and Paradise for the Jews">paradisus iudaeorum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for "<a href="/wiki/Paradise" title="Paradise">Paradise</a> of the Jews").<a href="#cite_note-Engel2009-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a> Poland became a shelter for Jews persecuted and expelled from various European countries and the home to the world's largest Jewish community of the time. According to some sources, about three-quarters of the world's Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-Sanford-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-EJC-12">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-relations-13">[11]</a> With the weakening of the Commonwealth and growing religious strife (due to the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>), Poland's traditional tolerance began to wane from the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-Central-14">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Note-15">[13]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a> in 1795 and the destruction of Poland as a <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">sovereign state</a>, Polish Jews became subject to the laws of the partitioning powers, including the increasingly <a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire">antisemitic Russian Empire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-partners-1-16">[14]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> (later a part of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>). When Poland regained independence in the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">aftermath of World War I</a>, it was still the center of the European Jewish world, with one of the world's largest Jewish communities of over 3 million. <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a> was a growing problem throughout Europe in those years, from both the political establishment and the general population.<a href="#cite_note-Hagen-1-17">[15]</a> Throughout the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a>, Poland supported Jewish emigration from Poland and the creation of a Jewish state in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>. The Polish state also supported Jewish paramilitary groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Haganah" title="Haganah">Haganah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Betar" title="Betar">Betar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Irgun" title="Irgun">Irgun</a>, providing them with weapons and training.<a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a> In 1939, at the start of World War II, Poland was partitioned between <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a>). One-fifth of the Polish population perished during World War II; the 3,000,000 Polish Jews murdered in the Holocaust, who constituted 90% of Polish Jewry, made up half of all Poles killed during the war.<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-YV-archive1-21">[19]</a> While the Holocaust occurred largely in <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Poland (1939–45)">German-occupied Poland</a>, it was orchestrated and perpetrated by the Nazis. Polish attitudes to the Holocaust varied widely, from <a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Poles_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust">actively risking death in order to save Jewish lives</a>,<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> and passive refusal to inform on them, to indifference, blackmail,<a href="#cite_note-PCHR-23">[21]</a> and in extreme cases, committing premeditated murders such as in the <a href="/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom" title="Jedwabne pogrom">Jedwabne pogrom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lukas-24">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_in_German-occupied_Poland#The_Holocaust" title="Collaboration in German-occupied Poland">Collaboration</a> by non-Jewish Polish citizens in the Holocaust was sporadic, but incidents of hostility against Jews are well documented and have been a subject of renewed scholarly interest during the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-Paulsson1-25">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-hnetradz-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grabowski_2016-27">[25]</a> In the post-war period, many of the approximately 200,000 Jewish survivors registered at the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_Polish_Jews" title="Central Committee of Polish Jews">Central Committee of Polish Jews</a> or CKŻP (of whom 136,000 arrived from the Soviet Union)<a href="#cite_note-Lukas-24">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-N-A-28">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-M-S-29">[27]</a> left the <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%E2%80%99s_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish People’s Republic">Polish People’s Republic</a> for the nascent <a href="/wiki/State_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Israel">State of Israel</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>. Their departure was hastened by the destruction of Jewish institutions, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_violence_in_Poland,_1944%E2%80%931946" title="Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946">post-war anti-Jewish violence</a>, and the hostility of the Communist Party to both religion and private enterprise, but also because in 1946–1947 Poland was the only <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> country to allow free Jewish <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">aliyah</a> to Israel,<a href="#cite_note-D-H-30">[28]</a> without visas or exit permits.<a href="#cite_note-Kochavi-175-31">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marrus-32">[30]</a> Most of the remaining Jews left Poland in late 1968 as the result of the <a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">"anti-Zionist" campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Communism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Communism in Poland">fall of the Communist regime</a> in 1989, the situation of Polish Jews became normalized and those who were Polish citizens before World War II were allowed to renew Polish <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizenship</a>. The contemporary Polish Jewish community is estimated to have between 10,000 and 20,000 members.<a href="#cite_note-auto-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-polish-jewish-heritage.org-2">[2]</a> The number of people with Jewish heritage of any sort is several times larger.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history_to_Golden_Age:_966–1572">Early history to Golden Age: 966–1572</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">History of European Jews in the Middle Ages</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland_before_the_18th_century" title="History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century">History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history:_966–1385">Early history: 966–1385</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Piast_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Piast dynasty">History of Poland during the Piast dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reception_of_Jews_in_Poland_by_Jan_Matejko_1889.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Reception_of_Jews_in_Poland_by_Jan_Matejko_1889.png/290px-Reception_of_Jews_in_Poland_by_Jan_Matejko_1889.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Reception_of_Jews_in_Poland_by_Jan_Matejko_1889.png/435px-Reception_of_Jews_in_Poland_by_Jan_Matejko_1889.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Reception_of_Jews_in_Poland_by_Jan_Matejko_1889.png/580px-Reception_of_Jews_in_Poland_by_Jan_Matejko_1889.png 2x" data-file-width="3654" data-file-height="2562" /></a><figcaption>Reception of Jews in Poland, by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Matejko" title="Jan Matejko">Jan Matejko</a>, 1889</figcaption></figure> The first Jews to visit Polish territory were traders, while permanent settlement began during the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a> Travelling along trade routes leading east to <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a>, Jewish merchants, known as <a href="/wiki/Radhanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Radhanites">Radhanites</a>, crossed <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a>. One of them, a diplomat and merchant from the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moorish</a> town of <a href="/wiki/Tortosa" title="Tortosa">Tortosa</a> in Spanish <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, known by his Arabic name, <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Yaqub" title="Ibrahim ibn Yaqub">Ibrahim ibn Yaqub</a>, was the first chronicler to mention the Polish state ruled by Prince <a href="/wiki/Mieszko_I_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Mieszko I of Poland">Mieszko I</a>. In the summer of 965 or 966, Jacob made a trade and diplomatic journey from his native <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a> in Muslim Spain to the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> and then to the Slavic countries.<a href="#cite_note-polishjews.org-36">[34]</a> The first actual mention of Jews in Polish chronicles occurs in the 11th century, where it appears that Jews then lived in <a href="/wiki/Gniezno" title="Gniezno">Gniezno</a>, at that time the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1025%E2%80%931385)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)">Polish kingdom</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Piast_dynasty" title="Piast dynasty">Piast dynasty</a>. Among the first Jews to arrive in Poland in 1097 or 1098 were those banished from <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>.<a href="#cite_note-polishjews.org-36">[34]</a> The first permanent Jewish community is mentioned in 1085 by a Jewish scholar <a href="/wiki/Yehuda_ben_Meir" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehuda ben Meir">Jehuda ha-Kohen</a> in the city of <a href="/wiki/Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Przemyśl">Przemyśl</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PMH-1-37">[35]</a> As elsewhere in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, the principal activity of Jews in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Poland">medieval Poland</a> was commerce and trade, including the export and import of goods such as cloth, linen, furs, hides, wax, metal objects, and slaves.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PolishHebrewCoins1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/PolishHebrewCoins1.jpg/170px-PolishHebrewCoins1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/PolishHebrewCoins1.jpg/255px-PolishHebrewCoins1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/PolishHebrewCoins1.jpg/340px-PolishHebrewCoins1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="428" data-file-height="596" /></a><figcaption>Early-medieval Polish coins with Hebrew inscriptions</figcaption></figure> The first extensive Jewish migration from <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> to Poland occurred at the time of the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> in 1098. Under <a href="/wiki/Boleslaus_III_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Boleslaus III of Poland">Bolesław III</a> (1102–1139), Jews, encouraged by the tolerant regime of this ruler, settled throughout Poland, including over the border in <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> territory as far as <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> Bolesław III recognized the utility of Jews in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commercial interests</a> of his country. Jews came to form the backbone of the Polish economy. <a href="/wiki/Mieszko_III_of_Poland" title="Mieszko III of Poland">Mieszko III</a> employed Jews in his mint as engravers and technical supervisors, and the <a href="/wiki/Bracteates" class="mw-redirect" title="Bracteates">coins</a> minted during that period even bear <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebraic markings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-polishjews.org-36">[34]</a> Jews worked on commission for the mints of other contemporary Polish princes, including <a href="/wiki/Casimir_the_Just" class="mw-redirect" title="Casimir the Just">Casimir the Just</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_the_Tall" title="Bolesław I the Tall">Bolesław I the Tall</a> and <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_III_Spindleshanks" title="Władysław III Spindleshanks">Władysław III Spindleshanks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-polishjews.org-36">[34]</a> Jews enjoyed undisturbed peace and prosperity in the many principalities into which the country was then divided; they formed the middle class in a country where the general population consisted of <a href="/wiki/Landlord" title="Landlord">landlords</a> (developing into <a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</a>, the unique Polish nobility) and peasants, and they were instrumental in promoting the commercial interests of the land. Another factor for the Jews to emigrate to Poland was the <a href="/wiki/Magdeburg_rights" title="Magdeburg rights">Magdeburg rights</a> (or Magdeburg Law), a charter given to Jews, among others, that specifically outlined the rights and privileges that Jews had in Poland. For example, they could maintain communal autonomy, and live according to their own laws. This made it very attractive for Jewish communities to pick up and move to Poland.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> The first mention of Jewish settlers in <a href="/wiki/P%C5%82ock" title="Płock">Płock</a> dates from 1237, in Kalisz from 1287 and a Żydowska (Jewish) street in Kraków in 1304.<a href="#cite_note-polishjews.org-36">[34]</a> The tolerant situation was gradually altered by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> on the one hand, and by the neighboring German states on the other.<a href="#cite_note-Dubnow-1-41">[39]</a> There were, however, among the reigning princes some determined protectors of the Jewish inhabitants, who considered the presence of the latter most desirable as far as the economic development of the country was concerned. Prominent among such rulers was <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_the_Pious" title="Bolesław the Pious">Bolesław the Pious</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kalisz" title="Kalisz">Kalisz</a>, Prince of <a href="/wiki/Great_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Poland">Great Poland</a>. With the consent of the class representatives and higher officials, in 1264 he issued a General Charter of Jewish Liberties (commonly called the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Kalisz" title="Statute of Kalisz">Statute of Kalisz</a>), which granted all Jews the freedom to worship, trade, and travel. Similar privileges were granted to the Silesian Jews by the local princes, <a href="/wiki/Henryk_IV_Probus" class="mw-redirect" title="Henryk IV Probus">Henryk IV Probus</a> of Wrocław in 1273–90, <a href="/wiki/Henry_III,_Duke_of_G%C5%82og%C3%B3w" title="Henry III, Duke of Głogów">Henryk III of Głogów</a> in 1274 and 1299, <a href="/wiki/Henry_V,_Duke_of_Legnica" title="Henry V, Duke of Legnica">Henryk V the Fat</a> of Legnica in 1290–95, and <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_III_the_Generous" title="Bolesław III the Generous">Bolko III the Generous</a> of Legnica and Wrocław in 1295.<a href="#cite_note-polishjews.org-36">[34]</a> Article 31 of the Statute of Kalisz tried to rein in the Catholic Church from disseminating <a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">blood libels</a> against the Jews, by stating: "Accusing Jews of drinking Christian blood is expressly prohibited. If despite this a Jew should be accused of murdering a Christian child, such charge must be sustained by testimony of three Christians and three Jews."<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a> During the next hundred years, the Church pushed for the persecution of Jews while the rulers of Poland usually protected them.<a href="#cite_note-Dubnow-2-43">[41]</a> The Councils of Wrocław (1267), Buda (1279), and Łęczyca (1285) each segregated Jews, ordered them to wear a special emblem, banned them from holding offices where Christians would be subordinated to them, and forbade them from building more than one prayer house in each town. However, those church decrees required the cooperation of the Polish princes for enforcement, which was generally not forthcoming, due to the profits which the Jews' economic activity yielded to the princes.<a href="#cite_note-polishjews.org-36">[34]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wojciech_Gerson,_Przyj%C4%99cie_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Wojciech_Gerson%2C_Przyj%C4%99cie_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w.jpg/290px-Wojciech_Gerson%2C_Przyj%C4%99cie_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Wojciech_Gerson%2C_Przyj%C4%99cie_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w.jpg/435px-Wojciech_Gerson%2C_Przyj%C4%99cie_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Wojciech_Gerson%2C_Przyj%C4%99cie_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w.jpg/580px-Wojciech_Gerson%2C_Przyj%C4%99cie_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2338" data-file-height="1762" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Casimir_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Casimir the Great">Casimir the Great</a> and the Jews, by <a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Gerson" title="Wojciech Gerson">Wojciech Gerson</a>, 1874</figcaption></figure> In 1332, King <a href="/wiki/Casimir_III_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Casimir III of Poland">Casimir III the Great</a> (1303–1370) amplified and expanded Bolesław's old charter with the <a href="/wiki/Wi%C5%9Blicki_Statute" class="mw-redirect" title="Wiślicki Statute">Wiślicki Statute</a>. Under his reign, streams of Jewish immigrants headed east to Poland and Jewish settlements are first mentioned as existing in <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lvov</a> (1356), <a href="/wiki/Sandomierz" title="Sandomierz">Sandomierz</a> (1367), and <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz" title="Kazimierz">Kazimierz</a> near Kraków (1386).<a href="#cite_note-polishjews.org-36">[34]</a> Casimir, who according to a legend had a Jewish lover named <a href="/wiki/Esterka" title="Esterka">Esterka</a> from <a href="/wiki/Opoczno" title="Opoczno">Opoczno</a><a href="#cite_note-opoczno-1-44">[42]</a> was especially friendly to the Jews, and his reign is regarded as an era of great prosperity for Polish Jewry, and was nicknamed by his contemporaries "King of the <a href="/wiki/Serf" class="mw-redirect" title="Serf">serfs</a> and Jews." Under <a href="/wiki/Penalty_of_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Penalty of death">penalty of death</a>, he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of enforced <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a>. He inflicted heavy punishment for the desecration of <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/Cemeteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Cemeteries">cemeteries</a>. Nevertheless, while the Jews of Poland enjoyed tranquility for the greater part of Casimir's reign, toward its close they were subjected to persecution on account of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>. In 1348, the first <a href="/wiki/Blood_libel_against_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood libel against Jews">blood libel</a> accusation against Jews in Poland was recorded, and in 1367 the first pogrom took place in <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Poznan-1-45">[43]</a> Compared with the pitiless destruction of their co-religionists in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, however, Polish Jews did not fare badly; and Jewish refugees from Germany fled to the more hospitable cities in Poland. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_early_Jagiellon_era:_1385–1505">The early Jagiellon era: 1385–1505</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Jagiellonian_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty">History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty</a></div> As a result of the marriage of <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II_Jagie%C5%82%C5%82o" title="Władysław II Jagiełło">Władysław II Jagiełło</a> to <a href="/wiki/Jadwiga_of_Poland" title="Jadwiga of Poland">Jadwiga</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Louis_I_of_Hungary" title="Louis I of Hungary">Louis I of Hungary</a>, Lithuania was <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish–Lithuanian Union">united with the kingdom of Poland</a>. In 1388–1389, broad privileges were extended to <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Jews">Lithuanian Jews</a> including freedom of religion and commerce on equal terms with the Christians.<a href="#cite_note-Dubnow-3-46">[44]</a> Under the rule of Władysław II, Polish Jews had increased in numbers and attained prosperity. However, religious persecution gradually increased, as the dogmatic clergy pushed for less official tolerance, pressured by the <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus#Council_of_Constance" title="Jan Hus">Synod of Constance</a>. In 1349 pogroms took place in many towns in Silesia.<a href="#cite_note-polishjews.org-36">[34]</a> There were accusations of <a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">blood libel</a> by the priests, and new riots against the Jews in Poznań in 1399. Accusations of blood libel by another fanatic priest led to the riots in <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> in 1407, although the royal guard hastened to the rescue.<a href="#cite_note-Dubnow-3-46">[44]</a> Hysteria caused by the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> led to additional 14th-century outbreaks of violence against the Jews in <a href="/wiki/Kalisz" title="Kalisz">Kalisz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bochnia" title="Bochnia">Bochnia</a>. Traders and artisans jealous of Jewish prosperity, and fearing their rivalry, supported the harassment. In 1423, the statute of Warka forbade Jews the granting of loans against letters of credit or mortgage and limited their operations exclusively to loans made on security of moveable property.<a href="#cite_note-polishjews.org-36">[34]</a> In the 14th and 15th centuries, rich Jewish merchants and moneylenders leased the royal mint, salt mines and the collecting of customs and tolls. The most famous of them were Jordan and his son Lewko of Kraków in the 14th century and Jakub Slomkowicz of <a href="/wiki/Lutsk" title="Lutsk">Łuck</a>, Wolczko of <a href="/wiki/Drohobych" title="Drohobych">Drohobycz</a>, Natko of <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a>, Samson of <a href="/wiki/Zhydachiv" title="Zhydachiv">Zydaczow</a>, Josko of <a href="/wiki/Hrubiesz%C3%B3w" title="Hrubieszów">Hrubieszów</a> and Szania of Belz in the 15th century. For example, Wolczko of Drohobycz, King Ladislaus Jagiełło's broker, was the owner of several villages in the Ruthenian voivodship and the soltys (administrator) of the village of Werbiz. Also, Jews from Grodno were in this period owners of villages, manors, meadows, fish ponds and mills. However, until the end of the 15th century, agriculture as a source of income played only a minor role among Jewish families. More important were crafts for the needs of both their fellow Jews and the Christian population (fur making, tanning, tailoring).<a href="#cite_note-polishjews.org-36">[34]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Casimir_IV_Jagiellon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon.jpg/170px-Casimir_IV_Jagiellon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon.jpg/255px-Casimir_IV_Jagiellon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon.jpg/340px-Casimir_IV_Jagiellon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon" title="Casimir IV Jagiellon">Casimir IV Jagiellon</a> confirmed and extended Jewish charters in the second half of the 15th century</figcaption></figure> In 1454 anti-Jewish riots flared up in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>'s ethnically-German <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesian</a> cities, inspired by a Franciscan friar, <a href="/wiki/John_of_Capistrano" title="John of Capistrano">John of Capistrano</a>, who accused Jews of profaning the Christian religion. As a result, Jews were banished from Lower Silesia. Zbigniew Olesnicki then invited John to conduct a similar campaign in Kraków and several other cities, to lesser effect. The decline in the status of the Jews was briefly checked by <a href="/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon" title="Casimir IV Jagiellon">Casimir IV Jagiellon</a> (1447–1492), but soon the nobility forced him to issue the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Nieszawa" class="mw-redirect" title="Statute of Nieszawa">Statute of Nieszawa</a>,<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> which, among other things, abolished the ancient privileges of the Jews "as contrary to divine right and the law of the land." Nevertheless, the king continued to offer his protection to the Jews. Two years later Casimir issued another document announcing that he could not deprive the Jews of his benevolence on the basis of "the principle of tolerance which in conformity with God's laws obliged him to protect them".<a href="#cite_note-bdw50-48">[46]</a> The policy of the government toward the Jews of Poland oscillated under Casimir's sons and successors, <a href="/wiki/John_I_Albert" title="John I Albert">John I Albert</a> (1492–1501) and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jagiellon" title="Alexander Jagiellon">Alexander Jagiellon</a> (1501–1506). In 1495, Jews were ordered out of the center of Kraków and allowed to settle in the "Jewish town" of Kazimierz. In the same year, Alexander, when he was the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duke_of_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duke of Lithuania">Grand Duke of Lithuania</a>, followed the <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Jews_from_Spain" title="Expulsion of Jews from Spain">1492 example of Spanish rulers</a> and banished Jews from Lithuania. For several years they took shelter in Poland until he reversed his decision eight years later in 1503 after becoming King of Poland and allowed them back to Lithuania.<a href="#cite_note-polishjews.org-36">[34]</a> The next year he issued a proclamation in which he stated that a policy of tolerance befitted "kings and rulers".<a href="#cite_note-bdw50-48">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Center_of_the_Jewish_world:_1505–1572">Center of the Jewish world: 1505–1572</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonymous_Sigismund_Augustus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Anonymous_Sigismund_Augustus.jpg/170px-Anonymous_Sigismund_Augustus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Anonymous_Sigismund_Augustus.jpg/255px-Anonymous_Sigismund_Augustus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Anonymous_Sigismund_Augustus.jpg/340px-Anonymous_Sigismund_Augustus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1289" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sigismund_II_Augustus" title="Sigismund II Augustus">Sigismund II Augustus</a> followed his <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_I_the_Old" title="Sigismund I the Old">father</a>'s tolerant policy and also granted autonomy to the Jews.</figcaption></figure> Poland became more tolerant just as the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">Jews were expelled from Spain</a> in 1492, as well as from <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian Jews">Hungary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Germany">Germany</a>, thus stimulating Jewish immigration to the much more accessible Poland. Indeed, with the expulsion of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Jews from Spain</a>, Poland became the recognized haven for exiles from Western Europe; and the resulting accession to the ranks of Polish Jewry made it the cultural and spiritual center of the Jewish people. The most prosperous period for Polish Jews began following this new influx of Jews with the reign of <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_I_the_Old" title="Sigismund I the Old">Sigismund I the Old</a> (1506–1548), who protected the Jews in his realm. During his reign, in 1538, the Polish Sejm passed a law making illegal the leasing of royal perogatives, such as salt mines, the mint, and customs to Jews. While these so-called "great <a href="/wiki/Arendator" title="Arendator">arenda</a>" became one of the <a href="/wiki/Nobility_privileges_in_Poland" title="Nobility privileges in Poland">protected privileges of the szlachta</a>, in the 16th and 17th centuries, Jews were the primary administrators of agricultural arenda (administrating landed estates leased from the nobility).<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_II_Augustus" title="Sigismund II Augustus">Sigismund II Augustus</a> (1548–1572), mainly followed his father's tolerant policy and also granted communal-administration autonomy to the Jews and laid the foundation for the power of the <a href="/wiki/Qahal" title="Qahal">Qahal</a>, or autonomous Jewish community. According to some sources, about three-quarters of all Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-Sanford-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-EJC-12">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-relations-13">[11]</a> In the 16h and 17th centuries, Poland welcomed Jewish immigrants from <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote Jews</a> migrating there from the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. Arabic-speaking <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a> also migrated to Poland during this time.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. In 1503, the Polish monarchy appointed Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Pollak" title="Jacob Pollak">Jacob Pollak</a> the first official Rabbi of Poland.<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> By 1551, Jews were given permission to choose their own Chief Rabbi. The Chief Rabbinate held power over law and finance, appointing judges and other officials. Some power was shared with local councils. The Polish government permitted the Rabbinate to grow in power, to use it for tax collection purposes. Only 30% of the money raised by the Rabbinate served Jewish causes, the rest went to the Crown for protection. In this period Poland-Lithuania became the main center for <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi Jew">Ashkenazi Jewry</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">yeshivot</a> achieved fame from the early 16th century. <a href="/wiki/Moses_Isserles" title="Moses Isserles">Moses Isserles</a> (1520–1572), an eminent <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmudist</a> of the 16th century, established his <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">yeshiva</a> in <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>. In addition to being a renowned Talmudic and <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">legal scholar</a>, Isserles was also learned in <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a>, and studied history, astronomy, and philosophy. He is considered the "<a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> of Polish Jewry."<a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Remuh_Synagogue" class="mw-redirect" title="Remuh Synagogue">Remuh Synagogue</a> was built for him in 1557. Rema (רמ״א) is the Hebrew acronym for his name.<a href="#cite_note-Remuh-56">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth:_1572–1795">The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth: 1572–1795</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_in_the_early_modern_period_(1569%E2%80%931795)" title="History of Poland in the early modern period (1569–1795)">History of Poland in the early modern period (1569–1795)</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_18th-century_Poland" title="History of the Jews in 18th-century Poland">History of the Jews in 18th-century Poland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Confederation" title="Warsaw Confederation">Warsaw Confederation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Number_of_Jews_in_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_per_voivodeship_in_1764.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Number_of_Jews_in_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_per_voivodeship_in_1764.PNG/220px-Number_of_Jews_in_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_per_voivodeship_in_1764.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Number_of_Jews_in_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_per_voivodeship_in_1764.PNG/330px-Number_of_Jews_in_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_per_voivodeship_in_1764.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Number_of_Jews_in_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_per_voivodeship_in_1764.PNG/440px-Number_of_Jews_in_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_per_voivodeship_in_1764.PNG 2x" data-file-width="3216" data-file-height="3090" /></a><figcaption>Number of Jews in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth per voivodeship in 1764</figcaption></figure> After the childless death of <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_II_Augustus" title="Sigismund II Augustus">Sigismund II Augustus</a>, the last king of the <a href="/wiki/Jagiellon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Jagiellon dynasty">Jagiellon dynasty</a>, nobles (<a href="/wiki/Szlachta" title="Szlachta">szlachta</a>) gathered at <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> in 1573 and signed a document in which representatives of all major religions pledged mutual support and tolerance. The following eight or nine decades of material prosperity and relative security experienced by Polish Jews – wrote Professor <a href="/wiki/Gershon_Hundert" title="Gershon Hundert">Gershon Hundert</a> – witnessed the appearance of "a virtual galaxy of sparkling intellectual figures." Jewish academies were established in Lublin, Kraków, Brześć (Brisk), Lwów, Ostróg and other towns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHundert200411-57">[55]</a> Poland-Lithuania was the only country in Europe where the Jews cultivated their own farmer's fields.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHundert200419-58">[56]</a> The central autonomous body that regulated Jewish life in Poland from the middle of the 16th to mid-18th century was known as the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Four_Lands" title="Council of Four Lands">Council of Four Lands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> It was during this period that a <a href="/wiki/Paradisus_Judaeorum" title="Paradisus Judaeorum">rueful pasquinade</a> claiming that Poland was a "paradise for the Jews" gave birth to a proverb, which after subsequent extrapolations became "heaven for the nobles, purgatory for the townspeople, hell for the peasants, and paradise for the Jews".<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3></div> Despite the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Confederation" title="Warsaw Confederation">Warsaw Confederation</a> agreement, it did not last for long due to beginning of Counter-Reformation in the Commonwealth and growing influence of the Jesuits.<a href="#cite_note-Linda_Gordon-61">[59]</a> By 1590s there were anti-Semitic outbreaks in <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Linda_Gordon-61">[59]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="Lwów">Lwów</a> alone mass attacks of Jews started in 1572 and then repeated in 1592, 1613, 1618, and from 1638 every year with Jesuit students being responsible for many of them.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> At the same time <a href="/w/index.php?title=Privilegium_de_non_tolerandis_Judaeis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Privilegium de non tolerandis Judaeis (page does not exist)">Privilegium de non tolerandis Judaeis</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Privilegium_de_non_tolerandis_Christianis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Privilegium de non tolerandis Christianis (page does not exist)">Privilegium de non tolerandis Christianis</a> were introduced to limit Jews living in the Christian cities, which intensified their migration to the Eastern parts of the country where they were invited by the magnates to their <a href="/wiki/Private_town" title="Private town">private towns</a>. By the end of the 18th century two-thirds of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_city_in_Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Royal city in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">royal towns and cities</a> in the Commonwealth had pressed the king to grant them that privilege.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Brest" title="Union of Brest">Union of Brest</a> in 1595–1596, the Orthodox church was outlawed in Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth and that caused massive religious, social and political tensions in <a href="/wiki/Ruthenia" title="Ruthenia">Ruthenia</a>. In part it was also caused due to mass migration of the Jews to Ruthenia and their role perceived by local population<a href="#cite_note-Linda_Gordon-61">[59]</a> and in turn led to multiple Cossack uprisings. The largest one of them started in 1648 and was followed by several conflicts, in which the country lost over a third of its population (over three million people). The Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these large-scale atrocities was the <a href="/wiki/Khmelnytsky_Uprising" title="Khmelnytsky Uprising">Khmelnytsky Uprising</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Zaporozhian_Host" title="Zaporozhian Host">Zaporozhian Host</a> under <a href="/wiki/Bohdan_Khmelnytsky" title="Bohdan Khmelnytsky">Bohdan Khmelnytsky</a> massacred tens of thousands of Jews as well as Catholic and Uniate population in the eastern and southern areas of Polish-occupied Ukraine.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> The precise number of dead is not known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during this period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">jasyr</a> (captivity in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>). The Jewish community suffered greatly during the 1648 Ukrainian Cossack uprising which had been directed primarily against the wealthy nobility and landlords. The Jews, perceived as allies of the Poles, were also victims of the revolt, during which about 20% of them were killed. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neu-er%C3%B6ffnete_Welt-Galleria_Polnischer_Jude.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Neu-er%C3%B6ffnete_Welt-Galleria_Polnischer_Jude.jpg/170px-Neu-er%C3%B6ffnete_Welt-Galleria_Polnischer_Jude.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Neu-er%C3%B6ffnete_Welt-Galleria_Polnischer_Jude.jpg/255px-Neu-er%C3%B6ffnete_Welt-Galleria_Polnischer_Jude.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Neu-er%C3%B6ffnete_Welt-Galleria_Polnischer_Jude.jpg/340px-Neu-er%C3%B6ffnete_Welt-Galleria_Polnischer_Jude.jpg 2x" data-file-width="821" data-file-height="1227" /></a><figcaption>A Polish Jew in an engraving from 1703</figcaption></figure> Ruled by the elected kings of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Vasa" title="House of Vasa">House of Vasa</a> since 1587, the embattled Commonwealth was invaded by the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a> in 1655 in what became known as <a href="/wiki/Deluge_(history)" title="Deluge (history)">the Deluge</a>. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth which had already suffered from the Khmelnytsky Uprising and from the recurring invasions of the Russians, <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Tatars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a>, became the scene of even more atrocities. <a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles X of Sweden">Charles X of Sweden</a>, at the head of his victorious army, overran the cities of Kraków and Warsaw. The amount of destruction, pillage and methodical plunder during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Krak%C3%B3w_(1657)" title="Siege of Kraków (1657)">Siege of Kraków (1657)</a> was so enormous that parts the city never again recovered. Which was later followed by the massacres of the Crown hetman <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Czarniecki" title="Stefan Czarniecki">Stefan Czarniecki</a> of the Ruthenian<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> and Jewish population.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> He defeated the Swedes in 1660 and was equally successful in his battles against the Russians.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> Meanwhile, the horrors of the war were aggravated by <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">pestilence</a>. Many Jews along with the townsfolk of <a href="/wiki/Kalisz" title="Kalisz">Kalisz</a>, Kraków, <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski" title="Piotrków Trybunalski">Piotrków</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a> fell victim to recurring epidemics.<a href="#cite_note-Milewski-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Petrus-71">[69]</a> As soon as the disturbances had ceased, the Jews began to return and to rebuild their destroyed homes; and while it is true that the Jewish population of Poland had decreased, it still was more numerous than that of the Jewish colonies in Western Europe. Poland continued to be the spiritual center of Judaism. Through 1698, the Polish kings generally remained supportive of the Jews. Although Jewish losses in those events were high, the Commonwealth lost one-third of its population – approximately three million of its citizens. The environment of the Polish Commonwealth, according to Hundert, profoundly affected Jews due to genuinely positive encounter with the Christian culture across the many cities and towns owned by the Polish aristocracy. There was no isolation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHundert200451–52-72">[70]</a> The Jewish dress resembled that of their Polish neighbor. "Reports of romances, of drinking together in taverns, and of intellectual conversations are quite abundant." Wealthy Jews had Polish noblemen at their table, and served meals on silver plates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHundert200451–52-72">[70]</a> By 1764, there were about 750,000 Jews in the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>. The worldwide Jewish population at that time was estimated at 1.2 million. In 1768, the <a href="/wiki/Koliivshchyna" title="Koliivshchyna">Koliivshchyna</a>, a rebellion in <a href="/wiki/Right-bank_Ukraine" title="Right-bank Ukraine">Right-bank Ukraine</a> west of the <a href="/wiki/Dnieper" title="Dnieper">Dnieper</a> in <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a>, led to ferocious murders of Polish noblemen, Catholic priests and thousands of Jews by <a href="/wiki/Haydamak" title="Haydamak">haydamaks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHundert200417–18-73">[71]</a> Four years later, in 1772, the military <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a> had begun between Russia, Prussia and Austria.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_development_of_Judaism_in_Poland_and_the_Commonwealth">The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth</h2></div> The culture and intellectual output of the Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. Some Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as Polania or Polin in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, and as <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliterated</a> into Hebrew, these names for Poland were interpreted as "good omens" because Polania can be broken down into three Hebrew words: po ("here"), lan ("dwells"), ya ("<a href="/wiki/Jah" title="Jah">God</a>"), and Polin into two words of: po ("here") lin ("[you should] dwell"). The "message" was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. During the time from the rule of <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_I_the_Old" title="Sigismund I the Old">Sigismund I the Old</a> until <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>, Poland would be at the center of Jewish religious life. Many agreed with Rabbi <a href="/wiki/David_HaLevi_Segal" title="David HaLevi Segal">David HaLevi Segal</a> that Poland was a place where "most of the time the gentiles do no harm; on the contrary they do right by Israel" (Divre David; 1689).<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_learning">Jewish learning</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Synagoga_Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87_VIII_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Synagoga_Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87_VIII_2010.jpg/220px-Synagoga_Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87_VIII_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Synagoga_Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87_VIII_2010.jpg/330px-Synagoga_Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87_VIII_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Synagoga_Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87_VIII_2010.jpg/440px-Synagoga_Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87_VIII_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="801" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>The Late <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <a href="/wiki/Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87_Synagogue" title="Zamość Synagogue">Zamość Synagogue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Zamość">Zamość</a>, Poland, 1610–20</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">Yeshivot</a> were established, under the direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Such schools were officially known as <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(school)" title="Gymnasium (school)">gymnasia</a>, and their rabbi principals as <a href="/wiki/Rector_(academia)" title="Rector (academia)">rectors</a>. Important yeshivot existed in Kraków, Poznań, and other cities. Jewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the 16th century. In 1530 a <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> was printed in Kraków; and at the end of the century the Jewish printing houses of that city and <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a> issued a large number of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character. The growth of <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmudic scholarship</a> in Poland was coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish Jews; and because of their communal autonomy educational development was wholly one-sided and along Talmudic lines. Exceptions are recorded, however, where Jewish youth sought secular instruction in the European universities. The learned rabbis became not merely expounders of the Law, but also spiritual advisers, teachers, judges, and legislators; and their authority compelled the communal leaders to make themselves familiar with the abstruse questions of <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a>. Polish Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influence was felt in the home, in school, and in the synagogue.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the first half of the 16th century the seeds of Talmudic learning had been transplanted to Poland from <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, particularly from the school of <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Pollak" title="Jacob Pollak">Jacob Pollak</a>, the creator of <a href="/wiki/Pilpul" title="Pilpul">Pilpul</a> ("sharp reasoning"). <a href="/wiki/Shalom_Shachna" title="Shalom Shachna">Shalom Shachna</a> (c. 1500–1558), a pupil of Pollak, is counted among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland. He lived and died in <a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a>, where he was the head of the yeshivah which produced the rabbinical celebrities of the following century. Shachna's son Israel became rabbi of Lublin on the death of his father, and Shachna's pupil <a href="/wiki/Moses_Isserles" title="Moses Isserles">Moses Isserles</a> (known as the ReMA) (1520–1572) achieved an international reputation among the Jews as the co-author of the <a href="/wiki/Shulkhan_Arukh" class="mw-redirect" title="Shulkhan Arukh">Shulkhan Arukh</a>, (the "Code of Jewish Law"). His contemporary and correspondent <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Luria" title="Solomon Luria">Solomon Luria</a> (1510–1573) of Lublin also enjoyed a wide reputation among his co-religionists; and the authority of both was recognized by the Jews throughout Europe. Heated religious disputations were common, and Jewish scholars participated in them. At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> had become entrenched under the protection of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinism</a>; and such scholars as <a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Jaffe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mordecai Jaffe">Mordecai Jaffe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoel_Sirkis" class="mw-redirect" title="Yoel Sirkis">Yoel Sirkis</a> devoted themselves to its study. This period of great Rabbinical scholarship was interrupted by the [Khmelnytsky Uprising and The Deluge.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_rise_of_Hasidism">The rise of Hasidism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jakub_Frank.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Jakub_Frank.jpg/170px-Jakub_Frank.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Jakub_Frank.jpg/255px-Jakub_Frank.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Jakub_Frank.jpg/340px-Jakub_Frank.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1032" data-file-height="1260" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Frank" title="Jacob Frank">Jacob Frank</a>, 1895 depiction</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism_in_Poland" title="Hasidic Judaism in Poland">Hasidic Judaism in Poland</a></div> The decade from the Khmelnytsky Uprising until after the Deluge (1648–1658) left a deep and lasting impression not only on the social life of the Polish–Lithuanian Jews, but on their spiritual life as well. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Talmudic learning which up to that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only. What religious study there was became overly formalized, some rabbis busied themselves with quibbles concerning religious laws; others wrote commentaries on different parts of the Talmud in which hair-splitting arguments were raised and discussed; and at times these arguments dealt with matters which were of no practical importance. At the same time, many miracle-workers made their appearance among the Jews of Poland, culminating in a series of false "Messianic" movements, most famously as <a href="/wiki/Sabbatai_Zevi" title="Sabbatai Zevi">Sabbatianism</a> was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Frank" title="Jacob Frank">Frankism</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In this time of <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a> and overly formal Rabbinism came the teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the <a href="/wiki/Baal_Shem_Tov" title="Baal Shem Tov">Baal Shem Tov</a>, or BeShT, (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> and Poland in particular. His disciples taught and encouraged the new fervent brand of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidism</a>. The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond had a great influence on the rise of <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi Judaism</a> all over the world, with a continuous influence through its many <a href="/wiki/List_of_Hasidic_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Hasidic dynasties">Hasidic dynasties</a> including those of <a href="/wiki/Chabad" title="Chabad">Chabad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleksander_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Aleksander (Hasidic dynasty)">Aleksander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bobov_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Bobov (Hasidic dynasty)">Bobov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ger_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Ger (Hasidic dynasty)">Ger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nadvorna_(Hasidic_dynasty)" title="Nadvorna (Hasidic dynasty)">Nadvorna</a>, among others.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Partitions_of_Poland">The Partitions of Poland</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_dress_in_Poland_17th_and_18th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Jewish_dress_in_Poland_17th_and_18th_century.jpg/170px-Jewish_dress_in_Poland_17th_and_18th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Jewish_dress_in_Poland_17th_and_18th_century.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="363" /></a><figcaption>Jewish dress in 17th (top) and 18th centuries</figcaption></figure> In 1742 most of Silesia was lost to <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>. Further disorder and anarchy reigned supreme in Poland during the second half of the 18th century, from the accession to the throne of its last king, <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski</a> in 1764. His election was bought by <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine the Great</a> for 2.5 million rubles, with the Russian army stationing only 5 kilometres (3 mi) away from Warsaw.<a href="#cite_note-Szyndler-64-76">[74]</a> Eight years later, triggered by the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_Bar" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederation of Bar">Confederation of Bar</a> against Russian influence and the pro-Russian king, the outlying provinces of Poland were overrun from all sides by different military forces and divided for the first time by the three neighboring empires, Russia, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Szyndler-64-76">[74]</a> The Commonwealth lost 30% of its land during the <a href="/wiki/First_Partition_of_Poland" title="First Partition of Poland">annexations of 1772</a>, and even more of its peoples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHundert200418-77">[75]</a> Jews were most numerous in the territories that fell under the military control of Austria and Russia.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The permanent council established at the instance of the Russian government (1773–1788) served as the highest administrative tribunal, and occupied itself with the elaboration of a plan that would make practicable the reorganization of Poland on a more rational basis. The progressive elements in Polish society recognized the urgency of popular education as the first step toward reform. The famous <a href="/wiki/Komisja_Edukacji_Narodowej" class="mw-redirect" title="Komisja Edukacji Narodowej">Komisja Edukacji Narodowej</a> ("Commission of National Education"), the first ministry of education in the world, was established in 1773 and founded numerous new schools and remodeled the old ones. One of the members of the commission, <a href="/wiki/Kanclerz" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanclerz">kanclerz</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrzej_Zamoyski" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrzej Zamoyski">Andrzej Zamoyski</a>, along with others, demanded that the inviolability of their persons and property should be guaranteed and that religious toleration should be to a certain extent granted them; but he insisted that Jews living in the cities should be separated from the Christians, that those of them having no definite occupation should be banished from the kingdom, and that even those engaged in agriculture should not be allowed to possess land. On the other hand, some szlachta and intellectuals proposed a national system of government, of the civil and political equality of the Jews. This was the only example in modern Europe before the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of tolerance and broadmindedness in dealing with the Jewish question. But all these reforms were too late: a Russian army soon invaded Poland, and soon after a Prussian one followed.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berek_joselewicz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Berek_joselewicz.jpg/170px-Berek_joselewicz.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Berek_joselewicz.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="309" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Berek_Joselewicz" title="Berek Joselewicz">Berek Joselewicz</a> (1764–1809)</figcaption></figure> A second <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">partition of Poland</a> was made on 17 July 1793. Jews, in a Jewish regiment led by <a href="/wiki/Berek_Joselewicz" title="Berek Joselewicz">Berek Joselewicz</a>, took part in the <a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising" title="Kościuszko Uprising">Kościuszko Uprising</a> the following year, when the Poles tried to again achieve independence, but were brutally put down. Following the revolt, the third and final partition of Poland took place in 1795. The territories which included the great bulk of the Jewish population was transferred to Russia, and thus they became subjects of that empire, although in the first half of the 19th century some semblance of a vastly smaller Polish state was preserved, especially in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a> (1815–1831).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Under foreign rule many Jews inhabiting formerly Polish lands were indifferent to Polish aspirations for independence. However, most Polonized Jews supported the revolutionary activities of Polish patriots and participated in national uprisings.