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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_life_and_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_life_and_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early life and education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_life_and_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_service,_1943–46" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_service,_1943–46"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Military service, 1943–46</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_service,_1943–46-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Academic career</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-A_Theory_of_Justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_Theory_of_Justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span><i>A Theory of Justice</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_Theory_of_Justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Principles_of_justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principles_of_justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Principles of justice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principles_of_justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_Liberalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_Liberalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span><i>Political Liberalism</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_Liberalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Law_of_Peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Law_of_Peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span><i>The Law of Peoples</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Law_of_Peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_and_reception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_and_reception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Influence and reception</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influence_and_reception-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Influence and reception subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Influence_and_reception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Communitarian_critique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communitarian_critique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Communitarian critique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communitarian_critique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-September_Group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#September_Group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>September Group</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-September_Group-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frankfurt_School" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frankfurt_School"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Frankfurt School</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frankfurt_School-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feminist_political_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feminist_political_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Feminist political philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feminist_political_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_developments_in_liberalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_developments_in_liberalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Later developments in liberalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_developments_in_liberalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards_and_honors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards_and_honors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Awards and honors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards_and_honors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Publications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Publications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Publications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_chapters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_chapters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Book chapters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_chapters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reviews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reviews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Reviews</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reviews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">John Rawls</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 64 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-64" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">64 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%D8%B2" title="جون رولز – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جون رولز" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%83%D5%B8%D5%B6_%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AC%D5%A6" title="Ճոն Ռաուլզ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ճոն Ռաուլզ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Con_Rolz" title="Con Rolz – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Con Rolz" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Джон Ролс – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Джон Ролс" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BB%CF%82" title="Τζον Ρωλς – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζον Ρωλς" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2" title="جان رالز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جان رالز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B4_%EB%A1%A4%EC%8A%A4" title="존 롤스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="존 롤스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%B8%D5%B6_%D5%8C%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%BD" title="Ջոն Ռոլս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջոն Ռոլս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="जॉन राल्स – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जॉन राल्स" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A1" title="ג'ון רולס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'ון רולס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B7" title="Джон Роулз – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Джон Роулз" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iohannes_Rawls" title="Iohannes Rawls – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iohannes Rawls" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA_%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%97%E0%B5%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ജോൺ റൗൾസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജോൺ റൗൾസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%D8%B2_(%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%81_%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%A7)" title="جون رولز (فيلسوف من امريكا) – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جون رولز (فيلسوف من امريكا)" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A7%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E3%82%BA" title="ジョン・ロールズ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジョン・ロールズ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B8" title="ਜੌਨ ਰਾਵਲਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜੌਨ ਰਾਵਲਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2" title="جان رالز – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جان رالز" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B7,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Ролз, Джон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ролз, Джон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%86%D9%86_%DA%95%DB%86%DA%B5%D8%B2" title="جۆن ڕۆڵز – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جۆن ڕۆڵز" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Џон Ролс – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Џон Ролс" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9C%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D" title="ஜான் ரால்ஸ் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஜான் ரால்ஸ்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B7" title="Джон Роулз – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Джон Роулз" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E9%A2%85%E5%8E%84%E6%B6%A9" title="约翰·颅厄涩 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="约翰·颅厄涩" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="John Rawls" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8E%8A%E7%BE%85%E7%88%BE%E6%96%AF" title="莊羅爾斯 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="莊羅爾斯" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF" title="约翰·罗尔斯 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="约翰·罗尔斯" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q172544#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American political philosopher (1921–2002)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the American philosopher. For other people, see <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="John Rawls (disambiguation)">John Rawls (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">John Rawls</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Rawls_(1971_photo_portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black-and-white portrait photograph of John Rawls wearing glasses" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/John_Rawls_%281971_photo_portrait%29.jpg/220px-John_Rawls_%281971_photo_portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/John_Rawls_%281971_photo_portrait%29.jpg/330px-John_Rawls_%281971_photo_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/John_Rawls_%281971_photo_portrait%29.jpg/440px-John_Rawls_%281971_photo_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="1529" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Rawls in 1971</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">John Bordley Rawls</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1921-02-21</span>)</span>February 21, 1921<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">November 24, 2002<span style="display:none">(2002-11-24)</span> (aged 81)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Massachusetts" title="Lexington, Massachusetts">Lexington, Massachusetts</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Christ_Church,_Oxford" title="Christ Church, Oxford">Christ Church, Oxford</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">Notable work</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> (1971)<br /><i><a href="/wiki/Political_Liberalism" title="Political Liberalism">Political Liberalism</a></i> (1993)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><span class="nowrap">Margaret Warfield Fox</span></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1949)<wbr /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Rolf_Schock_Prizes" title="Rolf Schock Prizes">Rolf Schock Prize in Logic and Philosophy</a> (1999)<br /><a href="/wiki/National_Humanities_Medal" title="National Humanities Medal">National Humanities Medal</a> (1999)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th-century philosophy">20th-century philosophy</a><br /><a href="/wiki/21st-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="21st-century philosophy">21st-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social liberalism</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data org"><a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.princeton.edu/catalog/1421459"><i>A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge</i></a> (1950)</li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Terence_Stace" title="Walter Terence Stace">Walter Terence Stace</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><span class="nowrap"> </span></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pogge" title="Thomas Pogge">Thomas Pogge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allan_Gibbard" title="Allan Gibbard">Allan Gibbard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">Kwame Anthony Appiah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Davidson" title="Arnold Davidson">Arnold Davidson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onora_O%27Neill" title="Onora O'Neill">Onora O'Neill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Piper" title="Adrian Piper">Adrian Piper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_S._Anderson" title="Elizabeth S. Anderson">Elizabeth S. Anderson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Susan_Neiman" title="Susan Neiman">Susan Neiman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sissela_Bok" title="Sissela Bok">Sissela Bok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Bok" title="Hilary Bok">Hilary Bok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claudia_Card" title="Claudia Card">Claudia Card</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Lyons_(philosopher)" title="David Lyons (philosopher)">David Lyons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Ginsborg" title="Hannah Ginsborg">Hannah Ginsborg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michele_Moody-Adams" title="Michele Moody-Adams">Michele Moody-Adams</a>, <a href="/wiki/T._M._Scanlon" title="T. M. Scanlon">T. M. Scanlon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Sherman" title="Nancy Sherman">Nancy Sherman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Herman" title="Barbara Herman">Barbara Herman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Cohen_(philosopher)" title="Joshua Cohen (philosopher)">Joshua Cohen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Elizabeth_Hampton" title="Jean Elizabeth Hampton">Jean Elizabeth Hampton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Stocker" title="Michael Stocker">Michael Stocker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Hill_(academic)" title="Thomas E. Hill (academic)">Thomas E. Hill Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_S._Richardson" title="Henry S. Richardson">Henry S. Richardson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gurcharan_Das" title="Gurcharan Das">Gurcharan Das</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Teuber" title="Andreas Teuber">Andreas Teuber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Freeman_(philosopher)" title="Samuel Freeman (philosopher)">Samuel Freeman</a> </div> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Social contract theory">Social contract theory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Political legitimacy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_and_value_rationality" title="Instrumental and value rationality">Instrumental and value rationality</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_as_fairness" class="mw-redirect" title="Justice as fairness">Justice as fairness</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">Reflective equilibrium</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Overlapping_consensus" title="Overlapping consensus">Overlapping consensus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Property-owning_democracy" title="Property-owning democracy">Property-owning democracy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Public_reason" title="Public reason">Public reason</a></li><li>Liberal neutrality<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Veil_of_ignorance" class="mw-redirect" title="Veil of ignorance">Veil of ignorance</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_democracy" title="Deliberative democracy">Deliberative democracy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal socialism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_goods" title="Primary goods">Primary goods</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Telishment" title="Telishment">Telishment</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Rawls_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="John Rawls signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/John_Rawls_signature.svg/150px-John_Rawls_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/John_Rawls_signature.svg/225px-John_Rawls_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/John_Rawls_signature.svg/300px-John_Rawls_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="171" data-file-height="56" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>John Bordley Rawls</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ɔː/: 'au' in 'fraud'">ɔː</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> February 21, 1921 – November 24, 2002) was an American <a href="/wiki/Moral_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral philosophy">moral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal philosophy">legal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosopher</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">modern liberal tradition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rawls has been described as one of the most influential <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">political philosophers</a> of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1990, <a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Will Kymlicka</a> wrote in his introduction to the field that "it is generally accepted that the recent rebirth of normative <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> began with the publication of John Rawls's <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> in 1971".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rawls's theory of <a href="/wiki/Justice_as_Fairness" title="Justice as Fairness">"justice as fairness"</a> recommends equal basic liberties, equality of opportunity, and facilitating the maximum benefit to the least advantaged members of society in any case where inequalities may occur. Rawls's argument for these principles of <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a> uses a <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> called the "<a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">original position</a>", in which people <a href="/wiki/Deliberative_democracy" title="Deliberative democracy">deliberately</a> select what kind of society they would choose to live in if they did not know which social position they would personally occupy. In his later work <i><a href="/wiki/Political_Liberalism" title="Political Liberalism">Political Liberalism</a></i> (1993), Rawls turned to the question of how political power could be made legitimate given reasonable disagreement about the nature of the good life. </p><p>Rawls received both the <a href="/wiki/Schock_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Schock Prize">Schock Prize</a> for Logic and Philosophy and the <a href="/wiki/National_Humanities_Medal" title="National Humanities Medal">National Humanities Medal</a> in 1999. The latter was presented by President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> in recognition of how his works "revived the disciplines of political and ethical philosophy with his argument that a society in which the most fortunate help the least fortunate is not only a moral society but a logical one".