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(PDF) Pestilential Emanations', Medical Knowledge, and Stigmatisation in Saint-Louis, Senegal, 1854-1920
<!DOCTYPE html> <html > <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/open_search.xml" title="Academia.edu"> <meta content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1" name="viewport"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="bKJMBZA7E43xhDOopFZkssMMkBRjvYERV-NaN4R6mrs"> <meta name="csrf-param" content="authenticity_token" /> <meta name="csrf-token" content="Eku58H3iyOWm907zbywhOlU-YAU8hfJPJZpAUOJU2l54BNl4IG10zVkfGm0lvKVA0XeIeUBCOMciUYJk2Z9Pgg" /> <meta name="citation_title" content="Pestilential Emanations&#39;, Medical Knowledge, and Stigmatisation in Saint-Louis, Senegal, 1854-1920" /> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2021/01/01" /> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="eTropic: electronic journal of studies in the tropics" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="Kalala Ngalamulume" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:url" content="https://www.academia.edu/95104826/Pestilential_Emanations_Medical_Knowledge_and_Stigmatisation_in_Saint_Louis_Senegal_1854_1920" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Pestilential Emanations', Medical Knowledge, and Stigmatisation in Saint-Louis, Senegal, 1854-1920" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="This article shows how French doctors based in Saint-Louis-du-Sénégal, the capital of colonial Senegal, conceptualised the Senegambian region as a diseased environment and Africans as carriers of infectious agents. It explains how perceptions of the" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="http://a.academia-assets.com/images/twitter-card.jpeg" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="2369844204" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.academia.edu/95104826/Pestilential_Emanations_Medical_Knowledge_and_Stigmatisation_in_Saint_Louis_Senegal_1854_1920" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Pestilential Emanations', Medical Knowledge, and Stigmatisation in Saint-Louis, Senegal, 1854-1920" /> <meta property="og:image" content="http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif" /> <meta property="og:description" content="This article shows how French doctors based in Saint-Louis-du-Sénégal, the capital of colonial Senegal, conceptualised the Senegambian region as a diseased environment and Africans as carriers of infectious agents. It explains how perceptions of the" /> <meta property="article:author" content="https://independent.academia.edu/KalalaNgalamulume" /> <meta name="description" content="This article shows how French doctors based in Saint-Louis-du-Sénégal, the capital of colonial Senegal, conceptualised the Senegambian region as a diseased environment and Africans as carriers of infectious agents. It explains how perceptions of the" /> <title>(PDF) Pestilential Emanations', Medical Knowledge, and Stigmatisation in Saint-Louis, Senegal, 1854-1920</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.academia.edu/95104826/Pestilential_Emanations_Medical_Knowledge_and_Stigmatisation_in_Saint_Louis_Senegal_1854_1920" /> <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-5VKX33P2DS"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'G-5VKX33P2DS', { cookie_domain: 'academia.edu', send_page_view: false, }); gtag('event', 'page_view', { 'controller': "single_work", 'action': "show", 'controller_action': 'single_work#show', 'logged_in': 'false', 'edge': 'unknown', // Send nil if there is no A/B test bucket, in case some records get logged // with missing data - that way we can distinguish between the two cases. // ab_test_bucket should be of the form <ab_test_name>:<bucket> 'ab_test_bucket': null, }) </script> <script> var $controller_name = 'single_work'; var $action_name = "show"; var $rails_env = 'production'; var $app_rev = '1e60a92a442ff83025cbe4f252857ee7c49c0bbe'; var $domain = 'academia.edu'; var $app_host = "academia.edu"; var $asset_host = "academia-assets.com"; var $start_time = new Date().getTime(); var $recaptcha_key = "6LdxlRMTAAAAADnu_zyLhLg0YF9uACwz78shpjJB"; var $recaptcha_invisible_key = "6Lf3KHUUAAAAACggoMpmGJdQDtiyrjVlvGJ6BbAj"; var $disableClientRecordHit = false; </script> <script> window.require = { config: function() { return function() {} } } </script> <script> window.Aedu = window.Aedu || {}; window.Aedu.hit_data = null; window.Aedu.serverRenderTime = new Date(1740563120000); window.Aedu.timeDifference = new Date().getTime() - 1740563120000; </script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"ScholarlyArticle","abstract":"This article shows how French doctors based in Saint-Louis-du-Sénégal, the capital of colonial Senegal, conceptualised the Senegambian region as a diseased environment and Africans as carriers of infectious agents. It explains how perceptions of the hot tropical climate, combined with outbreaks of epidemic diseases and seasonal allergies, were instrumental in the processes of urban transformation through hygienic measures such as waste removal, the closing of cemeteries, and the imposition of new building codes. The article also shows how the stigmatisation of Africans was implicated in the forced removal of the urban poor – firstly from the city centre, and later from the entire city-island. Colonial medical knowledge in Senegal was initially based on the miasma theory, however, germ theory was adopted in the aftermath of the 1900 yellow fever epidemic. 