<a href="#cite_note-OB-78">[76]</a> Polish Jews took part in the November Insurrection of 1830–1831, the January Insurrection of 1863, as well as in the revolutionary movement of 1905. Many Polish Jews were enlisted in the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Legions_in_World_War_I" title="Polish Legions in World War I">Polish Legions</a>, which fought for the Polish independence, achieved in 1918 when the occupying forces disintegrated following World War I.<a href="#cite_note-OB-78">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jews_of_Poland_within_the_Russian_Empire_(1795–1918)">Jews of Poland within the Russian Empire (1795–1918)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1795%E2%80%931918)" title="History of Poland (1795–1918)">History of Poland (1795–1918)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_19th-century_Poland" title="History of the Jews in 19th-century Poland">History of the Jews in 19th-century Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia_and_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union">History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Antisemitism in the Russian Empire">Antisemitism in the Russian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spekulacja_na_predce_-_czyli_handlowa_wspolka_(w_Warszawie)_1841_(27263554)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Spekulacja_na_predce_-_czyli_handlowa_wspolka_%28w_Warszawie%29_1841_%2827263554%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Spekulacja_na_predce_-_czyli_handlowa_wspolka_%28w_Warszawie%29_1841_%2827263554%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Spekulacja_na_predce_-_czyli_handlowa_wspolka_%28w_Warszawie%29_1841_%2827263554%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Spekulacja_na_predce_-_czyli_handlowa_wspolka_%28w_Warszawie%29_1841_%2827263554%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Spekulacja_na_predce_-_czyli_handlowa_wspolka_%28w_Warszawie%29_1841_%2827263554%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Spekulacja_na_predce_-_czyli_handlowa_wspolka_%28w_Warszawie%29_1841_%2827263554%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10203" data-file-height="6243" /></a><figcaption>Jewish merchants in 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a></figcaption></figure> Official Russian policy would eventually prove to be substantially harsher to the Jews than that under independent Polish rule. The lands that had once been Poland were to remain the home of many Jews, as, in 1772, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a>, the Tzarina of Russia, instituted the <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a>, restricting Jews to the western parts of the empire, which would eventually include much of Poland, although it excluded some areas in which Jews had previously lived. By the late 19th century, over four million Jews would live in the Pale. Tsarist policy towards the Jews of Poland alternated between harsh rules, and inducements meant to break the resistance to large-scale conversion. In 1804, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I of Russia</a> issued a "Statute Concerning Jews",<a href="#cite_note-Alexander_I-80">[78]</a> meant to accelerate the process of assimilation of the Empire's new Jewish population. The Polish Jews were allowed to establish schools with Russian, German or Polish curricula. However, they were also restricted from leasing property, teaching in Yiddish, and from entering Russia. They were banned from the <a href="/wiki/Brewing_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Brewing industry">brewing industry</a>. The harshest measures designed to compel Jews to merge into society at large called for their expulsion from small villages, forcing them to move into towns. Once the resettlement began, thousands of Jews lost their only source of income and turned to <a href="/wiki/Qahal" title="Qahal">Qahal</a> for support. Their living conditions in <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">the Pale</a> began to dramatically worsen.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander_I-80">[78]</a> During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia" title="Nicholas I of Russia">Tsar Nicolas I</a>, known by the Jews as "<a href="/wiki/Haman_(Bible)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haman (Bible)">Haman</a> the Second", hundreds of new anti-Jewish measures were enacted.<a href="#cite_note-Nicholas_I-81">[79]</a> The 1827 decree by Nicolas – while lifting the traditional double taxation on Jews in lieu of army service – made Jews subject to general military recruitment laws that required Jewish communities to provide 7 recruits per each 1000 "souls" every 4 years. Unlike the general population that had to provide recruits between the ages of 18 and 35, Jews had to provide recruits between the ages of 12 and 25, at the <a href="/wiki/Qahal" title="Qahal">qahal</a>'s discretion. Thus between 1827 and 1857 over 30,000 children were placed in the so-called <a href="/wiki/Cantonist" title="Cantonist">Cantonist</a> schools, where they were pressured to convert.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> "Many children were smuggled to Poland, where the conscription of Jews did not take effect until 1844."<a href="#cite_note-Nicholas_I-81">[79]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information on the Garrison schools for male children: <a href="/wiki/Cantonist" title="Cantonist">Cantonist</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pale_of_Settlement">Pale of Settlement</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="Special:EditPage/History of the Jews in Poland">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (July 2018) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_showing_the_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland,_The_Jewish_Encyclopedia_(1905).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Map_showing_the_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland%2C_The_Jewish_Encyclopedia_%281905%29.jpg/220px-Map_showing_the_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland%2C_The_Jewish_Encyclopedia_%281905%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Map_showing_the_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland%2C_The_Jewish_Encyclopedia_%281905%29.jpg/330px-Map_showing_the_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland%2C_The_Jewish_Encyclopedia_%281905%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Map_showing_the_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland%2C_The_Jewish_Encyclopedia_%281905%29.jpg/440px-Map_showing_the_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland%2C_The_Jewish_Encyclopedia_%281905%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3404" data-file-height="4504" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a>, showing Jewish population densities</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: Черта́ осе́длости, chertá osédlosti, <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a>: תּחום-המושבֿ, tkhum-ha-moyshəv, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: תְּחוּם הַמּוֹשָב, tḥùm ha-mosháv) was the term given to a region of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial Russia</a> in which permanent residency by <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Jews</a> was allowed and beyond which Jewish permanent residency was generally prohibited. It extended from the eastern pale, or demarcation line, to the western Russian border with the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> (later the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>) and with <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>. The archaic English term pale is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/palus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:palus">palus</a>, a stake, extended to mean the area enclosed by a fence or boundary. With its large Catholic and Jewish populations, the Pale was acquired by the Russian Empire (which was a majority <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodox</a>) in a series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers between 1791 and 1835, and lasted until the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917. It comprised about 20% of the territory of European Russia and mostly corresponded to historical borders of the former <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>; it covered much of present-day <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, and parts of western <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. From 1791 to 1835, and until 1917, there were differing reconfigurations of the boundaries of the Pale, such that certain areas were variously open or shut to Jewish residency, such as the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>. At times, Jews were forbidden to live in agricultural communities, or certain cities, as in <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sevastopol" title="Sevastopol">Sevastopol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yalta" title="Yalta">Yalta</a>, excluded from residency at a number of cities within the Pale. Settlers from outside the pale were forced to move to small towns, thus fostering the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Shtetl" title="Shtetl">shtetls</a>. Although the Jews were accorded slightly more rights with the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation reform of 1861</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a>, they were still restricted to the <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a> and subject to restrictions on ownership and profession. The existing <a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a> was shattered with the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia#Assassination" title="Alexander II of Russia">assassination of Alexander</a> in 1881 – an act falsely blamed upon the Jews. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire">Pogroms in the Russian Empire</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pogrom_bialystok.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Pogrom_bialystok.jpg/170px-Pogrom_bialystok.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Pogrom_bialystok.jpg/255px-Pogrom_bialystok.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Pogrom_bialystok.jpg/340px-Pogrom_bialystok.jpg 2x" data-file-width="465" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption>Caricature of Russian Army assailant in 1906 <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_pogrom" title="Białystok pogrom">Białystok pogrom</a></figcaption></figure> The assassination prompted a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots, called <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> (Russian: погро́м;) throughout 1881–1884. In the 1881 outbreak, pogroms were primarily limited to Russia, although in a riot in Warsaw two Jews were killed, 24 others were wounded, women were raped and over two million <a href="/wiki/Russian_ruble" title="Russian ruble">rubles</a> worth of property was destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> The new czar, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia" title="Alexander III of Russia">Alexander III</a>, blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a series of harsh restrictions on Jewish movements. Pogroms continued until 1884, with at least tacit government approval. They proved a turning point in the history of the Jews in <a href="/wiki/Partitioned_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Partitioned Poland">partitioned Poland</a> and throughout the world. In 1884, 36 Jewish <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionist</a> delegates <a href="/wiki/Katowice_Conference" title="Katowice Conference">met in Katowice</a>, forming the <a href="/wiki/Hovevei_Zion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hovevei Zion">Hovevei Zion</a> movement. The pogroms prompted a great wave of Jewish emigration to the United States.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> An even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out from 1903 to 1906, at least some of them believed to have been organized by the Tsarist Russian secret police, the <a href="/wiki/Okhrana" title="Okhrana">Okhrana</a>. They included the <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_pogrom" title="Białystok pogrom">Białystok pogrom</a> of 1906 in the <a href="/wiki/Grodno_Governorate" title="Grodno Governorate">Grodno Governorate</a> of Russian Poland, in which at least 75 Jews were murdered by marauding soldiers and many more Jews were wounded. According to Jewish survivors, ethnic Poles did not participate in the pogrom and instead sheltered Jewish families.<a href="#cite_note-Bender16-86">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haskalah_and_Halakha">Haskalah and Halakha</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="Special:EditPage/History of the Jews in Poland">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (July 2018) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Jewish Enlightenment, <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a>, began to take hold in Poland during the 19th century, stressing secular ideas and values. Champions of Haskalah, the <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Maskilim</a>, pushed for assimilation and integration into Russian culture. At the same time, there was another school of Jewish thought that emphasized traditional study and a Jewish response to the ethical problems of antisemitism and persecution, one form of which was the <a href="/wiki/Musar_movement" title="Musar movement">Musar movement</a>. Polish Jews generally were less influenced by Haskalah, rather focusing on a strong continuation of their religious lives based on <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a> ("rabbis's law") following primarily <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic Judaism</a>, and also adapting to the new <a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious Zionism</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mizrachi_(Religious_Zionism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizrachi (Religious Zionism)">Mizrachi</a> movement later in the 19th century. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics_in_Polish_territory">Politics in Polish territory</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundist_demonstration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bundist_demonstration.jpg/220px-Bundist_demonstration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bundist_demonstration.jpg/330px-Bundist_demonstration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bundist_demonstration.jpg/440px-Bundist_demonstration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5333" data-file-height="4597" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund_in_Lithuania,_Poland_and_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia">Bundist</a> demonstration, 1917</figcaption></figure> By the late 19th century, Haskalah and the debates it caused created a growing number of political movements within the Jewish community itself, covering a wide range of views and vying for votes in local and regional elections. Zionism became very popular with the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Poale_Zion" title="Poale Zion">Poale Zion</a> socialist party as well as the religious <a href="/wiki/Polish_Mizrahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Mizrahi">Polish Mizrahi</a>, and the increasingly popular <a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General Zionists</a>. Jews also took up <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, forming the <a href="/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund_in_Lithuania,_Poland_and_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia">Bund</a> <a href="/wiki/Labor_union" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor union">labor union</a> which supported assimilation and the <a href="/wiki/Rights_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Rights of labor">rights of labor</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Folkspartei" title="Folkspartei">Folkspartei</a> (People's Party) advocated, for its part, cultural autonomy and resistance to assimilation. In 1912, <a href="/wiki/Agudat_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Agudat Israel">Agudat Israel</a>, a religious party, came into existence. Many Jews took part in the Polish insurrections, particularly against Russia (since the Tsars discriminated heavily against the Jews). The <a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Insurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Kościuszko Insurrection">Kościuszko Insurrection</a> (1794), <a href="/wiki/November_Insurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="November Insurrection">November Insurrection</a> (1830–31), <a href="/wiki/January_Insurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="January Insurrection">January Insurrection</a> (1863) and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905" title="Russian Revolution of 1905">Revolutionary Movement of 1905</a> all saw significant Jewish involvement in the cause of Polish independence. During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a> period, there were several prominent Jewish politicians in the Polish Sejm, such as <a href="/wiki/Apolinary_Hartglas" title="Apolinary Hartglas">Apolinary Hartglas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Gruenbaum" title="Yitzhak Gruenbaum">Yitzhak Gruenbaum</a>. Many Jewish political parties were active, representing a wide ideological spectrum, from the Zionists, to the socialists to the anti-Zionists. One of the largest of these parties was the Bund, which was strongest in Warsaw and Lodz. In addition to the socialists, Zionist parties were also popular, in particular, the Marxist <a href="/wiki/Poale_Zion" title="Poale Zion">Poale Zion</a> and the orthodox religious Polish Mizrahi. The <a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General Zionist</a> party became the most prominent Jewish party in the interwar period and in the 1919 elections to the <a href="/wiki/Polish_legislative_election,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish legislative election, 1919">first Polish Sejm</a> since the partitions, gained 50% of the Jewish vote. In 1914, the German Zionist <a href="/wiki/Max_Bodenheimer" title="Max Bodenheimer">Max Bodenheimer</a> founded the short-lived <a href="/wiki/German_Committee_for_Freeing_of_Russian_Jews" title="German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews">German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews</a>, with the goal of establishing a buffer state (Pufferstaat) within the Jewish Pale of Settlement, composed of the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">former Polish provinces annexed by Russia</a>, being de facto <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> that would free Jews in the region from Russian oppression. The plan, known as the <a href="/wiki/League_of_East_European_States" title="League of East European States">League of East European States</a>, soon proved unpopular with both German officials and Bodenheimer's colleagues, and was dead by the following year.<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interbellum_(1918–39)">Interbellum (1918–39)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1918%E2%80%931939)" title="History of Poland (1918–1939)">History of Poland (1918–1939)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_20th-century_Poland" title="History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland">History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polish_Jews_and_the_struggle_for_Poland's_independence">Polish Jews and the struggle for Poland's independence</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hasidic_boys_in_Poland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Hasidic_boys_in_Poland.jpg/220px-Hasidic_boys_in_Poland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Hasidic_boys_in_Poland.jpg/330px-Hasidic_boys_in_Poland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Hasidic_boys_in_Poland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="220" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> schoolchildren in <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a>, c. 1910s, during <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baruch_Steinberg_Wielka_Synagoga_na_T%C5%82omackiem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Baruch_Steinberg_Wielka_Synagoga_na_T%C5%82omackiem.jpg/220px-Baruch_Steinberg_Wielka_Synagoga_na_T%C5%82omackiem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Baruch_Steinberg_Wielka_Synagoga_na_T%C5%82omackiem.jpg/330px-Baruch_Steinberg_Wielka_Synagoga_na_T%C5%82omackiem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Baruch_Steinberg_Wielka_Synagoga_na_T%C5%82omackiem.jpg/440px-Baruch_Steinberg_Wielka_Synagoga_na_T%C5%82omackiem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2577" /></a><figcaption>Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Steinberg" title="Baruch Steinberg">Baruch Steinberg</a> before <a href="/wiki/Great_Synagogue_(Warsaw)" title="Great Synagogue (Warsaw)">Warsaw Great Synagogue</a> (1933), reading roll call of the fallen, organized by Union of Jewish Fighters for Polish Independence</figcaption></figure> While most Polish Jews were neutral to the idea of a Polish state,<a href="#cite_note-ZZ-89">[87]</a> many played a significant role in the fight for Poland's independence during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>; around 650 Jews joined the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Legions_in_World_War_I" title="Polish Legions in World War I">Legiony Polskie</a> formed by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a>, more than all other minorities combined.<a href="#cite_note-MG-90">[88]</a> Prominent Jews were among the members of <a href="/wiki/KTSSN" class="mw-redirect" title="KTSSN">KTSSN</a>, the nucleus of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_National_Committee" title="Supreme National Committee">interim government</a> of re-emerging sovereign Poland including Herman Feldstein, Henryk Eile, <a href="/wiki/Porucznik" class="mw-redirect" title="Porucznik">Porucznik</a> Samuel Herschthal, Dr. Zygmunt Leser, Henryk Orlean, Wiktor Chajes and others.<a href="#cite_note-ZZ-89">[87]</a> The donations poured in including 50,000 <a href="/wiki/Austrian_krone" title="Austrian krone">Austrian kronen</a> from the Jews of Lwów and the 1,500 cans of food donated by the Blumenfeld factory among similar others.<a href="#cite_note-ZZ-89">[87]</a> A Jewish organization during the war that was opposed to Polish aspirations was the Komitee für den Osten (Kfdo)(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Committee_for_the_East&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Committee for the East (page does not exist)">Committee for the East</a>) founded by German Jewish activists, which promoted the idea of Jews in the east becoming "spearhead of German expansionism" serving as "Germany's reliable vassals" against other ethnic groups in the region<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> and serving as "living wall against Poles separatists aims".<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Percent_Jewish_1931_census.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Percent_Jewish_1931_census.png/220px-Percent_Jewish_1931_census.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Percent_Jewish_1931_census.png/330px-Percent_Jewish_1931_census.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Percent_Jewish_1931_census.png/440px-Percent_Jewish_1931_census.png 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="4200" /></a><figcaption>Percentage of Jewish (by religion) population in each county of Poland according to the 1931 census</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jews_30_largest_cities.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Jews_30_largest_cities.png/220px-Jews_30_largest_cities.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Jews_30_largest_cities.png/330px-Jews_30_largest_cities.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Jews_30_largest_cities.png/440px-Jews_30_largest_cities.png 2x" data-file-width="860" data-file-height="1020" /></a><figcaption>Jewish population of Poland's largest cities in 1931</figcaption></figure> In the aftermath of the Great War localized conflicts engulfed Eastern Europe between 1917 and 1919. Many attacks were launched against Jews during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Polish–Ukrainian War</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> ending with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Riga" title="Treaty of Riga">Treaty of Riga</a>. Just after the end of World War I, the West became alarmed by reports about alleged massive pogroms in Poland against Jews. Pressure for government action reached the point where U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> sent an official commission to investigate the matter. The commission, led by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Morgenthau, Sr.">Henry Morgenthau, Sr.</a>, concluded in its <a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Report" title="Morgenthau Report">Morgenthau Report</a> that allegations of pogroms were exaggerated.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> It identified eight incidents in the years 1918–1919 out of 37 mostly empty claims for damages, and estimated the number of victims at 280. Four of these were attributed to the actions of deserters and undisciplined individual soldiers; none was blamed on official government policy. Among the incidents, during the <a href="/wiki/Pinsk_massacre" title="Pinsk massacre">battle for Pińsk</a> a commander of Polish infantry regiment accused a group of Jewish men of plotting against the Poles and ordered the execution of thirty-five Jewish men and youth.<a href="#cite_note-Biskupski2003-94">[92]</a> The Morgenthau Report found the charge to be "devoid of foundation" even though their meeting was illegal to the extent of being treasonable.<a href="#cite_note-Davies47-95">[93]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_pogrom_(1918)" title="Lwów pogrom (1918)">Lwów (Lviv) pogrom</a>, which occurred in 1918 during the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War" title="Polish–Ukrainian War">Polish–Ukrainian War</a> of independence a day after the Poles captured Lviv from the <a href="/wiki/Sich_Riflemen" title="Sich Riflemen">Sich Riflemen</a> – the report concluded – 64 Jews had been killed (other accounts put the number at 72).<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-ThreateningOther-97">[95]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, soldiers of <a href="/wiki/Blue_Army_(Poland)" title="Blue Army (Poland)">Blue Army</a> assaulted Jews in the streets, but were punished by military authorities. Many other events in Poland were later found to have been exaggerated, especially by contemporary newspapers such as <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, although serious abuses against the Jews, including pogroms, continued elsewhere, especially in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> The historians Anna Cichopek-Gajraj and Glenn Dynner state that 130 pogroms of Jews occurred on Polish territories from 1918 to 1921, resulting in as many as 300 deaths, with many attacks conceived as reprisals against supposed Jewish economic power and their supposed “Judeo-Bolshevism”<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> The atrocities committed by the young Polish army and its allies in 1919 during their <a href="/wiki/Kiev_offensive_(1920)" title="Kiev offensive (1920)">Kiev operation against the Bolsheviks</a> had a profound impact on the foreign perception of the re-emerging Polish state.<a href="#cite_note-Babel-100">[98]</a> Concerns over the fate of Poland's Jews led the Western powers to pressure Polish President <a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Paderewski" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignacy Paderewski">Paderewski</a> to sign the Minority Protection Treaty (the <a href="/wiki/Little_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Little Treaty of Versailles">Little Treaty of Versailles</a>), protecting the rights of minorities in new Poland including Jews and Germans.<a href="#cite_note-sejm-728-101">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-ND-102">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zim-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-kap-104">[102]</a> This in turn resulted in Poland's 1921 March Constitution granting Jews the same legal rights as other citizens and guaranteed them religious tolerance and freedom of religious holidays.<a href="#cite_note-sejm-267-105">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population">Population</h3></div> The number of Jews immigrating to Poland from Ukraine and Soviet Russia during the interwar period grew rapidly. Jewish population in the area of former <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Congress of Poland">Congress of Poland</a> increased sevenfold between 1816 and 1921, from around 213,000 to roughly 1,500,000.<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> According to the Polish national census of 1921, there were 2,845,364 Jews living in the Second Polish Republic. According to the national census of 1931, there were 3,113,933 Jews living in Poland. By late 1938 that number had grown to approximately 3,310,000. The average rate of permanent settlement was about 30,000 per annum. At the same time, every year around 100,000 Jews were passing through Poland in unofficial emigration overseas Between the end of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a> and late 1938, the Jewish population of the Republic had grown by over 464,000.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> According to the 1931 census one city had over 350,000 Jewish inhabitants (Warsaw), one city had over 200,000 Jewish inhabitants (Lodz), one city had around 100,000 Jewish inhabitants (Lvov) and two cities had over 50,000 Jewish inhabitants each (Cracow and Vilno). In total these five cities had 766,272 Jews which was almost 25% of the total Jewish population of Poland. In cities and towns larger than 25,000 inhabitants there lived nearly 44% of Poland's Jews. The table below shows the Jewish population of Poland's cities and towns with over 25,000 inhabitants according to the 1931 census: <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Jewish population in cities and towns of Poland with at least 25,000 inhabitants in 1931 </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>City or town # </th> <th>Voivodeship </th> <th>City or town </th> <th>Total population </th> <th>Jews </th> <th>Non-Jews </th> <th>Percentage of Jews </th></tr> <tr> <th>1 </th> <td>Warsaw Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warszawa</a> </td> <td>1171898 </td> <td>352659 </td> <td>819239 </td> <td>30.1% </td></tr> <tr> <th>2 </th> <td>Łódź Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a> </td> <td>604629 </td> <td>202497 </td> <td>402132 </td> <td>33.5% </td></tr> <tr> <th>3 </th> <td>Lwów Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lwów</a> </td> <td>312231 </td> <td>99595 </td> <td>212636 </td> <td>31.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th>4 </th> <td>Poznań Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a> </td> <td>246470 </td> <td>1954 </td> <td>244516 </td> <td>0.8% </td></tr> <tr> <th>5 </th> <td>Kraków Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> </td> <td>219286 </td> <td>56515 </td> <td>162771 </td> <td>25.8% </td></tr> <tr> <th>6 </th> <td>Wilno Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Wilno</a> </td> <td>195071 </td> <td>55006 </td> <td>140065 </td> <td>28.2% </td></tr> <tr> <th>7 </th> <td>Silesian Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Katowice" title="Katowice">Katowice</a> </td> <td>126058 </td> <td>5716 </td> <td>120342 </td> <td>4.5% </td></tr> <tr> <th>8 </th> <td>Poznań Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bydgoszcz" title="Bydgoszcz">Bydgoszcz</a> </td> <td>117200 </td> <td>1692 </td> <td>115508 </td> <td>1.4% </td></tr> <tr> <th>9 </th> <td>Kielce Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa" title="Częstochowa">Częstochowa</a> </td> <td>117179 </td> <td>25588 </td> <td>91591 </td> <td>21.8% </td></tr> <tr> <th>10 </th> <td>Lublin Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lublin" title="Lublin">Lublin</a> </td> <td>112285 </td> <td>38937 </td> <td>73348 </td> <td>34.7% </td></tr> <tr> <th>11 </th> <td>Kielce Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sosnowiec" title="Sosnowiec">Sosnowiec</a> </td> <td>108959 </td> <td>20805 </td> <td>88154 </td> <td>19.1% </td></tr> <tr> <th>12 </th> <td>Silesian Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chorz%C3%B3w" title="Chorzów">Chorzów</a> </td> <td>101977 </td> <td>2811 </td> <td>99166 </td> <td>2.8% </td></tr> <tr> <th>13 </th> <td>Białystok Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Białystok">Białystok</a> </td> <td>91101 </td> <td>39165 </td> <td>51936 </td> <td>43.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th>14 </th> <td>Kielce Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Radom" title="Radom">Radom</a> </td> <td>77902 </td> <td>25159 </td> <td>52743 </td> <td>32.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th>15 </th> <td>Stanisławów Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ivano-Frankivsk" title="Ivano-Frankivsk">Stanisławów</a> </td> <td>59960 </td> <td>24823 </td> <td>35137 </td> <td>41.4% </td></tr> <tr> <th>16 </th> <td>Kielce Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kielce" title="Kielce">Kielce</a> </td> <td>58236 </td> <td>18083 </td> <td>40153 </td> <td>31.1% </td></tr> <tr> <th>17 </th> <td>Warsaw Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek" title="Włocławek">Włocławek</a> </td> <td>55966 </td> <td>10209 </td> <td>45757 </td> <td>18.2% </td></tr> <tr> <th>18 </th> <td>Łódź Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kalisz" title="Kalisz">Kalisz</a> </td> <td>55007 </td> <td>19248 </td> <td>35759 </td> <td>35.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th>19 </th> <td>Pomeranian Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Grudzi%C4%85dz" title="Grudziądz">Grudziądz</a> </td> <td>54014 </td> <td>677 </td> <td>53337 </td> <td>1.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th>20 </th> <td>Pomeranian Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Toru%C5%84" title="Toruń">Toruń</a> </td> <td>53993 </td> <td>493 </td> <td>53500 </td> <td>0.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th>21 </th> <td>Łódź Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski" title="Piotrków Trybunalski">Piotrków</a> </td> <td>51349 </td> <td>11400 </td> <td>39949 </td> <td>22.2% </td></tr> <tr> <th>22 </th> <td>Lwów Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Przemyśl">Przemyśl</a> </td> <td>51038 </td> <td>17326 </td> <td>33712 </td> <td>33.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th>23 </th> <td>Białystok Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Grodno" title="Grodno">Grodno</a> </td> <td>49669 </td> <td>21159 </td> <td>28510 </td> <td>42.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th>24 </th> <td>Polesie Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Brest,_Belarus" title="Brest, Belarus">Brześć</a> </td> <td>48385 </td> <td>21440 </td> <td>26945 </td> <td>44.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th>25 </th> <td>Kielce Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/B%C4%99dzin" title="Będzin">Będzin</a> </td> <td>47597 </td> <td>21625 </td> <td>25972 </td> <td>45.4% </td></tr> <tr> <th>26 </th> <td>Łódź Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pabianice" title="Pabianice">Pabianice</a> </td> <td>45670 </td> <td>8357 </td> <td>37313 </td> <td>18.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th>27 </th> <td>Kraków Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tarn%C3%B3w" title="Tarnów">Tarnów</a> </td> <td>44927 </td> <td>19330 </td> <td>25597 </td> <td>43.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th>28 </th> <td>Lwów Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Boryslav" title="Boryslav">Borysław</a> </td> <td>41496 </td> <td>11996 </td> <td>29500 </td> <td>28.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th>29 </th> <td>Wołyń Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rivne" title="Rivne">Równe</a> </td> <td>40612 </td> <td>22737 </td> <td>17875 </td> <td>56.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th>30 </th> <td>Łódź Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tomasz%C3%B3w_Mazowiecki" title="Tomaszów Mazowiecki">Tomaszów Maz.</a> </td> <td>38020 </td> <td>11310 </td> <td>26710 </td> <td>29.7% </td></tr> <tr> <th>31 </th> <td>Kielce Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/D%C4%85browa_G%C3%B3rnicza" title="Dąbrowa Górnicza">Dąbrowa Górnicza</a> </td> <td>36942 </td> <td>5150 </td> <td>31792 </td> <td>13.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th>32 </th> <td>Lublin Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Siedlce" title="Siedlce">Siedlce</a> </td> <td>36931 </td> <td>14793 </td> <td>22138 </td> <td>40.1% </td></tr> <tr> <th>33 </th> <td>Tarnopol Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ternopil" title="Ternopil">Tarnopol</a> </td> <td>35644 </td> <td>13999 </td> <td>21645 </td> <td>39.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th>34 </th> <td>Wołyń Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lutsk" title="Lutsk">Łuck</a> </td> <td>35554 </td> <td>17366 </td> <td>18188 </td> <td>48.8% </td></tr> <tr> <th>35 </th> <td>Stanisławów Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kolomyia" title="Kolomyia">Kołomyja</a> </td> <td>33788 </td> <td>14332 </td> <td>19456 </td> <td>42.4% </td></tr> <tr> <th>36 </th> <td>Pomeranian Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gdynia" title="Gdynia">Gdynia</a> </td> <td>33217 </td> <td>84 </td> <td>33133 </td> <td>0.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th>37 </th> <td>Warsaw Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/P%C5%82ock" title="Płock">Płock</a> </td> <td>32998 </td> <td>6571 </td> <td>26427 </td> <td>19.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th>38 </th> <td>Kielce Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zawiercie" title="Zawiercie">Zawiercie</a> </td> <td>32872 </td> <td>5677 </td> <td>27195 </td> <td>17.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th>39 </th> <td>Lwów Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Drohobych" title="Drohobych">Drohobycz</a> </td> <td>32261 </td> <td>12931 </td> <td>19330 </td> <td>40.1% </td></tr> <tr> <th>40 </th> <td>Polesie Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pinsk" title="Pinsk">Pińsk</a> </td> <td>31912 </td> <td>20220 </td> <td>11692 </td> <td>63.4% </td></tr> <tr> <th>41 </th> <td>Poznań Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Inowroc%C5%82aw" title="Inowrocław">Inowrocław</a> </td> <td>34364 </td> <td>139 </td> <td>34225 </td> <td>0.4% </td></tr> <tr> <th>42 </th> <td>Stanisławów Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stryi" title="Stryi">Stryj</a> </td> <td>30491 </td> <td>10869 </td> <td>19622 </td> <td>35.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th>43 </th> <td>Kraków Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nowy_S%C4%85cz" title="Nowy Sącz">Nowy Sącz</a> </td> <td>30298 </td> <td>9084 </td> <td>21214 </td> <td>30.0% </td></tr> <tr> <th>44 </th> <td>Poznań Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gniezno" title="Gniezno">Gniezno</a> </td> <td>30675 </td> <td>137 </td> <td>30538 </td> <td>0.4% </td></tr> <tr> <th>45 </th> <td>Lublin Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82m" title="Chełm">Chełm</a> </td> <td>29074 </td> <td>13537 </td> <td>15537 </td> <td>46.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th>46 </th> <td>Wołyń Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kovel" title="Kovel">Kowel</a> </td> <td>27677 </td> <td>12842 </td> <td>14835 </td> <td>46.4% </td></tr> <tr> <th>47 </th> <td>Lwów Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rzesz%C3%B3w" title="Rzeszów">Rzeszów</a> </td> <td>26902 </td> <td>11228 </td> <td>15674 </td> <td>41.7% </td></tr> <tr> <th>48 </th> <td>Łódź Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zgierz" title="Zgierz">Zgierz</a> </td> <td>26618 </td> <td>4547 </td> <td>22071 </td> <td>17.1% </td></tr> <tr> <th>49 </th> <td>Kielce Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ostrowiec_%C5%9Awi%C4%99tokrzyski" title="Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski">Ostrowiec</a> </td> <td>25908 </td> <td>9934 </td> <td>15974 </td> <td>38.3% </td></tr> <tr> <th>50 </th> <td>Warsaw Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%BByrard%C3%B3w" title="Żyrardów">Żyrardów</a> </td> <td>25115 </td> <td>2726 </td> <td>22389 </td> <td>10.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th>51 </th> <td>Białystok Voivodeship </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%81om%C5%BCa" title="Łomża">Łomża</a> </td> <td>25022 </td> <td>8912 </td> <td>16110 </td> <td>35.6% </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Total in 51 cities and towns with over 25,000 inhabitants </th> <th>5052448 </th> <th>1363390 </th> <th>3689058 </th> <th>27.0% </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_and_Polish_culture">Jewish and Polish culture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Poland" title="Culture of Poland">Culture of Poland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wielka_Synagoga_w_Warszawie.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Wielka_Synagoga_w_Warszawie.JPG/220px-Wielka_Synagoga_w_Warszawie.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Wielka_Synagoga_w_Warszawie.JPG/330px-Wielka_Synagoga_w_Warszawie.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Wielka_Synagoga_w_Warszawie.JPG/440px-Wielka_Synagoga_w_Warszawie.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Great_Synagogue_(Warsaw)" title="Great Synagogue (Warsaw)">Warsaw Great Synagogue</a></figcaption></figure> The newly independent <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a> had a large and vibrant Jewish minority. By the time <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> began, Poland had the largest concentration of Jews in Europe although many Polish Jews had a separate culture and ethnic identity from Catholic Poles. Some authors have stated that only about 10% of Polish Jews during the interwar period could be considered "assimilated" while more than 80% could be readily recognized as Jews.<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/1931_Polish_census" title="1931 Polish census">1931 National Census</a> there were 3,130,581 Polish Jews measured by the declaration of their religion. Estimating the population increase and the emigration from Poland between 1931 and 1939, there were probably 3,474,000 Jews in Poland as of 1 September 1939 (approximately 10% of the total population) primarily centered in large and smaller cities: 77% lived in cities and 23% in the villages. They made up about 50%, and in some cases even 70% of the population of smaller towns, especially in Eastern Poland.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> Prior to World War II, the Jewish population of <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a> numbered about 233,000, roughly one-third of the city's population.<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] The city of <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="Lwów">Lwów</a> (now in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>) had the third-largest Jewish population in Poland, numbering 110,000 in 1939 (42%). <a href="/wiki/Wilno" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilno">Wilno</a> (now in <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>) had a Jewish community of nearly 100,000, about 45% of the city's total.<a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] In 1938, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>'s Jewish population numbered over 60,000, or about 25% of the city's total population.<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> In 1939 there were 375,000 Jews in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> or one-third of the city's population. Only New York City had more Jewish residents than Warsaw.<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1908-kl-t-zamenhof.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/1908-kl-t-zamenhof.jpg/170px-1908-kl-t-zamenhof.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/1908-kl-t-zamenhof.jpg/255px-1908-kl-t-zamenhof.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/1908-kl-t-zamenhof.jpg/340px-1908-kl-t-zamenhof.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1364" data-file-height="1914" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/L._L._Zamenhof" title="L. L. Zamenhof">L. L. Zamenhof</a>, creator of <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a></figcaption></figure> Jewish youth and religious groups, diverse political parties and Zionist organizations, newspapers and theatre flourished. Jews owned land and real estate, participated in retail and manufacturing and in the export industry. Their religious beliefs spanned the range from Orthodox <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic Judaism</a> to <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Liberal Judaism</a>. The Polish language, rather than <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, was increasingly used by the young Warsaw Jews who did not have a problem in identifying themselves fully as Jews, Varsovians and Poles. Jews such as <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Schulz" title="Bruno Schulz">Bruno Schulz</a> were entering the mainstream of Polish society, though many thought of themselves as a separate nationality within Poland. Most children were enrolled in Jewish religious schools, which used to limit their ability to speak Polish. As a result, according to the 1931 census, 79% of the Jews declared Yiddish as their first language, and only 12% listed Polish, with the remaining 9% being Hebrew.<a href="#cite_note-GUS1931-113">[111]</a> In contrast, the overwhelming majority of German-born Jews of this period spoke German as their first language. During the school year of 1937–1938 there were 226 elementary schools <a href="#cite_note-YV-archive2-114">[112]</a> and twelve high schools as well as fourteen vocational schools with either <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> as the instructional language. Jewish political parties, both the <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">Socialist</a> <a href="/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund_in_Poland" title="General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland">General Jewish Labour Bund</a> (The Bund), as well as parties of the Zionist right and left wing and religious conservative movements, were represented in the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> (the Polish Parliament) as well as in the regional councils.<a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isaac_Bashevis_Singer_(upright).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer_%28upright%29.jpg/170px-Isaac_Bashevis_Singer_%28upright%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer_%28upright%29.jpg/255px-Isaac_Bashevis_Singer_%28upright%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer_%28upright%29.jpg/340px-Isaac_Bashevis_Singer_%28upright%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1304" data-file-height="1736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">Isaac Bashevis Singer</a> (Polish: Izaak Zynger), achieved international acclaim as a classic Jewish writer and was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a> in 1978</figcaption></figure> The Jewish cultural scene <a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> was particularly vibrant in pre–World War II Poland, with numerous Jewish publications and more than one hundred periodicals. Yiddish authors, most notably <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">Isaac Bashevis Singer</a>, went on to achieve international acclaim as classic Jewish writers; Singer won the 1978 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>. His brother <a href="/wiki/Israel_Joshua_Singer" title="Israel Joshua Singer">Israel Joshua Singer</a> was also a writer. Other Jewish authors of the period, such as <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Schulz" title="Bruno Schulz">Bruno Schulz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julian_Tuwim" title="Julian Tuwim">Julian Tuwim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marian_Hemar" title="Marian Hemar">Marian Hemar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Schlechter" title="Emanuel Schlechter">Emanuel Schlechter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Le%C5%9Bmian" title="Bolesław Leśmian">Bolesław Leśmian</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Tom" title="Konrad Tom">Konrad Tom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Jurandot" title="Jerzy Jurandot">Jerzy Jurandot</a>, were less well known internationally, but made important contributions to Polish literature. Some Polish writers had Jewish roots e.g. <a href="/wiki/Jan_Brzechwa" title="Jan Brzechwa">Jan Brzechwa</a> (a favorite poet of Polish children). Singer <a href="/wiki/Jan_Kiepura" title="Jan Kiepura">Jan Kiepura</a>, born of a Jewish mother and Polish father, was one of the most popular artists of that era, and pre-war songs of Jewish composers, including <a href="/wiki/Henryk_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Henryk Wars">Henryk Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Petersburski" title="Jerzy Petersburski">Jerzy Petersburski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artur_Gold" title="Artur Gold">Artur Gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henryk_Gold" title="Henryk Gold">Henryk Gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bia%C5%82ostocki" title="Zygmunt Białostocki">Zygmunt Białostocki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Szymon_Kataszek" title="Szymon Kataszek">Szymon Kataszek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jakub_Kagan" title="Jakub Kagan">Jakub Kagan</a>, are still widely known in Poland today. Painters became known as well for their depictions of Jewish life. Among them were <a href="/wiki/Maurycy_Gottlieb" title="Maurycy Gottlieb">Maurycy Gottlieb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artur_Markowicz" title="Artur Markowicz">Artur Markowicz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maurycy_Tr%C4%99bacz" title="Maurycy Trębacz">Maurycy Trębacz</a>, with younger artists like <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Goldberg" title="Chaim Goldberg">Chaim Goldberg</a> coming up in the ranks. Many Jews were film producers and directors, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Waszy%C5%84ski" title="Michał Waszyński">Michał Waszyński</a> (<a href="/wiki/The_Dybbuk_(film)" title="The Dybbuk (film)">The Dybbuk)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Ford" title="Aleksander Ford">Aleksander Ford</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Children_Must_Laugh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Children Must Laugh (page does not exist)">Children Must Laugh</a>). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shimon_Peres,_Yasser_Arafat_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Shimon_Peres%2C_Yasser_Arafat_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2001.jpg/170px-Shimon_Peres%2C_Yasser_Arafat_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2001.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Shimon_Peres%2C_Yasser_Arafat_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2001.jpg/255px-Shimon_Peres%2C_Yasser_Arafat_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Shimon_Peres%2C_Yasser_Arafat_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2001.jpg/340px-Shimon_Peres%2C_Yasser_Arafat_-_World_Economic_Forum_Annual_Meeting_Davos_2001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1867" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Shimon_Peres" title="Shimon Peres">Shimon Peres</a>, born in Poland as Szymon Perski, served as the ninth <a href="/wiki/President_of_Israel" title="President of Israel">President of Israel</a> between 2007 and 2014</figcaption></figure> Scientist <a href="/wiki/Leopold_Infeld" title="Leopold Infeld">Leopold Infeld</a>, mathematician <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a>, and professor <a href="/wiki/Adam_Ulam" title="Adam Ulam">Adam Ulam</a> contributed to the world of science. Other Polish Jews who gained international recognition are <a href="/wiki/Moses_Schorr" title="Moses Schorr">Moses Schorr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Zamenhof" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludwik Zamenhof">Ludwik Zamenhof</a> (the creator of <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a>), <a href="/wiki/Georges_Charpak" title="Georges Charpak">Georges Charpak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Eilenberg" title="Samuel Eilenberg">Samuel Eilenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Ringelblum" title="Emanuel Ringelblum">Emanuel Ringelblum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Artur_Rubinstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Artur Rubinstein">Artur Rubinstein</a>, just to name a few from the long list. The term "<a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>" was coined by <a href="/wiki/Rafa%C5%82_Lemkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafał Lemkin">Rafał Lemkin</a> (1900–1959), a Polish–Jewish legal scholar. <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Hurwicz" title="Leonid Hurwicz">Leonid Hurwicz</a> was awarded the 2007 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize in Economics">Nobel Prize in Economics</a>. The <a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO</a> (Jidiszer Wissenszaftlecher Institute) Scientific Institute was based in Wilno before transferring to New York during the war. In Warsaw, important centers of Judaic scholarship, such the <a href="/wiki/Main_Judaic_Library" title="Main Judaic Library">Main Judaic Library</a> and the Institute of Judaic Studies were located, along with numerous Talmudic Schools (Jeszybots), religious centers and synagogues, many of which were of high architectural quality. <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a> also flourished; Poland had fifteen Yiddish theatres and theatrical groups. Warsaw was home to the most important Yiddish theater troupe of the time, the <a href="/wiki/Vilna_Troupe" title="Vilna Troupe">Vilna Troupe</a>, which staged the first performance of <a href="/wiki/The_Dybbuk" title="The Dybbuk">The Dybbuk</a> in 1920 at the Elyseum Theatre. Some future Israeli leaders studied at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Warsaw" title="University of Warsaw">University of Warsaw</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Menachem_Begin" title="Menachem Begin">Menachem Begin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Shamir" title="Yitzhak Shamir">Yitzhak Shamir</a>. There also were several Jewish sports clubs, with some of them, such as <a href="/wiki/Hasmonea_Lw%C3%B3w" title="Hasmonea Lwów">Hasmonea Lwów</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jutrzenka_Krak%C3%B3w" title="Jutrzenka Kraków">Jutrzenka Kraków</a>, winning promotion to the <a href="/wiki/Ekstraklasa" title="Ekstraklasa">Polish First Football League</a>. A Polish–Jewish footballer, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Klotz" title="Józef Klotz">Józef Klotz</a>, scored the first ever goal for the <a href="/wiki/Poland_national_football_team" title="Poland national football team">Poland national football team</a>. Another athlete, <a href="/wiki/Alojzy_Ehrlich" title="Alojzy Ehrlich">Alojzy Ehrlich</a>, won several medals in the table-tennis tournaments. Many of these clubs belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Maccabi_World_Union" title="Maccabi World Union">Maccabi World Union</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Between_antisemitism_and_support_for_Zionism_and_Jewish_state_in_Palestine">Between antisemitism and support for Zionism and Jewish state in Palestine</h3></div> In contrast to the prevailing trends in Europe at the time, in <a href="/wiki/Interwar_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Interwar Poland">interwar Poland</a> an increasing percentage of Jews were pushed to live a life separate from the non-Jewish majority. The antisemitic rejection of Jews, whether for religious or racial reasons, caused estrangement and growing tensions between Jews and Poles. It is significant in this regard that in 1921, 74.2% of Polish Jews spoke <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> as their native language; by 1931, the number had risen to 87%.<a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-GUS1931-113">[111]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Dmowski_in_color.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Roman_Dmowski_in_color.jpg/170px-Roman_Dmowski_in_color.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Roman_Dmowski_in_color.jpg/255px-Roman_Dmowski_in_color.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Roman_Dmowski_in_color.jpg/340px-Roman_Dmowski_in_color.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3104" data-file-height="4648" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Roman Dmowski</a>, the founder and chief ideologue of the National Democracy (Endecja) in Poland, often ostentatiously demonstrated antisemitism<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a></figcaption></figure> Besides the persistent effects of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, the strengthening of antisemitism in Polish society was also a consequence of the influence of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Polish_declaration_of_non-aggression" title="German–Polish declaration of non-aggression">German-Polish non-aggression pact</a> of 1934, the antisemitic tropes of Nazi propaganda had become more common in Polish politics, where they were echoed by the <a href="/wiki/National_Democracy_(Poland)" title="National Democracy (Poland)">National Democratic</a> movement. One of its founders and chief ideologue <a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Roman Dmowski</a> was obsessed with an international conspiracy of freemasons and Jews, and in his works linked <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> with <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> The position of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Poland" title="Catholic Church in Poland">Catholic Church</a> had also become increasingly hostile to the Jews, who in the 1920s and 1930s were increasingly seen as agents of evil, that is, of <a href="/wiki/Bolshevism" title="Bolshevism">Bolshevism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> Economic instability was mirrored by anti-Jewish sentiment in the press; discrimination, exclusion, and violence at the universities; and the appearance of "anti-Jewish squads" associated with some of the right-wing political parties. These developments contributed to a greater support among the Jewish community for Zionist and socialist ideas.