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among contemporary political philosophers, Rawls is frequently cited by the courts of law in the United States and Canada<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and referred to by practicing politicians in the United States and the United Kingdom. In a 2008 national survey of political theorists, based on 1,086 responses from professors at accredited, four-year colleges and universities in the United States, Rawls was voted first on the list of "Scholars Who Have Had the Greatest Impact on Political Theory in the Past 20 Years".<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rawls was born on February 21, 1921, in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was the second of five sons born to William Lee Rawls, a prominent Baltimore attorney, and Anna Abell Stump Rawls.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Freemanxix_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freemanxix-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tragedy struck Rawls at a young age: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Two of his brothers died in childhood because they had contracted fatal illnesses from him. ... In 1928, the seven-year-old Rawls contracted <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>. His brother Bobby, younger by 20 months, visited him in his room and was fatally infected. The next winter, Rawls contracted <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>. Another younger brother, Tommy, caught the illness from him and died.<sup id="cite_ref-Gordon_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gordon-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Rawls's biographer <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pogge" title="Thomas Pogge">Thomas Pogge</a> calls the loss of the brothers the "most important events in John's childhood." </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Rawls_(1937_senior_portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo portrait of a young man with short hair wearing a suit and tie" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/John_Rawls_%281937_senior_portrait%29.jpg/160px-John_Rawls_%281937_senior_portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/John_Rawls_%281937_senior_portrait%29.jpg/240px-John_Rawls_%281937_senior_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/John_Rawls_%281937_senior_portrait%29.jpg/320px-John_Rawls_%281937_senior_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption>Rawls as a <a href="/wiki/Kent_School" title="Kent School">Kent School</a> senior, 1937</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:22.0em; border:4px double #C5C12B; background:var( --background-color-base, #FFFFFF ); color: var( --color-base, inherit );"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Liberalism" title="Category:Liberalism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Political_colour#Yellow" title="Political colour"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/75px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/113px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/150px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_liberalism" title="History of liberalism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">List of liberal theorists</a> (contributions to liberal theory)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Equality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Legal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_principle" title="Harm principle">Harm principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">Positive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permissive_society" title="Permissive society">Permissive society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">To own property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">To bear arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig history</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">Philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_De_Gouges" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympe De Gouges">De Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalberg-Acton,_1st_Baron_Acton" title="John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton">Acton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Hobhouse" title="Leonard Hobhouse">Hobhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Čapek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raif_Badawi" title="Raif Badawi">Badawi</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">Artigas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785%E2%80%931870)" title="Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)">Broglie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Macaulay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Kossuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_(politician)" title="Ferenc Deák (politician)">Deák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Cobden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domingo_Faustino_Sarmiento" title="Domingo Faustino Sarmiento">Sarmiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Mommsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Naoroji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itagaki_Taisuke" title="Itagaki Taisuke">Itagaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Levski" title="Vasil Levski">Levski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Kemal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Deakin" title="Alfred Deakin">Deakin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Milyukov" title="Pavel Milyukov">Milyukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">Lloyd George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg" title="Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg">Ståhlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gokhale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Rathenau" title="Walther Rathenau">Rathenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_I._Madero" title="Francisco I. Madero">Madero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Einaudi" title="Luigi Einaudi">Einaudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertil_Ohlin" title="Bertil Ohlin">Ohlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Balcerowicz" title="Leszek Balcerowicz">Balcerowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Verhofstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Macron</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Liberal_Network" title="Africa Liberal Network">Africa Liberal Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Party" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberal_Federation" title="Arab Liberal Federation">Arab Liberal Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Asian_Liberals_and_Democrats" title="Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats">Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Democratic_Party" title="European Democratic Party">European Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Liberal_Youth" title="European Liberal Youth">European Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Alliance_of_Libertarian_Parties" title="International Alliance of Libertarian Parties">International Alliance of Libertarian Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Liberal_Youth" title="International Federation of Liberal Youth">International Federation of Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_International" title="Liberal International">Liberal International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Network_for_Latin_America" title="Liberal Network for Latin America">Liberal Network for Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Liberal_parties" title="Category:Liberal parties">Liberal parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_South_East_European_Network" title="Liberal South East European Network">Liberal South East European Network</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_parties_by_country" title="Liberal parties by country">Regional variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Europe" title="Liberalism in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Albania" title="Liberalism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Armenia" title="Liberalism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Austria" title="Liberalism