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[{"id":97378506,"identifier":"Attachment_97378506","shouldShowBulkDownload":false}]; window.loswp.shouldDetectTimezone = true; window.loswp.shouldShowBulkDownload = true; window.loswp.showSignupCaptcha = false window.loswp.willEdgeCache = false; window.loswp.work = {"work":{"id":95104826,"created_at":"2023-01-16T09:15:59.059-08:00","from_world_paper_id":225453666,"updated_at":"2024-12-03T00:29:02.059-08:00","_data":{"abstract":"This article shows how French doctors based in Saint-Louis-du-Sénégal, the capital of colonial Senegal, conceptualised the Senegambian region as a diseased environment and Africans as carriers of infectious agents. It explains how perceptions of the hot tropical climate, combined with outbreaks of epidemic diseases and seasonal allergies, were instrumental in the processes of urban transformation through hygienic measures such as waste removal, the closing of cemeteries, and the imposition of new building codes. The article also shows how the stigmatisation of Africans was implicated in the forced removal of the urban poor – firstly from the city centre, and later from the entire city-island. Colonial medical knowledge in Senegal was initially based on the miasma theory, however, germ theory was adopted in the aftermath of the 1900 yellow fever epidemic. Both theories, in relation with racialism, impacted the urban landscape in Saint-Louis, Senegal.","ai_title_tag":"Colonial Medicine and Stigma in Saint-Louis, Senegal (1854-1920)","publication_date":"2021,,","publication_name":"eTropic: electronic journal of studies in the tropics"},"document_type":"paper","pre_hit_view_count_baseline":null,"quality":"high","language":"en","title":"Pestilential Emanations', Medical Knowledge, and Stigmatisation in Saint-Louis, Senegal, 1854-1920","broadcastable":true,"draft":null,"has_indexable_attachment":true,"indexable":true}}["work"]; window.loswp.workCoauthors = [191740541]; window.loswp.locale = "en"; window.loswp.countryCode = "SG"; window.loswp.cwvAbTestBucket = ""; window.loswp.designVariant = "ds_vanilla"; window.loswp.fullPageMobileSutdModalVariant = "full_page_mobile_sutd_modal"; window.loswp.useOptimizedScribd4genScript = false; window.loginModal = {}; window.loginModal.appleClientId = 'edu.academia.applesignon'; window.userInChina = "false";</script><script defer="" src="https://accounts.google.com/gsi/client"></script><div class="ds-loswp-container"><div class="ds-work-card--grid-container"><div class="ds-work-card--container js-loswp-work-card"><div class="ds-work-card--cover"><div class="ds-work-cover--wrapper"><div class="ds-work-cover--container"><button class="ds-work-cover--clickable js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"swp-splash-paper-cover","attachmentId":97378506,"attachmentType":"pdf"}"><img alt="First page of “Pestilential Emanations', Medical Knowledge, and Stigmatisation in Saint-Louis, Senegal, 1854-1920”" class="ds-work-cover--cover-thumbnail" src="https://0.academia-photos.com/attachment_thumbnails/97378506/mini_magick20230116-1-95yqtm.png?1673889466" /><img alt="PDF Icon" class="ds-work-cover--file-icon" src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/single_work_splash/adobe_icon.svg" /><div class="ds-work-cover--hover-container"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span><p>Download Free PDF</p></div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-container">Download Free PDF</div><div class="ds-work-cover--ribbon-triangle"></div></button></div></div></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-information"><h1 class="ds-work-card--work-title">Pestilential Emanations', Medical Knowledge, and Stigmatisation in Saint-Louis, Senegal, 1854-1920</h1><div class="ds-work-card--work-authors ds-work-card--detail"><a class="ds-work-card--author js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="191740541" href="https://independent.academia.edu/KalalaNgalamulume"><img alt="Profile image of Kalala Ngalamulume" class="ds-work-card--author-avatar" src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/s65_no_pic.png" />Kalala Ngalamulume</a></div><div class="ds-work-card--detail"><p class="ds-work-card--detail ds2-5-body-sm">2021, eTropic: electronic journal of studies in the tropics</p><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata"><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">visibility</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm" id="work-metadata-view-count">…</p></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">description</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm">21 pages</p></div><div