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> In 1925, Polish Zionist members of the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> capitalized on governmental support for Zionism by negotiating an agreement with the government known as the Ugoda. The Ugoda was an agreement between the Polish prime minister <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Grabski" title="Władysław Grabski">Władysław Grabski</a> and Zionist leaders of Et Liwnot, including <a href="/wiki/Leon_Reich" title="Leon Reich">Leon Reich</a>. The agreement granted certain cultural and religious rights to Jews in exchange for Jewish support for <a href="/wiki/Polish_nationalism" title="Polish nationalism">Polish nationalist</a> interests; however, the Galician Zionists had little to show for their compromise because the Polish government later refused to honor many aspects of the agreement.<a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a> During the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist Zionists</a> viewed the Polish government as an ally and promoted cooperation between Polish Zionists and Polish nationalists, despite the antisemitism of the Polish government.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> Matters improved for a time under the rule of <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a> (1926–1935). Piłsudski countered <a href="/wiki/Endecja" class="mw-redirect" title="Endecja">Endecja</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Polonization" title="Polonization">Polonization</a> with the 'state assimilation' policy: citizens were judged by their loyalty to the state, not by their nationality.<a href="#cite_note-Snyder-125">[123]</a> The years 1926–1935 were favourably viewed by many Polish Jews, whose situation improved especially under the cabinet of Pilsudski's appointee <a href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Bartel" title="Kazimierz Bartel">Kazimierz Bartel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cieplinski-126">[124]</a> However, a combination of various factors, including the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Snyder-125">[123]</a> meant that the situation of Jewish Poles was never very satisfactory, and it deteriorated again after Piłsudski's death in May 1935, which many Jews regarded as a tragedy.<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> The Jewish industries were negatively affected by the development of mass production and the advent of department stores offering ready-made products. The traditional sources of livelihood for the estimated 300,000 Jewish family-run businesses in the country began to vanish, contributing to a growing trend toward isolationism and internal self-sufficiency.<a href="#cite_note-WM-128">[126]</a> The difficult situation in the private sector led to enrolment growth in higher education. In 1923 the Jewish students constituted 62.9% of all students of <a href="/wiki/Stomatology" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomatology">stomatology</a>, 34% of medical sciences, 29.2% of philosophy, 24.9% of chemistry and 22.1% of law (26% by 1929) at all Polish universities. It is speculated that such disproportionate numbers were the probable cause of a backlash.<a href="#cite_note-AJ-129">[127]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Index_of_Jewish_student_in_Poland_with_Ghetto_benche_seal_1934.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Index_of_Jewish_student_in_Poland_with_Ghetto_benche_seal_1934.PNG/220px-Index_of_Jewish_student_in_Poland_with_Ghetto_benche_seal_1934.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Index_of_Jewish_student_in_Poland_with_Ghetto_benche_seal_1934.PNG/330px-Index_of_Jewish_student_in_Poland_with_Ghetto_benche_seal_1934.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Index_of_Jewish_student_in_Poland_with_Ghetto_benche_seal_1934.PNG/440px-Index_of_Jewish_student_in_Poland_with_Ghetto_benche_seal_1934.PNG 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="579" /></a><figcaption>Student's book (indeks) of Jewish medical student Marek Szapiro at <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Warsaw University">Warsaw University</a>, with rectangular "ghetto benches" ("odd-numbered-benches") stamp</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Interwar" class="mw-redirect" title="Interwar">interwar</a> Polish government provided military training to the <a href="/wiki/Zionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionist">Zionist</a> <a href="/wiki/Betar" title="Betar">Betar</a> paramilitary movement,<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> whose members admired the Polish nationalist camp and imitated some of its aspects.<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> Uniformed members of <a href="/wiki/Betar" title="Betar">Betar</a> marched and performed at Polish public ceremonies alongside Polish scouts and military, with their weapons training provided by Polish institutions and Polish military officers; <a href="/wiki/Menachem_Begin" title="Menachem Begin">Menachem Begin</a>, one of its leaders, called for its members to defend Poland in case of war, and the organisation raised both Polish and Zionist flags.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> With the influence of the Endecja (<a href="/wiki/National_Democracy_(Poland)" title="National Democracy (Poland)">National Democracy</a>) party growing, antisemitism gathered new momentum in Poland and was most felt in smaller towns and in spheres in which Jews came into direct contact with Poles, such as in Polish schools or on the sports field. Further academic harassment, such as the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">ghetto benches</a>, which forced Jewish students to sit in sections of the lecture halls reserved exclusively for them, anti-Jewish riots, and semi-official or unofficial quotas (<a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">Numerus clausus</a>) introduced in 1937 in some universities, halved the number of Jews in Polish universities between independence (1918) and the late 1930s. The restrictions were so inclusive that – while the Jews made up 20.4% of the student body in 1928 – by 1937 their share was down to only 7.5%,<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> out of the total population of 9.75% Jews in the country according to <a href="/wiki/Polish_census_of_1931" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish census of 1931">1931 census</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PolishCensus1931-134">[132]</a> While the average per capita income of Polish Jews in 1929 was 40% above the national average – which was very low compared to England or Germany – they were a very heterogeneous community, some poor, some wealthy.<a href="#cite_note-Marcus41-43-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> Many Jews worked as shoemakers and tailors, as well as in the liberal professions; doctors (56% of all doctors in Poland), teachers (43%), journalists (22%) and lawyers (33%).<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> In 1929, about a third of artisans and home workers and a majority of shopkeepers were Jewish.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> Although many Jews were educated, they were almost completely excluded from government jobs; as a result, the proportion of unemployed Jewish salary earners was approximately four times as great in 1929 as the proportion of unemployed non-Jewish salary earners, a situation compounded by the fact that almost no Jews were on government support.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> In 1937 the Catholic <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a> of Polish doctors and lawyers restricted their new members to <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> Poles.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> In a similar manner, the Jewish trade unions excluded non-Jewish professionals from their ranks after 1918.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The bulk of Jewish workers were organized in the Jewish trade unions under the influence of the <a href="/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund_in_Poland" title="General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland">Jewish socialists</a> who split in 1923 to join the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Poland" title="Communist Party of Poland">Communist Party of Poland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Second_International" title="Second International">Second International</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JC352-141">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> Anti-Jewish sentiment in Poland had reached its zenith in the years leading to the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> Between 1935 and 1937 seventy-nine Jews were killed and 500 injured in anti-Jewish incidents.<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> National policy was such that the Jews who largely worked at home and in small shops were excluded from welfare benefits.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> In the provincial capital of <a href="/wiki/%C5%81uck" class="mw-redirect" title="Łuck">Łuck</a> Jews constituted 48.5% of the diverse multiethnic population of 35,550 Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and others.<a href="#cite_note-1931.pdf-146">[144]</a> Łuck had the largest Jewish community in the voivodeship.<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a> In the capital of <a href="/wiki/Brze%C5%9B%C4%87" class="mw-redirect" title="Brześć">Brześć</a> in 1936 Jews constituted 41.3% of general population and some 80.3% of private enterprises were owned by Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Davies-148">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jerzy_Tomaszewski-149">[147]</a> The 32% of Jewish inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Radom" title="Radom">Radom</a> enjoyed considerable prominence also,<a href="#cite_note-radom-150">[148]</a> with 90% of small businesses in the city owned and operated by the Jews including tinsmiths, locksmiths, jewellers, tailors, hat makers, hairdressers, carpenters, house painters and wallpaper installers, shoemakers, as well as most of the artisan bakers and clock repairers.<a href="#cite_note-radom29-151">[149]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Lubart%C3%B3w" title="Lubartów">Lubartów</a>, 53.6% of the town's population were Jewish also along with most of its economy.<a href="#cite_note-Taube-152">[150]</a> In a town of Luboml, 3,807 Jews lived among its 4,169 inhabitants, constituting the essence of its social and political life.<a href="#cite_note-1931.pdf-146">[144]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghetto_benches.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/75/Ghetto_benches.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="143" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="143" /></a><figcaption>Demonstration of Polish students demanding implementation of "ghetto benches" at <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Polytechnic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lwów Polytechnic">Lwów Polytechnic</a> (1937).</figcaption></figure> The national boycott of Jewish businesses and advocacy for their confiscation was promoted by the <a href="/wiki/National_Democracy_(Poland)" title="National Democracy (Poland)">National Democracy</a> party and Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Felicjan_S%C5%82awoj_Sk%C5%82adkowski" title="Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski">Felicjan Sławoj-Składkowski</a>, declared an "economic war against Jews",<a href="#cite_note-:1-153">[151]</a> while introducing the term "Christian shop". As a result a boycott of Jewish businesses grew intensively. A national movement to prevent the Jews from kosher slaughter of animals, with animal rights as the stated motivation, was also organized.<a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a> Violence was also frequently aimed at Jewish stores, and many of them were looted. At the same time, persistent economic boycotts and harassment, including property-destroying <a href="/wiki/List_of_riots" title="List of riots">riots</a>, combined with the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> that had been very severe on agricultural countries like Poland, reduced the <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> of Poles and Polish Jews alike to the extent that by the end of the 1930s, a substantial portion of Polish Jews lived in grinding poverty.<a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> As a result, on the eve of the Second World War, the Jewish community in Poland was large and vibrant internally, yet (with the exception of a few professionals) also substantially poorer and less integrated than the Jews in most of Western Europe.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The main strain of antisemitism in Poland during this time was motivated by Catholic religious beliefs and centuries-old myths such as the <a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">blood libel</a>. This religious-based antisemitism was sometimes joined with an ultra-nationalistic stereotype of Jews as disloyal to the Polish nation.<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a> On the eve of World War II, many typical Polish Christians believed that there were far too many Jews in the country, and the Polish government became increasingly concerned with the "Jewish question". According to the British Embassy in Warsaw, in 1936 emigration was the only solution to the Jewish question that found wide support in all Polish political parties.<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a> The Polish government condemned wanton violence against the Jewish minority, fearing international repercussions, but shared the view that the Jewish minority hindered Poland's development; in January 1937 Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck" title="Józef Beck">Józef Beck</a> declared that Poland could house 500,000 Jews, and hoped that over the next 30 years 80,000–100,000 Jews a year would leave Poland.<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> As the Polish government sought to lower the numbers of the Jewish population in Poland through mass emigration, it embraced close and good contact with <a href="/wiki/Ze%27ev_Jabotinsky" title="Ze'ev Jabotinsky">Ze'ev Jabotinsky</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist Zionism</a>, and pursued a policy of supporting the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine.<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> The Polish government hoped Palestine would provide an outlet for its Jewish population and lobbied for creation of a Jewish state in the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and other international venues, proposing increased emigration quotas<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> and opposing the Partition Plan of Palestine on behalf of Zionist activists.<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a> As Jabotinsky envisioned in his "Evacuation Plan" the settlement of 1.5 million East European Jews within 10 years in Palestine, including 750,000 Polish Jews, he and Beck shared a common goal.<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> Ultimately this proved impossible and illusory, as it lacked both general Jewish and international support.<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> In 1937 Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck" title="Józef Beck">Józef Beck</a> declared in the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> his support for the creation of a Jewish state and for an international conference to enable Jewish emigration.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> The common goals of the Polish state and of the Zionist movement, of increased Jewish population flow to Palestine, resulted in their overt and covert cooperation. Poland helped by organizing passports and facilitating illegal immigration, and supplied the <a href="/wiki/Haganah" title="Haganah">Haganah</a> with weapons.<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a> Poland also provided extensive support to the <a href="/wiki/Irgun" title="Irgun">Irgun</a> (the military branch of the Revisionist Zionist movement) in the form of military training and weapons. According to Irgun activists, the Polish state supplied the organisation with 25,000 rifles, additional material and weapons, and by summer 1939 Irgun's Warsaw warehouses held 5,000 rifles and 1,000 machine guns. The training and support by Poland would allow the organisation to mobilise 30,000-40,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> In 1938, the Polish government revoked Polish citizenship from tens-of-thousands Polish Jews who had lived outside the country for an extended period of time.<a href="#cite_note-:4-167">[165]</a> It was feared that many Polish Jews living in Germany and Austria would want to return en masse to Poland to escape anti-Jewish measures. Their property was claimed by the Polish state.<a href="#cite_note-:1-153">[151]</a> By the time of the German invasion in 1939, antisemitism was escalating, and hostility towards Jews was a mainstay of the right-wing political forces post-Piłsudski regime and also the Catholic Church. Discrimination and violence against Jews had rendered the Polish Jewish population increasingly destitute. Despite the impending threat to the Polish Republic from Nazi Germany, there was little effort seen in the way of reconciliation with Poland's Jewish population. In July 1939 the pro-government <a href="/wiki/Gazeta_Polska_(1929%E2%80%931939)" title="Gazeta Polska (1929–1939)">Gazeta Polska</a> wrote, "The fact that our relations with the Reich are worsening does not in the least deactivate our program in the Jewish question—there is not and cannot be any common ground between our internal Jewish problem and Poland's relations with the Hitlerite Reich."<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> Escalating hostility towards Polish Jews and an official Polish government desire to remove Jews from Poland continued until the German invasion of Poland.<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II_and_the_destruction_of_Polish_Jewry_(1939–45)">World War II and the destruction of Polish Jewry (1939–45)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Poland (1939–45)">History of Poland (1939–45)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polish_September_Campaign">Polish September Campaign</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">Invasion of Poland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Powazki_wrzesien_4.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Powazki_wrzesien_4.JPG/170px-Powazki_wrzesien_4.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Powazki_wrzesien_4.JPG/255px-Powazki_wrzesien_4.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Powazki_wrzesien_4.JPG/340px-Powazki_wrzesien_4.JPG 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Graves of Jewish–Polish soldiers who died in <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">1939 September Campaign</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pow%C4%85zki_Cemetery" title="Powązki Cemetery">Powązki Cemetery</a></figcaption></figure> The number of Jews in Poland on 1 September 1939, amounted to about 3,474,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-ess.uwe.ac.uk-171">[169]</a> One hundred thirty thousand soldiers of Jewish descent, including <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Steinberg" title="Baruch Steinberg">Boruch Steinberg</a>, Chief Rabbi of the Polish Military, served in the <a href="/wiki/Polish_army_order_of_battle_in_1939" title="Polish army order of battle in 1939">Polish Army</a> at the outbreak of the Second World War,<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> thus being among the first to launch armed resistance against Nazi Germany.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">September Campaign</a> some 20,000 Jewish civilians and 32,216 Jewish soldiers were killed,<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> while 61,000 were taken <a href="/wiki/POW" class="mw-redirect" title="POW">prisoner</a> by the Germans;<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> the majority did not survive. The soldiers and non-commissioned officers who were released ultimately found themselves in the <a href="/wiki/Ghettos_in_Nazi-occupied_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe">Nazi ghettos</a> and labor camps and suffered the same fate as other Jewish civilians in the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust in Poland">Holocaust in Poland</a>. In 1939, Jews constituted 30% of Warsaw's population.<a href="#cite_note-boni-176">[174]</a> With the coming of the war, Jewish and Polish citizens of Warsaw jointly <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Warsaw_(1939)" title="Siege of Warsaw (1939)">defended the city</a>, putting their differences aside.<a href="#cite_note-boni-176">[174]</a> Polish Jews later served in almost all Polish formations during the entire World War II, many were killed or wounded and very many were decorated for their combat skills and exceptional service. Jews fought with the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_West" title="Polish Armed Forces in the West">Polish Armed Forces in the West</a>, in the Soviet-formed <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Army" title="Polish People's Army">Polish People's Army</a> as well as in several underground organizations and as part of <a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Polish partisan units</a> or <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Military_Union" title="Jewish Military Union">Jewish partisan formations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Territories_annexed_by_the_USSR_(1939–1941)">Territories annexed by the USSR (1939–1941)</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> signed the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a> with <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> on 23 August 1939 containing a protocol about partition of Poland.<a href="#cite_note-chatham2011-178">[176]</a> The German army attacked Poland on 1 September 1939. The Soviet Union followed suit by invading eastern Poland on 17 September 1939. The days between the retreat of the Polish army and the entry of the Red Army, September 18–21, witnessed a pogrom in <a href="/wiki/Grodno" title="Grodno">Grodno</a>, in which 25 Jews were killed (the Soviets later put some of the pogromists on trial).<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a> Within weeks, 61.2% of Polish Jews found themselves <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_Poland_annexed_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union">under the German occupation</a>, while 38.8% were trapped in the <a href="/wiki/Polish_areas_annexed_by_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union">Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-167">[165]</a> Jews under German occupation were immediately maltreated, beaten, publicly executed, and even burnt alive in the synagogue.<a href="#cite_note-:4-167">[165]</a> As a result 350,000 Polish Jews fled from the German-occupied area to the Soviet area.<a href="#cite_note-ushmm-1939-180">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-181">[179]</a> Upon annexing the region, the Soviet government recognized as Soviet citizens Jews (and other non-Poles) who were permanent residents of the area, while offering refugees the choice of either taking on Soviet citizenship or returning to their former homes.<a href="#cite_note-:3-181">[179]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">Soviet annexation</a> was accompanied by the widespread arrests of government officials, police, military personnel, border guards, teachers, priests, judges etc., followed by the <a href="/wiki/NKVD_prisoner_massacres" title="NKVD prisoner massacres">NKVD prisoner massacres</a> and massive deportation of 320,000 Polish nationals to the Soviet interior and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Gulag_camps" title="List of Gulag camps">Gulag slave labor camps</a> where, as a result of the inhuman conditions, about half of them died before the end of war.<a href="#cite_note-AFP-182">[180]</a> Jewish refugees under the Soviet occupation had little knowledge about what was going on under the Germans since the Soviet media did not report on the goings-on in territories occupied by their Nazi ally.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">pages needed</a>] Many people from Western Poland registered for repatriation back to the German zone, including wealthier Jews, as well as some political and social activists from the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Synagogues and churches were not yet closed but heavily taxed. The Soviet ruble of little value was immediately equalized to the much higher Polish zloty and by the end of 1939, zloty was abolished.<a href="#cite_note-LJW-186">[184]</a> Most economic activity became subject to central planning and the NKVD restrictions. Since the Jewish communities tended to rely more on commerce and small-scale businesses, the confiscations of property affected them to a greater degree than the general populace. The Soviet rule resulted in near collapse of the local economy, characterized by insufficient wages and general shortage of goods and materials. The Jews, like other inhabitants of the region, saw a fall in their living standards.<a href="#cite_note-ushmm-1939-180">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-LJW-186">[184]</a> Under the Soviet policy, ethnic Poles were dismissed and denied access to positions in the civil service. Former senior officials and notable members of the Polish community were arrested and exiled together with their families.<a href="#cite_note-PHC-187">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stosunki-188">[186]</a> At the same time the Soviet authorities encouraged young Jewish communists to fill in the newly emptied government and civil service jobs.<a href="#cite_note-LJW-186">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-JK-189">[187]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bialystok-following-1939-So.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bialystok-following-1939-So.jpg/170px-Bialystok-following-1939-So.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bialystok-following-1939-So.jpg/255px-Bialystok-following-1939-So.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Bialystok-following-1939-So.jpg/340px-Bialystok-following-1939-So.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1345" data-file-height="2070" /></a><figcaption>Yiddish election notice for Soviet local government to the People's council of the <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Białystok">Białystok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">occupied Poland</a>.</figcaption></figure> While most eastern Poles consolidated themselves around the anti-Soviet sentiments,<a href="#cite_note-B/C/S-190">[188]</a> a portion of the Jewish population, along with the ethnic Belarusian and Ukrainian activists had welcomed invading Soviet forces as their protectors.<a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-Comm_syph-192">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-Piotrowski-49-65-193">[191]</a> The general feeling among the Polish Jews was a sense of temporary relief in having escaped the Nazi occupation in the first weeks of war.<a href="#cite_note-ThreateningOther-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a> The Polish poet and former communist <a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Wat" title="Aleksander Wat">Aleksander Wat</a> has stated that Jews were more inclined to cooperate with the Soviets.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-195">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> Following <a href="/wiki/Jan_Karski" title="Jan Karski">Jan Karski</a>'s report written in 1940, historian <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a> claimed that among the informers and collaborators, the percentage of Jews was striking; likewise, General <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Sikorski" title="Władysław Sikorski">Władysław Sikorski</a> estimated that 30% of them identified with the communists whilst engaging in provocations; they prepared lists of Polish "class enemies".<a href="#cite_note-JK-189">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-195">[193]</a> Other historians have indicated that the level of Jewish collaboration could well have been less than suggested.<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> Historian Martin Dean has written that "few local Jews obtained positions of power under Soviet rule."<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> The issue of Jewish collaboration with the Soviet occupation remains controversial. Some scholars note that while not pro-Communist, many Jews saw the Soviets as the lesser threat compared to the German Nazis. They stress that stories of Jews welcoming the Soviets on the streets, vividly remembered by many Poles from the <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">eastern part of the country</a> are impressionistic and not reliable indicators of the level of Jewish support for the Soviets. Additionally, it has been noted that some ethnic Poles were as prominent as Jews in filling civil and police positions in the occupation administration, and that Jews, both civilians and in the Polish military, suffered equally at the hands of the Soviet occupiers.<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a> Whatever initial enthusiasm for the Soviet occupation Jews might have felt was soon dissipated upon feeling the impact of the suppression of Jewish societal modes of life by the occupiers.<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> The tensions between ethnic Poles and Jews as a result of this period has, according to some historians, taken a toll on relations between Poles and Jews throughout the war, creating until this day, an impasse to Polish–Jewish rapprochement.<a href="#cite_note-Piotrowski-49-65-193">[191]</a> A number of younger Jews, often through the pro-Marxist Bund or some Zionist groups, were sympathetic to <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a> and Soviet Russia, both of which had been enemies of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Second_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Second Republic">Polish Second Republic</a>. As a result of these factors they found it easy after 1939 to participate in the Soviet occupation administration in Eastern Poland, and briefly occupied prominent positions in industry, schools, local government, police and other Soviet-installed institutions. The concept of "Judeo-communism" was reinforced during the period of the Soviet occupation (see <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBydokomuna" title="Żydokomuna">Żydokomuna</a>).<a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-IPN-UB-202">[200]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_gravestone_at_Monte_Cassino.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Jewish_gravestone_at_Monte_Cassino.JPG/170px-Jewish_gravestone_at_Monte_Cassino.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Jewish_gravestone_at_Monte_Cassino.JPG/255px-Jewish_gravestone_at_Monte_Cassino.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Jewish_gravestone_at_Monte_Cassino.JPG/340px-Jewish_gravestone_at_Monte_Cassino.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1360" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Jewish–Polish soldier's grave, <a href="/wiki/Monte_Cassino" title="Monte Cassino">Monte Cassino</a>, Italy</figcaption></figure> There were also Jews who assisted Poles during the Soviet occupation. Among the thousands of Polish officers killed by the Soviet <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Katy%C5%84_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyń massacre">Katyń massacre</a> there were 500–600 Jews. From 1939 to 1941 between 100,000 and 300,000 Polish Jews were deported from <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_Poland_annexed_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union">Soviet-occupied Polish territory</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. Some of them, especially Polish <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communists</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Jakub_Berman" title="Jakub Berman">Jakub Berman</a>), moved voluntarily; however, most of them were <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">forcibly deported or imprisoned</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a>. Small numbers of Polish Jews (about 6,000) were able to leave the Soviet Union in 1942 with the <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Anders" title="Władysław Anders">Władysław Anders</a> army, among them the future <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Israel" title="Prime Minister of Israel">Prime Minister of Israel</a> <a href="/wiki/Menachem_Begin" title="Menachem Begin">Menachem Begin</a>. During the Polish army's <a href="/wiki/II_Corps_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="II Corps (Poland)">II Corps</a>' stay in the <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">British Mandate of Palestine</a>, 67% (2,972) of the Jewish soldiers deserted to settle in Palestine, and many joined the <a href="/wiki/Irgun" title="Irgun">Irgun</a>. General Anders decided not to prosecute the deserters and emphasized that the Jewish soldiers who remained in the Force fought bravely.<a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Monte_Cassino_Polish_war_cemetery" title="Monte Cassino Polish war cemetery">Cemetery of Polish soldiers</a> who died during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino" title="Battle of Monte Cassino">Battle of Monte Cassino</a> includes headstones bearing a <a href="/wiki/Star_of_David" title="Star of David">Star of David</a>. A number of Jewish soldiers died also when liberating <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Holocaust">The Holocaust</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">The Holocaust in Poland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WW2-Holocaust-Poland.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/WW2-Holocaust-Poland.PNG/280px-WW2-Holocaust-Poland.PNG" decoding="async" width="280" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/WW2-Holocaust-Poland.PNG/420px-WW2-Holocaust-Poland.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/WW2-Holocaust-Poland.PNG/560px-WW2-Holocaust-Poland.PNG 2x" data-file-width="2007" data-file-height="2161" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="The Holocaust in Poland">the Holocaust in Poland</a> under German occupation</figcaption></figure> Poland's Jewish community suffered the most in <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>. Some six million Polish citizens perished in the war<a href="#cite_note-205">[203]</a> – half of those (three million Polish Jews, all but some 300,000 of the Jewish population) being killed at the <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">German</a> <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a> at <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Majdanek" class="mw-redirect" title="Majdanek">Majdanek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belzec_extermination_camp" title="Belzec extermination camp">Belzec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sobib%C3%B3r_extermination_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Sobibór extermination camp">Sobibór</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno</a> or <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starved to death</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghettos">ghettos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a> Poland was where the German program of extermination of Jews, the "Final Solution", was implemented, since this was where most of Europe's Jews (excluding the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>'s) lived.<a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a> In 1939 several hundred <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogues</a> were blown up or burned by the Germans, who sometimes forced the Jews to do it themselves.<a href="#cite_note-ess.uwe.ac.uk-171">[169]</a> In many cases, the Germans turned the synagogues into factories, places of entertainment, swimming pools, or prisons.<a href="#cite_note-ess.uwe.ac.uk-171">[169]</a> By war's end, almost all the synagogues in Poland had been destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbis</a> were forced to dance and sing in public with their beards shorn off. Some rabbis were set on fire or hanged.<a href="#cite_note-ess.uwe.ac.uk-171">[169]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003,_Warschau,_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003%2C_Warschau%2C_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003%2C_Warschau%2C_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003%2C_Warschau%2C_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003%2C_Warschau%2C_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003%2C_Warschau%2C_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-003%2C_Warschau%2C_Bettelnde_Kinder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="514" /></a><figcaption>Starving Jewish children, <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a></figcaption></figure> The Germans ordered that all Jews be registered, and the word "Jude" was stamped in their identity cards.<a href="#cite_note-YV-Grodno-209">[207]</a> Numerous restrictions and prohibitions targeting Jews were introduced and brutally enforced.<a href="#cite_note-Gartner-210">[208]</a> For example, Jews were forbidden to walk on the sidewalks,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs2014150-211">[209]</a> use public transport, or enter places of leisure, sports arenas, theaters, museums and libraries.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson-212">[210]</a> On the street, Jews had to lift their hat to passing Germans.<a href="#cite_note-Fleischhauer-213">[211]</a> By the end of 1941 all Jews in German-occupied Poland, except the children, had to wear an identifying badge with a blue Star of David.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs201421-214">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-YV-image-215">[213]</a> Rabbis were humiliated in "spectacles organised by the German soldiers and police" who used their rifle butts "to make these men dance in their praying shawls."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs201431-216">[214]</a> The Germans "disappointed that Poles refused to collaborate",<a href="#cite_note-Friedrich1-217">[215]</a> made little attempts to set up a collaborationist government in Poland,<a href="#cite_note-Davies-1-218">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gross1-219">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-Michnik1-220">[218]</a> nevertheless, German <a href="/wiki/Tabloid_(newspaper_format)" title="Tabloid (newspaper format)">tabloids</a> printed in Polish routinely ran antisemitic articles that urged local people to adopt an attitude of indifference towards the Jews.<a href="#cite_note-Madajczyk-221">[219]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Mass_Extermination_of_Jews_in_German_Occupied.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/The_Mass_Extermination_of_Jews_in_German_Occupied.pdf/page1-220px-The_Mass_Extermination_of_Jews_in_German_Occupied.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/The_Mass_Extermination_of_Jews_in_German_Occupied.pdf/page1-330px-The_Mass_Extermination_of_Jews_in_German_Occupied.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/The_Mass_Extermination_of_Jews_in_German_Occupied.pdf/page1-440px-The_Mass_Extermination_of_Jews_in_German_Occupied.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="856" data-file-height="1281" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Polish_Government-in-Exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Government-in-Exile">Polish Government-in-Exile</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Mass_Extermination_of_Jews_in_German_Occupied_Poland" title="The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland">The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland</a>, 1942, addressed to Poland's <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="Allies of WWII">western Allies</a></figcaption></figure> Following <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a>, many Jews in what was then Eastern Poland fell victim to Nazi <a href="/wiki/Death_squad" title="Death squad">death squads</a> called <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a>, which massacred Jews, especially in 1941. Some of these German-inspired massacres were carried out with help from, or active participation of Poles themselves: for example, the <a href="/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom" title="Jedwabne pogrom">Jedwabne pogrom</a>, in which between 300 (<a href="/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance" title="Institute of National Remembrance">Institute of National Remembrance</a>'s Final Findings<a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a>) and 1,600 Jews (<a href="/wiki/Jan_T._Gross" title="Jan T. Gross">Jan T. Gross</a>) were tortured and beaten to death by members of the local population. The full extent of Polish participation in the massacres of the Polish Jewish community remains a controversial subject, in part due to Jewish leaders' refusal to allow the remains of the Jewish victims to be exhumed and their cause of death to be properly established. The Polish Institute for National Remembrance identified twenty-two other towns that had <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> similar to Jedwabne.<a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a> The reasons for these massacres are still debated, but they included <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a>, resentment over alleged cooperation with the Soviet invaders in the Polish–Soviet War and during the 1939 invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a> regions, greed for the possessions of the Jews, and of course coercion by the Nazis to participate in such massacres. Some Jewish historians have written of the negative attitudes of some Poles towards persecuted Jews during the Holocaust.<a href="#cite_note-224">[222]</a> While members of Catholic clergy risked their lives to assist Jews, their efforts were sometimes made in the face of antisemitic attitudes from the church hierarchy.<a href="#cite_note-Szaynok277-225">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a> Anti-Jewish attitudes also existed in the London-based Polish Government in Exile,<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a> although on 18 December 1942 the President in exile <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Raczkiewicz" title="Władysław Raczkiewicz">Władysław Raczkiewicz</a> wrote a dramatic letter to Pope Pius XII, begging him for a public defense of both murdered Poles and Jews.<a href="#cite_note-228">[226]</a> In spite of the introduction of death penalty extending to the entire families of rescuers, the number of <a href="/wiki/Polish_Righteous_among_the_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Righteous among the Nations">Polish Righteous among the Nations</a> testifies to the fact that Poles were willing to take risks in order to save Jews.<a href="#cite_note-229">[227]</a> <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_survivors" title="Holocaust survivors">Holocaust survivors</a>' views of Polish behavior during the War span a wide range, depending on their personal experiences. Some are very negative, based on the view of Christian Poles as passive witnesses who failed to act and aid the Jews as they were being persecuted or liquidated by the Nazis.<a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a> Poles, who were also victims of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi crimes">Nazi crimes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-lukas-231">[229]</a> were often afraid for their own and their family's lives and this fear prevented many of them from giving aid and assistance, even if some of them felt sympathy for the Jews. <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Ringelblum" title="Emanuel Ringelblum">Emanuel Ringelblum</a>, a Polish–Jewish historian of the Warsaw Ghetto, wrote critically of the indifferent and sometimes joyful responses in Warsaw to the destruction of Polish Jews in the Ghetto.<a href="#cite_note-P-M-232">[230]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Gunnar_S._Paulsson" title="Gunnar S. Paulsson">Gunnar S. Paulsson</a> stated that Polish citizens of Warsaw managed to support and hide the same percentage of Jews as did the citizens of cities in Western European countries.<a href="#cite_note-hnetradz-26">[24]</a> Paulsson's research shows that at least as far as <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> is concerned, the number of Poles aiding Jews far outnumbered those who sold out their Jewish neighbors to the Nazis. During the Nazi occupation of Warsaw 70,000–90,000 Polish gentiles aided Jews, while 3,000–4,000 were <a href="/wiki/Szmalcownik" title="Szmalcownik">szmalcowniks</a>, or blackmailers who collaborated with the Nazis in persecuting the Jews.<a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ghettos_and_death_camps">Ghettos and death camps</h3></div> The German Nazis established six <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a> throughout <a href="/wiki/German_occupied_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupied Poland">occupied Poland</a> by 1942. All of these – at <a href="/wiki/Chelmno_extermination_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelmno extermination camp">Chełmno (Kulmhof)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belzec_extermination_camp" title="Belzec extermination camp">Bełżec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibór</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treblinka" class="mw-redirect" title="Treblinka">Treblinka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Majdanek" class="mw-redirect" title="Majdanek">Majdanek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a> (Oświęcim) – were located near the rail network so that the victims could be easily transported. The system of the camps was expanded over the course of the German occupation of Poland and their purposes were diversified; some served as transit camps, some as <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor_in_Germany_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor in Germany during World War II">forced labor camps</a> and the majority as death camps. While in the death camps, the victims were usually killed shortly after arrival, in the other camps able-bodied Jews were worked and beaten to death.<a href="#cite_note-234">[232]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] The operation of concentration camps depended on <a href="/wiki/Kapo_(concentration_camp)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kapo (concentration camp)">Kapos</a>, the collaborator-prisoners. Some of them were Jewish themselves, and their prosecution after the war created an ethical dilemma.<a href="#cite_note-235">[233]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghettos_Eastern_Europe_1941-1942.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Ghettos_Eastern_Europe_1941-1942.gif/220px-Ghettos_Eastern_Europe_1941-1942.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Ghettos_Eastern_Europe_1941-1942.gif/330px-Ghettos_Eastern_Europe_1941-1942.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Ghettos_Eastern_Europe_1941-1942.gif/440px-Ghettos_Eastern_Europe_1941-1942.gif 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption>Jewish Ghettos in German-occupied Poland and Eastern Europe</figcaption></figure> Between October 1939 and July 1942 a system of ghettos was imposed for the confinement of Jews. The <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a> was the largest in all of World War II, with 380,000 people crammed into an area of 1.3 sq mi (3.4 km2). The <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto" title="Łódź Ghetto">Łódź Ghetto</a> was the second largest, holding about 160,000 prisoners. Other large Jewish ghettos in leading Polish cities included <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto" title="Białystok Ghetto">Białystok Ghetto</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok" title="Białystok">Białystok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_Ghetto" title="Częstochowa Ghetto">Częstochowa Ghetto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kielce_Ghetto" title="Kielce Ghetto">Kielce Ghetto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Kraków Ghetto">Kraków Ghetto</a> in <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lublin_Ghetto" title="Lublin Ghetto">Lublin Ghetto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Lwów Ghetto">Lwów Ghetto</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Lviv" title="Lviv">Lviv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Stanisławów Ghetto">Stanisławów Ghetto</a> also in present-day Ukraine, <a href="/wiki/Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_Ghetto" title="Brześć Ghetto">Brześć Ghetto</a> in present-day Belarus, and <a href="/wiki/Radom_Ghetto" title="Radom Ghetto">Radom Ghetto</a> among others. Ghettos were also established in hundreds of smaller settlements and villages around the country. The overcrowding, dirt, lice, lethal epidemics such as <a href="/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a> and hunger all resulted in countless deaths. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_German-occupied_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland">Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Wall_of_ghetto_in_Warsaw_-_Building_on_Nazi-German_order_August_1940.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/The_Wall_of_ghetto_in_Warsaw_-_Building_on_Nazi-German_order_August_1940.jpg/220px-The_Wall_of_ghetto_in_Warsaw_-_Building_on_Nazi-German_order_August_1940.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/The_Wall_of_ghetto_in_Warsaw_-_Building_on_Nazi-German_order_August_1940.jpg/330px-The_Wall_of_ghetto_in_Warsaw_-_Building_on_Nazi-German_order_August_1940.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/The_Wall_of_ghetto_in_Warsaw_-_Building_on_Nazi-German_order_August_1940.jpg/440px-The_Wall_of_ghetto_in_Warsaw_-_Building_on_Nazi-German_order_August_1940.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="631" /></a><figcaption>Walling-off <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Awi%C4%99tokrzyska_Street,_Warsaw" title="Świętokrzyska Street, Warsaw">Świętokrzyska Street</a> (seen from <a href="/wiki/Marsza%C5%82kowska_Street,_Warsaw" title="Marszałkowska Street, Warsaw">Marszałkowska Street</a> on the "Aryan side")</figcaption></figure> During the occupation of Poland, the Germans used various laws to separate ethnic Poles from Jewish ones. In the ghettos, the population was separated by putting the Poles into the "Aryan Side" and the Polish Jews into the "Jewish Side". Any Pole found giving any help to a Jewish Pole was subject to the death penalty.<a href="#cite_note-236">[234]</a> Another law implemented by the Germans was that Poles were forbidden from buying from Jewish shops, and if they did they were subject to execution.<a href="#cite_note-Pogonowski2-237">[235]</a> Many Jews tried to escape from the ghettos in the hope of finding a place to hide outside of it, or of joining the partisan units. When this proved difficult escapees often returned to the ghetto on their own. If caught, Germans would murder the escapees and leave their bodies in plain view as a warning to others. Despite these terror tactics, attempts at escape from ghettos continued until their liquidation.<a href="#cite_note-LJW-186">[184]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bekanntmachung_General_Government_Poland_1942.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Bekanntmachung_General_Government_Poland_1942.jpg/220px-Bekanntmachung_General_Government_Poland_1942.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Bekanntmachung_General_Government_Poland_1942.jpg/330px-Bekanntmachung_General_Government_Poland_1942.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Bekanntmachung_General_Government_Poland_1942.jpg/440px-Bekanntmachung_General_Government_Poland_1942.jpg 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="423" /></a><figcaption>NOTICE Concerning: the Sheltering of Escaping Jews. ....There is a need for a reminder, that in accordance with paragraph 3 of the decree of 15 October 1941, on the Limitation of Residence in <a href="/wiki/General_Government" title="General Government">General Government</a> (page 595 of the GG Register) Jews leaving the Jewish Quarter without permission will incur the <a href="/wiki/Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death penalty</a>. <hr /> ....According to this decree, those knowingly helping these Jews by providing shelter, supplying food, or selling them foodstuffs are also subject to the death penalty <hr /> ....This is a categorical warning to the non-Jewish population against: .........1) Providing shelter to Jews, .........2) Supplying them with Food, .........3) Selling them Foodstuffs. Dr. Franke – Town Commander – Częstochowa 9/24/42</figcaption></figure> Since the Nazi terror reigned throughout the Aryan districts, the chances of remaining successfully hidden depended on a fluent knowledge of the language and on having close ties with the community. Many Poles were not willing to hide Jews who might have escaped the ghettos or who might have been in hiding due to fear for their own lives and that of their families. While the German policy towards Jews was ruthless and criminal, their policy towards Christian Poles who helped Jews was very much the same. The Germans would often murder non-Jewish Poles for small misdemeanors. Execution for help rendered to Jews, even the most basic kinds, was automatic. In any apartment block or area where Jews were found to be harboured, everybody in the house would be immediately shot by the Germans. For this thousands of non-Jewish Poles were executed.<a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Death_penalty_for_Jews_outside_ghetto_and_for_Poles_helping_Jews_anyway_1941.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Death_penalty_for_Jews_outside_ghetto_and_for_Poles_helping_Jews_anyway_1941.jpg/170px-Death_penalty_for_Jews_outside_ghetto_and_for_Poles_helping_Jews_anyway_1941.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Death_penalty_for_Jews_outside_ghetto_and_for_Poles_helping_Jews_anyway_1941.jpg/255px-Death_penalty_for_Jews_outside_ghetto_and_for_Poles_helping_Jews_anyway_1941.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Death_penalty_for_Jews_outside_ghetto_and_for_Poles_helping_Jews_anyway_1941.jpg/340px-Death_penalty_for_Jews_outside_ghetto_and_for_Poles_helping_Jews_anyway_1941.jpg 2x" data-file-width="716" data-file-height="1111" /></a><figcaption>Announcement of death penalty for Jews captured outside the Ghetto and for Poles helping Jews, November 1941</figcaption></figure> Hiding in a Christian society to which the Jews were only partially assimilated was a daunting task.<a href="#cite_note-hiding-239">[237]</a> They needed to quickly acquire not only a new identity, but a new body of knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-hiding-239">[237]</a> Many Jews spoke Polish with a distinct Yiddish or Hebrew accent, used a different nonverbal language, different gestures and facial expressions. People with physical characteristics such as dark curly hair and brown eyes were particularly vulnerable.<a href="#cite_note-hiding-239">[237]</a> Some individuals blackmailed <a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Poles_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust">Jews and non-Jewish Poles hiding them</a>, and took advantage of their desperation by collecting money, or worse, turning them over to the Germans for a reward. The <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a> provided a standard prize to those who informed on Jews hidden on the 'Aryan' side, consisting of cash, liquor, sugar, and cigarettes. Jews were robbed and handed over to the Germans by "<a href="/wiki/Szmalcownik" title="Szmalcownik">szmalcowniks</a>" (the 'shmalts' people: from shmalts or szmalec, Yiddish and Polish for 'grease'). In extreme cases, the Jews informed on other Jews to alleviate hunger with the awarded prize.<a href="#cite_note-Piotrowski66-240">[238]</a> The extortionists were condemned by the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Underground_State" title="Polish Underground State">Polish Underground State</a>. The fight against informers was organized by the <a href="/wiki/Armia_Krajowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Armia Krajowa">Armia Krajowa</a> (the Underground State's military arm), with the death sentence being meted out on a scale unknown in the occupied countries of Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-MNK-241">[239]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Krochmalna_Street_orphanage.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Krochmalna_Street_orphanage.PNG/220px-Krochmalna_Street_orphanage.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Krochmalna_Street_orphanage.PNG/330px-Krochmalna_Street_orphanage.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Krochmalna_Street_orphanage.PNG/440px-Krochmalna_Street_orphanage.PNG 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="368" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Janusz_Korczak" title="Janusz Korczak">Janusz Korczak</a>'s orphanage</figcaption></figure> To discourage Poles from giving shelter to Jews, the Germans often searched houses and introduced ruthless penalties. Poland was the only occupied country during World War II where the <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazis</a> formally imposed the <a href="/wiki/Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death penalty</a> for anybody found sheltering and helping Jews.