in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Belgium" title="Liberalism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Bolivia" title="Liberalism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Brazil" title="Liberalism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Bulgaria" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Canada" title="Liberalism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Chile" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Liberalism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Colombia" title="Liberalism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Liberalism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Croatia" title="Liberalism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cuba" title="Liberalism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cyprus" title="Liberalism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Czechia" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Czechia">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Denmark" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Ecuador" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Estonia" title="Liberalism and centrism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Finland" title="Liberalism and centrism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Georgia" title="Liberalism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Germany" title="Liberalism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Greece" title="Liberalism in Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Honduras" title="Liberalism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Hungary" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_India" title="Liberalism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Iran" title="Liberalism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Israel" title="Liberalism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Italy" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberism">Liberism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Japan" title="Liberalism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Latvia" title="Liberalism in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Lithuania" title="Liberalism in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Luxembourg" title="Liberalism in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Mexico" title="Liberalism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Moldova" title="Liberalism in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Montenegro" title="Liberalism in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Liberalism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_liberalism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic liberalism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nicaragua" title="Liberalism in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nigeria" title="Liberalism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_North_Macedonia" title="Liberalism in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Norway" title="Liberalism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Panama" title="Liberalism in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Paraguay" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Peru" title="Liberalism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Philippines" title="Liberalism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Poland" title="Liberalism in Poland">Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_School_of_Economics" title="Kraków School of Economics">Cracovian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Portugal" title="Liberalism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Senegal" title="Liberalism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Serbia" title="Liberalism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovakia" title="Liberalism in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovenia" title="Liberalism in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Africa" title="Liberalism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Korea" title="Liberalism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Spain" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Sweden" title="Liberalism and centrism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_Taiwan" title="Progressivism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Tunisia" title="Liberalism in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Ukraine" title="Liberalism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobdenism" title="Cobdenism">Cobdenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gladstonian_liberalism" title="Gladstonian liberalism">Gladstonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liberalism" title="Manchester Liberalism">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whiggism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Arizona School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Uruguay" title="Liberalism in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Venezuela)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Party (Venezuela)">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Liberalism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_American_academics" title="Political views of American academics">Bias in American academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Bias in the media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_Anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualist Anarchism">Anarchist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">Land value tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sexually liberal feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Feminist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_liberalism" title="Green liberalism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">Internationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_liberalism" title="Muscular liberalism">Muscular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical 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.navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Template:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p>Rawls graduated in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a> before enrolling in the <a href="/wiki/Kent_School" title="Kent School">Kent School</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Episcopal Church in the United States of America">Episcopalian</a> <a href="/wiki/University-preparatory_school" class="mw-redirect" title="University-preparatory school">preparatory school</a> in <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a>. Upon graduation in 1939, Rawls attended <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, where he was accepted into <a href="/wiki/The_Ivy_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="The Ivy Club">The Ivy Club</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Whig-Cliosophic_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="American Whig-Cliosophic Society">American Whig-Cliosophic Society</a>. At Princeton, Rawls was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Norman_Malcolm" title="Norman Malcolm">Norman Malcolm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>'s student. During his last two years at Princeton, he "became deeply concerned with theology and its doctrines." He considered attending a seminary to study for the Episcopal priesthood and wrote an "intensely religious senior thesis (<i>BI)</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his 181-page long thesis titled "Meaning of Sin and Faith," Rawls attacked <a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a> because it "would render the Cross of Christ to no effect."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rawls graduated from Princeton in 1943 with a Bachelor of Arts, <a href="/wiki/Latin_honors#United_States" title="Latin honors"><i>summa cum laude</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Freemanxix_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freemanxix-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_service,_1943–46"><span id="Military_service.2C_1943.E2.80.9346"></span>Military service, 1943–46</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Military service, 1943–46"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rawls enlisted in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">U.S. Army</a> in February 1943. During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Rawls served as an <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantryman</a> in the Pacific, where he served a tour of duty in <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> and was awarded a <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal" title="Bronze Star Medal">Bronze Star</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines_Campaign_(1944%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippines Campaign (1944–45)">Philippines</a>, where he endured intensive trench warfare and witnessed traumatizing scenes of violence and bloodshed.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was there that he lost his Christian faith and became an atheist.