class="ds-work-card--work-metadata__stat"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">link</span><p class="ds2-5-body-sm">1 file</p></div></div><script>(async () => { const workId = 95104826; 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It explains how perceptions of the hot tropical climate, combined with outbreaks of epidemic diseases and seasonal allergies, were instrumental in the processes of urban transformation through hygienic measures such as waste removal, the closing of cemeteries, and the imposition of new building codes. The article also shows how the stigmatisation of Africans was implicated in the forced removal of the urban poor – firstly from the city centre, and later from the entire city-island. Colonial medical knowledge in Senegal was initially based on the miasma theory, however, germ theory was adopted in the aftermath of the 1900 yellow fever epidemic. Both theories, in relation with racialism, impacted the urban landscape in Saint-Louis, Senegal.</p><div class="ds-work-card--button-container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--work-card","attachmentId":97378506,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/95104826/Pestilential_Emanations_Medical_Knowledge_and_Stigmatisation_in_Saint_Louis_Senegal_1854_1920"}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--work-card","attachmentId":97378506,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":"https://www.academia.edu/95104826/Pestilential_Emanations_Medical_Knowledge_and_Stigmatisation_in_Saint_Louis_Senegal_1854_1920"}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger-container"><div class="ds-signup-banner-trigger ds-signup-banner-trigger-control"></div></div><div class="ds-signup-banner ds-signup-banner-control"><div id="ds-signup-banner-close-button"><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary ds2-5-button--inverse"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">close</span></button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-ctas" data-impression-entity-id="95104826" data-impression-entity-type="2" data-impression-source="signup-banner"><img src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-capital-white.svg" /><h4 class="ds2-5-heading-serif-sm">Sign up for access to the world's latest research</h4><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--inverse ds2-5-button--full-width js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"signup-banner"}">Sign up for free<span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">arrow_forward</span></button></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-divider"></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons"><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Get notified about relevant papers</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Save papers to use in your research</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Join the discussion with peers</span></div><div class="ds-signup-banner-reasons-item"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 24px" translate="no">check</span><span>Track your impact</span></div></div></div><script>(() => { // Set up signup banner show/hide behavior: // 1. 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The discussion focuses on changing strategies and policies designed to address yellow fever threats, the attitudes and priorities of the authorities, the limits of ‘colonial medicine’ and the responses of people affected by sanitary measures. The article argues that because of the ignorance of the etiology and epidemiology of yellow fever, policies were misdirected and did not achieve their primary goals. Even after the introduction of germ theory, the gap between medical thinking and practice persisted for another decade. The African urban working class and underclass were the first victims of this state of affairs. The article also examines the conflict betw...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Keeping the City Totally Clean: Yellow Fever and the Politics of Prevention in Colonial Saint-Louis-Du-Sénégal, 1850–1914","attachmentId":97378495,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/95104800/Keeping_the_City_Totally_Clean_Yellow_Fever_and_the_Politics_of_Prevention_in_Colonial_Saint_Louis_Du_S%C3%A9n%C3%A9gal_1850_1914","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/95104800/Keeping_the_City_Totally_Clean_Yellow_Fever_and_the_Politics_of_Prevention_in_Colonial_Saint_Louis_Du_S%C3%A9n%C3%A9gal_1850_1914"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="21501806" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/21501806/A_History_of_Urban_Planning_and_Infectious_Diseases_Colonial_Senegal_in_the_Early_Twentieth_Century_Urban_Studies_Research_2011_">A History of Urban Planning and Infectious Diseases: Colonial Senegal in the Early Twentieth Century (Urban Studies Research, 2011)</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="42583945" href="https://independiente.academia.edu/LioraBigon">Liora Bigon</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Urban Studies Research, 2011</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">This paper