<a href="#cite_note-242">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nie-Nic-243">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-Polonsky-244">[242]</a> The penalty applied not only to the person who did the helping, but also extended to his or her family, neighbors and sometimes to entire villages.<a href="#cite_note-245">[243]</a> In this way Germans applied the principle of collective responsibility whose purpose was to encourage neighbors to inform on each other in order to avoid punishment. The nature of these policies was widely known and visibly publicized by the Nazis who sought to terrorize the Polish population. Food rations for the Poles were small (669 kcal per day in 1941) compared to other occupied nations throughout Europe and <a href="/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a> prices of necessary goods were high, factors which made it difficult to hide people and almost impossible to hide entire families, especially in the cities. Despite these draconian measures imposed by the Nazis, Poland has the highest number of <a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_The_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Righteous Among The Nations">Righteous Among The Nations</a> awards at the <a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a> Museum (6,339).<a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Polish_Government_in_Exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Government in Exile">Polish Government in Exile</a> was the first (in November 1942) to reveal the existence of Nazi-run concentration camps and the systematic extermination of the Jews by the Nazis, through its courier <a href="/wiki/Jan_Karski" title="Jan Karski">Jan Karski</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a> and through the activities of <a href="/wiki/Witold_Pilecki" title="Witold Pilecki">Witold Pilecki</a>, a member of Armia Krajowa who was the only person to volunteer for imprisonment in Auschwitz and who organized a resistance movement inside the camp itself.<a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a> One of the Jewish members of the National Council of the Polish government in exile, <a href="/wiki/Szmul_Zygielbojm" title="Szmul Zygielbojm">Szmul Zygielbojm</a>, committed suicide to protest the indifference of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> governments in the face of <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> in Poland. The Polish government in exile was also the only government to set up an organization (<a href="/wiki/%C5%BBegota" title="Żegota">Żegota</a>) specifically aimed at helping the Jews in Poland. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Warsaw_Ghetto_and_its_uprising">The Warsaw Ghetto and its uprising</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Natan_Rapoport-Monument_of_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_in_Warsaw-Warsaw.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Natan_Rapoport-Monument_of_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_in_Warsaw-Warsaw.jpg/170px-Natan_Rapoport-Monument_of_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_in_Warsaw-Warsaw.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Natan_Rapoport-Monument_of_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_in_Warsaw-Warsaw.jpg/255px-Natan_Rapoport-Monument_of_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_in_Warsaw-Warsaw.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Natan_Rapoport-Monument_of_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_in_Warsaw-Warsaw.jpg/340px-Natan_Rapoport-Monument_of_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_in_Warsaw-Warsaw.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2322" data-file-height="4128" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monument_to_the_Ghetto_Heroes" title="Monument to the Ghetto Heroes">Ghetto fighters memorial</a> in Warsaw built in 1948 by sculptor <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Rapoport" title="Nathan Rapoport">Nathan Rapoport</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umschlagplatz_loading.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Umschlagplatz_loading.jpg/220px-Umschlagplatz_loading.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Umschlagplatz_loading.jpg/330px-Umschlagplatz_loading.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Umschlagplatz_loading.jpg/440px-Umschlagplatz_loading.jpg 2x" data-file-width="674" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Deportation to <a href="/wiki/Treblinka" class="mw-redirect" title="Treblinka">Treblinka</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Umschlagplatz" title="Umschlagplatz">Umschlagplatz</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[247]</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">1943 Uprising</a> represents what is likely the most known episode of the wartime history of the Polish Jews. The ghetto was established by the German <a href="/wiki/General_Gouvernment" class="mw-redirect" title="General Gouvernment">Governor-General</a> <a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a> on 16 October 1940. Initially, almost 140,000 Jews were moved into the ghetto from all parts of Warsaw. At the same time, approximately 110,000 Poles had been forcibly evicted from the area. The Germans selected <a href="/wiki/Adam_Czerniakow" class="mw-redirect" title="Adam Czerniakow">Adam Czerniakow</a> to take charge of the Jewish Council called <a href="/wiki/Judenrat" title="Judenrat">Judenrat</a> made up of 24 Jewish men ordered to organize Jewish labor battalions as well as <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Ghetto_Police" title="Jewish Ghetto Police">Jewish Ghetto Police</a> which would be responsible for maintaining order within the Ghetto walls.<a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a> A number of Jewish policemen were corrupt and immoral. Soon the Nazis demanded even more from the Judenrat and the demands were much crueler. Death was the punishment for the slightest indication of noncompliance by the Judenrat. Sometimes the Judenrat refused to collaborate in which case its members were consequently executed and replaced by the new group of people. Adam Czerniakow who was the head of the Warsaw Judenrat committed suicide when he was forced to collect daily lists of Jews to be deported to the <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka extermination camp</a> at the onset of <a href="/wiki/Grossaktion_Warsaw_(1942)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grossaktion Warsaw (1942)">Grossaktion Warsaw</a>.<a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a> The population of the ghetto reached 380,000 people by the end of 1940, about 30% of the population of Warsaw. However, the size of the Ghetto was only about 2.4% of the size of the city. The Germans closed off the Ghetto from the outside world, building a wall around it by 16 November 1940. During the next year and a half, Jews from smaller cities and villages were brought into the Warsaw Ghetto, while diseases (especially <a href="/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a>) and starvation kept the inhabitants at about the same number. Average food rations in 1941 for Jews in Warsaw were limited to 253 kcal, and 669 kcal for Poles, as opposed to 2,613 kcal for Germans. On 22 July 1942, <a href="/wiki/Grossaktion_Warsaw_(1942)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grossaktion Warsaw (1942)">the mass deportation</a> of the Warsaw Ghetto inhabitants began.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs201410–14-253">[251]</a> During the next fifty-two days (until 12 September 1942) about 300,000 people were transported by freight train to the Treblinka extermination camp. The <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Ghetto_Police" title="Jewish Ghetto Police">Jewish Ghetto Police</a> were ordered to escort the ghetto inhabitants to the <a href="/wiki/Umschlagplatz_(Warsaw_Ghetto)" class="mw-redirect" title="Umschlagplatz (Warsaw Ghetto)">Umschlagplatz</a> train station. They were spared from the deportations until September 1942 in return for their cooperation, but afterwards shared their fate with families and relatives. On 18 January 1943, a group of Ghetto militants led by the right-leaning <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBydowski_Zwi%C4%85zek_Wojskowy" class="mw-redirect" title="Żydowski Związek Wojskowy">ŻZW</a>, including some members of the left-leaning <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBydowska_Organizacja_Bojowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa">ŻOB</a>, rose up in a first Warsaw uprising. Both organizations resisted, with arms, German attempts for additional deportations to Auschwitz and Treblinka.<a href="#cite_note-Wdowiński-254">[252]</a> The final destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto came four months later after the crushing of one of the most heroic and tragic battles of the war, the 1943 <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stroop_Report_-_Cover_Page.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Stroop_Report_-_Cover_Page.jpg/170px-Stroop_Report_-_Cover_Page.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Stroop_Report_-_Cover_Page.jpg/255px-Stroop_Report_-_Cover_Page.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Stroop_Report_-_Cover_Page.jpg/340px-Stroop_Report_-_Cover_Page.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2598" data-file-height="3500" /></a><figcaption>The cover page of <a href="/wiki/Stroop_Report" title="Stroop Report">The Stroop Report</a> with <a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_in_Nuremberg" class="mw-redirect" title="International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg">International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg</a> markings.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">When we invaded the Ghetto for the first time – wrote <a href="/wiki/SS" class="mw-redirect" title="SS">SS</a> commander Jürgen Stroop – the Jews and the Polish bandits succeeded in repelling the participating units, including tanks and armored cars, by a well-prepared concentration of fire. (...) The main Jewish battle group, mixed with Polish bandits, had already retired during the first and second day to the so-called Muranowski Square. There, it was reinforced by a considerable number of Polish bandits. Its plan was to hold the Ghetto by every means in order to prevent us from invading it. — <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Stroop" title="Jürgen Stroop">Jürgen Stroop</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stroop_Report" title="Stroop Report">Stroop Report</a>, 1943.<a href="#cite_note-255">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-stroop-257">[255]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>]</blockquote> The Uprising was led by ŻOB (Jewish Combat Organization) and the ŻZW.<a href="#cite_note-Wdowiński-254">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[256]</a> The ŻZW (Jewish Military Union) was the better supplied in arms.<a href="#cite_note-Wdowiński-254">[252]</a> The ŻOB had more than 750 fighters, but lacked weapons; they had only 9 rifles, 59 pistols and several grenades.<a href="#cite_note-jewishvirtuallibrary.org-259">[257]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] A developed network of bunkers and fortifications were formed. The Jewish fighters also received support from the Polish Underground (<a href="/wiki/Armia_Krajowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Armia Krajowa">Armia Krajowa</a>). The German forces, which included 2,842 Nazi soldiers and 7,000 security personnel, were not capable of crushing the Jewish resistance in open street combat and after several days, decided to switch strategy by setting buildings on fire in which the Jewish fighters hid. The commander of the ŻOB, <a href="/wiki/Mordechai_Anielewicz" title="Mordechai Anielewicz">Mordechai Anielewicz</a>, died fighting on 8 May 1943 at the organization's command centre on 18 Mila Street. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gesiowka_commemorative_plaque_at_34_Anielewicza_Street.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Gesiowka_commemorative_plaque_at_34_Anielewicza_Street.JPG/220px-Gesiowka_commemorative_plaque_at_34_Anielewicza_Street.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Gesiowka_commemorative_plaque_at_34_Anielewicza_Street.JPG/330px-Gesiowka_commemorative_plaque_at_34_Anielewicza_Street.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Gesiowka_commemorative_plaque_at_34_Anielewicza_Street.JPG/440px-Gesiowka_commemorative_plaque_at_34_Anielewicza_Street.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4625" data-file-height="2321" /></a><figcaption>34 <a href="/wiki/Mordechaj_Anielewicz" class="mw-redirect" title="Mordechaj Anielewicz">Mordechaj Anielewicz</a> Street, Warsaw, Poland</figcaption></figure> It took the Germans twenty-seven days to put down the uprising, after some very heavy fighting. The German general <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Stroop" title="Jürgen Stroop">Jürgen Stroop</a> in his report stated that his troops had killed 6,065 Jewish fighters during the battle. After the uprising was already over, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a> had the Great Synagogue on Tłomackie Square (outside the ghetto) destroyed as a celebration of German victory and a symbol that the Jewish Ghetto in Warsaw was no longer. A group of fighters escaped from the ghetto through the sewers and reached the Lomianki forest. About 50 ghetto fighters were saved by the Polish "People's Guard" and later formed their own partisan group, named after Anielewicz. Even after the end of the uprising there were still several hundreds of Jews who continued living in the ruined ghetto. Many of them survived thanks to the contacts they managed to establish with Poles outside the ghetto. The Uprising inspired Jews throughout Poland. Many Jewish leaders who survived the liquidation continued underground work outside the ghetto. They hid other Jews, forged necessary documents and were active in the <a href="/wiki/Polish_underground" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish underground">Polish underground</a> in other parts of Warsaw and the surrounding area. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gesiowka.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Gesiowka.jpg/220px-Gesiowka.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Gesiowka.jpg/330px-Gesiowka.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Gesiowka.jpg/440px-Gesiowka.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="642" /></a><figcaption>Freed prisoners of <a href="/wiki/G%C4%99si%C3%B3wka" title="Gęsiówka">Gęsiówka</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Szare_Szeregi" class="mw-redirect" title="Szare Szeregi">Szare Szeregi</a> fighters after the liberation of the camp in August 1944</figcaption></figure> Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, was followed by other <a href="/wiki/Ghetto_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghetto uprising">Ghetto uprisings</a> in many smaller towns and cities across German-occupied Poland. Many Jews were found alive in the ruins of the former Warsaw Ghetto during the 1944 general <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a> when the Poles themselves rose up against the Germans. Some of the survivors of 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, still held in camps at or near Warsaw, were freed during 1944 Warsaw Uprising, led by the Polish <a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">resistance movement</a> <a href="/wiki/Armia_Krajowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Armia Krajowa">Armia Krajowa</a>, and immediately joined Polish fighters. Only a few of them survived. The Polish commander of one Jewish unit, <a href="/wiki/Waclaw_Micuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Waclaw Micuta">Waclaw Micuta</a>, described them as some of the best fighters, always at the front line. It is estimated that over 2,000 Polish Jews, some as well known as <a href="/wiki/Marek_Edelman" title="Marek Edelman">Marek Edelman</a> or <a href="/wiki/Icchak_Cukierman" class="mw-redirect" title="Icchak Cukierman">Icchak Cukierman</a>, and several dozen Greek,<a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a> Hungarian or even German Jews freed by <a href="/wiki/Armia_Krajowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Armia Krajowa">Armia Krajowa</a> from <a href="/wiki/Gesiowka" class="mw-redirect" title="Gesiowka">Gesiowka</a> concentration camp in Warsaw, men and women, took part in combat against Nazis during 1944 <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising" title="Warsaw Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</a>. Some 166,000 people lost their lives in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, including perhaps as many as 17,000 Polish Jews who had either fought with the <a href="/wiki/Armia_Krajowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Armia Krajowa">AK</a> or had been discovered in hiding (see: <a href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Kamil_Baczy%C5%84ski" title="Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński">Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Aronson" title="Stanisław Aronson">Stanisław Aronson</a>). Warsaw was razed to the ground by the Germans and more than 150,000 Poles were sent to labor or concentration camps. On 17 January 1945, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a> entered a destroyed and nearly uninhabited Warsaw. Some 300 Jews were found hiding in the ruins in the Polish part of the city (see: <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Szpilman" title="Władysław Szpilman">Władysław Szpilman</a>). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghetto_Uprising_Warsaw2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Ghetto_Uprising_Warsaw2.jpg/220px-Ghetto_Uprising_Warsaw2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Ghetto_Uprising_Warsaw2.jpg/330px-Ghetto_Uprising_Warsaw2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Ghetto_Uprising_Warsaw2.jpg/440px-Ghetto_Uprising_Warsaw2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1347" data-file-height="907" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a> of 1943 saw the destruction of what remained of the Ghetto</figcaption></figure> The fate of the Warsaw Ghetto was similar to that of the other ghettos in which Jews were concentrated. With the decision of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> to begin the <a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>, the destruction of the Jews of Europe, <a href="/wiki/Aktion_Reinhard" class="mw-redirect" title="Aktion Reinhard">Aktion Reinhard</a> began in 1942, with the opening of the extermination camps of Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka, followed by Auschwitz-Birkenau where people were killed in gas chambers and mass executions (death wall).<a href="#cite_note-Auschwitz-Birkenau_Concentration_Camp_-_Advice_from_a_Tour_Guide-261">[259]</a> Many died from hunger, starvation, disease, torture or by pseudo-medical experiments. The mass deportation of Jews from ghettos to these camps, such as happened at the Warsaw Ghetto, soon followed, and more than 1.7 million Jews were killed at the Aktion Reinhard camps by October 1943 alone. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Białystok_Ghetto_and_its_uprising">The Białystok Ghetto and its uprising</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto" title="Białystok Ghetto">Białystok Ghetto</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Białystok Ghetto Uprising">Białystok Ghetto Uprising</a></div> In August 1941, the Germans ordered the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghetto</a> in Białystok. About 50,000 Jews from the city and the surrounding region were confined in a small area of Białystok. The ghetto had two sections, divided by the <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82a_River_(Supra%C5%9Bl_basin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Biała River (Supraśl basin)">Biala River</a>. Most Jews in the Białystok ghetto worked in forced-labor projects, primarily in large textile factories located within the ghetto boundaries. The Germans also sometimes used Jews in forced-labor projects outside the ghetto. In February 1943, approximately 10,000 Białystok Jews were deported to the <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka extermination camp</a>. During the deportations, hundreds of Jews, mainly those deemed too weak or sick to travel, were killed. In August 1943, the Germans mounted an operation to destroy the Białystok ghetto. German forces and local police auxiliaries surrounded the ghetto and began to round up Jews systematically for deportation to the Treblinka extermination camp. Approximately 7,600 Jews were held in a central transit camp in the city before deportation to Treblinka. Those deemed fit to work were sent to the <a href="/wiki/Majdanek" class="mw-redirect" title="Majdanek">Majdanek</a> camp. In Majdanek, after another screening for ability to work, they were transported to the Poniatowa, Blizyn, or Auschwitz camps. Those deemed too weak to work were murdered at Majdanek. More than 1,000 Jewish children were sent first to the <a href="/wiki/Theresienstadt_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Theresienstadt concentration camp">Theresienstadt</a> ghetto in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, and then to <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz-Birkenau</a>, where they were killed. On 15 August 1943, the <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Białystok Ghetto Uprising">Białystok Ghetto Uprising</a> began, and several hundred Polish Jews and members of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Fascist_Military_Organisation" title="Anti-Fascist Military Organisation">Anti-Fascist Military Organisation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Antyfaszystowska Organizacja Bojowa) started an armed struggle against the German troops who were carrying out the planned liquidation and deportation of the ghetto to the <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka extermination camp</a>.<a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a> The guerrillas were armed with only one <a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">machine gun</a>, several dozen pistols, <a href="/wiki/Molotov_cocktail" title="Molotov cocktail">Molotov cocktails</a> and bottles filled with acid. The fighting in isolated pockets of resistance lasted for several days, but the defence was broken almost instantly. As with the earlier <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a> of April 1943, the Białystok uprising had no chances for military success, but it was the second-largest <a href="/wiki/Ghetto_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghetto uprising">ghetto uprising</a>, after the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a>. Several dozen guerrillas managed to break through to the forests surrounding Białystok where they joined the partisan units of <a href="/wiki/Armia_Krajowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Armia Krajowa">Armia Krajowa</a> and other organisations and survived the war. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Communist_rule:_1945–1989">Communist rule: 1945–1989</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">History of Poland (1945–1989)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Number_of_Holocaust_survivors">Number of Holocaust survivors</h3></div> The estimates of Polish Jews before the war vary from slightly under 3 million to almost 3.5 million (<a href="/wiki/Polish_census_of_1931" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish census of 1931">the last nationwide census was conducted in 1931</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:32-263">[261]</a> The number of Polish Jews who survived the Holocaust is difficult to ascertain. The majority of Polish Jewish survivors were individuals who were able to find refuge in the territories of Soviet Union that were not overrun by Germans and thus safe from the Holocaust. It is estimated that between 250,000 and 800,000 Polish Jews survived the war, out of which between 50,000 and 100,000 were survivors from occupied Poland, and the remainder, survivors who made it abroad (mostly to the Soviet Union).<a href="#cite_note-:32-263">[261]</a> Following the Soviet annexation of over half of Poland at the onset of World War II, all Polish nationals including Jews were declared by Moscow to have become Soviet nationals regardless of birth.<a href="#cite_note-Wegner-74-264">[262]</a> Also, all Polish Jews who perished in the Holocaust east of the Curzon Line were included with the Soviet war dead.<a href="#cite_note-Holocaust-265">[263]</a> For decades to come, the Soviet authorities refused to accept the fact that thousands of Jews who remained in the USSR opted consciously and unambiguously for Polish nationality.<a href="#cite_note-eber-266">[264]</a> At the end of 1944, the number of Polish Jews in the Soviet and the Soviet-controlled territories has been estimated at 250,000–300,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-Berendt-267">[265]</a> Jews who escaped to <a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">eastern Poland</a> from areas occupied by Germany in 1939 were numbering at around 198,000.<a href="#cite_note-Tr-Maz-268">[266]</a> Over 150,000 of them were repatriated or expelled back to new communist Poland along with the Jewish men conscripted to the Red Army from Kresy in 1940–1941.<a href="#cite_note-Berendt-267">[265]</a> Their families were murdered in the Holocaust. Some of the soldiers married women with the Soviet citizenship, others agreed to paper marriages.<a href="#cite_note-Berendt-267">[265]</a> Those who survived the Holocaust in Poland included Jews who were saved by the Poles (most families with children), and those who joined the Polish or Soviet <a href="/wiki/Resistance_movement" title="Resistance movement">resistance movement</a>. Some 20,000–40,000 Jews were repatriated from Germany and other countries. At its postwar peak, up to 240,000 returning Jews might have resided in Poland mostly in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Łódź">Łódź</a>, Kraków, <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Silesia" title="Lower Silesia">Lower Silesia</a>, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Dzier%C5%BConi%C3%B3w" title="Dzierżoniów">Dzierżoniów</a> (where there was a significant Jewish community initially consisting of local concentration camp survivors), <a href="/wiki/Legnica" title="Legnica">Legnica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bielawa" title="Bielawa">Bielawa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Jewish_community_in_post-war_Poland">The Jewish community in post-war Poland</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rejestr_ocalonych_z_Zag%C5%82ady,_Maurycy_Bodner,_1945,_O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Rejestr_ocalonych_z_Zag%C5%82ady%2C_Maurycy_Bodner%2C_1945%2C_O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim_05.jpg/220px-Rejestr_ocalonych_z_Zag%C5%82ady%2C_Maurycy_Bodner%2C_1945%2C_O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Rejestr_ocalonych_z_Zag%C5%82ady%2C_Maurycy_Bodner%2C_1945%2C_O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim_05.jpg/330px-Rejestr_ocalonych_z_Zag%C5%82ady%2C_Maurycy_Bodner%2C_1945%2C_O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Rejestr_ocalonych_z_Zag%C5%82ady%2C_Maurycy_Bodner%2C_1945%2C_O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim_05.jpg/440px-Rejestr_ocalonych_z_Zag%C5%82ady%2C_Maurycy_Bodner%2C_1945%2C_O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2600" /></a><figcaption>Page from a register of several hundred Jewish survivors who returned to <a href="/wiki/O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim" title="Oświęcim">Oświęcim</a> after the war; created by a local Jewish Committee in 1945. Most remained for only a brief period.</figcaption></figure> Following World War II Poland became a <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">satellite state of the Soviet Union</a>, with its <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_Poland_annexed_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union">eastern regions</a> annexed to the Union, and its western borders expanded to include <a href="/wiki/Recovered_Territories" title="Recovered Territories">formerly German territories</a> east of the <a href="/wiki/Oder" title="Oder">Oder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neisse" class="mw-redirect" title="Neisse">Neisse</a> rivers. This forced millions to relocate (see also <a href="/wiki/Territorial_changes_of_Poland_immediately_after_World_War_II" title="Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II">Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:32-263">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-270">[268]</a> Jewish survivors returning to their homes in Poland found it practically impossible to reconstruct their pre-war lives. Due to the border shifts, some Polish Jews found that their homes were now in the Soviet Union; in other cases, the returning survivors were <a href="/wiki/German_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="German Jews">German Jews</a> whose homes were now under Polish jurisdiction. Jewish communities and Jewish life as it had existed was gone, and Jews who somehow survived the Holocaust often discovered that their homes had been looted or destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-USHMM-archive1-271">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anti-Jewish_violence_and_discrimination">Anti-Jewish violence and discrimination</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_violence_in_Poland,_1944%E2%80%931946" title="Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946">Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946</a></div> Some returning Jews were met with antisemitic bias in Polish employment and education administrations. Post-war labor certificates contained markings distinguishing Jews from non-Jews. The Jewish community in Szczecin reported a lengthy report of complaints regarding job discrimination. Although Jewish schools were created in the few towns containing a relatively large Jewish population, many Jewish children were enrolled in Polish state schools. Some state schools, as in the town of Otwock, forbade Jewish children to enroll. In the state schools that did allow Jewish children, there were numerous accounts of beatings and persecution targeting these children.<a href="#cite_note-:0-272">[270]</a> The anti-Jewish violence in Poland refers to a series of violent incidents in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> that immediately followed the <a href="/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe" title="End of World War II in Europe">end of World War II in Europe</a>. It occurred amid a period of violence and anarchy across the country, caused by lawlessness and <a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%9346)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–46)">anti-communist resistance</a> against the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)#Consolidation_of_communist_power" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">Soviet-backed communist takeover of Poland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cich2014-273">[271]</a> <a href="#cite_note-Prazm2004-274">[272]</a> The exact number of Jewish victims is a subject of debate with 327 documented cases,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and range, estimated by different writers, from 400<a href="#cite_note-Chodakiewicz-212-275">[273]</a> to 2,000.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Jews constituted between 2 and 3% of the total number of victims of postwar violence in the country,<a href="#cite_note-M-S-29">[27]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-TP-2-276">[274]</a> including the Polish Jews who managed to escape the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> on <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_Poland_annexed_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union">territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union</a>, and returned after the <a href="/wiki/Territorial_changes_of_Poland_immediately_after_World_War_II" title="Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II">border changes</a> imposed by the Allies at the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BP285-277">[275]</a> The incidents ranged from individual attacks to <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Engel1-278">[276]</a> The best-known case is the <a href="/wiki/Kielce_pogrom" title="Kielce pogrom">Kielce pogrom</a> of 4 July 1946,<a href="#cite_note-279">[277]</a> in which thirty-seven Jews and two Poles were murdered. Following the investigation, the local <a href="/wiki/Milicja_Obywatelska" title="Milicja Obywatelska">police</a> commander was found guilty of inaction.<a href="#cite_note-response-280">[278]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Nine alleged participants of the pogrom were sentenced to death; three were given lengthy prison sentences.<a href="#cite_note-response-280">[278]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] The debate in Poland continues about the involvement of regular troops in the killings, and possible Soviet influences.<a href="#cite_note-ipn2008-281">[279]</a> In a number of other instances, returning Jews still met with threats, violence, and murder from their Polish neighbors, occasionally in a deliberate and organized manner. People of the community frequently had knowledge of these murders and turned a blind eye or held no sympathy for the victims. Jewish communities responded to this violence by reporting the violence to the Ministry of Public Administration, but were granted little assistance.<a href="#cite_note-:0-272">[270]</a> As many as 1500 Jewish heirs were often murdered when attempting to reclaim property.<a href="#cite_note-Beker-282">[280]</a> Several causes led to the anti-Jewish violence of 1944–1947. One cause was traditional Christian anti-semitism; the <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_pogrom" title="Kraków pogrom">pogrom in Cracow</a> (11 August 1945) and in Kielce followed accusations of ritual murder. Another cause was the gentile Polish hostility to the Communist takeover. Even though very few Jews lived in postwar Poland, many Poles believed they dominated the Communist authorities, a belief expressed in the term <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBydokomuna" title="Żydokomuna">Żydokomuna</a> (Judeo-Communist), a popular anti-Jewish stereotype. Yet another reason for Polish violence towards Jews stemmed from the fear that survivors would recover their property.<a href="#cite_note-N-A-28">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-272">[270]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jewish_property">Jewish property</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nationalization_in_Poland" title="Nationalization in Poland">Nationalization in Poland</a></div> After the war ended, Poland's Communist government enacted a broad program of nationalization and land reform, taking over large numbers of properties, both Polish- and Jewish-owned.<a href="#cite_note-283">[281]</a> As part of the reform the <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Polish People's Republic</a> enacted legislation on "abandoned property", placing severe limitations on inheritance that were not present in prewar inheritance law, for example limiting restitution to the original owners or their immediate heirs.<a href="#cite_note-AJYB_1947-284">[282]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Dariusz_Stola" title="Dariusz Stola">Dariusz Stola</a>, the 1945 and 1946 laws governing restitution were enacted with the intention of restricting Jewish restitution claims as one of their main goals.<a href="#cite_note-Stola_2008-285">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weizman-286">[284]</a> The 1946 law<a href="#cite_note-CG_2014-287">[285]</a> carried a deadline of 31 December 1947 (later extended to 31 December 1948), after which unclaimed property devolved to the Polish state; many survivors residing in the USSR or in <a href="/wiki/Displaced_persons" class="mw-redirect" title="Displaced persons">displaced-persons camps</a> were repatriated only after the deadline had passed.<a href="#cite_note-Beker-282">[280]</a> All other properties that had been confiscated by the Nazi regime were deemed "abandoned"; however, as Yechiel Weizman notes, the fact most of Poland's Jewry had died, in conjunction with the fact that only Jewish property was officially confiscated by the Nazis, suggest "abandoned property" was equivalent to "Jewish property".<a href="#cite_note-Weizman-286">[284]</a> According to Łukasz Krzyżanowski, the state actively sought to gain control over a large number of "abandoned" properties.<a href="#cite_note-Krzyżanowski_2014-288">[286]</a> According to Krzyżanowski, this declaration of "abandoned" property can be seen as the last stage of the expropriation process that began during the German wartime occupation; by approving the status-quo shaped by the German occupation authorities, the Polish authorities became "the beneficiary of the murder of millions of its Jewish citizens, who were deprived of all their property before death".<a href="#cite_note-Krzyżanowski_2014-288">[286]</a> A 1945 memorandum by the <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Joint_Distribution_Committee" title="American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee">Joint</a> states that "the new economic tendency of the Polish government... is against, or at least makes difficulties in, getting back the Jewish property robbed by the German authorities."<a href="#cite_note-CG_2014-287">[285]</a> Later laws, while more generous, remained mainly on paper, with an "uneven" implementation.<a href="#cite_note-CG_2014-287">[285]</a> Many of the properties that were previously owned or by Jews were taken over by others during the war. Attempting to reclaim an occupied property often put the claimant at a risk of physical harm and even death.<a href="#cite_note-Stola_2008-285">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-CG_2014-287">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kopciowski-289">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bazyler-290">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-Skibinske_2014-291">[289]</a> Many who proceeded with the process were only granted possession, not ownership, of their properties;<a href="#cite_note-Krzyżanowski_2014-288">[286]</a> and completing the restitution process, given that most properties were already occupied, required additional, lengthy processes.<a href="#cite_note-Justice-292">[290]</a> The majority of Jewish claimants could not afford the restitution process without financial help, due to the filing costs, legal fees, and inheritance tax.<a href="#cite_note-CG_2014-287">[285]</a> While it is hard to determine the total number of successful reclamations, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Meng&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Meng (page does not exist)">Michael Meng</a> estimates that it was extremely small.<a href="#cite_note-293">[291]</a> In general, restitution was easier for larger organizations or well connected individuals,<a href="#cite_note-Stanilov-294">[292]</a> and the process was also abused by criminal gangs.<a href="#cite_note-Krzyżanowski_2014-288">[286]</a> "Movable" property such as housewares, that was either given by Jews for safekeeping or taken during the war, was rarely returned willfully; oftentimes the only resort for a returnee looking for reappropriation was the courts.<a href="#cite_note-Gross_2007-295">[293]</a> Most such property was probably never returned.<a href="#cite_note-Krzyżanowski_2014-288">[286]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Jan_Gross" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Gross">Jan Gross</a>, "there was no social norm mandating the return of Jewish property, no detectable social pressure defining such behavior as the right thing to do, no informal social control mechanism imposing censure for doing otherwise."<a href="#cite_note-Gross_2007-295">[293]</a> Facing violence and a difficult and expensive legal process,<a href="#cite_note-CG_2014-287">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bazyler-290">[288]</a> many returnees eventually decided to leave the country rather than attempt reclamation.<a href="#cite_note-Krzyżanowski_2014-288">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bazyler-290">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gross_2007-295">[293]</a> Following the fall of the Soviet Union, a law was passed that allowed the Catholic Church to reclaim its properties, which it did with great success.<a href="#cite_note-Stanilov-294">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-Denburg_1998-296">[294]</a> According to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stephen_Denburg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stephen Denburg (page does not exist)">Stephen Denburg</a>, "unlike the restitution of Church property, the idea of returning property to former Jewish owners has been met with a decided lack of enthusiasm from both the general Polish population as well as the government".<a href="#cite_note-Denburg_1998-296">[294]</a> Decades later, reclaiming pre-war property would lead to a number of controversies, and the matter is still debated by media and scholars as of late 2010s.<a href="#cite_note-ft-297">[295]</a> Dariusz Stola notes that the issues of property in Poland are incredibly complex, and need to take into consideration unprecedented losses of both Jewish and Polish population and massive destruction caused by Nazi Germany, as well as the expansion of Soviet Union and communism into Polish territories after the war, which dictated the property laws for the next 50 years.<a href="#cite_note-Stola_2008-285">[283]</a> Poland remains "the only EU country and the only former Eastern European communist state not to have enacted [a restitution] law," but rather "a patchwork of laws and court decisions promulgated from 1945–present."<a href="#cite_note-Stola_2008-285">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bazyler-290">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stanilov-294">[292]</a> As stated by <a href="/wiki/Dariusz_Stola" title="Dariusz Stola">Dariusz Stola</a>, director of the <a href="/wiki/POLIN_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="POLIN Museum">POLIN Museum</a>, "the question of restitution is in many ways connected to the question of Polish–Jewish relations, their history and remembrance, but particularly to the attitude of the Poles to the Holocaust."<a href="#cite_note-Stola_2008-285">[283]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emigration_to_Palestine_and_Israel">Emigration to Palestine and Israel</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aliyah_Bet" title="Aliyah Bet">Aliyah Bet</a></div> For a variety of reasons, the vast majority of returning Jewish survivors left Poland soon after the war ended.<a href="#cite_note-jcpa.org-298">[296]</a> Many left for the West because they did not want to live under a Communist regime. Some left because of the persecution they faced in postwar Poland,<a href="#cite_note-N-A-28">[26]</a> and because they did not want to live where their family members had been murdered, and instead have arranged to live with relatives or friends in different western democracies. Others wanted to go to <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">British Mandate of Palestine</a> soon to be the new state of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, especially after General <a href="/wiki/Marian_Spychalski" title="Marian Spychalski">Marian Spychalski</a> signed a decree allowing Jews to leave Poland without visas or exit permits.<a href="#cite_note-Kochavi-175-31">[29]</a> In 1946–1947 Poland was the only <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> country to allow free Jewish <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">aliyah</a> to Israel,<a href="#cite_note-D-H-30">[28]</a> without visas or exit permits.<a href="#cite_note-Kochavi-175-31">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marrus-32">[30]</a> Britain demanded Poland to halt the exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-Kochavi-xi-299">[297]</a> Between 1945 and 1948, 100,000–120,000 Jews left Poland. Their departure was largely organized by the <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionist</a> activists including <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Berman" title="Adolf Berman">Adolf Berman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Icchak_Cukierman" class="mw-redirect" title="Icchak Cukierman">Icchak Cukierman</a>, under the umbrella of a semi-clandestine <a href="/wiki/Berihah" class="mw-redirect" title="Berihah">Berihah</a> ("Flight") organization.<a href="#cite_note-YV-archive3-300">[298]</a> Berihah was also responsible for the organized <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a> emigration of Jews from <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yugoslavia" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>, and Poland, totaling 250,000 survivors. In 1947, a military training camp for young Jewish volunteers to <a href="/wiki/Hagana" class="mw-redirect" title="Hagana">Hagana</a> was established in <a href="/wiki/Bolk%C3%B3w" title="Bolków">Bolków</a>, Poland. The camp trained 7,000 soldiers who then traveled to Palestine to fight for Israel. The boot-camp existed until the end of 1948.<a href="#cite_note-301">[299]</a> A second wave of Jewish emigration (50,000) took place during the liberalization of the Communist regime between 1957 and 1959. After 1967's <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a>, in which the Soviet Union supported the Arab side, the Polish communist party adopted an anti-Jewish course of action which in the years 1968–1969 provoked the last mass migration of Jews from Poland.<a href="#cite_note-jcpa.org-298">[296]</a> The Bund took part in the post-war <a href="/wiki/Polish_legislative_election,_1947" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish legislative election, 1947">elections of 1947</a> on a common ticket with the (non-communist) <a href="/wiki/Polish_Socialist_Party" title="Polish Socialist Party">Polish Socialist Party</a> (PPS) and gained its first and only parliamentary seat in its Polish history, plus several seats in municipal councils.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Under pressure from Soviet-installed communist authorities, the Bund's leaders 'voluntarily' disbanded the party in 1948–1949 against the opposition of many activists.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Stalinist Poland was basically governed by the Soviet <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> which was against the renewal of Jewish religious and cultural life.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the years 1948–49, all remaining Jewish schools were nationalized by the communists and Yiddish was replaced with Polish as a language of teaching.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rebuilding_Jewish_communities">Rebuilding Jewish communities</h4></div> For those Polish Jews who remained, the rebuilding of Jewish life in Poland was carried out between October 1944 and 1950 by the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_Polish_Jews" title="Central Committee of Polish Jews">Central Committee of Polish Jews</a> (Centralny Komitet Żydów Polskich, CKŻP) which provided legal, educational, social care, cultural, and propaganda services. A countrywide Jewish Religious Community, led by <a href="/wiki/Dawid_Kahane" class="mw-redirect" title="Dawid Kahane">Dawid Kahane</a>, who served as <a href="/wiki/Chief_rabbi" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief rabbi">chief rabbi</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces#After_1945" title="Polish Armed Forces">Polish Armed Forces</a>, functioned between 1945 and 1948 until it was absorbed by the CKŻP. Eleven independent political Jewish parties, of which eight were legal, existed until their dissolution during 1949–50. Hospitals and schools were opened in Poland by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and ORT to provide service to Jewish communities.<a href="#cite_note-JVL-302">[300]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Some Jewish cultural institutions were established including the <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theater" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish theater">Yiddish State Theater</a> founded in 1950 and directed by <a href="/wiki/Ida_Kami%C5%84ska" title="Ida Kamińska">Ida Kamińska</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Historical_Institute" title="Jewish Historical Institute">Jewish Historical Institute</a>, an academic institution specializing in the research of the history and culture of the Jews in Poland, and the Yiddish newspaper Folks-Shtime ("People's Voice"). Following liberalization after <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s death, in this 1958–59 period, 50,000 Jews emigrated to Israel.<a href="#cite_note-relations-13">[11]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Some Polish Communists of Jewish descent actively participated in the establishment of the communist regime in the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of Poland">People's Republic of Poland</a> between 1944 and 1956. Hand-picked by Joseph Stalin, prominent Jews held posts in the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Polish_United_Workers%27_Party" title="Politburo of the Polish United Workers' Party">Politburo of the Polish United Workers' Party</a> including <a href="/wiki/Jakub_Berman" title="Jakub Berman">Jakub Berman</a>, head of state security apparatus <a href="/wiki/Urz%C4%85d_Bezpiecze%C5%84stwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Urząd Bezpieczeństwa">Urząd Bezpieczeństwa</a> (UB),<a href="#cite_note-hoover-303">[301]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Minc" title="Hilary Minc">Hilary Minc</a> responsible for establishing a Communist-style economy. Together with hardliner <a href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Bierut" title="Bolesław Bierut">Bolesław Bierut</a>, Berman and Minc formed a triumvirate of the Stalinist leaders in postwar Poland.<a href="#cite_note-hoover-303">[301]</a> After 1956, during the process of <a href="/wiki/De-Stalinisation" class="mw-redirect" title="De-Stalinisation">de-Stalinisation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">People's Republic</a> under <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Gomu%C5%82ka" title="Władysław Gomułka">Władysław Gomułka</a>, some Jewish officials from Urząd Bezpieczeństwa including <a href="/wiki/Roman_Romkowski" title="Roman Romkowski">Roman Romkowski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacek_R%C3%B3%C5%BCa%C5%84ski" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacek Różański">Jacek Różański</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anatol_Fejgin" title="Anatol Fejgin">Anatol Fejgin</a>, were prosecuted and sentenced to prison terms for "power abuses" including the torture of Polish anti-fascists including <a href="/wiki/Witold_Pilecki" title="Witold Pilecki">Witold Pilecki</a> among others. Yet another Jewish official, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_%C5%9Awiat%C5%82o" title="Józef Światło">Józef Światło</a>, after escaping to the West in 1953, exposed through <a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio Free Europe">Radio Free Europe</a> the interrogation methods used the UB which led to its restructuring in 1954. <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Morel" class="mw-redirect" title="Solomon Morel">Solomon Morel</a> a member of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Security_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Public Security of Poland">Ministry of Public Security of Poland</a> and commandant of the Stalinist era <a href="/wiki/Zgoda_labour_camp" title="Zgoda labour camp">Zgoda labour camp</a>, fled Poland for Israel in 1992 to escape prosecution. <a href="/wiki/Helena_Woli%C5%84ska-Brus" title="Helena Wolińska-Brus">Helena Wolińska-Brus</a>, a former Stalinist prosecutor who emigrated to England in the late 1960s, fought being extradited to Poland on charges related to the execution of a Second World War resistance hero <a href="/wiki/Emil_Fieldorf" class="mw-redirect" title="Emil Fieldorf">Emil Fieldorf</a>. Wolińska-Brus died in London in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-krakowpost-304">[302]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_March_1968_events_and_their_aftermath">The March 1968 events and their aftermath</h4></div> In 1967, following the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> between <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> states, Poland's Communist government, following the Soviet lead, broke off diplomatic relations with Israel and launched an antisemitic campaign under the guise of "anti-Zionism". However, the campaign did not resonate well with the Polish public, as most Poles saw similarities between Israel's fight for survival and Poland's past struggles for independence. Many Poles also felt pride in the success of the Israeli military, which was dominated by Polish Jews. The slogan "our Jews beat the Soviet Arabs" (Nasi Żydzi pobili sowieckich Arabów) became popular in Poland.<a href="#cite_note-305">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-306">[304]</a> The vast majority of the 40,000 Jews in Poland by the late 1960s were completely assimilated into the broader society.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] However, this did not prevent them from becoming victims of a campaign, centrally organized by the Polish Communist Party, with Soviet backing, which equated Jewish origins with "Zionism" and disloyalty to a Socialist Poland.<a href="#cite_note-307">[305]</a> In March 1968 student-led demonstrations in Warsaw (see <a href="/wiki/Polish_1968_political_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish 1968 political crisis">Polish 1968 political crisis</a>) gave Gomułka's government an excuse to try and channel public anti-government sentiment into another avenue. Thus his security chief, <a href="/wiki/Mieczys%C5%82aw_Moczar" title="Mieczysław Moczar">Mieczysław Moczar</a>, used the situation as a pretext to launch an antisemitic press campaign (although the expression "Zionist" was officially used). The state-sponsored "anti-Zionist" campaign resulted in the removal of Jews from the <a href="/wiki/Polish_United_Workers%27_Party" title="Polish United Workers' Party">Polish United Workers' Party</a> and from teaching positions in schools and universities. In 1967–1971 under economic, political and secret police pressure, over 14,000 Polish Jews chose to leave Poland and relinquish their Polish citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-Steinman2013-308">[306]</a> Officially, it was said that they chose to go to Israel. However, only about 4,000 actually went there; most settled throughout <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. The leaders of the Communist party tried to stifle the ongoing protests and unrest by scapegoating the Jews. At the same time there was an ongoing power struggle within the party itself and the antisemitic campaign was used by one faction against another. The so-called "Partisan" faction blamed the Jews who had held office during the Stalinist period for the excesses that had occurred, but the result was that most of the remaining Polish Jews, regardless of their background or political affiliation, were targeted by the communist authorities.<a href="#cite_note-309">[307]</a> There were several outcomes of the <a href="/wiki/March_1968_events" class="mw-redirect" title="March 1968 events">March 1968 events</a>. The campaign damaged Poland's reputation abroad, particularly in the U.S. Many Polish intellectuals, however, were disgusted at the promotion of official antisemitism and opposed the campaign. Some of the people who emigrated to the West at this time founded organizations that encouraged anti-Communist opposition inside Poland.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] First attempts to improve Polish–Israeli relations began in the mid-1970s. Poland was the first of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> countries to restore diplomatic relations with Israel after these have been broken off right after the Six-Day's War.<a href="#cite_note-relations-13">[11]</a> In 1986 <a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Poland_relations" title="Israel–Poland relations">partial diplomatic relations with Israel</a> were restored,<a href="#cite_note-relations-13">[11]</a> and full relations were restored in 1990 as soon as communism fell. During the late 1970s some Jewish activists were engaged in the anti-Communist opposition groups. Most prominent among them, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Michnik" title="Adam Michnik">Adam Michnik</a> (founder of <a href="/wiki/Gazeta_Wyborcza" title="Gazeta Wyborcza">Gazeta Wyborcza</a>) was one of the founders of the <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_Defence_Committee" title="Workers' Defence Committee">Workers' Defence Committee</a> (KOR). By the time of the fall of Communism in Poland in 1989, only 5,000–10,000 Jews remained in the country, many of them preferring to conceal their Jewish origin.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Since_1989">Since 1989</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Polish_history_(1989%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Polish history (1989–present)">Jewish Polish history (1989–present)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1989%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Poland (1989–present)">History of Poland (1989–present)</a></div> With the fall of communism in Poland, Jewish cultural, social, and religious life has been undergoing a revival. Many historical issues, especially related to World War II and the 1944–89 period, suppressed by Communist censorship, have been re-evaluated and publicly discussed (like the Jedwabne pogrom, the <a href="/wiki/Koniuchy_massacre" title="Koniuchy massacre">Koniuchy massacre</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kielce_pogrom" title="Kielce pogrom">Kielce pogrom</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_cross" title="Auschwitz cross">Auschwitz cross</a>, and Polish-Jewish wartime relations in general). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rabin_Polski.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Rabin_Polski.jpg/170px-Rabin_Polski.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Rabin_Polski.jpg/255px-Rabin_Polski.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Rabin_Polski.jpg/340px-Rabin_Polski.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4016" data-file-height="6016" /></a><figcaption>Chief Rabbi of Poland – <a href="/wiki/Michael_Schudrich" title="Michael Schudrich">Michael Schudrich</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Synagoga_lesko.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Synagoga_lesko.jpg/220px-Synagoga_lesko.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Synagoga_lesko.jpg/330px-Synagoga_lesko.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Synagoga_lesko.jpg/440px-Synagoga_lesko.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="665" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lesko_Synagogue" title="Lesko Synagogue">Lesko Synagogue</a>, Poland</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beit_Warszawa_synagogue_interior2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Beit_Warszawa_synagogue_interior2006.jpg/220px-Beit_Warszawa_synagogue_interior2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Beit_Warszawa_synagogue_interior2006.jpg/330px-Beit_Warszawa_synagogue_interior2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Beit_Warszawa_synagogue_interior2006.jpg/440px-Beit_Warszawa_synagogue_interior2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="486" /></a><figcaption>Reform <a href="/wiki/Beit_Warszawa_Synagogue" title="Beit Warszawa Synagogue">Beit Warszawa Synagogue</a></figcaption></figure> Jewish religious life has been revived with the help of the <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Lauder_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald Lauder Foundation">Ronald Lauder Foundation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Taube_Foundation_for_Jewish_Life_%26_Culture" title="Taube Foundation for Jewish Life & Culture">Taube Foundation for Jewish Life & Culture</a>. There are two rabbis serving the Polish Jewish community, several Jewish schools and associated summer camps as well as several periodical and book series sponsored by the above foundations. Jewish studies programs are offered at major universities, such as <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Warsaw University">Warsaw University</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jagiellonian_University" title="Jagiellonian University">Jagiellonian University</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Jewish_Religious_Communities_in_Poland" title="Union of Jewish Religious Communities in Poland">Union of Jewish Religious Communities in Poland</a> was founded in 1993. Its purpose is the promotion and organization of Jewish religious and cultural activities in Polish communities. A large number of cities with synagogues include Warsaw, Kraków, <a href="/wiki/Zamo%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Zamość">Zamość</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tykocin" title="Tykocin">Tykocin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rzesz%C3%B3w" title="Rzeszów">Rzeszów</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kielce" title="Kielce">Kielce</a>, or <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B3ra_Kalwaria" title="Góra Kalwaria">Góra Kalwaria</a> although not many of them are still active in their original religious role. Stara Synagoga ("Old Synagogue") in Kraków, which hosts a Jewish museum, was built in the early 15th century and is the oldest synagogue in Poland. Before the war, the Yeshiva Chachmei in Lublin was Europe's largest. In 2007 it was renovated, dedicated and reopened thanks to the efforts and endowments by Polish Jewry. Warsaw has an active synagogue, <a href="/wiki/Beit_Warszawa_Synagogue" title="Beit Warszawa Synagogue">Beit Warszawa</a>, affiliated with the Liberal-Progressive stream of Judaism. There are also several Jewish publications although most of them are in Polish. These include <a href="/wiki/Midrasz" title="Midrasz">Midrasz</a>, Dos Jidische Wort (which is bilingual), as well as a youth journal Jidele and "Sztendlach" for young children. Active institutions include the Jewish Historical Institute, the E.R. Kaminska State Yiddish Theater in Warsaw, and the Jewish Cultural Center. The <a href="/wiki/Judaica_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaica Foundation">Judaica Foundation</a> in Kraków has sponsored a wide range of cultural and educational programs on Jewish themes for a predominantly Polish audience. With funds from the city of Warsaw and the Polish government ($26 million total) a <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_History_of_Polish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of the History of Polish Jews">Museum of the History of Polish Jews</a> is being built in Warsaw. The building was designed by the Finnish architect Rainer Mahlamäki.<a href="#cite_note-JVL-302">[300]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:March_of_the_living-in-auschwitz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/March_of_the_living-in-auschwitz.jpg/170px-March_of_the_living-in-auschwitz.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/March_of_the_living-in-auschwitz.jpg/255px-March_of_the_living-in-auschwitz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/March_of_the_living-in-auschwitz.jpg/340px-March_of_the_living-in-auschwitz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="427" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>2005 <a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Living" title="March of the Living">March of the Living</a></figcaption></figure> Former extermination camps of Auschwitz-Birkenau, Majdanek and Treblinka are open to visitors. At Auschwitz the Oświęcim State Museum currently houses exhibitions on Nazi crimes with a special section (Block Number 27) specifically focused on Jewish victims and martyrs. At Treblinka there is a monument built out of many shards of broken stone, as well as a mausoleum dedicated to those who perished there. A small mound of human ashes commemorates the 350,000 victims of the Majdanek camp who were killed there by the Nazis. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Cemetery,_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA" title="Jewish Cemetery, Łódź">Jewish Cemetery, Łódź</a> is one of the largest Jewish burial grounds in Europe, and preserved historic sites include those located in Góra Kalwaria and <a href="/wiki/Le%C5%BCajsk" title="Leżajsk">Leżajsk</a> (<a href="/wiki/Elimelech_of_Lizhensk" title="Elimelech of Lizhensk">Elimelech's of Lizhensk</a> <a href="/wiki/Ohel_(grave)" title="Ohel (grave)">ohel</a>).<a href="#cite_note-JVL-302">[300]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] The Great Synagogue in <a href="/wiki/O%C5%9Bwi%C4%99cim" title="Oświęcim">Oświęcim</a> was excavated after testimony by a Holocaust survivor suggested that many Jewish relics and ritual objects had been buried there, just before Nazis took over the town. Candelabras, chandeliers, a menorah and a <a href="/wiki/Ner_Tamid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ner Tamid">ner tamid</a> were found and can now be seen at the Auschwitz Jewish Center.<a href="#cite_note-JVL-302">[300]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Memorial" class="mw-redirect" title="Warsaw Ghetto Memorial">Warsaw Ghetto Memorial</a> was unveiled on 19 April 1948—the fifth anniversary of the outbreak of the Warsaw ghetto Uprising. It was constructed out of bronze and granite that the Nazis used for a monument honoring German victory over Poland and it was designed by <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Rapoport" title="Nathan Rapoport">Nathan Rapoport</a>. The Memorial is located where the Warsaw Ghetto used to be, at the site of one command bunker of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Combat_Organization" title="Jewish Combat Organization">Jewish Combat Organization</a>. A memorial to the victims of the Kielce Pogrom of 1946, where a mob murdered more than 40 Jews who returned to the city after the Holocaust, was unveiled in 2006. The funds for the memorial came from the city itself and from the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Commission_for_the_Preservation_of_America%27s_Heritage_Abroad" title="U.S. Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad">U.S. Commission for the Preservation of America's Heritage Abroad</a>. Polish authors and scholars have published many works about the history of Jews in Poland. Notable among them are the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Polish Academy of Sciences">Polish Academy of Sciences</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">Holocaust studies</a> journal <a href="/wiki/Zag%C5%82ada_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w._Studia_i_Materia%C5%82y" class="mw-redirect" title="Zagłada Żydów. Studia i Materiały">Zagłada Żydów. Studia i Materiały</a> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zag%C5%82ada_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w._Studia_i_Materia%C5%82y" class="extiw" title="pl:Zagłada Żydów. Studia i Materiały">pl</a>] as well as other publications from the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance" title="Institute of National Remembrance">Institute of National Remembrance</a>. Recent scholarship has primarily focused on three topics: post-war anti-Semitism; emigration and the creation of the State of Israel, and the restitution of property.<a href="#cite_note-310">[308]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2007_06_26_lech_kaczynski_06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/2007_06_26_lech_kaczynski_06.jpg/170px-2007_06_26_lech_kaczynski_06.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/2007_06_26_lech_kaczynski_06.jpg/255px-2007_06_26_lech_kaczynski_06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/2007_06_26_lech_kaczynski_06.jpg/340px-2007_06_26_lech_kaczynski_06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the Republic of Poland">President of the Republic of Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lech_Kaczy%C5%84ski" title="Lech Kaczyński">Lech Kaczyński</a>, at the groundbreaking ceremony for the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_History_of_Polish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of the History of Polish Jews">Museum of the History of Polish Jews</a>, 26 June 2007</figcaption></figure> There have been a number of Holocaust remembrance activities in Poland in recent years. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">United States Department of State</a> documents that: <blockquote>In September 2000, dignitaries from Poland, Israel, the United States, and other countries (including <a href="/wiki/Prince_Hassan_of_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Hassan of Jordan">Prince Hassan of Jordan</a>) gathered in the city of Oświęcim (Auschwitz) to commemorate the opening of the refurbished <a href="/wiki/Chevra_Lomdei_Mishnayot_synagogue" class="mw-redirect" title="Chevra Lomdei Mishnayot synagogue">Chevra Lomdei Mishnayot synagogue</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_Jewish_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz Jewish Center">Auschwitz Jewish Center</a>. The synagogue, the sole synagogue in Oświęcim to survive World War II and an adjacent Jewish cultural and educational center, provide visitors a place to pray and to learn about the active pre-World War II Jewish community that existed in Oświęcim. The synagogue was the first communal property in the country to be returned to the Jewish community under the 1997 law allowing for restitution of Jewish communal property.<a href="#cite_note-Poland,_International_Religious_Freedom_Report-311">[309]</a></blockquote> The <a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Living" title="March of the Living">March of the Living</a> is an annual event in April held since 1988 to commemorate the victims of the Holocaust. It takes place from Auschwitz to <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz II">Birkenau</a> and is attended by many people from Israel, Poland and other countries. The marchers honor <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Remembrance_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Remembrance Day">Holocaust Remembrance Day</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Israel_Independence_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel Independence Day">Israel Independence Day</a>.<a href="#cite_note-312">[310]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_Culture_Festival_in_Krakow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Jewish_Culture_Festival_in_Krakow.jpg/220px-Jewish_Culture_Festival_in_Krakow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Jewish_Culture_Festival_in_Krakow.jpg/330px-Jewish_Culture_Festival_in_Krakow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Jewish_Culture_Festival_in_Krakow.jpg/440px-Jewish_Culture_Festival_in_Krakow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="453" /></a><figcaption>"Shalom in Szeroka Street", the final concert of the 15th Jewish Festival</figcaption></figure> An annual <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Culture_Festival_in_Krak%C3%B3w" title="Jewish Culture Festival in Kraków">festival of Jewish culture</a>, which is one of the biggest festivals of Jewish culture in the world, takes place in Kraków.<a href="#cite_note-313">[311]</a> In 2006, Poland's Jewish population was estimated to be approximately 20,000;<a href="#cite_note-polish-jewish-heritage.org-2">[2]</a> most living in Warsaw, <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bielsko-Bia%C5%82a" title="Bielsko-Biała">Bielsko-Biała</a>, though there are no census figures that would give an exact number. According to the Polish <a href="/wiki/Moses_Schorr_Centre" title="Moses Schorr Centre">Moses Schorr Centre</a> and other Polish sources, however, this may represent an undercount of the actual number of Jews living in Poland, since many are not religious.<a href="#cite_note-beitkrakow-314">[312]</a> There are also people with Jewish roots who do not possess adequate documentation to confirm it, due to various historical and family complications.<a href="#cite_note-beitkrakow-314">[312]</a> Poland is currently easing the way for Jews who left Poland during the Communist organized massive expulsion of 1968 to re-obtain their citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-315">[313]</a> Some 15,000 Polish Jews were deprived of their citizenship in the <a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-316">[314]</a> On 17 June 2009 the future <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_History_of_Polish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of the History of Polish Jews">Museum of the History of Polish Jews</a> in Warsaw launched a bilingual Polish-English website called "The Virtual Shtetl",<a href="#cite_note-317">[315]</a> providing information about Jewish life in Poland. In 2013, <a href="/wiki/POLIN_Museum_of_the_History_of_Polish_Jews" title="POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews">POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews</a> opened.<a href="#cite_note-StefanoDavis2016-318">[316]</a> It is one of the world's largest Jewish museums.<a href="#cite_note-319">[317]</a> As of 2019 another museum, the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Museum" title="Warsaw Ghetto Museum">Warsaw Ghetto Museum</a>, is under construction and is intended to open in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-320">[318]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numbers_of_Jews_in_Poland_since_1920">Numbers of Jews in Poland since 1920</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Historical_demographics_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical demographics of Poland">Historical demographics of Poland</a></div> <table style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;border:1px solid #999;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:#f3fff3"><caption style="margin-bottom:0.5em;font-size:1.1em;font-weight:bold">Historical core Jewish population (using current borders) with Jews as a % of the total Polish population (Source: YIVO Encyclopedia & the North American Jewish Data Bank)</caption><tbody><tr style="background:#ddffdd"><th scope="row" style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">Year</th><th style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">1921</th><th style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">1939</th><th style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">1945</th><th style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">1946</th><th style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">1951</th><th style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">1960</th><th style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">1970</th><th style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">1980</th><th style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">1990</th><th style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">2000</th><th style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">2010</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px">Population</th><td style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px;text-align:center">2,845,000 (+14.2%)</td><td style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px;text-align:center">3,250,000<a href="#cite_note-YIVO-P&M-321">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berman2010-322">[320]</a> (100%) 9.1% of the total</td><td style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px;text-align:center">100,000 (−96.9%) 0.4%</td><td style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px;text-align:center">230,000 (+130.0%) 1.0%</td><td style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px;text-align:center">70,000 (−69.6%) 0.3%</td><td style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px;text-align:center">31,000 (−55.7%) 0.1%</td><td style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px;text-align:center">9,000 (−71.0%) <0.1%</td><td style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px;text-align:center">5,000 (−44.4%) nil%</td><td style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px;text-align:center">3,800 (−24.0%) nil%</td><td style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px;text-align:center">3,500 (−7.9%) nil%</td><td style="border:1px solid #999;padding:4px;text-align:center">3,200<a href="#cite_note-Berman2010-322">[320]</a> (−8.6%) nil%</td></tr></tbody></table> However, most sources other than <a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO</a> give a larger number of Jews living in contemporary Poland. In the 2011 Polish census, 7,353 Polish citizens declared their nationality as "Jewish," a big increase from just 1,055 during the previous 2002 census.<a href="#cite_note-323">[321]</a> In the 2021 Polish census in total 17,156 people declared their ethnicity as Jewish, once again a big increase from the previous census.<a href="#cite_note-:5-324">[322]</a> The voivodeships with the largest number of Jews are Masovian, Lesser Poland and Silesian. There are likely more people of Jewish ancestry living in Poland but who do not actively identify as Jewish. According to the <a href="/wiki/Moses_Schorr_Centre" title="Moses Schorr Centre">Moses Schorr Centre</a>, there are 100,000 Jews living in Poland who don't actively practice Judaism and do not list "Jewish" as their nationality.<a href="#cite_note-325">[323]</a> The Jewish Renewal in Poland organization estimates that there are 200,000 "potential Jews" in Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Jewish_Renewal_in_Poland-326">[324]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Joint_Distribution_Committee" title="American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee">American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel" title="Jewish Agency for Israel">Jewish Agency for Israel</a> estimate that there are between 25,000 and 100,000 Jews living in Poland,<a href="#cite_note-327">[325]</a> a similar number to that estimated by Jonathan Ornstein, head of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Community_Center" title="Jewish Community Center">Jewish Community Center</a> in <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> (between 20,000 and 100,000).<a href="#cite_note-328">[326]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Jewish population of Poland according to the 2021 census<a href="#cite_note-:5-324">[322]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Voivodeship </th> <th>Total population </th> <th>Jewish population </th> <th>Percentage of Jews </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Masovian_Voivodeship" title="Masovian Voivodeship">Masovian</a> </td> <td>5,514,699 </td> <td>5,224 </td> <td>0.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland_Voivodeship" title="Lesser Poland Voivodeship">Lesser Poland</a> </td> <td>3,432,295 </td> <td>1,693 </td> <td>0.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Voivodeship" title="Silesian Voivodeship">Silesian</a> </td> <td>4,402,950 </td> <td>1,611 </td> <td>nil% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lower_Silesian_Voivodeship" title="Lower Silesian Voivodeship">Lower Silesian</a> </td> <td>2,904,894 </td> <td>1,482 </td> <td>0.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_Voivodeship" title="Greater Poland Voivodeship">Greater Poland</a> </td> <td>3,504,579 </td> <td>1,173 </td> <td>nil% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship" title="Pomeranian Voivodeship">Pomeranian</a> </td> <td>2,357,320 </td> <td>1,086 </td> <td>0.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Voivodeship" title="Łódź Voivodeship">Łódź</a> </td> <td>2,410,286 </td> <td>976 </td> <td>nil% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Voivodeship" title="Lublin Voivodeship">Lublin</a> </td> <td>2,052,340 </td> <td>707 </td> <td>nil% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/West_Pomeranian_Voivodeship" title="West Pomeranian Voivodeship">West Pomeranian</a> </td> <td>1,657,716 </td> <td>594 </td> <td>nil% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kuyavian%E2%80%93Pomeranian_Voivodeship" title="Kuyavian–Pomeranian Voivodeship">Kuyavian-Pomeranian</a> </td> <td>2,027,261 </td> <td>514 </td> <td>nil% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Subcarpathian_Voivodeship" title="Subcarpathian Voivodeship">Subcarpathian</a> </td> <td>2,093,360 </td> <td>513 </td> <td>nil% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Warmian%E2%80%93Masurian_Voivodeship" title="Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship">Warmian-Masurian</a> </td> <td>1,382,232 </td> <td>371 </td> <td>nil% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Podlaskie_Voivodeship" title="Podlaskie Voivodeship">Podlaskie</a> </td> <td>1,154,283 </td> <td>365 </td> <td>nil% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Opole_Voivodeship" title="Opole Voivodeship">Opole</a> </td> <td>954,133 </td> <td>310 </td> <td>nil% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Awi%C4%99tokrzyskie_Voivodeship" title="Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship">Holy Cross</a> </td> <td>1,196,557 </td> <td>272 </td> <td>nil% </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lubusz_Voivodeship" title="Lubusz Voivodeship">Lubusz</a> </td> <td>991,213 </td> <td>265 </td> <td>nil% </td></tr> <tr> <th>Poland </th> <th>38,036,118 </th> <th>17,156 </th> <th>0.1% </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 28em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland_before_the_18th_century" title="History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century">History of the Jews in Poland before the 18th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_18th-century_Poland" title="History of the Jews in 18th-century Poland">History of the Jews in 18th-century Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_19th-century_Poland" title="History of the Jews in 19th-century Poland">History of the Jews in 19th-century Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_20th-century_Poland" title="History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland">History of the Jews in 20th-century Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish-Polish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish-Polish history">Timeline of Jewish-Polish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galician Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">History of the Jews in Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">History of the Jews in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">History of the Jews in Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Poland_relations" title="Israel–Poland relations">Israel–Poland relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Jewish ethnic divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Roots_in_Poland" title="Jewish Roots in Poland">Jewish Roots in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_rabbis" title="List of Polish rabbis">List of Polish rabbis</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> This number essentially entails the amount of Israelis with at least one Polish great-grandparent, as of 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> As of 2010. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-auto-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/about/communities/PL">"Poland"</a>. World Jewish Congress.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Poland&rft.pub=World+Jewish+Congress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldjewishcongress.org%2Fen%2Fabout%2Fcommunities%2FPL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-polish-jewish-heritage.org-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-polish-jewish-heritage.org_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polish-jewish-heritage.org_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polish-jewish-heritage.org_2-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.polish-jewish-heritage.org/eng/05-01_Polan_Selects_New_Chief_Rabbi.htm">The Canadian Foundation of Polish–Jewish Heritage</a>. Polish-jewish-heritage.org (8 January 2005). Retrieved on 2010-08-22. </li> <li id="cite_note-ynet-4"><a href="#cite_ref-ynet_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFסיקולר2007" class="citation news cs1">סיקולר, נעמה (16 March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3376540,00.html">"דרכון פולני בזכות הסבתא מוורשה"</a>. ynet.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ynet&rft.atitle=%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9F+%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%99+%D7%91%D7%96%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%AA+%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%90+%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%94&rft.date=2007-03-16&rft.aulast=%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A8&rft.aufirst=%D7%A0%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%94&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ynet.co.il%2Farticles%2F0%2C7340%2CL-3376540%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111113173112/http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_24x&CYear=2011">"Jews, by Country of Origin and Age"</a>. Statistical Abstract of Israel (in English and Hebrew). <a href="/wiki/Israel_Central_Bureau_of_Statistics" title="Israel Central Bureau of Statistics">Israel Central Bureau of Statistics</a>. 26 September 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_24x&CYear=2011">the original</a> on 13 November 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Statistical+Abstract+of+Israel&rft.atitle=Jews%2C+by+Country+of+Origin+and+Age&rft.date=2011-09-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbs.gov.il%2Freader%2Fshnaton%2Ftempl_shnaton_e.html%3Fnum_tab%3Dst02_24x%26CYear%3D2011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedberg2018" class="citation web cs1">Friedberg, Edna (6 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/02/poland-holocaust-death-camps/552455/">"The Truth About Poland's Role in the Holocaus"</a>. The Atlantic. Retrieved 15 August 2021. <q>"By the end of the war, 3 million Polish Jews—90 percent of the prewar population—had been murdered by the Germans and their collaborators of various nationalities, one of the highest percentages in Europe."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Truth+About+Poland%27s+Role+in+the+Holocaus&rft.date=2018-02-06&rft.aulast=Friedberg&rft.aufirst=Edna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Finternational%2Farchive%2F2018%2F02%2Fpoland-holocaust-death-camps%2F552455%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hugh-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Hugh_8-0">^</a> Hugh Redwald Trevor-Roper, From Counter-Reformation to Glorious Revolution, University of Chicago Press 1992, p. 51. Quote: "Poland, at that time, was the most tolerant country in Europe." Also in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W_LvAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Poland,+at+that+time,+was+the+most+tolerant+country+in+Europe%22">Britain and the Netherlands</a> by S. Groenveld, Michael J. Wintle; and in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jEIqAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Poland,+at+that+time,+was+the+most+tolerant+country+in+Europe%22">The exchange of ideas</a> (Walburg Instituut, 1994). </li> <li id="cite_note-Engel2009-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Engel2009_9-0">^</a> Engel, David. "On Reconciling the Histories of Two Chosen Peoples." The American Historical Review 114.4 (2009): 914–929. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.polin.pl/en/wystawy-wystawa-glowna-galerie/paradisus-iudaeorum">"Paradisus Iudaeorum (1569–1648)"</a>. POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews. 13 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=POLIN+Museum+of+the+History+of+Polish+Jews&rft.atitle=Paradisus+Iudaeorum+%281569%E2%80%931648%29&rft.date=2013-05-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.polin.pl%2Fen%2Fwystawy-wystawa-glowna-galerie%2Fparadisus-iudaeorum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sanford-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sanford_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sanford_11-1">b</a> George Sanford, Historical Dictionary of Poland (2nd ed.) Oxford: The Scarecrow Press, 2003. p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-EJC-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EJC_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EJC_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211201802/http://www.eurojewcong.org/ejc/news.php?id_article=107">"European Jewish Congress – Poland"</a>. 11 December 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eurojewcong.org/ejc/news.php?id_article=107">the original</a> on 11 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=European+Jewish+Congress+%E2%80%93+Poland&rft.date=2008-12-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurojewcong.org%2Fejc%2Fnews.php%3Fid_article%3D107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-relations-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-relations_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-relations_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-relations_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-relations_13-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-relations_13-4">e</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Poland.html">The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Poland</a>. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-Central-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Central_14-0">^</a> In accordance with its tradition of religious tolerance, Poland refrained from participating in the excesses of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation "Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends" by Lonnie R. Johnson Oxford University Press 1996 </li> <li id="cite_note-Note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Note_15-0">^</a> Although traditional narrative holds that as a consequence, the predicament of the Commonwealth’s Jewry worsened, declining to the level of other European countries by the end of the eighteenth century, recent scholarship by Gershon Hundert, Moshe Rosman, Edward Fram, and Magda Teter, suggest that the reality was much more complex. See for example, the following works, which discuss Jewish life and culture, as well as Jewish-Christian relations during that period: M. Rosman Lords' Jews: Magnate-Jewish Relations in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Eighteenth Century (Harvard University Press, new ed. 1993), G. Hundert The Jews in a Polish Private Town: The Case of Opatów in the Eighteenth Century (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), E.Fram Ideals Face Reality: Jewish Law and Life in Poland, 1550–1655 (HUC Press, 1996), and M. TeterJews and Heretics in Pre-modern Poland: A Beleaguered Church in the Post-Reformation Era (Cambridge University Press, 2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-partners-1-16"><a href="#cite_ref-partners-1_16-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/beyond-the-pale/index.html">Beyond the Pale</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110220222119/http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/beyond-the-pale/index.html">Archived</a> 20 February 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Online exposition </li> <li id="cite_note-Hagen-1-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Hagen-1_17-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_W._Hagen" title="William W. Hagen">William W. Hagen</a>, Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland, <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Modern_History" title="The Journal of Modern History">The Journal of Modern History</a>, Vol. 68, No. 2 (Jun. 1996), 351–381. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> "In 1937, the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs viewed the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> as the right place for manifesting its support for the cause of developing a Jewish state in Palestine. This had been declared at the League by Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck" title="Józef Beck">Józef Beck</a>.11 He also supported the idea of an international conference and campaign for organising and facilitating Jewish emigration.12 Talks were held with British Foreign Secretary <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Eden" title="Anthony Eden">Anthony Eden</a>, and in the US, with President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>. Jewish members of the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> who protested against the heightened <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> in Poland took pains to thank Beck for furthering the cause of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine." <a href="/wiki/Szymon_Rudnicki" title="Szymon Rudnicki">Szymon Rudnicki</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marek_Karliner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marek Karliner (page does not exist)">Marek Karliner</a> & <a href="/w/index.php?title=Laurence_Weinbaum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laurence Weinbaum (page does not exist)">Laurence Weinbaum</a>, "Linking the Vistula and the Jordan: The Genesis of Relations between Poland and the State of Israel", <a href="/wiki/Israel_Journal_of_Foreign_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs">Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs</a>, 8:1, 2014, pp. 103–114. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> "Rydz Smigły agreed to support <a href="/wiki/Irgun" title="Irgun">Irgun</a>, The <a href="/wiki/Zionists" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionists">Zionists</a>' military arm, for the fight in <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Palestine</a>. Weapons were provided for 10,000 men, and Polish officers trained Irgun fighters in the <a href="/wiki/Tatra_Mountains" title="Tatra Mountains">Tatra Mountains</a> located in southern Poland." <a href="/w/index.php?title=Archibald_L._Patterson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archibald L. Patterson (page does not exist)">Archibald L. Patterson</a>, Between Hitler and Stalin: The Quick Life and Secret Death of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_Smig%C5%82y&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward Smigły (page does not exist)">Edward Smigły</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180516232304/https://shavei.org/communities/hidden-jews-poland/">"The Hidden Jews of Poland"</a>. Shavei Israel. 22 November 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shavei.org/communities/hidden-jews-poland/">the original</a> on 16 May 2018. Retrieved 20 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Shavei+Israel&rft.atitle=The+Hidden+Jews+of+Poland&rft.date=2015-11-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshavei.org%2Fcommunities%2Fhidden-jews-poland%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-YV-archive1-21"><a href="#cite_ref-YV-archive1_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=3428&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=/IMAGE_TYPE/3428.GIF">"מידע נוסף על הפריט"</a>. 30 May 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080530115755/http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=3428&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F3428.GIF">Archived</a> from the original on 30 May 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A2+%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A3+%D7%A2%D7%9C+%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98&rft.date=2008-05-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.yadvashem.org%2FOdot%2Fprog%2Fimage_into.asp%3Fid%3D3428%26lang%3DEN%26type_id%3D%26addr%3D%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F3428.GIF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pathofrighteousg00pald">The Path of the Righteous: Gentile Rescuers of Jews During the Holocaust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Paldiel" title="Mordecai Paldiel">Mordecai Paldiel</a>, <a href="/wiki/KTAV_Publishing_House" class="mw-redirect" title="KTAV Publishing House">KTAV Publishing House</a>, pp. 176–236 </li> <li id="cite_note-PCHR-23"><a href="#cite_ref-PCHR_23-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.holocaustresearch.pl/publikacje(en).htm">"I know this Jew!" Blackmailing of the Jews in Warsaw 1939–1945.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071007204107/http://www.holocaustresearch.pl/publikacje%28en%29.htm">Archived</a> 7 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Polish Center for Holocaust Research </li> <li id="cite_note-Lukas-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lukas_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lukas_24-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Lukas" title="Richard C. Lukas">Richard C. Lukas</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lz9obsxmuW4C&dq=%22The+estimates+of+Jewish+survivors+in+Poland%2C%22&pg=PA13">Out of the Inferno: Poles Remember the Holocaust</a> University Press of Kentucky 1989 – 201 pages. p. 13; also in Richard C. Lukas, The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation, 1939–1944, University Press of Kentucky 1986 – 300 pp. </li> <li id="cite_note-Paulsson1-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Paulsson1_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaulsson2002" class="citation book cs1">Paulsson, Gunnar S (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secretcityhidden00paul/page/245">Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw, 1940–1945</a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secretcityhidden00paul/page/245">245</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-09546-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-09546-5"><bdi>0-300-09546-5</bdi></a>. <q>There were people everywhere who were prepared, for whatever motives, to do the Nazis' work for them. And if there was more anti-Semitism in Poland than in many other countries, there was also less collaboration.... The Nazis generally preferred not to count on outbursts of 'emotional anti-Semitism', when what was needed to realize their plans was 'rational antisemitism', as Hitler himself put it. For that, they neither received or requested significant help from the Poles.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secret+City%3A+The+Hidden+Jews+of+Warsaw%2C+1940%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=245&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-300-09546-5&rft.aulast=Paulsson&rft.aufirst=Gunnar+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsecretcityhidden00paul%2Fpage%2F245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hnetradz-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hnetradz_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hnetradz_26-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=252691081495762">Unveiling the Secret City</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070612051615/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=252691081495762">Archived</a> 12 June 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> H-Net Review: John Radzilowski </li> <li id="cite_note-Grabowski_2016-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Grabowski_2016_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabowski2013" class="citation book cs1">Grabowski, Jan (2013). Hunt for the Jews: betrayal and murder in German-occupied Poland. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-01074-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-01074-2"><bdi>978-0-253-01074-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hunt+for+the+Jews%3A+betrayal+and+murder+in+German-occupied+Poland&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-253-01074-2&rft.aulast=Grabowski&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-N-A-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-N-A_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-N-A_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-N-A_28-2">c</a> Natalia Aleksiun. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uHJyoGiep2gC&dq=%22In+January+1946%2C+before+the+mass+repatriation%22&pg=PA248">"Jewish Responses to Antisemitism in Poland, 1944–1947."</a> In: Joshua D. Zimmerman, ed. Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath. Rutgers University Press, 2003. pp. 249, 256. </li> <li id="cite_note-M-S-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-M-S_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-M-S_29-1">b</a> Michael C. Steinlauf. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U6KVOsjpP0MC&dq=%22began+to+emerge+from+concentration+camps+and+places+of+refuge%22&pg=PA109">Poland.</a>". In: David S. Wyman, Charles H. Rosenzveig. The World Reacts to the Holocaust. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. </li> <li id="cite_note-D-H-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-D-H_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-D-H_30-1">b</a> Devorah Hakohen, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hCw6v0TFhdMC&dq=%22Poland+opened+its+gates+to+Jewish+emigration.%22&pg=PA70">Immigrants in turmoil: mass immigration to Israel and its repercussions...</a> Syracuse University Press, 2003 – 325 pages. p. 70. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8156-2969-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8156-2969-9">0-8156-2969-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochavi-175-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochavi-175_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochavi-175_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochavi-175_31-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAleksiun" class="citation web cs1">Aleksiun, Natalia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/printarticle.aspx?id=219">"Beriḥah"</a>. YIVO. <q>Suggested reading: Arieh J. Kochavi, "Britain and the Jewish Exodus...," Polin 7 (1992): pp. 161–175</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Beri%E1%B8%A5ah&rft.pub=YIVO&rft.aulast=Aleksiun&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yivoencyclopedia.org%2Fprintarticle.aspx%3Fid%3D219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marrus-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marrus_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marrus_32-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarrusAristide_R._Zolberg2002" class="citation book cs1">Marrus, Michael Robert; Aristide R. Zolberg (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ssrLM0yWD1kC&q=%22accelerated+powerfully+after+the+Kielce+pogrom%22&pg=PA336">The Unwanted: European Refugees from the First World War Through the Cold War</a>. Temple University Press. p. 336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56639-955-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-56639-955-6"><bdi>1-56639-955-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unwanted%3A+European+Refugees+from+the+First+World+War+Through+the+Cold+War&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-56639-955-6&rft.aulast=Marrus&rft.aufirst=Michael+Robert&rft.au=Aristide+R.+Zolberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DssrLM0yWD1kC%26q%3D%2522accelerated%2Bpowerfully%2Bafter%2Bthe%2BKielce%2Bpogrom%2522%26pg%3DPA336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Dariusz_Stola" title="Dariusz Stola">Dariusz Stola</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.ceu.hu/jewishstudies/pdf/02_stola.pdf">"The Anti-Zionist Campaign in Poland of 1967–1968."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200607110657/http://web.ceu.hu/jewishstudies/pdf/02_stola.pdf">Archived</a> 7 June 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The American Jewish Committee research grant. See: D. Stola, Fighting against the Shadows (reprint), in Robert Blobaum, ed.; Antisemitism and Its Opponents in Modern Poland. Cornell University Press, 2005. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kehilalinks.jewishgen.org/plonsk/history_jewish.htm">"The History From The Jews Population"</a>. kehilalinks.jewishgen.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=kehilalinks.jewishgen.org&rft.atitle=The+History+From+The+Jews+Population&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkehilalinks.jewishgen.org%2Fplonsk%2Fhistory_jewish.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historia.wp.pl/title,Zydzi-pojawili-sie-na-ziemiach-polskich-tysiac-lat-temu,wid,17060494,wiadomosc.html?ticaid=114cc2">Kalina Gawlas, kuratorka galerii Pierwsze Spotkania w MHŻP</a>, historia.wp.pl. </li> <li id="cite_note-polishjews.org-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-polishjews.org_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polishjews.org_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polishjews.org_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polishjews.org_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polishjews.org_36-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polishjews.org_36-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polishjews.org_36-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polishjews.org_36-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polishjews.org_36-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polishjews.org_36-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polishjews.org_36-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-polishjews.org_36-11">l</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://polishjews.org/history1.htm">"The Polish Jews Heritage – Genealogy Research Photos Translation"</a>. polishjews.org. 2009. Retrieved 30 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=polishjews.org&rft.atitle=The+Polish+Jews+Heritage+%E2%80%93+Genealogy+Research+Photos+Translation&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpolishjews.org%2Fhistory1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PMH-1-37"><a href="#cite_ref-PMH-1_37-0">^</a> Postan, Miller, Habakkuk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gaU8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA486">The Cambridge Economic History of Europe</a>. 1948 </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Trade">"YIVO | Trade"</a>. www.yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved 2 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.yivoencyclopedia.org&rft.atitle=YIVO+%7C+Trade&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yivoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle.aspx%2FTrade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman2012" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Jonathan C (2012) [2011]. "Jewish Communities of Europe on the Eve of World War II". Routledge History of the Holocaust. Abingdon; New York: [Routledge. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52087-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52087-4"><bdi>978-0-415-52087-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jewish+Communities+of+Europe+on+the+Eve+of+World+War+II&rft.btitle=Routledge+History+of+the+Holocaust&rft.place=Abingdon%3B+New+York&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=%5BRoutledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-415-52087-4&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://henryabramson.com/2013/12/05/origins-of-polish-jewry-this-week-in-jewish-history/">"Origins of Polish Jewry (This Week in Jewish History)"</a>. Henry Abramson. 5 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Henry+Abramson&rft.atitle=Origins+of+Polish+Jewry+%28This+Week+in+Jewish+History%29&rft.date=2013-12-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhenryabramson.com%2F2013%2F12%2F05%2Forigins-of-polish-jewry-this-week-in-jewish-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dubnow-1-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Dubnow-1_41-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Simon_Dubnow" title="Simon Dubnow">Simon Dubnow</a>, History of the Jews in Russia and Poland, Varda Books (2001 reprint), Vol. 1, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190813064507/https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/poland">"The Jews of Poland"</a>. Beit Hatfutsot Open Databases Project, The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/poland">the original</a> on 13 August 2019. 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M. Dubnow </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKonieczny2021" class="citation journal cs1">Konieczny, Piotr (23 June 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12397-021-09380-4">"From Xenophobia to Golden Age: "Jewish Paradise" Proverb as a Linguistic Reclamation"</a>. Contemporary Jewry. 41 (2): 517–537. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12397-021-09380-4">10.1007/s12397-021-09380-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1876-5165">1876-5165</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236146777">236146777</a>. <q>The phrase "Jewish paradise" (from Latin paradisus Judeorum), part of an enduring Polish proverb ("heaven for the nobles, purgatory for the townspeople, hell for the peasants, and paradise for the Jews"), originated in a xenophobic and antisemitic poem from 1606.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contemporary+Jewry&rft.atitle=From+Xenophobia+to+Golden+Age%3A+%22Jewish+Paradise%22+Proverb+as+a+Linguistic+Reclamation&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=517-537&rft.date=2021-06-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236146777%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1876-5165&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12397-021-09380-4&rft.aulast=Konieczny&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs12397-021-09380-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Linda_Gordon-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Linda_Gordon_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Linda_Gordon_61-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Linda_Gordon_61-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qq0c9viLrB4C&dq=jews+ukraine+perceived+cossacks&pg=PA56">Cossack Rebellions. Social Turmoil in the Sixteenth-century Ukraine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Meir_Balaban" title="Meir Balaban">Majer Bałaban</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lwow.com.pl/judaica.html">Dzielnica żydowska we Lwowie</a>" </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nm5vEAAAQBAJ&dq=Privilegium+de+non+tolerandis+Judaeis+poland&pg=PA172">Categorically Jewish, Distinctly Polish. Polish Jewish History Reflected and Refracted</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Herman Rosenthal, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=469&letter=C">"Chmielnicki, Bogdan Zinovi"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a> 1901. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wielkahistoria.pl/krwawa-zemsta-stefana-czarnieckiego-na-kozakach-nie-oszczedzal-nawet-kobiet-i-dzieci/">Krwawa zemsta Stefana Czarnieckiego na Kozakach. Nie oszczędzał nawet kobiet i dzieci</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KMvHDwAAQBAJ&dq=czarniecki+murder+jews&pg=PT50">The Jews in a Polish Private Town – The Case of Opatów in the Eighteenth Century</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Herman Rosenthal, J. G. 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Bellona. pp. 206–213. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-11-08275-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-11-08275-5"><bdi>978-83-11-08275-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stefan+Czarniecki+%281604%E2%80%931655%29+hetman+polny&rft.btitle=Hetmani+Rzeczypospolitej+Obojga+Narod%C3%B3w&rft.pages=206-213&rft.pub=Wydawn.+Bellona&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-83-11-08275-5&rft.aulast=Nagielski&rft.aufirst=Miros%C5%82aw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt4niAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Milewski-70"><a href="#cite_ref-Milewski_70-0">^</a> Dariusz Milewski, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110518220019/http://wiadomosci.onet.pl/kiosk/historia/szwedzi-w-krakowie%2C1%2C3338904%2Cwiadomosc.html">Szwedzi w Krakowie (The Swedes in Kraków)</a> <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B3wi%C4%85_Wieki" title="Mówią Wieki">Mówią Wieki</a> monthly, 8 June 2007, Internet Archive. (in Polish) </li> <li id="cite_note-Petrus-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Petrus_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMgr_inz._arch._Krzysztof_Petrus" class="citation web cs1">Mgr inz. arch. Krzysztof Petrus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://suw.biblos.pk.edu.pl/resources/i3/i6/i9/i1/i1/r36911/PetrusK_ZabytkiKartografii.pdf">"Zrodla do badan przemian przestrzennych zachodnich przedmiesc Krakowa"</a> (PDF). Architektura, Czasopismo techniczne. Politechnika Krakowska. pp. 143–145. Retrieved 5 May 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Architektura%2C+Czasopismo+techniczne&rft.atitle=Zrodla+do+badan+przemian+przestrzennych+zachodnich+przedmiesc+Krakowa&rft.pages=143-145&rft.au=Mgr+inz.+arch.+Krzysztof+Petrus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsuw.biblos.pk.edu.pl%2Fresources%2Fi3%2Fi6%2Fi9%2Fi1%2Fi1%2Fr36911%2FPetrusK_ZabytkiKartografii.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHundert200451–52-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHundert200451–52_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHundert200451–52_72-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHundert2004">Hundert 2004</a>, pp. 51–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHundert200417–18-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHundert200417–18_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHundert2004">Hundert 2004</a>, pp. 17–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishjournal.com/articles/item/timeline_jewish_life_in_poland_from_1098_20070608/">"Timeline: Jewish life in Poland from 1098"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160529184446/http://www.jewishjournal.com/articles/item/timeline_jewish_life_in_poland_from_1098_20070608/">Archived</a> 29 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Jewish Journal, 7 June 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="/wiki/David_HaLevi_Segal" title="David HaLevi Segal">David ben Samuel Ha-Levi</a>, "Divre ̄ David Ture ̄ Zahav" (1689) in Hebrew. Published in: Bi-defus Y. Goldman, Warsaw: 1882. Quoted by the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. </li> <li id="cite_note-Szyndler-64-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Szyndler-64_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Szyndler-64_76-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartłomiej_Szyndler2009" class="citation book cs1">Bartłomiej Szyndler (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-KpBxHzAB1gC&pg=PA64">Racławice 1794</a>. Bellona. pp. 64–65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788311116061" title="Special:BookSources/9788311116061"><bdi>9788311116061</bdi></a>. Retrieved 26 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rac%C5%82awice+1794&rft.pages=64-65&rft.pub=Bellona&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9788311116061&rft.au=Bart%C5%82omiej+Szyndler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-KpBxHzAB1gC%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHundert200418-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHundert200418_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHundert2004">Hundert 2004</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-OB-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OB_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OB_78-1">b</a> Olaf Bergmann (2015), Narodowa demokracja wobec problematyki żydowskiej w latach 1918–1929, Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, p. 16. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7976-222-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7976-222-4">978-83-7976-222-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.polin.pl/en/news/2014/11/25/jew-pole-legionary-1914-1920">"Jew, Pole, Legionary 1914–1920"</a>. POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews. 25 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=POLIN+Museum+of+the+History+of+Polish+Jews&rft.atitle=Jew%2C+Pole%2C+Legionary+1914%E2%80%931920&rft.date=2014-11-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.polin.pl%2Fen%2Fnews%2F2014%2F11%2F25%2Fjew-pole-legionary-1914-1920&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alexander_I-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_I_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_I_80-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDomnitch2003" class="citation book cs1">Domnitch, Larry (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LzFd2W-C6BAC&q=%22Alexander+issued+a%22+%22Statute+Concerning+Jews%22&pg=PA11">The Cantonists: the Jewish children's army of the Tsar</a>. Devora Publishing. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-930143-85-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-930143-85-0"><bdi>1-930143-85-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cantonists%3A+the+Jewish+children%27s+army+of+the+Tsar&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Devora+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-930143-85-0&rft.aulast=Domnitch&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLzFd2W-C6BAC%26q%3D%2522Alexander%2Bissued%2Ba%2522%2B%2522Statute%2BConcerning%2BJews%2522%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicholas_I-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nicholas_I_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nicholas_I_81-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDomnitch2003" class="citation book cs1">Domnitch, Larry (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LzFd2W-C6BAC&q=%22Tsar+Nicholas+enacted+hundreds+of+anti-Jewish+measures.%22&pg=PA13">The Cantonists: the Jewish children's army of the Tsar</a>. Devora. pp. 12–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781930143852" title="Special:BookSources/9781930143852"><bdi>9781930143852</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cantonists%3A+the+Jewish+children%27s+army+of+the+Tsar&rft.pages=12-15&rft.pub=Devora&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781930143852&rft.aulast=Domnitch&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLzFd2W-C6BAC%26q%3D%2522Tsar%2BNicholas%2Benacted%2Bhundreds%2Bof%2Banti-Jewish%2Bmeasures.%2522%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFĬokhanan_Petrovskiĭ-Shtern2009" class="citation book cs1">Ĭokhanan Petrovskiĭ-Shtern (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9NoMdyNVtBYC">Jews in the Russian Army, 1827–1917: Drafted Into Modernity</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521515733" title="Special:BookSources/9780521515733"><bdi>9780521515733</bdi></a>. Retrieved 26 March 2013 – via Books.google.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+in+the+Russian+Army%2C+1827%E2%80%931917%3A+Drafted+Into+Modernity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780521515733&rft.au=%C4%ACokhanan+Petrovski%C4%AD-Shtern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9NoMdyNVtBYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Brian Porter, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k_g0ldP92ucC&pg=PA162">When Nationalism Began to Hate: Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth-Century Poland</a>, Oxford University Press (2000), p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Simon_Dubnow" title="Simon Dubnow">Simon Dubnow</a>, History of the Jews in Russia and Poland, Varda Books (2001 reprint), Vol. 2, p. 282. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanislawski" class="citation web cs1">Stanislawski, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russia/Russian_Empire">"Russian Empire"</a>. YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YIVO+Encyclopedia+of+Jews+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.atitle=Russian+Empire&rft.aulast=Stanislawski&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yivoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle.aspx%2FRussia%2FRussian_Empire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bender16-86"><a href="#cite_ref-Bender16_86-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSara_Bender2008" class="citation book cs1">Sara Bender (2008). "Introduction: 'Bialystock-upon-Tiktin'". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DSkendQVMbcC&q=%22Poles+refused+to+participate%22+%22they+had+actually+sheltered+Jews%22">The Jews of Białystok During World War II and the Holocaust</a>. UPNE. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1584657293" title="Special:BookSources/978-1584657293"><bdi>978-1584657293</bdi></a>. Retrieved 6 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+%27Bialystock-upon-Tiktin%27&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Bia%C5%82ystok+During+World+War+II+and+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=UPNE&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1584657293&rft.au=Sara+Bender&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDSkendQVMbcC%26q%3D%2522Poles%2Brefused%2Bto%2Bparticipate%2522%2B%2522they%2Bhad%2Bactually%2Bsheltered%2BJews%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NMjh319vnwAC&pg=PA173">A History of Zionism.</a> Tauris Parke, 2003 pp. 173–174. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Isaiah Friedman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iv1DADhI6h4C&pg=PA233">Germany, Turkey, Zionism, 1897–1918.</a> Transaction Publishers, 1997, pp. 233 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-ZZ-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ZZ_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ZZ_89-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ZZ_89-2">c</a> Zygmunt Zygmuntowicz, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100923173029/http://fzp.net.pl/historia18.html">Żydzi w Legionach Józefa Piłsudskiego</a> excerpt from book Żydzi Bojownicy o Niepodleglość Polski, <a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="Lwów">Lwów</a>, 1939, digitized at Forum Żydów Polskich. Internet Archive. </li> <li id="cite_note-MG-90"><a href="#cite_ref-MG_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarek_Gałęzowski2012" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Marek Gałęzowski (10 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historia.uwazamrze.pl/artykul/942199">"Żydzi w Legionach"</a> (in Polish). Uważam Rze Historia. Retrieved 26 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%C5%BBydzi+w+Legionach&rft.pub=Uwa%C5%BCam+Rze+Historia&rft.date=2012-11-10&rft.au=Marek+Ga%C5%82%C4%99zowski&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historia.uwazamrze.pl%2Fartykul%2F942199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Elusive Alliance: The German Occupation of Poland in World War I p. 176 Jesse Kauffman 2015 [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> A Deadly Legacy: German Jews and the Great War, Timothy L. Grady, p. 82, 2017 </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Neal Pease. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fhK5QebocBkC&pg=RA1-PA74">'This Troublesome Question': The United States and the 'Polish Pogroms' of 1918–1919.</a> In: Ideology, Politics and Diplomacy in East Central Europe, ed. M. B. B. Biskupski. University of Rochester Press, 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-Biskupski2003-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Biskupski2003_94-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMieczysław_B._BiskupskiPiotr_Stefan_Wandycz2003" class="citation book cs1">Mieczysław B. Biskupski; Piotr Stefan Wandycz (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fhK5QebocBkC&q=%C5%81uczy%C5%84ski+pinsk&pg=RA1-PA65">Ideology, Politics, and Diplomacy in East Central Europe</a>. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 65–74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1580461379" title="Special:BookSources/1580461379"><bdi>1580461379</bdi></a>. Retrieved 4 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ideology%2C+Politics%2C+and+Diplomacy+in+East+Central+Europe&rft.pages=65-74&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1580461379&rft.au=Mieczys%C5%82aw+B.+Biskupski&rft.au=Piotr+Stefan+Wandycz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfhK5QebocBkC%26q%3D%25C5%2581uczy%25C5%2584ski%2Bpinsk%26pg%3DRA1-PA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies47-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies47_95-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Davies, Norman</a>, White Eagle, Red Star: the Polish–Soviet War, 1919–20, St. Martin's Press, 1972, pp. 47–48. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/715788575">715788575</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Herbert Arthur Strauss. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SOFkWX8EC4cC&pg=PA1048">Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870–1933/39.</a> Walter de Gruyter, 1993. </li> <li id="cite_note-ThreateningOther-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ThreateningOther_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ThreateningOther_97-1">b</a> Joanna B. Michlic. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t6h2pI7o_zQC&pg=PA110">Poland's Threatening Other: The Image of the Jew from 1880 to the Present.</a> University of Nebraska Press, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Andrzej Kapiszewski, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071006100322/http://www.studiajudaica.pl/sj14kapi.pdf">Controversial Reports on the Situation of Jews in Poland in the Aftermath of World War I: The Conflict between the US Ambassador in Warsaw Hugh Gibson and American Jewish Leaders.</a> Studia Judaica 7: 2004 nr 2(14) s. 257–304 (pdf) </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCichopek-GajrajDynner2021" class="citation book cs1">Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna; Dynner, Glenn (2021). "Pogroms in Modern Poland, 1918–1946". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9Q5wzgEACAAJ">Pogroms: A Documentary History</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-006011-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-006011-4"><bdi>978-0-19-006011-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pogroms+in+Modern+Poland%2C+1918%E2%80%931946&rft.btitle=Pogroms%3A+A+Documentary+History&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-006011-4&rft.aulast=Cichopek-Gajraj&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft.au=Dynner%2C+Glenn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9Q5wzgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Babel-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Babel_100-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Babel" title="Isaac Babel">Isaac Babel</a>, 1920 Diary, Yale, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-09313-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-09313-6">0-300-09313-6</a>, ex. pp. 4, 7, 10, 26, 33, 84 </li> <li id="cite_note-sejm-728-101"><a href="#cite_ref-sejm-728_101-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> RP. Internetowy System Aktow Prawnych. "Traktat między Głównemi Mocarstwami sprzymierzonemi i stowarzyszonemi a Polską, podpisany w Wersalu dnia 28 czerwca 1919 r." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isip.sejm.gov.pl/Download;jsessionid=3236B120D0D9114249B630D9A4D451F9?id=WDU19201100728&type=2">PDF scan of the Treaty</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120126224654/http://isip.sejm.gov.pl/Download%3Bjsessionid%3D3236B120D0D9114249B630D9A4D451F9?id=WDU19201100728&type=2">Archived</a> 26 January 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (original document, 1,369 KB). Retrieved 16 October 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-ND-102"><a href="#cite_ref-ND_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Davies" title="Davies">Davies, Norman</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SOFkWX8EC4cC&q=lwow+pogrom+1918+killed++jews&pg=PA1012">"Ethnic Diversity in Twentieth Century Poland"</a>. In Strauss, Herbert Arthur (ed.). Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870–1933/39. <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter de Gruyter">Walter de Gruyter</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3110137156" title="Special:BookSources/978-3110137156"><bdi>978-3110137156</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethnic+Diversity+in+Twentieth+Century+Poland&rft.btitle=Hostages+of+Modernization%3A+Studies+on+Modern+Antisemitism%2C+1870%E2%80%931933%2F39&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-3110137156&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSOFkWX8EC4cC%26q%3Dlwow%2Bpogrom%2B1918%2Bkilled%2B%2Bjews%26pg%3DPA1012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zim-103"><a href="#cite_ref-Zim_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngel2003" class="citation book cs1">Engel, David (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&q=Lw%C3%B3w+1918+criminals&pg=PA34">"Lwów, 1918: The Transmutation of a Symbol and its Legacy in the Holocaust"</a>. In Zimmerman, Joshua D. (ed.). Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath. <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a>. pp. 33–34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813531586" title="Special:BookSources/0813531586"><bdi>0813531586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lw%C3%B3w%2C+1918%3A+The+Transmutation+of+a+Symbol+and+its+Legacy+in+the+Holocaust&rft.btitle=Contested+Memories%3A+Poles+and+Jews+During+the+Holocaust+and+Its+Aftermath&rft.pages=33-34&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0813531586&rft.aulast=Engel&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4Iiw0KB31rgC%26q%3DLw%25C3%25B3w%2B1918%2Bcriminals%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kap-104"><a href="#cite_ref-kap_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKapiszewski2004" class="citation book cs1">Kapiszewski, Andrzej (2004). "Controversial Reports on the situation of Jews in Poland in the aftermath of World War I". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071006100322/http://www.studiajudaica.pl/sj14kapi.pdf">Studia Judaica</a> (PDF). pp. 257–304. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.studiajudaica.pl/sj14kapi.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Controversial+Reports+on+the+situation+of+Jews+in+Poland+in+the+aftermath+of+World+War+I&rft.btitle=Studia+Judaica&rft.pages=257-304&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Kapiszewski&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.studiajudaica.pl%2Fsj14kapi.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sejm-267-105"><a href="#cite_ref-sejm-267_105-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> RP. Internetowy System Aktow Prawnych. "Ustawa z dnia 17 marca 1921 r. – Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isip.sejm.gov.pl/Download?id=WDU19210440267&type=2">PDF scan of the March Constitution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305005859/http://isip.sejm.gov.pl/Download?id=WDU19210440267&type=2">Archived</a> 5 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, (original document, 1,522 KB), including "Rozporządzenie Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej z dnia 9 marca 1927 r. w sprawie utworzenia gmin wyznaniowych żydowskich na obszarze powiatów: białostockiego, bielskiego i sokólskiego województwa białostockiego." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/Download;jsessionid=B9FEB450258082E7C27CC1DD803916E4?id=WDU19270230175&type=2">Amendments</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119132146/http://isap.sejm.gov.pl/Download%3Bjsessionid%3DB9FEB450258082E7C27CC1DD803916E4?id=WDU19270230175&type=2">Archived</a> 19 January 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (original document, 67 KB). Retrieved 16 October 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Gershon David Hundert. The YIVO encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, Vol. 2. Yivo Institute for Jewish Research Yale University Press. 2008. p. 1393. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/837032828">837032828</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Yehuda_Bauer" title="Yehuda Bauer">Yehuda Bauer</a>, A History of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 1929–1939. End note 20: 44–29, memo 1/30/39 [30 January 1939], The Jewish Publication Society of America, <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, 1974 </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Nechama Tec, When Light Pierced the Darkness: Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland, Oxford University Press US, 1987, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kg0L3L0kImUC&pg=PA12">p. 12</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081006072443/http://www.info.kalisz.pl/statut/jewswar2.htm">"Jews in Poland – Polish Jews in World War II"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.info.kalisz.pl/Statut/JewsWar2.htm">the original</a> on 6 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jews+in+Poland+%E2%80%93+Polish+Jews+in+World+War+II&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.info.kalisz.pl%2FStatut%2FJewsWar2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/lodz-poland-jewish-history-tour">"Lodz, Poland Jewish History Tour"</a>. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=Lodz%2C+Poland+Jewish+History+Tour&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Flodz-poland-jewish-history-tour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/vilnius-vilna-lithuania-jewish-history-tour">"Vilnius (Vilna), Lithuania Jewish History Tour"</a>. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=Vilnius+%28Vilna%29%2C+Lithuania+Jewish+History+Tour&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fvilnius-vilna-lithuania-jewish-history-tour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kehilalinks.jewishgen.org/krakow/">"Jewish Krakow: The Jews of Krakow"</a>. kehilalinks.jewishgen.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=kehilalinks.jewishgen.org&rft.atitle=Jewish+Krakow%3A+The+Jews+of+Krakow.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkehilalinks.jewishgen.org%2Fkrakow%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GUS1931-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GUS1931_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GUS1931_113-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGUS1938" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">GUS (1938). "<a href="/wiki/1931_Polish_census" title="1931 Polish census">1931 Polish census</a>. Table 10, p. 30 in current document". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://statlibr.stat.gov.pl/exlibris/aleph/a22_1/apache_media/VUNVGMLANSCQQFGYHCN3VDLK12A9U5.pdf">Drugi Powszechny Spis Ludności z dn. 9.XII.1931 r. Seria C. Zeszyt 94a</a> (PDF file, direct download) (in Polish). ]Warszawa: Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Retrieved 3 March 2015. <q>Religion and Native Language (total). Section Jewish: 3,113,933 with Yiddish: 2,489,034 and Hebrew: 243,539.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1931+Polish+census.+Table+10%2C+p.+30+in+current+document&rft.btitle=Drugi+Powszechny+Spis+Ludno%C5%9Bci+z+dn.+9.XII.1931+r.+Seria+C.+Zeszyt+94a&rft.place=%5DWarszawa&rft.pub=G%C5%82%C3%B3wny+Urz%C4%85d+Statystyczny+Rzeczypospolitej+Polskiej&rft.date=1938&rft.au=GUS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstatlibr.stat.gov.pl%2Fexlibris%2Faleph%2Fa22_1%2Fapache_media%2FVUNVGMLANSCQQFGYHCN3VDLK12A9U5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-YV-archive2-114"><a href="#cite_ref-YV-archive2_114-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=7270&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=/IMAGE_TYPE/7270.JPG">"מידע נוסף על הפריט"</a>. 30 May 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080530115657/http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=7270&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F7270.JPG">Archived</a> from the original on 30 May 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A2+%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A3+%D7%A2%D7%9C+%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98&rft.date=2008-05-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.yadvashem.org%2FOdot%2Fprog%2Fimage_into.asp%3Fid%3D7270%26lang%3DEN%26type_id%3D%26addr%3D%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F7270.JPG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Yad Vashem, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090720013543/http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=7694&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F7694.JPG">The Bund Council in August 1937, Warsaw, Poland.</a> Film and Photo Archive. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Aleksander Hertz, Lucjan Dobroszycki <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=APRYwrQWy-AC&q=jews+in+polish+culture">The Jews in Polish culture</a>, Northwestern University Press, 1988 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8101-0758-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8101-0758-9">0-8101-0758-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Ilya Prizel, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fE2quB852jcC&pg=PA65">National identity and foreign policy</a>, Cambridge University Press 1998 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-57697-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-57697-0">0-521-57697-0</a> p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRozenbaum1989" class="citation book cs1">Rozenbaum, Włodzimierz (1989). "The Status of the Jews in Poland between the Wars: 1918–1939: An Overview". In Timothy J. Wiles (ed.). Poland between the Wars: 1918–1939. Bloomington: Indiana University Polish Studies Center. pp. 161–169.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Status+of+the+Jews+in+Poland+between+the+Wars%3A+1918%E2%80%931939%3A+An+Overview&rft.btitle=Poland+between+the+Wars%3A+1918%E2%80%931939&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pages=161-169&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Polish+Studies+Center&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Rozenbaum&rft.aufirst=W%C5%82odzimierz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLatawski2008" class="citation book cs1">Latawski, Paul (2008). "The Dmowski-Namier Feud, 1915-1918". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/jews-and-the-emerging-polish-state-polin-volume-two/dmowskinamier-feud-19151918/C8965B352B72FA2E94AB9D98A294FA08">Jews and the Emerging Polish State (Polin Volume Two)</a>. Liverpool University Press, Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-909821-53-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-909821-53-8"><bdi>978-1-909821-53-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Dmowski-Namier+Feud%2C+1915-1918&rft.btitle=Jews+and+the+Emerging+Polish+State+%28Polin+Volume+Two%29&rft.pages=37-49&rft.pub=Liverpool+University+Press%2C+Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-909821-53-8&rft.aulast=Latawski&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fjews-and-the-emerging-polish-state-polin-volume-two%2Fdmowskinamier-feud-19151918%2FC8965B352B72FA2E94AB9D98A294FA08&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaynesRady2011" class="citation book cs1">Haynes, Rebecca; Rady, Martyn (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dokumen.pub/in-the-shadow-of-hitler-personalities-of-the-right-in-central-and-eastern-europe-1845116976-9781845116972.html">In the shadow of Hitler: personalities of the right in Central and Eastern Europe</a>. London: I.B. Tauris. pp. 97–99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781845116972" title="Special:BookSources/9781845116972"><bdi>9781845116972</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+shadow+of+Hitler%3A+personalities+of+the+right+in+Central+and+Eastern+Europe&rft.place=London&rft.pages=97-99&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781845116972&rft.aulast=Haynes&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft.au=Rady%2C+Martyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdokumen.pub%2Fin-the-shadow-of-hitler-personalities-of-the-right-in-central-and-eastern-europe-1845116976-9781845116972.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolonsky2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Polonsky, Antony (2012). The Jews in Poland and Russia. Vol. III. 1914 to 2000. Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. pp. 80–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904113-48-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904113-48-5"><bdi>978-1-904113-48-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+in+Poland+and+Russia&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=80-84&rft.pub=Littman+Library+of+Jewish+Civilization&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-904113-48-5&rft.aulast=Polonsky&rft.aufirst=Antony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Engelking" title="Barbara Engelking">Barbara Engelking</a>, "Psychological Distance Between Poles and Jews in Nazi-Occupied Warsaw", in Joshue Zimmerman, ed., "Contested memories", Rutgers University Press, 2003, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uHJyoGiep2gC">p. 47</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Zionism_and_Zionist_Parties">"Zionism and Zionist Parties"</a>. <a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO</a>. Retrieved 22 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Zionism+and+Zionist+Parties&rft.pub=YIVO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyivoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle.aspx%2FZionism_and_Zionist_Parties&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdelheit2019" class="citation book cs1">Edelheit, Hershel (19 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M9CwDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22antisemitic+Zionism%22&pg=PA116">History Of Zionism: A Handbook And Dictionary</a>. Routledge. p. 116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780429721045" title="Special:BookSources/9780429721045"><bdi>9780429721045</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+Of+Zionism%3A+A+Handbook+And+Dictionary&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019-09-19&rft.isbn=9780429721045&rft.aulast=Edelheit&rft.aufirst=Hershel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM9CwDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522antisemitic%2BZionism%2522%26pg%3DPA116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Snyder-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Snyder_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Snyder_125-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a>, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999, Yale University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-10586-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-10586-X">0-300-10586-X</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC&pg=PA144">p. 144</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cieplinski-126"><a href="#cite_ref-Cieplinski_126-0">^</a> Feigue Cieplinski, Poles and Jews: The Quest For Self-Determination 1919–1934, Binghamton Journal of History, Fall 2002. Retrieved 2 June 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://davidhorodok.tripod.com/4a.html">"DavidGorodok – Section IV – a"</a>. Davidhorodok.tripod.com. Retrieved 26 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DavidGorodok+%E2%80%93+Section+IV+%E2%80%93+a&rft.pub=Davidhorodok.tripod.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdavidhorodok.tripod.com%2F4a.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WM-128"><a href="#cite_ref-WM_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWłodzimierz_Mędrzecki2013" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Włodzimierz Mędrzecki (25 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150420220528/https://men.gov.pl/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/ydzi_w_historii_polski_referat_wm.pdf">"Żydzi w historii Polski XIX i XX wieku"</a> [The Jews in Poland's history of the 19th and the 20th century] (PDF) (in Polish). <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Education_(Poland)" title="Ministry of National Education (Poland)">Ministry of National Education (Poland)</a>. pp. 3, 5–6. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://men.gov.pl/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/ydzi_w_historii_polski_referat_wm.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%C5%BBydzi+w+historii+Polski+XIX+i+XX+wieku&rft.pages=3%2C+5-6&rft.pub=Ministry+of+National+Education+%28Poland%29&rft.date=2013-11-25&rft.au=W%C5%82odzimierz+M%C4%99drzecki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmen.gov.pl%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F04%2Fydzi_w_historii_polski_referat_wm.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AJ-129"><a href="#cite_ref-AJ_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnna_Jaskóła2010" class="citation journal cs1">Anna Jaskóła (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/35560/004.pdf">"Sytuacja prawna mniejszosci żydowskiej w Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej"</a> [The legal status of the Jewish minority in the Second Republic] (PDF). Chapter 3: Szkolnictwo żydowskie. Wrocław: Wydział Prawa, Administracji i Ekonomii. Instytut Historii Państwa i Prawa (Faculty of Law, Administration and Economy). pp. 65–66 (20/38 in PDF) – via direct download from BibliotekaCyfrowa.pl.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chapter+3%3A+Szkolnictwo+%C5%BCydowskie&rft.atitle=Sytuacja+prawna+mniejszosci+%C5%BCydowskiej+w+Drugiej+Rzeczypospolitej&rft.pages=pp.+65-66+%2820%2F38+in+PDF%29&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Anna+Jask%C3%B3%C5%82a&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl%2FContent%2F35560%2F004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yonathan_Shapiro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yonathan Shapiro (page does not exist)">Yonathan Shapiro</a>, The Road to Power: Herut Party in Israel, p. 36 </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jehuda_Reinharz" title="Jehuda Reinharz">Jehuda Reinharz</a>, Living with Antisemitism: Modern Jewish Responses, p. 306. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> "The largest right Zionist paramilitary organisation, <a href="/wiki/Betar" title="Betar">Betar</a>, was modeled after the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Legions_in_World_War_I" title="Polish Legions in World War I">Polish Legions</a> of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>, and uniformed and armed Betar members marched and performed at Polish public ceremonies alongside Polish scouts and Polish soldiers, with their weapons training organised by Polish state institutions and provided by Polish army officers. <a href="/wiki/Menachem_Begin" title="Menachem Begin">Menachem Begin</a>, one of its leaders, called upon members of the organisation to defend Poland in case of war, and both Polish and Zionist flags were raised by Betar." <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a>, Black Earth: The Holocaust as History and Warning, 2015. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Leo Cooper, In the Shadow of the Polish Eagle: The Poles, the Holocaust and Beyond, Palgrave (2000), p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-PolishCensus1931-134"><a href="#cite_ref-PolishCensus1931_134-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140317212240/http://statlibr.stat.gov.pl/exlibris/aleph/a18_1/apache_media/VUNVGMLANSCQQFGYHCN3VDLK12A9U5.pdf">"Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, drugi powszechny spis ludności z dn. 9.XII 1931 r. – Mieszkania i gospodarstwa domowe ludność"</a> [Central Statistical Office the Polish Republic, the second census dated 9.XII 1931 – Abodes and household populace] (PDF) (in Polish). Central Statistical office of the Polish Republic. 1938. p. 15. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://statlibr.stat.gov.pl/exlibris/aleph/a18_1/apache_media/VUNVGMLANSCQQFGYHCN3VDLK12A9U5.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 17 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=G%C5%82%C3%B3wny+Urz%C4%85d+Statystyczny+Rzeczypospolitej+Polskiej%2C+drugi+powszechny+spis+ludno%C5%9Bci+z+dn.+9.XII+1931+r.+%E2%80%93+Mieszkania+i+gospodarstwa+domowe+ludno%C5%9B%C4%87&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Central+Statistical+office+of+the+Polish+Republic&rft.date=1938&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstatlibr.stat.gov.pl%2Fexlibris%2Faleph%2Fa18_1%2Fapache_media%2FVUNVGMLANSCQQFGYHCN3VDLK12A9U5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marcus41-43-135"><a href="#cite_ref-Marcus41-43_135-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus2011" class="citation book cs1">Marcus, Joseph (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oEfDKjjX5AEC&dq=joseph+marcus+social+and+political+&pg=PR7">Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919–1939</a>. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 41–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-083868-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-083868-8"><bdi>978-3-11-083868-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+and+Political+History+of+the+Jews+in+Poland+1919%E2%80%931939&rft.pages=41-43&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-11-083868-8&rft.aulast=Marcus&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoEfDKjjX5AEC%26dq%3Djoseph%2Bmarcus%2Bsocial%2Band%2Bpolitical%2B%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStachura2004" class="citation book cs1">Stachura, Peter D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BkKuir9oQYMC">Poland, 1918–1945: An Interpretive and Documentary History of the Second Republic</a>. Routledge. pp. 84–85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34358-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34358-9"><bdi>978-0-415-34358-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland%2C+1918%E2%80%931945%3A+An+Interpretive+and+Documentary+History+of+the+Second+Republic&rft.pages=84-85&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-34358-9&rft.aulast=Stachura&rft.aufirst=Peter+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBkKuir9oQYMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, Jews in Poland: A Documentary History, Hippocrene Books (1993), pp. 27–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus2011" class="citation book cs1">Marcus, Joseph (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oEfDKjjX5AEC&dq=joseph+marcus+social+and+political+&pg=PR7">Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919–1939</a>. Walter de Gruyter. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-083868-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-083868-8"><bdi>978-3-11-083868-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+and+Political+History+of+the+Jews+in+Poland+1919%E2%80%931939&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-11-083868-8&rft.aulast=Marcus&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoEfDKjjX5AEC%26dq%3Djoseph%2Bmarcus%2Bsocial%2Band%2Bpolitical%2B%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus2011" class="citation book cs1">Marcus, Joseph (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oEfDKjjX5AEC&dq=joseph+marcus+social+and+political+&pg=PR7">Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919–1939</a>. Walter de Gruyter. p. 228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-083868-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-083868-8"><bdi>978-3-11-083868-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+and+Political+History+of+the+Jews+in+Poland+1919%E2%80%931939&rft.pages=228&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-11-083868-8&rft.aulast=Marcus&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoEfDKjjX5AEC%26dq%3Djoseph%2Bmarcus%2Bsocial%2Band%2Bpolitical%2B%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Strauss" title="Herbert A. Strauss">Herbert A. Strauss</a> (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SOFkWX8EC4cC&pg=PA1059">Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870–1933/39.</a> Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3110137151" title="Special:BookSources/3110137151">3110137151</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-JC352-141"><a href="#cite_ref-JC352_141-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoan_Campbell1992" class="citation book cs1">Joan Campbell (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=23dUzlVxphMC&q=BUND+1923">European Labor Unions</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/031326371X" title="Special:BookSources/031326371X"><bdi>031326371X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Labor+Unions&rft.pages=352&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=031326371X&rft.au=Joan+Campbell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D23dUzlVxphMC%26q%3DBUND%2B1923&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Zvi Y. Gitelman (2002), The Emergence of Modern Jewish Politics: Bundism and Zionism in Eastern Europe. University of Pittsburgh Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/795425570">795425570</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Mordecai Paldiel <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pathofrighteousg00pald/page/181">The path of the righteous: gentile rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust</a>, KTAV Publishing House, 1993 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88125-376-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-88125-376-6">0-88125-376-6</a>, p. 181 </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Gilbert" title="Martin Gilbert">Martin Gilbert</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/print?id=PnE6TXjt4hkC&pg=PA21">p. 21</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Herbert Arthur Strauss (1993). Hostages of Modernization: Studies on Modern Antisemitism, 1870–1933/39. Walter de Gruyter, pp. 1081–1083. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/490035434">490035434</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-1931.pdf-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-1931.pdf_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-1931.pdf_146-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Central_Statistical_Office_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Statistical Office (Poland)">Central Statistical Office (Poland)</a>, <a href="/wiki/File:Woj.wo%C5%82y%C5%84skie-Polska_spis_powszechny_1931.pdf" title="File:Woj.wołyńskie-Polska spis powszechny 1931.pdf">Drugi Powszechny Spis Ludności. Woj.wołyńskie, 1931.</a> PDF file, 21.21 MB. The complete text of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_census_of_1931" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish census of 1931">Polish census of 1931</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Wo%C5%82y%C5%84_Voivodeship_(1921%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–39)">Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–39)</a>, page 59 (select, drop-down menu). <a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Wikimedia Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historia-polski.com/XX/1931/rok_1931.htm">Wydarzenia 1931 roku.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120323184935/http://www.historia-polski.com/XX/1931/rok_1931.htm">Archived</a> 23 March 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Historia-Polski.com. Wykaz miast RP z populacją żydowską powyżej 12 tysięcy. Łuck: 17.366 czyli 48% ludności. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies-148"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies_148-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a>, <a href="/wiki/God%27s_Playground" title="God's Playground">God's Playground</a> (Polish edition), Second volume, pp. 512–513. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jerzy_Tomaszewski-149"><a href="#cite_ref-Jerzy_Tomaszewski_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlice_TeichovaHerbert_MatisJaroslav_Pátek2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alice_Teichova" title="Alice Teichova">Alice Teichova</a>; Herbert Matis; Jaroslav Pátek (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UVxY-8Xk-sC&q=nowogrodek++++minorities&pg=PA345">Economic Change and the National Question in Twentieth-century Europe</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 342–344. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63037-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63037-5"><bdi>978-0-521-63037-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Change+and+the+National+Question+in+Twentieth-century+Europe&rft.pages=342-344&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-63037-5&rft.au=Alice+Teichova&rft.au=Herbert+Matis&rft.au=Jaroslav+P%C3%A1tek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8UVxY-8Xk-sC%26q%3Dnowogrodek%2B%2B%2B%2Bminorities%26pg%3DPA345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-radom-150"><a href="#cite_ref-radom_150-0">^</a> Pinkas Hakehillot Polin, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/pinkas_poland/pol7_00530.html">Radom.</a> Encyclopedia of Jewish Communities in Poland, Volume VII. Translation of "Radom" chapter published by Yad Vashem. </li> <li id="cite_note-radom29-151"><a href="#cite_ref-radom29_151-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGedeon_KubiszynMarta_Kubiszyn" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gedeon Kubiszyn; Marta Kubiszyn. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100822053326/http://www.sztetl.org.pl/pl/article/radom/5,historia/?action=view&page=1">"Radomski rynek rzemiosła i usług według danych z lat 1926–1929"</a> [The Radom business environment in late 1926–29]. The Jewish history of Radom (in Polish). Poland: <a href="/wiki/Virtual_Shtetl" title="Virtual Shtetl">Virtual Shtetl</a>. page 2 of 6. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sztetl.org.pl/pl/article/radom/5,historia/?action=view&page=1">the original</a> on 22 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jewish+history+of+Radom&rft.atitle=Radomski+rynek+rzemios%C5%82a+i+us%C5%82ug+wed%C5%82ug+danych+z+lat+1926%E2%80%931929&rft.pages=page+2+of+6&rft.au=Gedeon+Kubiszyn&rft.au=Marta+Kubiszyn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sztetl.org.pl%2Fpl%2Farticle%2Fradom%2F5%2Chistoria%2F%3Faction%3Dview%26page%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> Source: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiątkowski2006" class="citation book cs1">Piątkowski, S. (2006). Dni życia, dni śmierci. Ludność żydowska w Radomiu w latach 1918–1950. Warszawa. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/176630823">176630823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dni+%C5%BCycia%2C+dni+%C5%9Bmierci.+Ludno%C5%9B%C4%87+%C5%BCydowska+w+Radomiu+w+latach+1918%E2%80%931950&rft.place=Warszawa&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F176630823&rft.aulast=Pi%C4%85tkowski&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Taube-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Taube_152-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120216021119/http://www.jhi.pl/en/gminy/miasto/423.html">Lubartow during the Holocaust in occupied Poland.</a> The Taube Foundation for Jewish Life and Culture. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_153-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWierzejska2018" class="citation journal cs1">Wierzejska, Jagoda (1 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/44622180">"The Pogrom of Jews During and After World War I: The Destruction of the Jewish Idea of Galicia"</a>. Personal Narratives, Peripheral Theatres: Essays on the Great War (1914–18), Anthony Barker / Maria Eugénia Pereira / Maria Teresa Cortez / Paulo Alexandre Pereira / Otília Martins (Eds.), Cham: Springer: 182.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Personal+Narratives%2C+Peripheral+Theatres%3A+Essays+on+the+Great+War+%281914%E2%80%9318%29%2C+Anthony+Barker+%2F+Maria+Eug%C3%A9nia+Pereira+%2F+Maria+Teresa+Cortez+%2F+Paulo+Alexandre+Pereira+%2F+Ot%C3%ADlia+Martins+%28Eds.%29%2C+Cham%3A+Springer&rft.atitle=The+Pogrom+of+Jews+During+and+After+World+War+I%3A+The+Destruction+of+the+Jewish+Idea+of+Galicia&rft.pages=182&rft.date=2018-01-01&rft.aulast=Wierzejska&rft.aufirst=Jagoda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F44622180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Celia Stopnicka Heller. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GmVt-O3AR34C&pg=PA107">On the Edge of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars.</a> Wayne State University Press, 1993. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Ezra Mendelsohn. The Jews of East Central Europe Between the World Wars. Indiana University Press, 1983.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GmVt-O3AR34C&pg=PA133">On the Edge of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars</a>. Wayne State University Press, 1993. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelzer1997" class="citation book cs1">Melzer, Emanuel (1997). No Way Out, The Politics of Polish Jewry 1935–1939. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87820-418-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87820-418-0"><bdi>0-87820-418-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Way+Out%2C+The+Politics+of+Polish+Jewry+1935%E2%80%931939&rft.place=Cincinnati&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Hebrew+Union+College+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-87820-418-0&rft.aulast=Melzer&rft.aufirst=Emanuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> In January 1937, "Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck" title="Józef Beck">Józef Beck</a> announced to the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> that Poland had room for 500,000 Jews. The other 3 million had to go. He later spoke of 80,000 to 100,000 leaving per year for the next thirty years." <a href="/wiki/Norman_Goda" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Goda">Norman Goda</a>, The Holocaust: Europe, the World, and the Jews, 1918–1945 </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> "The Polish government was committed to the Zionist option in its own Jewish policy and maintained good relations with Jabotinsky's Revisionist Zionist, rather than with the Majority Zionists. <a href="/wiki/Francis_R._Nicosia" title="Francis R. Nicosia">Francis R. Nicosia</a>, The Third Reich and the Palestine Question, 1985, pp. 261–262. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> "<a href="/wiki/Sanation" title="Sanation">Sanation</a> had always been supportive towards the national aims of Jews in <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Palestine</a>, and the Polish government hoped it would provide an outlet for Jewish population moving out of Poland. Poland supported creation of a Jewish national home in the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and other international forums." <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Marcus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Marcus (page does not exist)">Joseph Marcus</a>, Social and Political History of Jews in Poland, 1919–1939, Berlin, New York, and Amsterdam, Mouton Publishers, p. 395. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry, The Road to September 1939: Polish Jews, Zionists, and the Yishuv on the Eve of World War II, Brandeis University Press, 2018, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_L._Rovner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adam L. Rovner (page does not exist)">Adam L. Rovner</a>, In the Shadow of Zion Promised Lands before Israel, NYU Press, 2014, p. 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry, The Road to September 1939: Polish Jews, Zionists, and the Yishuv on the Eve of World War II, Brandeis University Press, 2018, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> "Poland made many appeals on this matter in the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>. On 5 October 1935, the Polish delegate in the economic committee of the League of Nations presented the Jewish issue as 'requiring quick preventive measures.' In 1937, the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs viewed the League of Nations as the right place for manifesting its support for the cause of developing a Jewish state in Palestine. This had been declared at the League by Foreign Minister Józef Beck.11 He also supported the idea of an international conference and campaign for organizing and facilitating Jewish emigration.12 Talks were held with British Foreign Secretary <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Eden" title="Anthony Eden">Anthony Eden</a>, and in the US, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Jewish members of the <a href="/wiki/Sejm" title="Sejm">Sejm</a> who protested against the heightened <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> in Poland took pains to thank Beck for furthering the cause of establishing a Jewish state in Palestine.13" <a href="/wiki/Szymon_Rudnicki" title="Szymon Rudnicki">Szymon Rudnicki</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marek_Karliner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marek Karliner (page does not exist)">Marek Karliner</a> & <a href="/w/index.php?title=Laurence_Weinbaum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laurence Weinbaum (page does not exist)">Laurence Weinbaum</a>, "Linking the Vistula and the Jordan: The Genesis of Relations between Poland and the State of Israel", <a href="/wiki/Israel_Journal_of_Foreign_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs">Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs</a>, 8:1, 2014, pp. 103–114. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry, The Road to September 1939: Polish Jews, Zionists, and the Yishuv on the Eve of World War II, Brandeis University Press, 2018, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yitshaq_Ben-Ami&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yitshaq Ben-Ami (page does not exist)">Yitshaq Ben-Ami</a>, "The Irgun and the Destruction of European Jewry", Perspectives on the Holocaust, pp. 75–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_167-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_167-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedla2021" class="citation journal cs1">Friedla, Katharina (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/51095625">"'From Nazi Inferno to Soviet Hell': Polish–Jewish children and youth and their trajectories of survival during and after World War II"</a>. Journal of Modern European History. 19 (3): 277–280. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F16118944211017748">10.1177/16118944211017748</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1611-8944">1611-8944</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236898673">236898673</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Modern+European+History&rft.atitle=%27From+Nazi+Inferno+to+Soviet+Hell%27%3A+Polish%E2%80%93Jewish+children+and+youth+and+their+trajectories+of+survival+during+and+after+World+War+II&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=277-280&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236898673%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1611-8944&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F16118944211017748&rft.aulast=Friedla&rft.aufirst=Katharina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F51095625&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Edward D. Wynot, Jr., 'A Necessary Cruelty': The Emergence of Official Anti-Semitism in Poland, 1936–39. American Historical Review, no. 4, October 1971, 1035–1058. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr%2F76.4.1035">10.1086/ahr/76.4.1035</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_W._Hagen" title="William W. Hagen">William W. Hagen</a>. Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Antisemitism in Interwar Germany and Poland. Journal of Modern History July 1996: 1–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Celia Stopnicka Heller. On the Edge Of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars. Wayne State University Press, 1993. </li> <li id="cite_note-ess.uwe.ac.uk-171">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ess.uwe.ac.uk_171-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ess.uwe.ac.uk_171-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ess.uwe.ac.uk_171-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ess.uwe.ac.uk_171-3">d</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/gcpol5.htm">Extermination of the Polish Jews in the Years 1939–1945. Part I</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070825081036/http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/gcpol5.htm">Archived</a> 25 August 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Ess.uwe.ac.uk. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Shmuel Krakowski, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206215.pdf">The Fate of Jewish Prisoners of War in the September 1939 Campaign</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zchor.org/meirtchak/meirtchak.htm">B. Meirtchak: "Jewish Military Casualties In The Polish Armies In Wwii"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071005034433/http://www.zchor.org/meirtchak/meirtchak.htm">Archived</a> 5 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Zchor.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D7bobfzrcCoC&dq=32%2C216+jews+poland&pg=PA115">Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Trunk" title="Isaiah Trunk">Isaiah Trunk</a>, p. 115 </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiotrowski1998" class="citation book cs1">Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot">Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947</a>. McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786403714" title="Special:BookSources/9780786403714"><bdi>9780786403714</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland%27s+Holocaust%3A+Ethnic+Strife%2C+Collaboration+with+Occupying+Forces+and+Genocide+in+the+Second+Republic%2C+1918%E2%80%931947&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780786403714&rft.aulast=Piotrowski&rft.aufirst=Tadeusz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolandsholocaust00piot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-boni-176">^ <a href="#cite_ref-boni_176-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-boni_176-1">b</a> Joshua D. Zimmerman <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA47">Contested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath</a>, Rutgers University Press, 2003 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-3158-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-3158-6">0-8135-3158-6</a> p. 47 </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111218170928/http://www.cyberroad.com/poland/jews.html">"Jews in Poland"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cyberroad.com/poland/jews.html">the original</a> on 18 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jews+in+Poland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cyberroad.com%2Fpoland%2Fjews.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-chatham2011-178"><a href="#cite_ref-chatham2011_178-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenn2011" class="citation journal cs1">Benn, David Wedgwood (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151208113010/https://www.chathamhouse.org/publications/ia/archive/view/164427">"The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact"</a>. Chatham House. Chatham House, The Royal Institute of International Affairs. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chathamhouse.org/publications/ia/archive/view/164427">the original</a> on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 13 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chatham+House&rft.atitle=The+Molotov-Ribbentrop+Pact&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Benn&rft.aufirst=David+Wedgwood&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chathamhouse.org%2Fpublications%2Fia%2Farchive%2Fview%2F164427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/untold-stories/community/14622337-Grodno">"Grodno"</a>. Yad Vashem.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yad+Vashem&rft.atitle=Grodno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcollections.yadvashem.org%2Fen%2Funtold-stories%2Fcommunity%2F14622337-Grodno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ushmm-1939-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ushmm-1939_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ushmm-1939_180-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolocaust_Encyclopedia2014" class="citation web cs1">Holocaust Encyclopedia (20 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005593">"Jewish Refugees, 1939"</a>. German Invasion of Poland. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 21 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=German+Invasion+of+Poland&rft.atitle=Jewish+Refugees%2C+1939&rft.date=2014-06-20&rft.au=Holocaust+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fwlc%2Fen%2Farticle.php%3FModuleId%3D10005593&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-181">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_181-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_181-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngel" class="citation web cs1">Engel, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Poland/Poland_since_1939">"YIVO | Poland: Poland since 1939, in the YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe"</a>. yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved 26 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=yivoencyclopedia.org&rft.atitle=YIVO+%7C+Poland%3A+Poland+since+1939%2C+in+the+YIVO+Encyclopedia+of+Jews+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.aulast=Engel&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyivoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle.aspx%2FPoland%2FPoland_since_1939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AFP-182"><a href="#cite_ref-AFP_182-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120406115752/http://www.expatica.com/de/news/german-news/Polish-experts-lower-nation_s-WWII-death-toll--_55843.html">"Polish nation's WWII death toll"</a>. AFP / Expatica. 30 July 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.expatica.com/de/news/german-news/Polish-experts-lower-nation_s-WWII-death-toll--_55843.html">the original</a> on 6 April 2012. Retrieved 12 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Polish+nation%27s+WWII+death+toll&rft.pub=AFP+%2F+Expatica&rft.date=2009-07-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.expatica.com%2Fde%2Fnews%2Fgerman-news%2FPolish-experts-lower-nation_s-WWII-death-toll--_55843.