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the surrender of Japan, Rawls became part of <a href="/wiki/General_MacArthur" class="mw-redirect" title="General MacArthur">General MacArthur</a>'s occupying army<sup id="cite_ref-Freemanxix_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freemanxix-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was promoted to sergeant. But he became disillusioned with the military when he saw the aftermath of the atomic blast in <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima" title="Hiroshima">Hiroshima</a>. Rawls then disobeyed an order to discipline a fellow soldier, "believing no punishment was justified," and was "demoted back to a <a href="/wiki/Private_(rank)" title="Private (rank)">private</a>." Disenchanted, he left the military in January 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_career">Academic career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Academic career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In early 1946, Rawls returned to Princeton to pursue a doctorate in moral philosophy. He married Margaret Warfield Fox, a <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a> graduate, in 1949. They had four children: <a href="/wiki/Anne_Warfield_Rawls" title="Anne Warfield Rawls">Anne Warfield</a>, Robert Lee, Alexander Emory, and Elizabeth Fox.<sup id="cite_ref-Freemanxix_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freemanxix-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rawls received his PhD from Princeton in 1950 after completing a doctoral dissertation titled <i>A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge: Considered with Reference to Judgments on the Moral Worth of Character</i>. His PhD included a year of study at Cornell. Rawls taught at Princeton until 1952 when he received a <a href="/wiki/Fulbright_Fellowship" class="mw-redirect" title="Fulbright Fellowship">Fulbright Fellowship</a> to <a href="/wiki/Christ_Church,_Oxford" title="Christ Church, Oxford">Christ Church</a> at <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a>, where he was influenced by the liberal political theorist and historian <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a> and the legal theorist <a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">H. L. A. Hart</a>. After returning to the United States, he served first as an assistant and then associate professor at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>. </p><p>In the fall of 1953 Rawls became an assistant professor at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>, joining his mentor <a href="/wiki/Norman_Malcolm" title="Norman Malcolm">Norman Malcolm</a> in the Philosophy Department. Three years later Rawls received tenure at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell</a>. During the 1959–60 academic year, Rawls was a visiting professor at Harvard, and he was appointed in 1960 as a professor in the humanities division at MIT. Two years later, he returned to Harvard as a professor of philosophy, and he remained there until reaching mandatory retirement age in 1991. </p><p>In 1962, he achieved a tenured position at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a>. That same year, he moved to <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, where he taught for almost forty years and where he trained some of the leading contemporary figures in moral and political philosophy, including <a href="/wiki/Sibyl_A._Schwarzenbach" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibyl A. Schwarzenbach">Sibyl A. Schwarzenbach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allan_Gibbard" title="Allan Gibbard">Allan Gibbard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onora_O%27Neill,_Baroness_O%27Neill_of_Bengarve" class="mw-redirect" title="Onora O'Neill, Baroness O'Neill of Bengarve">Onora O'Neill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Piper" title="Adrian Piper">Adrian Piper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Davidson" title="Arnold Davidson">Arnold Davidson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_S._Anderson" title="Elizabeth S. Anderson">Elizabeth S. Anderson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Susan_Neiman" title="Susan Neiman">Susan Neiman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claudia_Card" title="Claudia Card">Claudia Card</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Forst" title="Rainer Forst">Rainer Forst</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pogge" title="Thomas Pogge">Thomas Pogge</a>, <a href="/wiki/T._M._Scanlon" title="T. M. Scanlon">T. M. Scanlon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Herman" title="Barbara Herman">Barbara Herman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Cohen_(philosopher)" title="Joshua Cohen (philosopher)">Joshua Cohen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Hill_(academic)" title="Thomas E. Hill (academic)">Thomas E. Hill Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gurcharan_Das" title="Gurcharan Das">Gurcharan Das</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Teuber" title="Andreas Teuber">Andreas Teuber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_S._Richardson" title="Henry S. Richardson">Henry S. Richardson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Sherman" title="Nancy Sherman">Nancy Sherman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Freeman_(philosopher)" title="Samuel Freeman (philosopher)">Samuel Freeman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Weithman" title="Paul Weithman">Paul Weithman</a>. He held the <a href="/wiki/James_Bryant_Conant" class="mw-redirect" title="James Bryant Conant">James Bryant Conant</a> <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Professor" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard University Professor">University Professorship</a> at Harvard.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rawls was, for a time, a member of the <a href="/wiki/Mont_P%C3%A8lerin_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Mont Pèlerin Society">Mont Pèlerin Society</a>. He was put forward for membership by <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> in 1968, and withdrew from the society three years later, just before his <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> was published.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_life">Later life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Later life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rawls rarely gave interviews and, having both a stutter (partially caused by the deaths of two of his brothers, who died through infections contracted from Rawls) and a "bat-like horror of the limelight," did not become a public intellectual despite his fame. He instead remained committed mainly to his academic and family life.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1995, he had the first of several strokes, severely impeding his ability to continue to work. He was nevertheless able to complete <i><a href="/wiki/The_Law_of_Peoples" title="The Law of Peoples">The Law of Peoples</a></i>, the most complete statement of his views on international justice and published in 2001 shortly before his death <i><a href="/wiki/Justice_as_Fairness:_A_Restatement" title="Justice as Fairness: A Restatement">Justice as Fairness: A Restatement</a></i>, a response to criticisms of <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i>. Rawls died from heart failure at his home in <a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Massachusetts" title="Lexington, Massachusetts">Lexington, Massachusetts</a>, on November 24, 2002, at age 81.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was buried at the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Auburn_Cemetery" title="Mount Auburn Cemetery">Mount Auburn Cemetery</a> in Massachusetts. He was survived by his wife, four children, and four grandchildren.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_thought">Philosophical thought</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Philosophical thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Progressivism" title="Category:Progressivism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Political_colour#Purple" title="Political colour"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Purple_flag_waving.svg/75px-Purple_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Purple_flag_waving.svg/113px-Purple_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Purple_flag_waving.svg/150px-Purple_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">BLM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_for_the_Common_Good" title="Economy for the Common Good">ECG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_movement" title="Ethical movement">Ethical movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indivisible_movement" title="Indivisible movement">Indivisible movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_movement" title="Labour movement">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MeToo_movement" title="MeToo movement">#MeToo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Christianity" title="Progressive Christianity">Progressive Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Conservatism">Progressive Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Progressive Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform movement">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Resistance_(American_political_movement)" title="The Resistance (American political movement)">The Resistance</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIMBY" title="YIMBY">YIMBY</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideas</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloward%E2%80%93Piven_strategy" title="Cloward–Piven strategy">Cloward–Piven strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broad_measures_of_economic_progress" title="Broad measures of economic progress">Broad measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">Economic growth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">Freedom of movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_enhancement" title="Human enhancement">Human enhancement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">Indigenous rights</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inward_light" title="Inward light">Inward light</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Moral universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of progress">Philosophy of progress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_education" title="Progressive education">Progressive education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_education_in_Latin_America#Educational_progressivism" title="Inclusive education in Latin America">In Latin America</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Progressive_stack" title="Progressive stack">Progressive stack</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">Progressive taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_liberalism" title="Religious liberalism">Religious liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Progressive nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice_warrior" title="Social justice warrior">Social justice warrior</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization" title="Social organization">Social organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social progress">Social progress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Social_Progress_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by Social Progress Index">List of countries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific progress">Scientific progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_essentialism" title="Strategic essentialism">Strategic essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Reparations for slavery in the United States">In the US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_management" title="Scientific management">Scientific management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_Unionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Solidarity Unionism">Solidarity unionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Techno-progressivism" title="Techno-progressivism">Techno-progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_childlessness" title="Voluntary childlessness">Voluntary childlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_democracy" title="Workplace democracy">Workplace democracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Activists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Abbott" title="Edith Abbott">Abbott (Edith)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Abbott" title="Grace Abbott">Abbott (Grace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imran_Ahmed_(strategist)" title="Imran Ahmed (strategist)">Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Alinsky" title="Saul Alinsky">Alinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Alexander" title="Michelle Alexander">Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajamu_X" title="Ajamu X">Ajamu X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Archer" title="Deborah Archer">Archer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophonisba_Breckinridge" title="Sophonisba Breckinridge">Breckinridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Brinton" title="Sam Brinton">Brinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Campbell,_Baroness_Campbell_of_Surbiton" title="Jane Campbell, Baroness Campbell of Surbiton">Cambell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cloward" title="Richard Cloward">Cloward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Debs (Eugene)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Dees" title="Morris Dees">Dees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Perkins_Gilman" title="Charlotte Perkins Gilman">Gilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haben_Girma" title="Haben Girma">Girma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Hammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirana_Hassan" title="Tirana Hassan">Hassan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Heumann" title="Judith Heumann">Heumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Huang" title="Margaret Huang">Huang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Jackson_(activist)" title="George Jackson (activist)">Jackson (George)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jackson (Jesse)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esther_Cooper_Jackson" title="Esther Cooper Jackson">Jackson (Esther)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Jenkins" title="Andrea Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anetta_Kahane" title="Anetta Kahane">Kahane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaun_King" title="Shaun King">King (Shaun)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">King (Jr.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Ludmer" title="Maurice Ludmer">Ludmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honey_Mahogany" title="Honey Mahogany">Mahogany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_McBride" title="Sarah McBride">McBride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DeRay_Mckesson" title="DeRay Mckesson">Mckesson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Page#Activism" title="Elliot Page">Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_J._Pearson" title="Justin J. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Rothblatt" title="Gabriel Rothblatt">Rothblatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_J._Seligmann" title="Herbert J. Seligmann">Seligmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Smeeth" title="Ruth Smeeth">Smeeth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Soros" title="Alexander Soros">Soros (Alexander)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Soros" title="George Soros">Soros (George)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha_Walia" title="Harsha Walia">Walia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Windsor#Activism" title="Edith Windsor">Windsor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Wong_(activist)" title="Alice Wong (activist)">Wong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Woodhull" title="Victoria Woodhull">Woodhull</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Commentators</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imani_Barbarin" title="Imani Barbarin">Barbarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bedborough" title="George Bedborough">Bedborough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bong_Joon-ho" title="Bong Joon-ho">Bong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destiny_(streamer)" title="Destiny (streamer)">Bonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Conover" title="Adam Conover">Conover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Criado_Perez" title="Caroline Criado Perez">Criado Perez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauren_Kate_Dale" class="mw-redirect" title="Lauren Kate Dale">Dale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcy_Darnovsky" title="Marcy Darnovsky">Darnovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizzie_Dearden" title="Lizzie Dearden">Dearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Duberman" title="Martin Duberman">Duberman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Favreau_(speechwriter)" title="Jon Favreau (speechwriter)">Favreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesca_Fiorentini" title="Francesca Fiorentini">Fiorentini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddie_Glaude" title="Eddie Glaude">Glaude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Goldberg" title="Michelle Goldberg">Goldberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thom_Hartmann" title="Thom Hartmann">Hartmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medhi_Hasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Medhi Hasan">Hasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karine_Jean-Pierre#MoveOn_and_political_commentary" title="Karine Jean-Pierre">Jean-Pierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jazz_Jennings" title="Jazz Jennings">Jennings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ana_Kasparian" title="Ana Kasparian">Kasparian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra_Klein" title="Ezra Klein">Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Klippenstein" title="Ken Klippenstein">Klippenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_McKay" title="Adam