deals with the spatial implications of the French sanitary policies in early colonial urban Senegal. It focuses on the French politics of residential segregation following the outbreak of the bubonic plague in Dakar in 1914, and their precedents in Saint Louis. These policies can be conceived as most dramatic, resulting in a displacement of a considerable portion of the indigenous population, who did not want or could not afford to build à l’européen, to the margins of the colonial city. Aspects of residential segregation are analysed here through the perspective of cultural history and history of colonial planning and architecture, in contrast to the existing literature on this topic. The latter dilates on the statutory policies of the colonial authorities facing the 1914 plague in Dakar, the plague's sociopolitical implications, and the colonial politics of public health there. In the light of relevant historiography, and a variety of secondary and primary sources, this paper exposes the contradictions that were inherent in the French colonial regime in West Africa. These contradictions were wisely used by the African agency, so that such a seemingly urgent segregationist project was actually never accomplished.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"A History of Urban Planning and Infectious Diseases: Colonial Senegal in the Early Twentieth Century (Urban Studies Research, 2011)","attachmentId":41943535,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/21501806/A_History_of_Urban_Planning_and_Infectious_Diseases_Colonial_Senegal_in_the_Early_Twentieth_Century_Urban_Studies_Research_2011_","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/21501806/A_History_of_Urban_Planning_and_Infectious_Diseases_Colonial_Senegal_in_the_Early_Twentieth_Century_Urban_Studies_Research_2011_"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="2" data-entity-id="79522617" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/79522617/Disease_Control_and_Public_Health_in_Colonial_Africa">Disease Control and Public Health in Colonial Africa</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="341536" href="https://ugent.academia.edu/SamuelCoghe">Samuël Coghe</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History, 2020</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Disease control and public health have been key aspects of social and political life in sub-Saharan Africa since time immemorial. With variations across space and time, many societies viewed disease as the result of imbalances in persons and societies and combined the use of materia medica from the natural world, spiritual divination, and community healing to redress these imbalances. While early encounters between African and European healing systems were still marked by mutual exchanges and adaptations, the emergence of European germ theory-based biomedicine and the establishment of racialized colonial states in the 19th century increasingly challenged the value of African therapeutic practices for disease control on the continent. Initially, colonial states focused on preserving the health of European soldiers, administrators, and settlers, who were deemed particularly vulnerable to tropical climate and its diseases. Around 1900, however, they started paying more attention to dis...</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Disease Control and Public Health in Colonial Africa","attachmentId":86209162,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/79522617/Disease_Control_and_Public_Health_in_Colonial_Africa","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/79522617/Disease_Control_and_Public_Health_in_Colonial_Africa"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="3" data-entity-id="33280561" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/33280561/Sanitation_Syndrome_and_the_Creation_of_Racialized_Disease_in_Early_20th_Century_Cape_Colony">Sanitation Syndrome and the Creation of Racialized Disease in Early 20th Century Cape Colony</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="23971680" href="https://columbia.academia.edu/EsosaOhonba">Esosa Ohonba</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">French Prime Minister Jules Ferry’s public statement on colonial expansion on March 28th, 1884 is quite representative of its time. In his speech, he discusses both the prevailing economic and ideological motives for the European colonization of Africa. The need for new venues for trade, labor, and raw resources, were a reality for all of the European hegemons interested in colonial expansion. But in the process of creating the necessary power dynamics between the European hegemons and African nations a unique concept of hierarchy by skin color or “race” was employed and substantiated. There were many justifications for this hierarchy: the racialized ideology of the “Great Chain of being” which ranked and divided humanity and animals based on intelligence and “civilization”; Petrus Campers’ popular brand of scientific racism based on head shape;7 and the Victorian era ideology of Social Hygiene which sought to control the “lower” races