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoorhouse2014" class="citation book cs1">Moorhouse, Roger (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz_RAwAAQBAJ&q=soviet+nazi+allies">The Devils' Alliance: Hitler's Pact with Stalin, 1939–1941</a>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780465054923" title="Special:BookSources/9780465054923"><bdi>9780465054923</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Devils%27+Alliance%3A+Hitler%27s+Pact+with+Stalin%2C+1939%E2%80%931941&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780465054923&rft.aulast=Moorhouse&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNz_RAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsoviet%2Bnazi%2Ballies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2012" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, Timothy (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=maEfAQAAQBAJ&q=alliance">Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin</a>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780465032976" title="Special:BookSources/9780465032976"><bdi>9780465032976</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bloodlands%3A+Europe+Between+Hitler+and+Stalin&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780465032976&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmaEfAQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dalliance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleron2017" class="citation book cs1">Fleron, Jr (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FzkrDwAAQBAJ&q=The+Nazi-Soviet+alliance+delaying+danger&pg=PA79">Soviet Foreign Policy 1917–1991: Classic and Contemporary Issues</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351488594" title="Special:BookSources/9781351488594"><bdi>9781351488594</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Foreign+Policy+1917%E2%80%931991%3A+Classic+and+Contemporary+Issues&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781351488594&rft.aulast=Fleron&rft.aufirst=Jr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFzkrDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DThe%2BNazi-Soviet%2Balliance%2Bdelaying%2Bdanger%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LJW-186">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LJW_186-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LJW_186-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LJW_186-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LJW_186-3">d</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org.il/about_holocaust/lost_worlds/grodno/grodno_during_ww1.html">Lost Jewish Worlds – Grodno, Yad Vashem</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20090719032015/http://www1.yadvashem.org.il/about_holocaust/lost_worlds/grodno/grodno_during_ww1.html">Archived</a> 19 July 2009 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-PHC-187"><a href="#cite_ref-PHC_187-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.polandsholocaust.org/memoir2.html">World War II Timeline – Poland 1940</a>. Polandsholocaust.org (17 September 1939). Retrieved on 2010-08-22. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stosunki-188"><a href="#cite_ref-Stosunki_188-0">^</a> (in Polish) Marek Wierzbicki, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bialorus.pl/index.php?secId=49&docId=60&&Rozdzial=historia">Stosunki polsko-białoruskie pod okupacją sowiecką (1939–1941)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080623073822/http://www.bialorus.pl/index.php?secId=49&docId=60&&Rozdzial=historia">Archived</a> 23 June 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. "Białoruskie Zeszyty Historyczne" (НА СТАРОНКАХ КАМУНІКАТУ, Biełaruski histaryczny zbornik) 20 (2003), p. 186–188. Retrieved 16 July 2007. see also <a href="/wiki/Jan_T._Gross" title="Jan T. Gross">Jan T. Gross</a> "Revolution from abroad : the Soviet conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia" Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1988 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-09433-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-09433-0">0-691-09433-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-JK-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JK_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JK_189-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTadeusz_Piotrowski1940" class="citation book cs1">Tadeusz Piotrowski (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hC0-dk7vpM8C&q=USSR+Jan+Karski&pg=PA52">"The Situation of the Jews on Territories Occupied by the USSR"</a>. Poland's Holocaust. McFarland, 1998. pp. 52–53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0786403713" title="Special:BookSources/0786403713"><bdi>0786403713</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Situation+of+the+Jews+on+Territories+Occupied+by+the+USSR&rft.btitle=Poland%27s+Holocaust&rft.pages=52-53&rft.pub=McFarland%2C+1998&rft.date=1940&rft.isbn=0786403713&rft.au=Tadeusz+Piotrowski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhC0-dk7vpM8C%26q%3DUSSR%2BJan%2BKarski%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-B/C/S-190"><a href="#cite_ref-B/C/S_190-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElazar_BarkanElizabeth_A._ColeKai_Struve2007" class="citation book cs1">Elazar Barkan; Elizabeth A. Cole; Kai Struve (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_BbvQbiaqAEC&q=%22themselves%2C+speaking+officially%22&pg=PP1">Shared History, Divided Memory: Jews and Others in Soviet-occupied Poland, 1939–1941</a>. Leipziger Universitätsverlag. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3865832405" title="Special:BookSources/978-3865832405"><bdi>978-3865832405</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shared+History%2C+Divided+Memory%3A+Jews+and+Others+in+Soviet-occupied+Poland%2C+1939%E2%80%931941&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=Leipziger+Universit%C3%A4tsverlag&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3865832405&rft.au=Elazar+Barkan&rft.au=Elizabeth+A.+Cole&rft.au=Kai+Struve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_BbvQbiaqAEC%26q%3D%2522themselves%252C%2Bspeaking%2Bofficially%2522%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Joshua D. Zimmerman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uHJyoGiep2gC&pg=PA62">Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath.</a> Rutgers University Press, 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-Comm_syph-192"><a href="#cite_ref-Comm_syph_192-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/rogatin/roh032e.html">The Death of Chaimke</a> Yizkor Book Project, JewishGen: The Home of Jewish Genealogy </li> <li id="cite_note-Piotrowski-49-65-193">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Piotrowski-49-65_193-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Piotrowski-49-65_193-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTadeusz_Piotrowski1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Piotrowski_(sociologist)" title="Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist)">Tadeusz Piotrowski</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A4FlatJCro4C&pg=PA49">Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide...</a> McFarland & Company. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/49">49–65</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-0371-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7864-0371-3"><bdi>0-7864-0371-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland%27s+Holocaust%3A+Ethnic+Strife%2C+Collaboration+with+Occupying+Forces+and+Genocide...&rft.pages=49-65&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Company&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-7864-0371-3&rft.au=Tadeusz+Piotrowski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA4FlatJCro4C%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Joshua D. Zimmerman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Iiw0KB31rgC&pg=PA57">Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath.</a> Rutgers University Press, 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_195-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/51">Poland's holocaust: ethnic strife ... – Internet Archive</a>. Books.google.com. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Tadeusz Piotrowski <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/49">Poland's holocaust: ethnic strife, collaboration with occupying forces and genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947</a>, McFarland, 1998 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-0371-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7864-0371-3">0-7864-0371-3</a> p. 49 </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Marek Jan Chodakiewicz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TvUErL-MnV8C&q=jews+nkvd&pg=PA306">Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947.</a> Lexington Books, 2004. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Martin Dean, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tdzTU1Uj3zcC&pg=PA13">Collaboration in the Holocaust: Crimes of the Local Police in Belorussia and Ukraine, 1941–44.</a> Macmillan, 1999. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Samuel D. Kassow. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zJ3IzEy8sB0C&pg=PA476">Who Will Write Our History: Emmanuel Ringelblum, the Warsaw Ghetto and the Oyneg Shabes Archive</a> Indiana University Press, 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> Jonathan Frankel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rzp51R5WHtIC&pg=PA205">The Fate of the European Jews, 1939–1945: Continuity Or Contingency?</a> Oxford University Press, 1998. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Joanna Michlic. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081004041350/http://www.lehigh.edu/~inber/sovietoccupation.pdf">The Soviet Occupation of Poland, 1939–41, and the Stereotype of the Anti-Polish and Pro-Soviet Jew.</a> Jewish Social Studies: History, Culture, and Society. Spring/Summer 2007, Vol. 13, No. 3:135–176. </li> <li id="cite_note-IPN-UB-202"><a href="#cite_ref-IPN-UB_202-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Szwagrzyk" title="Krzysztof Szwagrzyk">Krzysztof Szwagrzyk</a> Żydzi w kierownictwie UB. Stereotyp czy rzeczywistość? (Jews in the authorities of the Polish Secret Security. Stereotype or Reality?), Bulletin of the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance" title="Institute of National Remembrance">Institute of National Remembrance</a> (11/2005), pp. 37–42, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspx?logid=5&id=CA8899B4-7AC6-42B8-BADF-CE18E478D525">online article</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/issuedetails.aspx?issueid=ffbb5b1f-0fe0-4413-b2a2-e672938ede75&articleId=ca8899b4-7ac6-42b8-badf-ce18e478d525">entire issue</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> Yisrael Gutman <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%206564.pdf">Jews in General Anders’ Army In the Soviet Union</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zchor.org/meirtchak/photos.htm">"'Jewish Military Casualties in the Polish Armies in World War II' – Vol. V: Photos"</a>. www.zchor.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.zchor.org&rft.atitle=%27Jewish+Military+Casualties+in+the+Polish+Armies+in+World+War+II%27+%E2%80%93+Vol.+V%3A+Photos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zchor.org%2Fmeirtchak%2Fphotos.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=3428&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=/IMAGE_TYPE/3428.GIF">Estimated Casualties During WWII -Including Jews</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080530115755/http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=3428&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F3428.GIF">Archived</a> 30 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121208083531/http://www.ushmm.org/research/library/index.php?content=faq%2Findex.php%23topic01-question02">"Death tolls in the Holocaust, from the US Holocaust Museum"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/research/library/index.php?content=faq/index.php%23topic01-question02">the original</a> on 8 December 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Death+tolls+in+the+Holocaust%2C+from+the+US+Holocaust+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fresearch%2Flibrary%2Findex.php%3Fcontent%3Dfaq%2Findex.php%2523topic01-question02&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/angap03.asp">"Avalon Project – Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry – Appendix III"</a>. avalon.law.yale.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=avalon.law.yale.edu&rft.atitle=Avalon+Project+%E2%80%93+Anglo-American+Committee+of+Inquiry+%E2%80%93+Appendix+III&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F20th_century%2Fangap03.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Thomas C. Hubka, Resplendent Synagogue: Architecture and Worship in an Eighteenth-century Polish Community, UPNE, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58465-216-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-58465-216-0">1-58465-216-0</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-RZVCtWQUl0C&q=%22Nazis+destroyed+almost+all+wooden+synagogues%22&pg=PA57">p. 57</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-YV-Grodno-209"><a href="#cite_ref-YV-Grodno_209-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/about_holocaust/lost_worlds/grodno/grodno_the_german_occupation.html">Lost Jewish World, Yad Vashem</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gartner-210"><a href="#cite_ref-Gartner_210-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGartner2001" class="citation book cs1">Gartner, Lloyd P. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewsinm00gart/page/353">History of the Jews in Modern Times</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewsinm00gart/page/353">353</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-289259-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-289259-2"><bdi>0-19-289259-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Jews+in+Modern+Times&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=353&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-19-289259-2&rft.aulast=Gartner&rft.aufirst=Lloyd+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofjewsinm00gart%2Fpage%2F353&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs2014150-211"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs2014150_211-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs2014">Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014</a>, p. 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson-212"><a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_212-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Johnson_(writer)" title="Paul Johnson (writer)">Johnson, Paul</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjews00john/page/489">A History of the Jews</a>. New York: HarperCollins. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjews00john/page/489">489</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-091533-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-091533-1"><bdi>0-06-091533-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jews&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=489&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-06-091533-1&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofjews00john%2Fpage%2F489&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fleischhauer-213"><a href="#cite_ref-Fleischhauer_213-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleischhauer1997" class="citation book cs1">Fleischhauer, Ingeborg (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aESBIpIm6UcC&pg=PA51">"Poland Under German Occupation, 1939–1941: A Comparative Survey"</a>. In Wegner, Bernd (ed.). From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the World, 1939–1941. Providence, R.I.: Berghahn Books. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57181-882-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-57181-882-0"><bdi>1-57181-882-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poland+Under+German+Occupation%2C+1939%E2%80%931941%3A+A+Comparative+Survey&rft.btitle=From+Peace+to+War%3A+Germany%2C+Soviet+Russia%2C+and+the+World%2C+1939%E2%80%931941&rft.place=Providence%2C+R.I.&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-57181-882-0&rft.aulast=Fleischhauer&rft.aufirst=Ingeborg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaESBIpIm6UcC%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs201421-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs201421_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs2014">Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-YV-image-215"><a href="#cite_ref-YV-image_215-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080121220552/http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=4414&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F4414.JPG">"Photo of Armband from the Warsaw Ghetto"</a>. Yad Vashem. 21 January 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=4414&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F4414.JPG">the original</a> on 21 January 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Photo+of+Armband+from+the+Warsaw+Ghetto&rft.pub=Yad+Vashem&rft.date=2008-01-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.yadvashem.org%2FOdot%2Fprog%2Fimage_into.asp%3Fid%3D4414%26lang%3DEN%26type_id%3D%26addr%3D%252FIMAGE_TYPE%252F4414.JPG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs201431-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs201431_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs2014">Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedrich1-217"><a href="#cite_ref-Friedrich1_217-0">^</a> Klaus-Peter Friedrich, "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II. Slavic Review. Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005): 711–746. "Because of a lack of interest on the part of the Nazi leadership, there was no basis for state collaboration. On the contrary, overtures even by Polish fascists and other staunch anti-Semites were rebuffed by the occupiers." [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification needed</a>] For the follow-up see: abstract of John Connelly <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/3649912">"Why the Poles Collaborated So Little"</a>, JSTOR: <a href="/wiki/Slavic_Review" title="Slavic Review">Slavic Review</a>, Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005). Quote: John Connelly "suggests that even those cases that Friedrich documents do not make Poland into a collaborationist country. In fact, the Nazis were disappointed that Poles refused to collaborate." The American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, 2005. </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies-1-218"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies-1_218-0">^</a> Norman Davies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsplaygroundhi00norm_0/page/464">God's Playground: God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes.</a> Oxford University Press, 2005. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gross1-219"><a href="#cite_ref-Gross1_219-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeákGrossJudt2000" class="citation book cs1">Deák, István; Gross, Jan T.; Judt, Tony (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s82F2H0FEHQC&pg=PA25">The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and Its Aftermath</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00954-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00954-4"><bdi>978-0-691-00954-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Retribution+in+Europe%3A+World+War+II+and+Its+Aftermath&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00954-4&rft.aulast=De%C3%A1k&rft.aufirst=Istv%C3%A1n&rft.au=Gross%2C+Jan+T.&rft.au=Judt%2C+Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds82F2H0FEHQC%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Michnik1-220"><a href="#cite_ref-Michnik1_220-0">^</a> Adam Michnik, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B07E2DC153DF934A25750C0A9679C8B63&n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/People/W/Walesa,%20Lech">Poles and the Jews: How Deep the Guilt?</a>, New York Times, 17 March 2001 </li> <li id="cite_note-Madajczyk-221"><a href="#cite_ref-Madajczyk_221-0">^</a> Czesław Madajczyk, Polityka III Rzeszy w okupowanej Polsce, Tom II (Politics of the Third Reich in Occupied Poland, Part Two), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1970, pp. 169–170 </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/J/final.html">Summary of IPN's final findings on Jedwabne</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201535/http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/J/final.html">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (English) </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/polands-jewish-secret-unearthed/a-669067">"Poland's Jewish Secret Unearthed – DW – 05.11.2002"</a>. DW.COM.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DW.COM&rft.atitle=Poland%27s+Jewish+Secret+Unearthed+%E2%80%93+DW+%E2%80%93+05.11.2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Fpolands-jewish-secret-unearthed%2Fa-669067&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> Yisrael Gutman & Shmuel Krakowski, Unequal Victims: Poles and Jews During World War II, New York: Holocaust Library, 1986.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Szaynok277-225"><a href="#cite_ref-Szaynok277_225-0">^</a> Bożena Szaynok (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rT6qx6hi8C4C&pg=PA277">"Antisemitism, Anti-Judaism, and the Polish Catholic Clergy during the Second World War."</a> In: Robert Blobaum, Antisemitism and Its Opponents in Modern Poland. Cornell University Press, p. 277. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801443474" title="Special:BookSources/0801443474">0801443474</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> Klaus-Peter Friedrich. Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II. Slavic Review. Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005): 711–746. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> David Engel. In the Shadow of Auschwitz: The Polish Government-In-Exile and the Jews, 1939–1942. University of North Carolina Press. 1987; David Engel. Facing a Holocaust: The Polish Government-in-Exile and the Jews, 1943–1945. University of North Carolina Press. 1993. </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Zofia Nałkowska. Diaries 1939–1945 Warszawa. 1996, s. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Institute of National Remembrance, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120303025740/http://www.zyciezazycie.pl/">Zycie za Zycie (A Life For A Life).</a> The project which describes the Poles killed along with their families for helping Jews. Retrieved from Internet Archive. </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221229072504/https://www.holocaustsurvivors.org/data.show.php?di=record&da=encyclopedia&ke=107">"Holocaust Survivors: Encyclopedia – 'Polish–Jewish Relations'"</a>. www.holocaustsurvivors.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.holocaustsurvivors.org/data.show.php?di=record&da=encyclopedia&ke=107">the original</a> on 29 December 2022. Retrieved 16 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.holocaustsurvivors.org&rft.atitle=Holocaust+Survivors%3A+Encyclopedia+%E2%80%93+%27Polish%E2%80%93Jewish+Relations%27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.holocaustsurvivors.org%2Fdata.show.php%3Fdi%3Drecord%26da%3Dencyclopedia%26ke%3D107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lukas-231"><a href="#cite_ref-lukas_231-0">^</a> Richard Lukas Forgotten Holocaust, Hippocrene Books, 2nd rev. ed., 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7818-0901-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7818-0901-0">0-7818-0901-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-P-M-232"><a href="#cite_ref-P-M_232-0">^</a> Antony Polonsky & Joanna B. Michlic, editors. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a_49GjK8ovMC&dq=The+Neighbors+Respond:+The+Controversy+Over+the+Jedwabne+Massacre+in+Poland&pg=PP1">The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland.</a> Princeton University Press, 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarci_Shore" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marci_Shore" title="Marci Shore">Marci Shore</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aapjstudies.org/index.php?id=36">"Gunnar S. Paulsson Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw 1940–1945"</a>. The American Association for Polish–Jewish Studies. Retrieved 17 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gunnar+S.+Paulsson+Secret+City%3A+The+Hidden+Jews+of+Warsaw+1940%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=The+American+Association+for+Polish%E2%80%93Jewish+Studies&rft.au=Marci+Shore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aapjstudies.org%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/history.html">History of the Holocaust – An Introduction</a>. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org (19 April 1943). Retrieved on 2010-08-22. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/kapos.html">Kapos</a>. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_L._NiewykFrancis_R._Nicosia2000" class="citation book cs1">Donald L. Niewyk; <a href="/wiki/Francis_R._Nicosia" title="Francis R. Nicosia">Francis R. Nicosia</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetot00niew/page/114">The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust</a>. Columbia University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetot00niew/page/114">114–</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-11200-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-11200-0"><bdi>978-0-231-11200-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Columbia+Guide+to+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=114-&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-231-11200-0&rft.au=Donald+L.+Niewyk&rft.au=Francis+R.+Nicosia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcolumbiaguidetot00niew%2Fpage%2F114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pogonowski2-237"><a href="#cite_ref-Pogonowski2_237-0">^</a> Iwo Pogonowski, Jews in Poland, Hippocrene, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7818-0604-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7818-0604-6">0-7818-0604-6</a>. p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090609193411/http://members.core.com/~mikerose/waryears.htm">"Jewish History in Poland during the years 1939–1945"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://members.core.com/~mikerose/waryears.htm">the original</a> on 9 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+History+in+Poland+during+the+years+1939%E2%80%931945&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmembers.core.com%2F~mikerose%2Fwaryears.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hiding-239">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hiding_239-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hiding_239-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hiding_239-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.holocaustsurvivors.org/reference/encyclopedia/">Encyclopedia – entry "Hidden Jews"</a>. Holocaust Survivors. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-Piotrowski66-240"><a href="#cite_ref-Piotrowski66_240-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTadeusz_Piotrowski1998" class="citation book cs1">Tadeusz Piotrowski (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hC0-dk7vpM8C&q=%22Jews+collaborating%22">Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces</a>. McFarland. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0786403713" title="Special:BookSources/0786403713"><bdi>0786403713</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland%27s+Holocaust%3A+Ethnic+Strife%2C+Collaboration+with+Occupying+Forces&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0786403713&rft.au=Tadeusz+Piotrowski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhC0-dk7vpM8C%26q%3D%2522Jews%2Bcollaborating%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MNK-241"><a href="#cite_ref-MNK_241-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarek_Ney-Krwawicz" class="citation web cs1">Marek Ney-Krwawicz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.polishresistance-ak.org/2%20Article.htm">"The Polish Underground State and Home Army"</a>. PolishResistance-AK.org. London Branch of the Polish Home Army Ex-Servicemen Association. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927023514/http://www.polishresistance-ak.org/2%20Article.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2011 – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PolishResistance-AK.org&rft.atitle=The+Polish+Underground+State+and+Home+Army&rft.au=Marek+Ney-Krwawicz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.polishresistance-ak.org%2F2%2520Article.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081030094647/http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=2743&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F2743.JPG">Poland, Execution of Poles by a German Police Firing Squad.</a> Film and Photo Archive, <a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Nie-Nic-243"><a href="#cite_ref-Nie-Nic_243-0">^</a> Donald L. Niewyk, Francis R. Nicosia, The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, Columbia University Press, 2000, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-11200-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-11200-9">0-231-11200-9</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lpDTIUklB2MC&pg=PA114">p. 114</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Polonsky-244"><a href="#cite_ref-Polonsky_244-0">^</a> Antony Polonsky, 'My Brother's Keeper?': Recent Polish Debates on the Holocaust, Routledge, 1990, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-04232-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-04232-1">0-415-04232-1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uceq22StcZUC&pg=PA149">p. 149</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isurvived.org/Frameset4References-3/-PolishRighteous.html">"Referenced Material"</a>. isurvived.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=isurvived.org&rft.atitle=Referenced+Material&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fisurvived.org%2FFrameset4References-3%2F-PolishRighteous.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/righteous_new/statistics.html">The Righteous Among the Nations</a>. .yadvashem.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206425.pdf">Karski, Jan</a> on <a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a>'s website </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110515171251/http://www.republika.pl/unpack/1/dok03.html">"Onet – Jesteś na bieżąco"</a>. www.onet.pl. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.onet.pl/">the original</a> on 15 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.onet.pl&rft.atitle=Onet+%E2%80%93+Jeste%C5%9B+na+bie%C5%BC%C4%85co&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.onet.pl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://polishjews.org/shoah/shoahwrs.htm">The Polish Jews Home Page</a>. PolishJews.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081030094651/http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=1361&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F1361.JPG">Adam Czerniakow.</a> Film and Photo Archive, <a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://warsawghetto.epixtech.co.uk/20Chlodn.htm">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051027065831/http://warsawghetto.epixtech.co.uk/20Chlodn.htm">Archived</a> 27 October 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diapozytyw.pl/en/site/ludzie/adam_czerniakow">Dia-Pozytyw: People, Biographical Profiles</a>. Diapozytyw.pl. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs201410–14-253"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs201410–14_253-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs2014">Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014</a>, pp. 10–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wdowiński-254">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wdowiński_254-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wdowiński_254-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wdowiński_254-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Wdowiński1963" class="citation book cs1">David Wdowiński (1963). And we are not saved. New York: Philosophical Library. p. 222. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8022-2486-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8022-2486-5"><bdi>0-8022-2486-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=And+we+are+not+saved&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=222&rft.pub=Philosophical+Library&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=0-8022-2486-5&rft.au=David+Wdowi%C5%84ski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> Note: Chariton and Lazar were never co-authors of Wdowiński's memoir. Wdowiński is considered the "single author." </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> "The Stroop report", Pantheon 1986 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-73817-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-73817-9">0-394-73817-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> "The Stroop Report – The Jewish Quarter of Warsaw is No More", Secker & Warburg 1980 </li> <li id="cite_note-stroop-257"><a href="#cite_ref-stroop_257-0">^</a> From the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/nowarsaw.html">Stroop Report</a> by SS <a href="/wiki/Gruppenf%C3%BChrer" title="Gruppenführer">Gruppenführer</a> Jürgen Stroop, May 1943. </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> The first Jewish <a href="/wiki/Ghetto_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghetto uprising">ghetto uprising</a> in World War II is believed to have occurred in 1942 in the small town of <a href="/wiki/Lakhva" title="Lakhva">Łachwa</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Polesie_Voivodship" class="mw-redirect" title="Polesie Voivodship">Polesie Voivodship</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-jewishvirtuallibrary.org-259"><a href="#cite_ref-jewishvirtuallibrary.org_259-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Warsaw.html">The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Warsaw</a>. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=8301&lang=EN&type_id=2&addr=/IMAGE_TYPE/8301.JPG">"מידע נוסף על הפריט"</a>. 21 January 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080121220914/http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=8301&lang=EN&type_id=2&addr=%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F8301.JPG">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2008. Retrieved 20 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A2+%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A3+%D7%A2%D7%9C+%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98&rft.date=2008-01-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.yadvashem.org%2FOdot%2Fprog%2Fimage_into.asp%3Fid%3D8301%26lang%3DEN%26type_id%3D2%26addr%3D%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F8301.JPG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Auschwitz-Birkenau_Concentration_Camp_-_Advice_from_a_Tour_Guide-261"><a href="#cite_ref-Auschwitz-Birkenau_Concentration_Camp_-_Advice_from_a_Tour_Guide_261-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrban-Klaehn" class="citation web cs1">Urban-Klaehn, Jagoda. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090717220806/http://culture.polishsite.us/articles/art256fr.htm">"Auschwitz-Birkenau Concentration Camp – Advice from a Tour Guide"</a>. culture.polishsite.us. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://culture.polishsite.us/articles/art256fr.htm">the original</a> on 17 July 2009. Retrieved 22 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Auschwitz-Birkenau+Concentration+Camp+%E2%80%93+Advice+from+a+Tour+Guide&rft.pub=culture.polishsite.us&rft.aulast=Urban-Klaehn&rft.aufirst=Jagoda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fculture.polishsite.us%2Farticles%2Fart256fr.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark,_B1952" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mark, B (1952). Ruch oporu w getcie białostockim. Samoobrona-zagłada-powstanie (in Polish). Warsaw.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ruch+oporu+w+getcie+bia%C5%82ostockim.+Samoobrona-zag%C5%82ada-powstanie&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.date=1952&rft.au=Mark%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-:32-263">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:32_263-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_263-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:32_263-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEberhardt2006" class="citation book cs1">Eberhardt, Piotr (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150623213741/http://www.igipz.pan.pl/en/zpz/Political_migrations.pdf">Political Migrations in Poland 1939–1948</a> (PDF). Warsaw: Didactica. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781536110357" title="Special:BookSources/9781536110357"><bdi>9781536110357</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.igipz.pan.pl/en/zpz/Political_migrations.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 23 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Migrations+in+Poland+1939%E2%80%931948&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pub=Didactica&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781536110357&rft.aulast=Eberhardt&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.igipz.pan.pl%2Fen%2Fzpz%2FPolitical_migrations.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wegner-74-264"><a href="#cite_ref-Wegner-74_264-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernd_Wegner1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernd_Wegner" title="Bernd Wegner">Bernd Wegner</a>, ed. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aESBIpIm6UcC&pg=PA74">"The period of Soviet-German partnership"</a>. From peace to war: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the world, 1939–1941. Berghahn Books. pp. 74–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1571818820" title="Special:BookSources/1571818820"><bdi>1571818820</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+period+of+Soviet-German+partnership&rft.btitle=From+peace+to+war%3A+Germany%2C+Soviet+Russia%2C+and+the+world%2C+1939%26ndash%3B1941&rft.pages=74-&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1571818820&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaESBIpIm6UcC%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holocaust-265"><a href="#cite_ref-Holocaust_265-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarina_SorokinaTarik_Cyril_Amar2014" class="citation book cs1">Marina Sorokina; Tarik Cyril Amar (2014). Michael David-Fox; Peter Holquist; Alexander M. Martin (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171014034941/http://filercosmin.com/books/download/asin%3D0822962934%26type%3Dfull">The Holocaust in the East: Local Perpetrators and Soviet Responses</a>. Pitt Series in Russian and East European Studies. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 124, 165, 172, 255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-6293-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-6293-9"><bdi>978-0-8229-6293-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://filercosmin.com/books/download/asin=0822962934&type=full">the original</a> on 14 October 2017. Retrieved 15 January 2020 – via direct download 13.6 MB. <q>Some of the information published by the <a href="/wiki/Extraordinary_State_Commission" title="Extraordinary State Commission">Extraordinary State Commission</a> was the result of conscious and purposeful falsification by Stalinist propagandists.[124]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Holocaust+in+the+East%3A+Local+Perpetrators+and+Soviet+Responses&rft.series=Pitt+Series+in+Russian+and+East+European+Studies&rft.pages=124%2C+165%2C+172%2C+255&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-8229-6293-9&rft.au=Marina+Sorokina&rft.au=Tarik+Cyril+Amar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffilercosmin.com%2Fbooks%2Fdownload%2Fasin%3D0822962934%26type%3Dfull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988">. [Also in:] <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorman_Davies2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a> (2012). <a href="/wiki/God%27s_Playground" title="God's Playground">God's Playground</a> [Boże igrzysko]. Otwarte (publishing). p. 956. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8324015566" title="Special:BookSources/978-8324015566"><bdi>978-8324015566</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TJp-AwAAQBAJ&q=pozbawione+komentarza">Polish edition, second volume</a>. <q>Translation: The Soviet methods were particularly misleading. The numbers were correct, but the victims were overwhelmingly not Russian. Original: Same liczby były całkowicie wiarygodne, ale pozbawione komentarza, sprytnie ukrywały fakt, że ofiary w przeważającej liczbie nie były Rosjanami.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Playground&rft.pages=956&rft.pub=Otwarte+%28publishing%29&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-8324015566&rft.au=Norman+Davies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eber-266"><a href="#cite_ref-eber_266-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiotr_EberhardtJan_Owsinski2003" class="citation book cs1">Piotr Eberhardt; Jan Owsinski (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&q=refused&pg=RA1-PA229">Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, Analysis</a>. M.E. Sharpe. p. 229. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0665-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-0665-5"><bdi>978-0-7656-0665-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Groups+and+Population+Changes+in+Twentieth-century+Central-Eastern+Europe%3A+History%2C+Data%2C+Analysis&rft.pages=229&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-0665-5&rft.au=Piotr+Eberhardt&rft.au=Jan+Owsinski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjLfX1q3kJzgC%26q%3Drefused%26pg%3DRA1-PA229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berendt-267">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Berendt_267-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berendt_267-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berendt_267-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrzegorz_Berendt2006" class="citation book cs1">Grzegorz Berendt (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rcin.org.pl/Content/59632/WA303_78922_B155-Polska-T-7-2005_Berendt.pdf">Emigration of Jewish people from Poland in 1945–1967</a> [Emigracja ludnosci zydowskiej z Polski w latach 1945–1967] (PDF). Vol. VII. Polska 1944/45–1989. Studia i Materiały. pp. 25–26 (pp. 2–3 in current document).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emigration+of+Jewish+people+from+Poland+in+1945%E2%80%931967&rft.pages=pp.+25-26+%28pp.+2-3+in+current+document%29&rft.pub=Polska+1944%2F45%E2%80%931989.+Studia+i+Materia%C5%82y&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Grzegorz+Berendt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frcin.org.pl%2FContent%2F59632%2FWA303_78922_B155-Polska-T-7-2005_Berendt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tr-Maz-268"><a href="#cite_ref-Tr-Maz_268-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrela-Mazur1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/El%C5%BCbieta_Trela-Mazur" title="Elżbieta Trela-Mazur">Trela-Mazur, Elżbieta</a> (1998) [1997]. Włodzimierz Bonusiak; Stanisław Jan Ciesielski; Zygmunt Mańkowski; Mikołaj Iwanow (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wGq1AAAAIAAJ&q=38%25+Polak%C3%B3w">Sovietization of educational system in the eastern part of Lesser Poland under the Soviet occupation, 1939–1941</a> [Sowietyzacja oświaty w Małopolsce Wschodniej pod radziecką okupacją 1939–1941]. Kielce: Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna im. Jana Kochanowskiego. pp. 43, 294. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-7133-100-2" title="Special:BookSources/83-7133-100-2"><bdi>83-7133-100-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sovietization+of+educational+system+in+the+eastern+part+of+Lesser+Poland+under+the+Soviet+occupation%2C+1939%E2%80%931941&rft.place=Kielce&rft.pages=43%2C+294&rft.pub=Wy%C5%BCsza+Szko%C5%82a+Pedagogiczna+im.+Jana+Kochanowskiego&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=83-7133-100-2&rft.aulast=Trela-Mazur&rft.aufirst=El%C5%BCbieta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwGq1AAAAIAAJ%26q%3D38%2525%2BPolak%25C3%25B3w&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988">. Also in: Trela-Mazur 1997, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cY0dAQAAMAAJ&q=Trela-Mazur">Wrocławskie Studia Wschodnie</a>, pp. 87–104, <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrzegorz_BerendtAugust_GrabskiAlbert_Stankowski2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Grzegorz Berendt; August Grabski; Albert Stankowski (2000). Studia z historii Żydów w Polsce po 1945 roku (in Polish). Warsaw: Żydowski Instytut Historyczny. pp. 107–111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8385888365" title="Special:BookSources/8385888365"><bdi>8385888365</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studia+z+historii+%C5%BByd%C3%B3w+w+Polsce+po+1945+roku&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pages=107-111&rft.pub=%C5%BBydowski+Instytut+Historyczny&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=8385888365&rft.au=Grzegorz+Berendt&rft.au=August+Grabski&rft.au=Albert+Stankowski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-270"><a href="#cite_ref-:2_270-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEberhardt2011" class="citation book cs1">Eberhardt, Piotr (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf">Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939–1950)</a> (PDF). Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-61590-46-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-61590-46-0"><bdi>978-83-61590-46-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Migrations+On+Polish+Territories+%281939%E2%80%931950%29&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pub=Polish+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-83-61590-46-0&rft.aulast=Eberhardt&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frcin.org.pl%2FContent%2F15652%2FWA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-USHMM-archive1-271"><a href="#cite_ref-USHMM-archive1_271-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071215094214/http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/surviv.htm">USHMM: The Survivors.</a> <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-272">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_272-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_272-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_272-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross2007" class="citation book cs1">Gross, Jan (2007). Fear : Anti-Semitism in Poland After Auschwitz. Random House Publishing Group. pp. 60–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307430960" title="Special:BookSources/9780307430960"><bdi>9780307430960</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/841327982">841327982</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fear+%3A+Anti-Semitism+in+Poland+After+Auschwitz&rft.pages=60-68&rft.pub=Random+House+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F841327982&rft.isbn=9780307430960&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cich2014-273"><a href="#cite_ref-Cich2014_273-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCichopek-Gajraj2014" class="citation book cs1">Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna (2014). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dDezAwAAQBAJ&q=civil+war">Beyond Violence: Jewish Survivors in Poland and Slovakia, 1944–48</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 26, 47, 114, 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107036666" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107036666"><bdi>978-1107036666</bdi></a>. <q>The most intense battles took place in the east but the fighting was not limited to this region; all over the country, partisans clashed with communist security forces. Repressions increased in the winter of 1945/46 and spring of 1946, when entire villages were burnt. The fighting lasted with varying intensity until 1948 and ended with thousands killed, wounded, arrested, or transported to the Soviet Union.[p. 26]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Beyond+Violence%3A+Jewish+Survivors+in+Poland+and+Slovakia%2C+1944%E2%80%9348&rft.pages=26%2C+47%2C+114%2C+143&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1107036666&rft.aulast=Cichopek-Gajraj&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdDezAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dcivil%2Bwar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prazm2004-274"><a href="#cite_ref-Prazm2004_274-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrazmowska2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anita_J._Prazmowska" title="Anita J. Prazmowska">Prazmowska, Anita J.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ReF8DAAAQBAJ&q=national+uprising">Civil War in Poland 1942–1948</a>. Springer. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0230504884" title="Special:BookSources/0230504884"><bdi>0230504884</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+War+in+Poland+1942%E2%80%931948&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0230504884&rft.aulast=Prazmowska&rft.aufirst=Anita+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DReF8DAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dnational%2Buprising&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chodakiewicz-212-275"><a href="#cite_ref-Chodakiewicz-212_275-0">^</a> Marek Jan Chodakiewicz, After the Holocaust: Polish–Jewish Conflict in the Wake of World War II (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 2003), 212–213. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88033-511-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-88033-511-4">0-88033-511-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-TP-2-276"><a href="#cite_ref-TP-2_276-0">^</a> Tadeusz Piotrowski, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/130">Poland's Holocaust, p. 130, (ibidem)</a> Published by McFarland, 1998. </li> <li id="cite_note-BP285-277"><a href="#cite_ref-BP285_277-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerthonPotts2007" class="citation book cs1">Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q45EBArmpRYC&q=Livadia+Palace%2C+Poland&pg=PA285">Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-Creation of World War II</a>. Da Capo Press. p. 285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0306816505" title="Special:BookSources/978-0306816505"><bdi>978-0306816505</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords%3A+An+Extraordinary+Re-Creation+of+World+War+II&rft.pages=285&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0306816505&rft.aulast=Berthon&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Potts%2C+Joanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq45EBArmpRYC%26q%3DLivadia%2BPalace%252C%2BPoland%26pg%3DPA285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Engel1-278"><a href="#cite_ref-Engel1_278-0">^</a> David Engel, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%203128.pdf">Patterns Of Anti-Jewish Violence In Poland, 1944–1946</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=3048&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=/IMAGE_TYPE/3048.JPG">"מידע נוסף על הפריט"</a>. 21 January 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080121220530/http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=3048&lang=EN&type_id=&addr=%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F3048.JPG">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2008. Retrieved 20 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A2+%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A3+%D7%A2%D7%9C+%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%98&rft.date=2008-01-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.yadvashem.org%2FOdot%2Fprog%2Fimage_into.asp%3Fid%3D3048%26lang%3DEN%26type_id%3D%26addr%3D%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F3048.JPG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-response-280">^ <a href="#cite_ref-response_280-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-response_280-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fathom.com/course/72809602/session3.html">Poland's Century: War, Communism and Anti-Semitism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090307025436/http://www.fathom.com/course/72809602/session3.html">Archived</a> 7 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Fathom.com. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-ipn2008-281"><a href="#cite_ref-ipn2008_281-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJankowskiBukowski2008" class="citation journal cs1">Jankowski, Andrzej; Bukowski, Leszek (4 July 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160826073423/http://pamiec.pl/download/49/27596/IPN2920080704.pdf">"The Kielce pogrom as told by the eyewitness"</a> [Pogrom kielecki – oczami świadka] (PDF). Niezalezna Gazeta Polska. Warsaw: <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance" title="Institute of National Remembrance">Institute of National Remembrance</a>: 1–8. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pamiec.pl/download/49/27596/IPN2920080704.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 26 August 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Niezalezna+Gazeta+Polska&rft.atitle=The+Kielce+pogrom+as+told+by+the+eyewitness&rft.pages=1-8&rft.date=2008-07-04&rft.aulast=Jankowski&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rft.au=Bukowski%2C+Leszek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpamiec.pl%2Fdownload%2F49%2F27596%2FIPN2920080704.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> Also in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŁukasz_KamińskiLeszek_BukowskiAndrzej_JankowskiJan_Żaryn2008" class="citation book cs1">Łukasz Kamiński; Leszek Bukowski; Andrzej Jankowski; Jan Żaryn (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xgI_AQAAIAAJ&q=zabitych+4+lipca+1946">Around the Kielce pogrom</a> [Wokół pogromu kieleckiego]. Vol. 2. Foreword by Jan Żaryn. IPN. pp. 166–171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-60464-87-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-60464-87-8"><bdi>978-83-60464-87-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Around+the+Kielce+pogrom&rft.pages=166-171&rft.pub=IPN&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-83-60464-87-8&rft.au=%C5%81ukasz+Kami%C5%84ski&rft.au=Leszek+Bukowski&rft.au=Andrzej+Jankowski&rft.au=Jan+%C5%BBaryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxgI_AQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dzabitych%2B4%2Blipca%2B1946&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beker-282">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beker_282-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beker_282-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j6B_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA101">The Plunder of Jewish Property during the Holocaust</a>, Palgrave, p. 101 </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.ft.com/content/c47fcb02-749d-11e9-bbad-7c18c0ea0201">[2]</a> Polish nationalists protest at law on restitution of Jewish property 12.05.19 </li> <li id="cite_note-AJYB_1947-284"><a href="#cite_ref-AJYB_1947_284-0">^</a> Under these limitations, restitution seemed to proceed well, at least for a time (see The American Jewish Year Book, vol. 49, 1947, p. 390). </li> <li id="cite_note-Stola_2008-285">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stola_2008_285-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stola_2008_285-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stola_2008_285-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stola_2008_285-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stola_2008_285-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStola2008" class="citation book cs1">Stola, Dariusz (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://site.ebrary.com/id/10856066">"The polish debate on the holocaust and the restitution of property"</a>. In Martin Dean; Constantin Goschler; Philipp Ther (eds.). Robbery and restitution: the conflict over Jewish property in Europe. pp. 240–255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-306-54603-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-306-54603-4"><bdi>978-1-306-54603-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 14 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+polish+debate+on+the+holocaust+and+the+restitution+of+property&rft.btitle=Robbery+and+restitution%3A+the+conflict+over+Jewish+property+in+Europe&rft.pages=240-255&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-306-54603-4&rft.aulast=Stola&rft.aufirst=Dariusz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsite.ebrary.com%2Fid%2F10856066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weizman-286">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weizman_286-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weizman_286-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeizman2017" class="citation journal cs1">Weizman, Yechiel (2 January 2017). "Unsettled possession: the question of ownership of Jewish sites in Poland after the Holocaust from a local perspective". Jewish Culture and History. 18 (1): 34–53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1462169X.2016.1267853">10.1080/1462169X.2016.1267853</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1462-169X">1462-169X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151471207">151471207</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Culture+and+History&rft.atitle=Unsettled+possession%3A+the+question+of+ownership+of+Jewish+sites+in+Poland+after+the+Holocaust+from+a+local+perspective&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=34-53&rft.date=2017-01-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151471207%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1462-169X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F1462169X.2016.1267853&rft.aulast=Weizman&rft.aufirst=Yechiel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CG_2014-287">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CG_2014_287-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CG_2014_287-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CG_2014_287-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CG_2014_287-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CG_2014_287-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CG_2014_287-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCichopek-Gajraj2014" class="citation book cs1">Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna (2014). Beyond violence: Jewish survivors in Poland and Slovakia, 1944–48. New studies in European history. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03666-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03666-6"><bdi>978-1-107-03666-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+violence%3A+Jewish+survivors+in+Poland+and+Slovakia%2C+1944%E2%80%9348&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=New+studies+in+European+history&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-107-03666-6&rft.aulast=Cichopek-Gajraj&rft.aufirst=Anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krzyżanowski_2014-288">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Krzyżanowski_2014_288-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krzyżanowski_2014_288-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krzyżanowski_2014_288-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krzyżanowski_2014_288-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krzyżanowski_2014_288-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Krzyżanowski_2014_288-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJan_GrabowskiDariusz_Libionka2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jan Grabowski; Dariusz Libionka (2014). Klucze i kasa: O mieniu żydowskim w Polsce pod okupacją niemiecką i we wczesnych latach powojennych 1939–1950 (in Polish). Warsaw: Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą. pp. 605–607.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Klucze+i+kasa%3A+O+mieniu+%C5%BCydowskim+w+Polsce+pod+okupacj%C4%85+niemieck%C4%85+i+we+wczesnych+latach+powojennych+1939%E2%80%931950&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pages=605-607&rft.pub=Stowarzyszenie+Centrum+Bada%C5%84+nad+Zag%C5%82ad%C4%85&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Jan+Grabowski&rft.au=Dariusz+Libionka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kopciowski-289"><a href="#cite_ref-Kopciowski_289-0">^</a> Adam Kopciowski. Zagłada Żydów w Zamościu (Lublin: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej, 2005), 203; Adam Kopciowski, "Anti-Jewish Incidents in the Lublin Region in the Early Years after World War II," Holocaust: Studies and Materials vol. 1 (2008), 188. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bazyler-290">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bazyler_290-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bazyler_290-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bazyler_290-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bazyler_290-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBazylerGostynski2018" class="citation journal cs1">Bazyler, Michael; Gostynski, Szymon (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/ilr/vol41/iss3/2">"Restitution of Private Property in Postwar Poland: The Unfinished Legacy of the Second World War and Communism"</a>. Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review. 41 (3): 273. Retrieved 12 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Loyola+of+Los+Angeles+International+and+Comparative+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Restitution+of+Private+Property+in+Postwar+Poland%3A+The+Unfinished+Legacy+of+the+Second+World+War+and+Communism&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=273&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Bazyler&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Gostynski%2C+Szymon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.lmu.edu%2Filr%2Fvol41%2Fiss3%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skibinske_2014-291"><a href="#cite_ref-Skibinske_2014_291-0">^</a> Alina Skibińska, "Problemy rewindykacji żydowskich nieruchomości w latach 1944–1950: Zagadnienia ogólne i szczegółowe (na przykładzie Szczebrzeszyna)," pp. 493–573 in Klucze i kasa: O mieniu żydowskim w Polsce pod okupacją niemiecką i we wczesnych latach powojennych 1939–1950, ed. by Jan Grabowski & Dariusz Libionka (Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą Żydów, Warszawa 2014) </li> <li id="cite_note-Justice-292"><a href="#cite_ref-Justice_292-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=foN8DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22rarely+as+simple+as+going+to+court+and+having+a+judge+issue+an+eviction+notice%22&pg=PA325">Searching for Justice After the Holocaust: Fulfilling the Terezin Declaration and Immovable Property Restitution</a>, Oxford University Press, p. 325 </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oHfhPXlOyZIC&dq=%22little+doubt+that+the+number+was+extremely+small+for+several+reasons%22&pg=PA52">Shattered Spaces</a>, Harvard University Press, p. 52 </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanilov-294">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stanilov_294-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanilov_294-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanilov_294-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiril_Stanilov2007" class="citation book cs1">Kiril Stanilov, ed. (2007). The post-socialist city: urban form and space transformations in Central and Eastern Europe after socialism. GeoJournal Library. Dordrecht: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6053-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6053-3"><bdi>978-1-4020-6053-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+post-socialist+city%3A+urban+form+and+space+transformations+in+Central+and+Eastern+Europe+after+socialism&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.series=GeoJournal+Library&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-6053-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gross_2007-295">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gross_2007_295-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gross_2007_295-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gross_2007_295-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross2007" class="citation book cs1">Gross, Jan Tomasz (2007). Fear: anti-semitism in Poland after Auschwitz; an essay in historical interpretation. 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(1998). "Reclaiming Their Past: A Survey of Jewish Efforts to Restitute European Property". Third World Law Journal. 18 (2): 233.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Third+World+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Reclaiming+Their+Past%3A+A+Survey+of+Jewish+Efforts+to+Restitute+European+Property&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=233&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Denburg&rft.aufirst=Stephen+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ft-297"><a href="#cite_ref-ft_297-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/3f1f6972-430c-11e8-93cf-67ac3a6482fd">"Poland's reclaimed properties create scars across Warsaw"</a>. Financial Times. 24 April 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/3f1f6972-430c-11e8-93cf-67ac3a6482fd">Archived</a> from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Poland%27s+reclaimed+properties+create+scars+across+Warsaw&rft.date=2018-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F3f1f6972-430c-11e8-93cf-67ac3a6482fd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jcpa.org-298">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jcpa.org_298-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jcpa.org_298-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jcpa.org/cjc/cjc-schudrich-06.htm">The Chief Rabbi's View on Jews and Poland – Michael Schudrich</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174414/http://www.jcpa.org/cjc/cjc-schudrich-06.htm">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Jcpa.org. Retrieved on 22 August 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochavi-xi-299"><a href="#cite_ref-Kochavi-xi_299-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKochavi2001" class="citation book cs1">Kochavi, Arieh J. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/postholocaustpol00koch">Post-Holocaust Politics: Britain, the United States & Jewish Refugees, 1945–1948</a>. The University of North Carolina Press. p. xi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-2620-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-2620-0"><bdi>0-8078-2620-0</bdi></a>. <q>Britain exerted pressure on the governments of Poland.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Post-Holocaust+Politics%3A+Britain%2C+the+United+States+%26+Jewish+Refugees%2C+1945%E2%80%931948&rft.pages=xi&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8078-2620-0&rft.aulast=Kochavi&rft.aufirst=Arieh+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpostholocaustpol00koch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-YV-archive3-300"><a href="#cite_ref-YV-archive3_300-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=8069&lang=EN&type_id=2&addr=/IMAGE_TYPE/8069.JPG">"îéãò ðåñó òì äôøéè"</a>. 30 May 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080530115749/http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/image_into.asp?id=8069&lang=EN&type_id=2&addr=%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F8069.JPG">Archived</a> from the original on 30 May 2008. Retrieved 3 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%C3%AE%C3%A9%C3%A3%C3%B2+%C3%B0%C3%A5%C3%B1%C3%B3+%C3%B2%C3%AC+%C3%A4%C3%B4%C3%B8%C3%A9%C3%A8&rft.date=2008-05-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.yadvashem.org%2FOdot%2Fprog%2Fimage_into.asp%3Fid%3D8069%26lang%3DEN%26type_id%3D2%26addr%3D%2FIMAGE_TYPE%2F8069.JPG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sztetl.org.pl/en/towns/b/1744-bolkow/101-organizations-and-associations/80234-haganas-training-camp-bolkow">Hagana's training camp in Bolkow.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210227015742/https://sztetl.org.pl/en/towns/b/1744-bolkow/101-organizations-and-associations/80234-haganas-training-camp-bolkow">Archived</a> 27 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Sztetl.org.pl. </li> <li id="cite_note-JVL-302">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JVL_302-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JVL_302-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JVL_302-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JVL_302-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/poland-virtual-jewish-history-tour">"Poland Virtual Jewish History Tour"</a>. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=Poland+Virtual+Jewish+History+Tour&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fpoland-virtual-jewish-history-tour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hoover-303">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hoover_303-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hoover_303-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoover_Institution2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution" title="Hoover Institution">Hoover Institution</a> (11 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101130192558/http://www.hoover.org/library-and-archives/acquisitions/28981">"Jakub Berman's Papers Received at the Hoover Institution Archives"</a>. 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JewishGen KehilaLinks. Retrieved 20 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=JewishGen+KehilaLinks&rft.atitle=The+History+From+the+Jews+Population&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkehilalinks.jewishgen.org%2Fplonsk%2Fhistory_jewish.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jewish_Renewal_in_Poland-326"><a href="#cite_ref-Jewish_Renewal_in_Poland_326-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishrenewalinpoland.org/">"Jewish Renewal in Poland"</a>. Jewish Renewal in Poland. Retrieved 20 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Renewal+in+Poland&rft.atitle=Jewish+Renewal+in+Poland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishrenewalinpoland.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenoch2015" class="citation web cs1">Henoch, Vivian (2 May 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://myjewishdetroit.org/2015/05/the-jcc-of-krakow/">"The JCC of Krakow"</a>. My Jewish Detroit. Retrieved 20 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=My+Jewish+Detroit&rft.atitle=The+JCC+of+Krakow&rft.date=2015-05-02&rft.aulast=Henoch&rft.aufirst=Vivian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmyjewishdetroit.org%2F2015%2F05%2Fthe-jcc-of-krakow%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jwire.com.au/qa-jonathan-ornstein/">"Q+A with Jonathan Ornstein"</a>. J-Wire. 6 April 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=J-Wire&rft.atitle=Q%2BA+with+Jonathan+Ornstein&rft.date=2016-04-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jwire.com.au%2Fqa-jonathan-ornstein%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marek_Jan_Chodakiewicz" title="Marek Jan Chodakiewicz">Marek Jan Chodakiewicz</a>, After the Holocaust, East European Monographs, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88033-511-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-88033-511-4">0-88033-511-4</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marek_Jan_Chodakiewicz" title="Marek Jan Chodakiewicz">Marek Jan Chodakiewicz</a>, Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947, Lexington Books, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-0484-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-0484-5">0-7391-0484-5</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_W._Hagen" title="William W. Hagen">William W. Hagen</a>, "Before the 'Final Solution': Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland", <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Modern_History" title="The Journal of Modern History">The Journal of Modern History</a>, Vol. 68, No. 2 (Jun. 1996), 351–381.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHundert2004" class="citation book cs1">Hundert, Gershon David (2004). Jews in Poland–Lithuania in the Eighteenth Century: A Genealogy of Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-23844-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-23844-3"><bdi>0-520-23844-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+in+Poland%E2%80%93Lithuania+in+the+Eighteenth+Century%3A+A+Genealogy+of+Modernity&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-520-23844-3&rft.aulast=Hundert&rft.aufirst=Gershon+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs2014" class="citation book cs1">Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2014) [1942]. Rohde, Aleksandra Miesak (ed.). German Occupation of Poland. Washington, D.C.: Dale Street Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1941656105" title="Special:BookSources/978-1941656105"><bdi>978-1941656105</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Occupation+of+Poland&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Dale+Street+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1941656105&rft.au=Polish+Ministry+of+Foreign+Affairs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Polonsky" title="Antony Polonsky">Antony Polonsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joanna_B._Michlic" class="mw-redirect" title="Joanna B. Michlic">Joanna B. Michlic</a>. The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland, Princeton University Press, 2003 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-11306-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-11306-8">0-691-11306-8</a>. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041228113559/http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/chapters/i7632.html">The introduction is online</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwo_Cyprian_Pogonowski" title="Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski">Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski</a>, Jews in Poland. A Documentary History, <a href="/wiki/Hippocrene_Books" title="Hippocrene Books">Hippocrene Books</a>, Inc., 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7818-0604-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7818-0604-6">0-7818-0604-6</a>.</li> <li>David Vital, A People Apart: A Political History of the Jews in Europe 1789–1939, Oxford University Press, 2001.</li> <li>M. J. Rosman, The Lord's Jews: Magnate-Jewish Relations in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth During the Eighteenth Century, Harvard University Press, 1990, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-916458-18-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-916458-18-0">0-916458-18-0</a></li> <li>Edward Fram, Ideals Face Reality: Jewish Life and Culture in Poland 1550–1655, HUC Press, 1996, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8143-2906-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8143-2906-3">0-8143-2906-3</a></li> <li>Magda Teter, Jews and Heretics in Premodern Poland: A Beleaguered Church in the Post-Reformation Era, Cambridge University Press, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-85673-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-85673-6">0-521-85673-6</a></li> <li>Laurence Weinbaum, The De-Assimilation of the Jewish Remnant in Poland, in: Ethnos-Nation: eine europäische Zeitschrift, 1999, pp. 8–25</li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger1901–1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Russia". <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a>. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russia&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"> New York: Funk and Wagnalls. Considerable amount of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Copy-paste" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Copy-paste">copy-pasted</a> paragraphs lacking <a href="/wiki/Attribution_(copyright)" title="Attribution (copyright)">inline citations</a> originate from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121006000620/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12943-russia">Chapter: "Russia"</a> in this source. The encyclopedia was published when sovereign Poland did not exist following <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">the century of Partitions</a> by neighbouring empires. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/632370258">632370258</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_history_of_Poland" title="Bibliography of the history of Poland">Bibliography of the history of Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Poland_during_World_War_II" title="Bibliography of Poland during World War II">Bibliography of Poland during World War II</a></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChodakiewicz2003" class="citation book cs1">Chodakiewicz, Marek Jan (2003). After the Holocaust: Polish–Jewish Conflict in the Wake of World War II, East European Monographs. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88033-511-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-88033-511-4"><bdi>0-88033-511-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+the+Holocaust%3A+Polish%E2%80%93Jewish+Conflict+in+the+Wake+of+World+War+II%2C+East+European+Monographs&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-88033-511-4&rft.aulast=Chodakiewicz&rft.aufirst=Marek+Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Cichopek-Gajraj, A. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5406/Poliamerstud.78.1.0060">Agency and Displacement of Ethnic Polish and Jewish Families after World War II</a>. Polish American Studies, 78(1), 60–82.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynner,_Glenn" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynner, Glenn">Dynner, Glenn</a>. Men of Silk: The Hasidic Conquest of Polish Jewish Society NY: Oxford University Press, 2006.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngel1998" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Engel_(historian)" title="David Engel (historian)">Engel, David</a> (1998). "Patterns of Anti-Jewish Violence in Poland 1944–1946". Yad Vashem Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yad+Vashem+Studies&rft.atitle=Patterns+of+Anti-Jewish+Violence+in+Poland+1944%E2%80%931946&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Engel&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Korycki, Kate. Weaponizing the Past: Collective Memory and Jews, Poles, and Communists in Twenty-First Century Poland (Berghahn Books, 2023) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hnet.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=60532">online book review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Krajewski" title="Stanisław Krajewski">Krajewski, Stanisław</a>. Poland and the Jews: Reflections of a Polish Polish Jew, Kraków: Austeria P, 2005.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevine1991" class="citation book cs1">Levine, Hillel (1991). Economic Origins of Antisemitism: Poland and Its Jews in the Early Modern Period. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300049879" title="Special:BookSources/9780300049879"><bdi>9780300049879</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22908198">22908198</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Origins+of+Antisemitism%3A+Poland+and+Its+Jews+in+the+Early+Modern+Period&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22908198&rft.isbn=9780300049879&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=Hillel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvydas_Nik%C5%BEentaitis" title="Alvydas Nikžentaitis">Nikžentaitis, Alvydas</a>, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Staliūnas (editors). The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews. Rodopi, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-420-0850-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-420-0850-4">90-420-0850-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Polonsky" title="Antony Polonsky">Polonsky, Antony</a>. The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 1: 1350–1881 (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2009) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-874774-64-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-874774-64-8">978-1-874774-64-8</a></li> <li>Polonsky, Antony. The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 2: 1881–1914 (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2009) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904113-83-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904113-83-6">978-1-904113-83-6</a></li> <li>Polonsky, Antony. The Jews in Poland and Russia, Volume 3: 1914–2008 (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2011) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904113-48-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904113-48-5">978-1-904113-48-5</a></li> <li>Prokop-Janiec, E. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5406/polishreview.64.2.0024">Jewish Intellectuals, National Suffering, Contemporary Poland</a>. The Polish Review, 64(2), 24–36.</li> <li>Ury, Scott. Barricades and Banners: The Revolution of 1905 and the Transformation of Warsaw Jewry, Stanford University Press, 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-804763-83-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-804763-83-7">978-0-804763-83-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinerPolish_State_Archives_(in_cooperation_with)1997" class="citation book cs1">Weiner, Miriam; Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) (1997). Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories. Secaucus, NJ: Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-96-565080-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-96-565080-9"><bdi>978-0-96-565080-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38756480">38756480</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Roots+in+Poland%3A+Pages+from+the+Past+and+Archival+Inventories&rft.place=Secaucus%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Miriam+Weiner+Routes+to+Roots+Foundation&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38756480&rft.isbn=978-0-96-565080-9&rft.aulast=Weiner&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rft.au=Polish+State+Archives+%28in+cooperation+with%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+the+Jews+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></li> <li>A Marriage of Convenience: The New Zionist Organization and the Polish Government 1936–1939 Laurence Weinbaum, East European Monographs; dist. Columbia University Press, 1993</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maps">Maps</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/maps/map48.jpg">The Cossack Uprising and its Aftermath in Poland</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121209074145/http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/maps/map48.jpg">Archived</a> 9 December 2012 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/maps/map47.jpg">Jewish Communities in Poland and Lithuania under the Council of the Four Lands</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090915011413/http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/maps/map47.jpg">Archived</a> 15 September 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/maps/map50.jpg">The Spread of Hasidic Judaism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090915011410/http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/maps/map50.jpg">Archived</a> 15 September 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/maps/map65.jpg">Jewish Revolts against the Nazis in Poland</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121209080703/http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/maps/map65.jpg">Archived</a> 9 December 2012 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a> (All maps from Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_Polish_Jews">History of Polish Jews</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140104211006/http://www.jewishmuseum.org.pl/index.php?miId=2&lang=en">Museum of the History of Polish Jews</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sztetl.org.pl/?lang=en_GB">Virtual Shtetl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://polishjews.org">The Polish Jews Home Page</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Poland.html">Virtual Jewish History Tour of Poland</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050207032120/http://depts.washington.edu/baltic/papers/judaismmiller.htm">Judaism in the Baltic: Vilna as the Spiritual Center of Eastern Europe</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zydziwpolsce.edu.pl/aindex.html">The Jews in Poland. Saving from oblivion – Teaching for the future</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051023230340/http://jewish.sites.warszawa.um.gov.pl/wstep_a.htm">Historical Sites of Jewish Warsaw</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021114192443/http://www.polandembassy.org/Links/p7-10.htm">Polish–Jewish Relations section of the Polish Embassy in Washington</a></li> <li>Joanna Rohozinska, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514061909/http://www.ce-review.org/00/4/rohozinska4.html">A Complicated Coexistence: Polish–Jewish relations through the centuries</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a>, Central Europe Review, 28 January 2000.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081225020319/http://fzp.net.pl/historia20.html">Jewish organisations in Poland before the Second World War</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fodz.pl/?d=1&l=en">Foundation for the Preservation of Jewish Heritage in Poland</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cemetery.jewish.org.pl">Foundation for Documentation of Jewish Cemeteries in Poland</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II_and_the_Holocaust">World War II and the Holocaust</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150220205852/http://vilnaghetto.com/index.html">Chronicles of the Vilna Ghetto: wartime photographs & documents</a> vilnaghetto.com</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/uprising/">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a> from the US Holocaust Museum. From the same source see: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/">Non-Jewish Polish Victims of the Holocaust</a></li> <li>Bibliography of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/research/library/index.php?content=bibliography/index.php%3fcontent=poles">Polish Jewish Relations</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121208083532/http://www.ushmm.org/research/library/index.php?content=bibliography%2Findex.php%3Fcontent%3Dpoles">Archived</a> 8 December 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> during the War</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humboldt.edu/~rescuers/book/Makuch/conditionsp.html">Chronology of German Anti-Jewish Measures</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100702090015/http://www.humboldt.edu/~rescuers/book/Makuch/conditionsp.html">Archived</a> 2 July 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> during World War II in Poland</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060712010626/http://letters.krakow.pl/books/mojzesz.html">The Catholic Zionist Who Helped Steer Israeli Independence through the UN</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_VPNRQSN">Poland's Jews:A light flickers on</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>, 20 December 2005</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_in_Europe" title="Template:Jews and Judaism in Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jews_and_Judaism_in_Europe" title="Template talk:Jews and Judaism in Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_in_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jews and Judaism in Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">History of the Jews in Europe </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Albania" title="History of the Jews in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Andorra" title="History of the Jews in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Armenia" title="History of the Jews in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Azerbaijan" title="History of the Jews in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium" title="History of the Jews in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="History of the Jews in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Croatia" title="History of the Jews in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iceland" title="History of the Jews in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Liechtenstein" title="History of the Jews in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Luxembourg" title="History of the Jews in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malta" title="History of the Jews in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Monaco" title="History of the Jews in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Montenegro" title="History of the Jews in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_North_Macedonia" title="History of the Jews in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_San_Marino" title="History of the Jews in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Slovakia" title="History of the Jews in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Slovenia" title="History of the Jews in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Switzerland" title="History of the Jews in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_England" title="History of the Jews in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Wales" title="History of the Jews in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Abkhazia" title="History of the Jews in Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kosovo" title="History of the Jews in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Ossetia" title="History of the Jews in South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Transnistria" title="History of the Jews in Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Faroe_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in the Faroe Islands (page does not exist)">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gibraltar" title="History of the Jews in Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guernsey" title="History of the Jews in Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Jews in the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jersey" title="History of the Jews in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of the Jews in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethnic_groups_in_Poland" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethnic_groups_in_Poland" title="Template:Ethnic groups in Poland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethnic_groups_in_Poland" title="Template talk:Ethnic groups in Poland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnic_groups_in_Poland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnic groups in Poland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethnic_groups_in_Poland" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Poland" title="Ethnic minorities in Poland">Ethnic groups in Poland</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Poles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_people" title="Greater Poland people">Greater Poland people</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaliszans" title="Kaliszans">Kaliszans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuyavians" title="Kuyavians">Kuyavians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuyavian_Borowiaks" title="Kuyavian Borowiaks">Kuyavian Borowiaks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%C5%9Btaks" title="Taśtaks">Taśtaks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland_people" title="Lesser Poland people">Lesser Poland people</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cracovians_(ethnic_group)" title="Cracovians (ethnic group)">Cracovians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasovians" title="Lasovians">Lasovians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublinians" title="Lublinians">Lublinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandomierzans" title="Sandomierzans">Sandomierzans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Masovians" title="Masovians">Masovians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81owiczans" title="Łowiczans">Łowiczans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurpie" title="Kurpie">Kurpies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masurians" title="Masurians">Masurians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%C4%99dzyrzec_Boyars" title="Międzyrzec Boyars">Międzyrzec Boyars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poborzans" title="Poborzans">Poborzans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podlachians" title="Podlachians">Podlachians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Borderlands_Poles" title="Borderlands Poles">Borderlands Poles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bug_River_Poles" title="Bug River Poles">Bug River Poles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bambers" title="Bambers">Bambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kocievians" title="Kocievians">Kocievians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C4%99czycans" title="Łęczycans">Łęczycans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Uplanders" title="Polish Uplanders">Polish Uplanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieradzans" title="Sieradzans">Sieradzans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuchola_Forest#Ethnocultural_region" title="Tuchola Forest">Tuchola Borowians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warmians_(ethnic_group)" title="Warmians (ethnic group)">Warmians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gorals" title="Gorals">Gorals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%85cz_Lachs" title="Sącz Lachs">Sącz Lachs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Gorals" title="Silesian Gorals">Silesian Gorals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kashubians" title="Kashubians">Kashubians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gochy" title="Gochy">Gochs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krubans" title="Krubans">Krubans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovincians" title="Slovincians">Slovincians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Silesians" title="Silesians">Silesians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cieszyn_Vlachs" title="Cieszyn Vlachs">Cieszyn Vlachs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_minority_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Belarusian minority in Poland">Belarusians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechs_in_Poland" title="Czechs in Poland">Czechs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemkos" title="Lemkos">Lemkos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonians_in_Poland" title="Macedonians in Poland">Macedonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podlashuks" title="Podlashuks">Podlashuks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poleshuks" title="Poleshuks">Poleshuks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusyns" title="Rusyns">Rusyns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boykos" title="Boykos">Boykos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_minority_in_Poland" title="Russian minority in Poland">Russians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbs_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbs in Poland">Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovaks" title="Slovaks">Slovaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbs" title="Sorbs">Sorbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainians_in_Poland" title="Ukrainians in Poland">Ukrainians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germanic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_people_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch people in Poland">Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olenders" title="Olenders">Olenders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_people_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="English people in Poland">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_people_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemish people in Poland">Flemings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vilamovians" title="Vilamovians">Vilamovians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_minority_in_Poland" title="German minority in Poland">Germans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Germans" title="Galician Germans">Galician Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuchola_Forest#Ethnocultural_region" title="Tuchola Forest">Kosznajders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeranians_(German_people)" title="Pomeranians (German people)">Pomeranians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vistula_Germans" title="Vistula Germans">Vistula Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walddeutsche" title="Walddeutsche">Walddeutsche</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_people_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="French people in Poland">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Italians in Poland">Italians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloons_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Walloons in Poland">Walloons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Poland" title="Africans in Poland">Africans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Poland" title="Armenians in Poland">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshis_in_Poland" title="Bangladeshis in Poland">Bangladeshis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_diaspora#Poland" title="Circassian diaspora">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipinos_in_Poland" title="Filipinos in Poland">Filipinos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgians_in_Poland" title="Georgians in Poland">Georgians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_Poland" title="Greeks in Poland">Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarians_in_Poland" title="Hungarians in Poland">Hungarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indians_in_Poland" title="Indians in Poland">Indians</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_Poland" title="Koreans in Poland">Koreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipka_Tatars" title="Lipka Tatars">Lipka Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_minority_in_Poland" title="Lithuanian minority in Poland">Lithuanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutejszy" title="Tutejszy">Locals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalis_in_Poland" title="Nepalis in Poland">Nepalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_people_in_Poland" title="Romani people in Poland">Romani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergitka_Roma" title="Bergitka Roma">Bergitka Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polska_Roma" title="Polska Roma">Polska Roma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots in Poland">Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Poland" title="Turks in Poland">Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people_in_Poland" title="Vietnamese people in Poland">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Polish_diaspora_and_Polish_minorities" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Polish_diaspora" title="Template:Polish diaspora"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Polish_diaspora" title="Template talk:Polish diaspora"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Polish_diaspora" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Polish diaspora"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Polish_diaspora_and_Polish_minorities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Polish_diaspora" title="Polish diaspora">Polish diaspora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polish_people" title="Polish people">Polish minorities</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lechites" title="Lechites">Lechites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish-Lithuanian identity">Polish-Lithuanian people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Emigration" title="Great Emigration">Great Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_occupation_zone_in_Germany" title="Polish occupation zone in Germany">Polish occupation zone in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Poles in the Soviet Union">Poles in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diaspora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Central_and_Eastern_Europe" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central and Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Belarus" title="Poles in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Bulgaria" title="Poles in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_minority_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Polish minority in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Germany" title="Poles in Germany">Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ruhrpolen" title="Ruhrpolen">Ruhrpolen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_Poland_to_Germany_after_World_War_II" title="Emigration from Poland to Germany after World War II">after WWII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Germans_of_Polish_origin" title="List of Germans of Polish origin">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Hungary" title="Poles in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Moldova" title="Poles in Moldova">Moldova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Transnistria" title="Poles in Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Romania" title="Poles in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_minority_in_Russia" title="Polish minority in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Ukraine" title="Poles in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Estonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Iceland" title="Poles in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_minority_in_Ireland" title="Polish minority in Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Latvia" title="Poles in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Lithuania" title="Poles in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Norway" title="Poles in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Sweden" title="Poles in Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Poles in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_of_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Malta" title="Poles in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Spain" title="Poles in Spain">Spain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migrations_from_Poland_since_EU_accession" class="mw-redirect" title="Migrations from Poland since EU accession">after 2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_France" title="Poles in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Luxembourg" title="Poles in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Poles in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Polish" title="White Polish">White Polish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Argentines" title="Polish Argentines">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Brazilians" title="Polish Brazilians">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Canadians" title="Polish Canadians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Chileans" title="Polish Chileans">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Colombians" title="Polish Colombians">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Haitians" title="Polish Haitians">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Mexicans" title="Polish Mexicans">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Paraguayan" title="Polish Paraguayan">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Americans" title="Polish Americans">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_Americans" title="List of Polish Americans">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Uruguayan" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Uruguayan">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Venezuelans" title="Polish Venezuelans">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_diaspora#Senegal" title="Polish diaspora">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Poles in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_diaspora#Tanzania" title="Polish diaspora">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_diaspora#Uganda" title="Polish diaspora">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_diaspora#Zimbabwe" title="Polish diaspora">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Armenia" title="Poles in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Azerbaijan" title="Poles in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_China" title="Poles in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Georgia" title="Poles in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Japan" title="Poles in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Kazakhstan" title="Poles in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Poles in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_people_in_Lebanon" title="Polish people in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_people_in_Pakistan" title="Polish people in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_settlement_in_the_Philippines" title="Polish settlement in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_minority_in_Russia" title="Polish minority in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Buryatia" title="Poles in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Tajikistan" title="Poles in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Poles_in_Turkey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poles in Turkey (page does not exist)">Turkey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polonezk%C3%B6y" title="Polonezköy">Polonezköy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Turkmenistan" title="Poles in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expatriates_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates#Polish" title="Expatriates in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Uzbekistan" title="Poles in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Australians" title="Polish Australians">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_New_Zealanders" title="Polish New Zealanders">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_attempts_by_Poland" title="Colonization attempts by Poland">Colonization attempts by Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Poland" title="Ethnic minorities in Poland">Ethnic minorities in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_population_transfers_(1944%E2%80%931946)" title="Polish population transfers (1944–1946)">Polish population transfers (1944–1946)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repatriation_of_Poles_(1955%E2%80%9359)" class="mw-redirect" title="Repatriation of Poles (1955–59)">Repatriation of Poles (1955–59)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Diaspora_Day" title="Polish Diaspora Day">Polish Diaspora Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Principal_religions_of_Poland" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_in_Poland" title="Template:Religion in Poland"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_in_Poland" title="Template talk:Religion in Poland"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_in_Poland" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion in Poland"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Principal_religions_of_Poland" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Principal <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">religions of Poland</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State-recognised</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Poland" title="Catholic Church in Poland">Catholic Church in Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Catholic_Archeparchy_of_Przemy%C5%9Bl%E2%80%93Warsaw" title="Ukrainian Catholic Archeparchy of Przemyśl–Warsaw">Ukrainian Catholic Archdiocese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Catholic_Church" title="Armenian Catholic Church">Armenian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodzima_Wiara" title="Rodzima Wiara">Rodzima Wiara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Polish_Church" title="Native Polish Church">Native Polish Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish-Catholic_Church_in_the_Republic_of_Poland" title="Polish-Catholic Church in the Republic of Poland">Polish-Catholic Church in the Republic of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church_in_Poland" title="Old Catholic Church in Poland">Old Catholic Church in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Orthodox_Church" title="Polish Orthodox Church">Polish Orthodox Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Reformed_Church" title="Polish Reformed Church">Polish Reformed Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_Augsburg_Confession_in_Poland" title="Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Poland">Evangelical-Augsburg Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Methodist_Church" title="United Methodist Church">United Methodist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Mariavite_Church" title="Catholic Mariavite Church">Catholic Mariavite Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariavite_Church" title="Mariavite Church">Old Catholic Mariavite Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptist_Christian_Church_of_the_Republic_of_Poland" title="Baptist Christian Church of the Republic of Poland">Baptist Christian Church of the Republic of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostal_Church_in_Poland" title="Pentecostal Church in Poland">Pentecostal Church in Poland</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Poland" title="Islam in Poland">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Not state-recognised</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Poland" title="Hinduism in Poland">Hinduism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Poland" title="Irreligion in Poland">Irreligion in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_Poland" title="Protestantism in Poland">Protestantism in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith_in_Poland" title="Slavic Native Faith in Poland">Slavic Native Faith in Poland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland&oldid=1255128846">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland&oldid=1255128846</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_Polish_history" title="Category:Jewish Polish history">Jewish Polish history</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_ethnic_groups_in_Poland" 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[\"CITEREFMichelle_L._StefanoPeter_Davis2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMieczysław_B._BiskupskiPiotr_Stefan_Wandycz2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoorhouse2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNagielski1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman_Davies2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaulsson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiotr_EberhardtJan_Owsinski2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiotrowski1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiątkowski2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolish_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolonsky2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrazmowska2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReiner2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRozenbaum1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFS._M._Dubnow2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSara_Bender2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinger1906\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkolnik2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnyder2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStachura2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanislawski\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStola2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTadeusz_Piotrowski1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTadeusz_Piotrowski1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTadeusz_Piotrowski1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrela-Mazur1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrban-Klaehn\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinerPolish_State_Archives_(in_cooperation_with)1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiss\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeizman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWierzejska2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWłodzimierz_Mędrzecki2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFĬokhanan_Petrovskiĭ-Shtern2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŁukasz_KamińskiLeszek_BukowskiAndrzej_JankowskiJan_Żaryn2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFסיקולר2007\"] = 1,\n [\"arenda\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 13,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 20,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 73,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 63,\n [\"Convert\"] = 2,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Jews In Poland\"] = 1,\n [\"Demography\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Ethnic groups in Poland\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 7,\n [\"History of the Jews in Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 31,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 2,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 3,\n [\"Infobox ethnic group\"] = 1,\n [\"Jewish Polish history\"] = 1,\n [\"JewishEncyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Jews and Judaism sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Langx\"] = 5,\n [\"Main\"] = 18,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 8,\n [\"OCLC\"] = 5,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Page?\"] = 2,\n [\"Pages needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Polish diaspora\"] = 1,\n [\"Polish religions\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-extended\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Script/Hebrew\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 10,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 3,\n [\"Unreferenced section\"] = 2,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Usurped\"] = 1,\n [\"Verify source\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 28,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","360","18.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","320","16.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","180","9.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","120","6.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","100","5.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","100","5.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","5.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","100","5.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","60","3.1"],["[others]","420","21.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-b5stz","timestamp":"20241122141200","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of the Jews in Poland","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1516823","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1516823","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-12-31T18:17:26Z","dateModified":"2024-11-03T08:30:42Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/ce\/International_Holocaust_Remembrance_Day_in_Poland%2C_January_2020_%2849449915157%29.jpg","headline":"history of Polish Jews since at least 966 CE"}</script> </body> </html>