perceived infective hypersexuality. However, in some African colonial societies expansion was justified by an ideology of Racialized disease. The idea that “African Natives” and their culture served to harbor, perpetuate, and create disease, was a common, “scientific” belief in the early 20th century. In the South African context, the economic and racially driven segregation of “diseased” black bodies during the bubonic plague epidemic was coined the “Sanitation Syndrome” by the researcher Maynard Swanson. His article detailed the destruction of integrated space under the guise of anti-plague health reform driven by the economic desires of an anxious white middle class in early 20th century Cape Colony. But it fails to discuss the creation of race and racialized disease in the process of creating a premise for this destruction.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Sanitation Syndrome and the Creation of Racialized Disease in Early 20th Century Cape Colony","attachmentId":53348167,"attachmentType":"docx","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/33280561/Sanitation_Syndrome_and_the_Creation_of_Racialized_Disease_in_Early_20th_Century_Cape_Colony","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/33280561/Sanitation_Syndrome_and_the_Creation_of_Racialized_Disease_in_Early_20th_Century_Cape_Colony"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="99470392" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/99470392/Of_medicine_and_statecraft_Smallpox_and_early_colonial_vaccination_in_French_West_Africa_Senegal_Guinea_">Of medicine and statecraft: Smallpox and early colonial vaccination in French West Africa (Senegal -Guinea)</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="58774090" href="https://independent.academia.edu/ChristopherHayden1">Christopher Hayden</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2008</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">The last two decades in nineteenth-century West Africa witnessed a twofold movement, namely the territorial expansion of French colonial empire and the first attempts to extend biomedicine through mass vaccination to control smallpox epidemics. This study provides both a deep history and conceptual framework to analyze the relationship between the two phenomena in the long-standing French possession of Senegal as well as the recently established colony of French Guinea. Specifically, the dissertation examines the generative capacities of biopower (the power over life) in the fin-de-siècle period whereby new medical knowledges of smallpox melded with the initial experiments to vaccinate local African populations en masse. Colonial biopower steadlily became embedded in French West Africa through the medicalization of smallpox, particularly in terms of the statistical recording of epidemics over space and time, and the partial, yet effective creation of vaccination networks. These developments in turn helped to produce a new social constellation that redefined territory, population, and individuals and framed the broader conduct of political governance. Mass vaccination campaigns also changed the ways West African communities responded to smallpox epidemics as the vaccine gradually replaced, and Panofsky Graduate Research Grant provided by the Program of African Studies at Northwestern University. A Summer Foreign Language Area Studies scholarship from the Program of African Studies at Indiana University allowed me to pursue intensive Maninkakan language learning in Conakry. Dissertation research was funded first in West Africa through the support of a Fulbright International Institute of Education Graduate Research Fellowship and then a National Security Education Program Graduate Enhancement Fellowship. Further archival research in Paris, Aix-en-Provence, and Marseille and the initial dissertation writing was assisted by a Camargo Foundation Residency and Writing Fellowship and several funding sources at Northwestern University, including the Department of History, the French Interdisciplinary Group, and the Graduate School. At the outset of the project, Elise Levin provided key feedback on the proposed project as well as helpful contacts in Guinea based on her own field research in medical anthropology. In Conakry, Aaron and Cynthia Chassy kindly welcomed me into their home multiple times and generously helped to pave the way for the project's first steps.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Of medicine and statecraft: Smallpox and early colonial vaccination in French West Africa (Senegal -Guinea)","attachmentId":100550918,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/99470392/Of_medicine_and_statecraft_Smallpox_and_early_colonial_vaccination_in_French_West_Africa_Senegal_Guinea_","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/99470392/Of_medicine_and_statecraft_Smallpox_and_early_colonial_vaccination_in_French_West_Africa_Senegal_Guinea_"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="121816978" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/121816978/_Coping_with_this_scourge_the_state_leprosy_and_the_politics_of_public_health_in_colonial_Ghana_1900_mid_1950s">“Coping with this scourge” : the state, leprosy, and the politics of public health in colonial Ghana, 1900-mid 1950s</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="308587987" href="https://independent.academia.edu/SylvesterGundona">Sylvester Gundona</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2015</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"“Coping with this scourge” : the state, leprosy, and the politics of public health in colonial Ghana, 1900-mid 1950s","attachmentId":116609636,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/121816978/_Coping_with_this_scourge_the_state_leprosy_and_the_politics_of_public_health_in_colonial_Ghana_1900_mid_1950s","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/121816978/_Coping_with_this_scourge_the_state_leprosy_and_the_politics_of_public_health_in_colonial_Ghana_1900_mid_1950s"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="84103354" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/84103354/Disease_risk_and_contagion_French_colonial_and_postcolonial_constructions_of_African_bodies">Disease, risk, and contagion: French colonial and postcolonial constructions of "African" bodies</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="96696620" href="https://independent.academia.edu/SargentCarolyn">Carolyn Sargent</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of bioethical inquiry, 2014</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">In this article, we explore how sub-Saharan African immigrant populations in France have been constructed as risk groups by media sources, in political rhetoric, and among medical professionals, drawing on constructs dating to the colonial period. We also examine how political and economic issues have been mirrored and advanced in media visibility and ask why particular populations and the diseases associated with them in the popular imagination have received more attention at certain historical moments. In the contemporary period we analyze how the bodies of West African women and men have become powerful metaphors in the politics of discrimination prevalent in France, in spite of Republican precepts that theoretically disavow cultural and social difference.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Disease, risk, and contagion: French colonial and postcolonial constructions of \"African\" bodies","attachmentId":89240041,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/84103354/Disease_risk_and_contagion_French_colonial_and_postcolonial_constructions_of_African_bodies","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/84103354/Disease_risk_and_contagion_French_colonial_and_postcolonial_constructions_of_African_bodies"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="122827610" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/122827610/Health_Knowledge_Misinformation_and_Plague_Control_in_Lagos_1924_1931">Health Knowledge, Misinformation and Plague Control in Lagos, 1924- 1931</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="181524447" href="https://independent.academia.edu/HumanusDiscourse">Humanus Discourse</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">humanus discourse, 2024</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">This paper examines the nexus between health knowledge and disease control, particularly emphasising misinformation during the plague outbreak in colonial Lagos. The extant literature on plague in colonial Lagos examined the historical effects of the outbreaks on trade, food security, sanitation, urban planning, and racial relations. However, there is a dearth of historical studies on the impact of health knowledge on plague control in Lagos from 1924 to 1931. Moreover, the existing studies focused solely on the bubonic manifestation of the plague without providing deep insights into the septicemic and pneumonic variances of the scourge. Against this backdrop, this paper captures the historical significance of the health knowledge systems in the plague outbreak in colonial Lagos. Based on the historical analysis of archival records, newspaper reports, expert interview surveys, and the literature, this study reveals that negotiating power between indigenous and Eurocentric health knowledge systems impacts plague control due to misinformation in colonial Lagos.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Health Knowledge, Misinformation and Plague Control in Lagos, 1924- 1931","attachmentId":117409556,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/122827610/Health_Knowledge_Misinformation_and_Plague_Control_in_Lagos_1924_1931","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/122827610/Health_Knowledge_Misinformation_and_Plague_Control_in_Lagos_1924_1931"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="10036522" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/10036522/2018_Reflections_on_Plague_in_African_History_14th_19th_c_Penser_la_peste_dans_lhistoire_de_lAfrique_XIVe_XIXe_s_">2018 - Reflections on Plague in African History (14th-19th c.) / Penser la peste dans l'histoire de l'Afrique (XIVe-XIXe s.)</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="382928" href="https://wm.academia.edu/GerardLFChouin">Gérard L. F. Chouin</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Afriques: Débats, méthodes et terrains d'histoire, 2018</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">In 1347, the western and Mediterranean parts of the Old World recorded the first outbreaks of a returning mortal disease that would make its presence felt over several centuries. Known today as the Second Plague Pandemic—a zoonosis due to the bacterium Yersinia pestis—it scythed between a third and half of the population without regard for wealth or status. It deeply transformed all facets of societies, ignited fears, violence, and pogroms, tested the flexibility of religions, hierarchies, and traditions, and excited ambitions. Although the plague is commonly described as a pandemic, historical knowledge about the initial Black Death and the many recurrent waves of the disease is largely restricted to Western Europe and the Mediterranean world, where the literate elite left an impressive documentary record that served as resource to the long-lasting and flourishing heuristic tradition of Plague Studies. If, as suggested by Monica Green, the concept of ‘pandemic’ is to be taken seriously, we must consider the many excluded parts of the Old World, and especially Africa, in our plague narratives. We must recognize that these societies that did not practise ‘the reduction of speech to graphic forms’—to use the expression coined by Jack Goody—also could have experienced the brutal mortality of the plague and its radical transformative power, while producing no organized and specific, long-lasting traces. By extension, we must also recognize that all literate societies that had in common the art of writing did not practise this art in the same way and may not have produced identical categories of documentary records. Cultural differences affect the nature of the documentary archive, as illustrated by literate practices in medieval Nubia and Ethiopia. The invisibility or limited visibility of the plague in the documentary record is, therefore, a challenge for historians and a disguised invitation to accept the absence of evidence as evidence of absence. This paper is my attempt to resist this temptation, to challenge the quasi-absence of interest in the plague problem in the historiography of Sub-Saharan Africa, and to lay out the foundation of a research strategy that will be multi-disciplinary and comparative. The plague problem is not a footnote to African history. If the plague impacted African societies as it did in documented parts of the Old World, we must have missed or misread fundamental processes of change it entailed. Would we understand and interpret the history of Western Europe or the Mediterranean as we do if we ignored that the plague had occurred? Here, I do not solve the plague conundrum in Sub-Saharan Africa; rather, I build on the persuasive arguments made by other contributors to this special issue about the presence of plague in different parts of Africa before the 19th century. My purpose is to propose multiple, critical, and cumulative—but far from exhaustive—pathways to reading and rereading the traditional and less traditional sources of African history in the light of the possibility of societal crises related to plague. Besides presenting fragments of evidence, this paper also serves as an introduction to three groundbreaking papers exploring the archaeological, documentary, and genomic sources of the disease in the African past.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"2018 - Reflections on Plague in African History (14th-19th c.) / Penser la peste dans l'histoire de l'Afrique (XIVe-XIXe s.)","attachmentId":58142516,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/10036522/2018_Reflections_on_Plague_in_African_History_14th_19th_c_Penser_la_peste_dans_lhistoire_de_lAfrique_XIVe_XIXe_s_","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/10036522/2018_Reflections_on_Plague_in_African_History_14th_19th_c_Penser_la_peste_dans_lhistoire_de_lAfrique_XIVe_XIXe_s_"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="98453312" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/98453312/The_Urban_African_Environment_and_Disease_Anti_leprosy_segregation_and_adaptative_behaviour_in_Bamako_Mali_traduit_du_fran%C3%A7ais">The Urban African Environment and Disease : Anti-leprosy segregation and adaptative behaviour in Bamako (Mali) traduit du français</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="925114" href="https://univ-tours.academia.edu/AnneBarg%C3%A8s">Anne Bargès</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Ecologie Humaine, 1993</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"The Urban African Environment and Disease : Anti-leprosy segregation and adaptative behaviour in Bamako (Mali) traduit du français","attachmentId":99800159,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/98453312/The_Urban_African_Environment_and_Disease_Anti_leprosy_segregation_and_adaptative_behaviour_in_Bamako_Mali_traduit_du_fran%C3%A7ais","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/98453312/The_Urban_African_Environment_and_Disease_Anti_leprosy_segregation_and_adaptative_behaviour_in_Bamako_Mali_traduit_du_fran%C3%A7ais"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--wrapper js-loswp-sticky-ctas hidden"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--grid-container"><div class="ds-sticky-ctas--container"><button class="ds2-5-button js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"continue-reading-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":97378506,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}">See full PDF</button><button class="ds2-5-button ds2-5-button--secondary js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"download-pdf-button--sticky-ctas","attachmentId":97378506,"attachmentType":"pdf","workUrl":null}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 20px" translate="no">download</span>Download PDF</button></div></div></div><div class="ds-below-fold--grid-container"><div class="ds-work--container js-loswp-embedded-document"><div class="attachment_preview" data-attachment="Attachment_97378506" style="display: none"><div class="js-scribd-document-container"><div class="scribd--document-loading js-scribd-document-loader" style="display: block;"><img alt="Loading..." src="//a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif" /><p>Loading Preview</p></div></div><div style="text-align: center;"><div class="scribd--no-preview-alert js-preview-unavailable"><p>Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.</p></div></div></div></div><div class="ds-sidebar--container js-work-sidebar"><div class="ds-related-content--container"><h2 class="ds-related-content--heading">Related papers</h2><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="0" data-entity-id="43493007" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/43493007/Some_Lessons_from_the_History_of_Epidemics_in_Africa">Some Lessons from the History of Epidemics in Africa</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="20281893" href="https://sciences-po.academia.edu/FlorenceBernault">Florence Bernault</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">African Arguments - Covid 19, 2020</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Some Lessons from the History of Epidemics in Africa","attachmentId":63801941,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/43493007/Some_Lessons_from_the_History_of_Epidemics_in_Africa","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/43493007/Some_Lessons_from_the_History_of_Epidemics_in_Africa"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-related-work-sidebar-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="39875621" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-related-work-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/39875621/Beyond_White_Medicine_Bubonic_Plague_and_Health_Interventions_in_Colonial_Lagos">Beyond "White Medicine": Bubonic Plague and Health Interventions in Colonial Lagos</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="88521058" href="https://menozacmenopause.academia.edu/OlukayodeFaleye">Olukayode A . 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href="https://nottingham.academia.edu/AnnaGreenwood">Anna Greenwood</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 2007</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Sensationalising Africa: British Medical Impressions of Sub-Saharan Africa 1890–1939","attachmentId":60834288,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/40556153/Sensationalising_Africa_British_Medical_Impressions_of_Sub_Saharan_Africa_1890_1939","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-related-work-grid-card-view-pdf" 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"Giles-Vernick, Tamara and James L. A. Webb Jr., eds. Global Health in Africa: Historical Perspectives on Disease Control. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2013. 246pp.." Journal of Retracing Africa: Vol. 2, Issue 1 (2016): 89-91. http://encompass.eku.edu/jora/vol2/iss1/12</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="12584" href="https://unf.academia.edu/ChauKelly">Chau Kelly</a></div><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Kelly, Chau Johnsen. \"Giles-Vernick, Tamara and James L. A. Webb Jr., eds. Global Health in Africa: Historical Perspectives on Disease Control. 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A. Webb Jr., eds. Global Health in Africa: Historical Perspectives on Disease Control. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2013. 246pp</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-related-work-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="12584" href="https://unf.academia.edu/ChauKelly">Chau Kelly</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">2015</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Giles-Vernick, Tamara and James L. A. Webb Jr., eds. Global Health in Africa: Historical Perspectives on Disease Control. 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