McKay">McKay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariel_Levy_(writer)" title="Ariel Levy (writer)">Levy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Lovett" title="Jon Lovett">Lovett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Marsh" title="Jeffrey Marsh">Marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josh_Marshall" title="Josh Marshall">Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Miller" title="Stephanie Miller">Miller (Stephanie)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Monroe" title="Jack Monroe">Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Moore" title="Michael Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Morgan" title="Robin Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Nagle" title="Angela Nagle">Nagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Okrent" title="Daniel Okrent">Okrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Oliver" title="John Oliver">Oliver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Pakman" title="David Pakman">Pakman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_Piker" title="Hasan Piker">Piker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zo%C3%AB_Quinn" title="Zoë Quinn">Quinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Rather" title="Dan Rather">Rather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Reich" title="Robert Reich">Reich (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joy_Reid" title="Joy Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Seder" title="Sam Seder">Seder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Simpson_(journalist)" title="Mark Simpson (journalist)">Simpson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Smith_(journalist)" title="Ben Smith (journalist)">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keffals" title="Keffals">Sorrenti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Stewart" title="Jon Stewart">Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Talbot" title="David Talbot">Talbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Thorn" title="Abigail Thorn">Thorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommy_Vietor" title="Tommy Vietor">Vietor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenk_Uygur" title="Cenk Uygur">Uygur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Wise" title="Tim Wise">Wise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaush" title="Vaush">Kochinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ContraPoints" title="ContraPoints">Wynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Zuckerberg" title="Donna Zuckerberg">Zuckerberg</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anita_L._Allen" title="Anita L. Allen">Allen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Anderson" title="Carol Anderson">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Benedict" title="Ruth Benedict">Benedict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruha_Benjamin" title="Ruha Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liat_Ben-Moshe" title="Liat Ben-Moshe">Ben-Moshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Beveridge" title="William Beveridge">Beveridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Black" title="Edwin Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoinette_Brown_Blackwell" title="Antoinette Brown Blackwell">Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Bornstein" title="Kate Bornstein">Bornstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Brand" title="Adolf Brand">Brand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Carpenter" title="Edward Carpenter">Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">de Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drucilla_Cornell" title="Drucilla Cornell">Cornell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Davis_(scholar)" title="Mike Davis (scholar)">Davis (Mike)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Brown_Douglas" title="Kelly Brown Douglas">Douglas (Kelly)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">Douglas (William)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havelock_Ellis" title="Havelock Ellis">Ellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_M._Fredrickson" title="George M. Fredrickson">Fredrickson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betty_Friedan" title="Betty Friedan">Friedan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Wilson_Gilmore" title="Ruth Wilson Gilmore">Gilmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evelynn_M._Hammonds" title="Evelynn M. Hammonds">Hammonds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janet_E._Helms" title="Janet E. Helms">Helms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnus_Hirschfeld" title="Magnus Hirschfeld">Hirschfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_hooks" title="Bell hooks">hooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Jeffries" title="Leonard Jeffries">Jeffries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maulana_Karenga" title="Maulana Karenga">Karenga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibram_X._Kendi" title="Ibram X. Kendi">Kendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peggy_McIntosh" title="Peggy McIntosh">McIntosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Edward_Merriam" title="Charles Edward Merriam">Merriam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Meyers" title="Robin Meyers">Meyers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Mills" title="Charles W. Mills">Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Money" title="John Money">Money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_Moore" title="J. Howard Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Oastler#Political_philosophy" title="Richard Oastler">Oastler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Ostrowski" title="Marius Ostrowski">Ostrowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nell_Irvin_Painter" title="Nell Irvin Painter">Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlando_Patterson" title="Orlando Patterson">Patterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurit_Peled-Elhanan" title="Nurit Peled-Elhanan">Peled-Elhanan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Reich" title="Wilhelm Reich">Reich (Wilhelm)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Roberts" title="Dorothy Roberts">Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rothstein" title="Richard Rothstein">Rothstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Saini" title="Angela Saini">Saini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">Shaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abby_Stein" title="Abby Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_TallBear" title="Kim TallBear">TallBear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._G._Wells" title="H. G. Wells">Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Cress_Welsing" title="Frances Cress Welsing">Welsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_B._Wilderson_III" title="Frank B. Wilderson III">Wilderson III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshana_Zuboff" title="Shoshana Zuboff">Zuboff</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacinda_Ardern" title="Jacinda Ardern">Ardern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Attlee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Biden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Boric" title="Gabriel Boric">Boric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Breed" title="London Breed">Breed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">Bryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Buttigieg" title="Pete Buttigieg">Buttigieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva" title="Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva">da Silva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Debs (Eugene)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leigh_Finke" title="Leigh Finke">Finke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Hessel" title="Stéphane Hessel">Hessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dario_Hunter" title="Dario Hunter">Hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette" title="Robert M. La Follette">La Follette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiorello_La_Guardia" title="Fiorello La Guardia">La Guardia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyuh_Woon-hyung" title="Lyuh Woon-hyung">Lyuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_McBride" title="Sarah McBride">McBride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_McGovern" title="George McGovern">McGovern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomiichi_Murayama" title="Tomiichi Murayama">Murayama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Murphy" title="Emily Murphy">Murphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Nader" title="Ralph Nader">Nader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama (Barack)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Obama (Michelle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Manuel_L%C3%B3pez_Obrador" title="Andrés Manuel López Obrador">AMLO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ocasio-Cortez" title="Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez">Ocasio-Cortez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_J._Pearson" title="Justin J. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Petro" title="Gustavo Petro">Petro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt (Franklin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt (Theodore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_S%C3%A1nchez" title="Pedro Sánchez">Sánchez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keir_Starmer" title="Keir Starmer">Starmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jill_Stein" title="Jill Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft"> Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Wallace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Walz" title="Tim Walz">Walz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butch_Ware" title="Butch Ware">Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Warren" title="Elizabeth Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Weaver" title="James B. Weaver">Weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Wilson" title="Harold Wilson">Wilson (Harold)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Wilson (Woodrow)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar%C5%8D_Yamamoto" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarō Yamamoto">Yamamoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Yavlinsky" title="Grigory Yavlinsky">Yavlinsky</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Better-World_Philosophy" title="Better-World Philosophy">Better-World Philosophy</a></i> (1899)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Man_and_Superman" title="Man and Superman">Man and Superman</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universal_Kinship" title="The Universal Kinship">The Universal Kinship</a></i> (1906)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Conspiracy" title="The Open Conspiracy">The Open Conspiracy</a></i> (1928)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mass_Psychology_of_Fascism" title="The Mass Psychology of Fascism">The Mass Psychology of Fascism</a></i> (1933)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Die_Sexualit%C3%A4t_im_Kulturkampf" title="Die Sexualität im Kulturkampf">Sexuality in the Cultural Struggle</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Beveridge_Report" title="Beveridge Report">Beveridge Report</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rules_for_Radicals" title="Rules for Radicals">Rules for Radicals</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanist_Manifesto_II" title="Humanist Manifesto II">Humanist Manifesto II</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Woman_Hating" title="Woman Hating">Woman Hating</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Handmaid%27s_Tale" title="The Handmaid's Tale">The Handmaid's Tale</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Athena" title="Black Athena">Black Athena</a></i> (1987–2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Racial_Contract" title="The Racial Contract">The Racial Contract</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/War_Against_the_Weak" title="War Against the Weak">War Against the Weak</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Audacity_of_Hope" title="The Audacity of Hope">The Audacity of Hope</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Invention_of_the_Jewish_People" title="The Invention of the Jewish People">The Invention of the Jewish People</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Jim_Crow" title="The New Jim Crow">The New Jim Crow</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Speech_(Sanders_book)" title="The Speech (Sanders book)">The Speech</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Revolution_(Sanders_book)" title="Our Revolution (Sanders book)">Our Revolution</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/White_Rage" title="White Rage">White Rage</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Color_of_Law" title="The Color of Law">The Color of Law</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inferior_(book)" title="Inferior (book)">Inferior</a></i> (2017)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Donna_Zuckerberg#Not_All_Dead_White_Men" title="Donna Zuckerberg">Not All Dead White Men</a></i> (2018)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Invisible_Women:_Exposing_Data_Bias_in_a_World_Designed_for_Men" title="Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men">Invisible Women</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/How_to_Be_an_Antiracist" title="How to Be an Antiracist">How to Be an Antiracist</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Race_After_Technology" title="Race After Technology">Race After Technology</a></i> (2019)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Superior:_The_Return_of_Race_Science" title="Superior: The Return of Race Science">Superior</a></i> (2019)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amadeu_Antonio_Foundation" title="Amadeu Antonio Foundation">Amadeu Antonio Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">ACLU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sexual_Health_Association" title="American Sexual Health Association">ASHA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter_Global_Network_Foundation" title="Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation">BLMGNF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Genetics_and_Society" title="Center for Genetics and Society">CGS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brennan_Center_for_Justice" title="Brennan Center for Justice">Brennan Center for Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_Change" title="Color of Change">Color of Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_Alliance" title="Democracy Alliance">Democracy Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker_Center_for_Human_Rights" title="Ella Baker Center for Human Rights">Ella Baker Center for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_and_Human_Rights_Commission" title="Equality and Human Rights Commission">Equality and Human Rights Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Network_Against_Racism" title="European Network Against Racism">ENAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_Society" title="Fabian Society">Fabian Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_Immigration_Reform_Movement" title="Fair Immigration Reform Movement">FIRM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ford_Foundation" title="Ford Foundation">Ford Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_not_Hate" title="Hope not Hate">Hope not Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Lesbian,_Gay,_Bisexual,_Trans_and_Intersex_Association" title="International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association">ILGA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Committee_Against_Racism" title="International Committee Against Racism">InCAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Public_Policy_Research" title="Institute for Public Policy Research">IPPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacArthur_Foundation" title="MacArthur Foundation">MacArthur Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Black_Lives" title="Movement for Black Lives">Movement for Black Lives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_one_is_illegal" title="No one is illegal">No one is illegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Welfare_Rights_Organization" title="National Welfare Rights Organization">NWRO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society_(2006_organization)" title="Students for a Democratic Society (2006 organization)">New SDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Society_Foundations" title="Open Society Foundations">OSF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Revolution" title="Our Revolution">Our Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_for_the_American_Way" title="People for the American Way">PFAW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Alliance" title="Progressive Alliance">PA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_International" title="Progressive International">PI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_League" title="Progressive League">Progressive League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Majority" title="Progressive Majority">Progressive Majority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ProgressNow" title="ProgressNow">ProgressNow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Flare" title="Red Flare">Red Flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wood_Johnson_Foundation" title="Robert Wood Johnson Foundation">RWJF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_for_the_People" title="Science for the People">SftP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tides_Foundation" title="Tides Foundation">Tides Foundation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crooked_Media" title="Crooked Media">Crooked Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CTXT" title="CTXT">CTXT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HuffPost" title="HuffPost">HuffPost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(magazine)" title="Jacobin (magazine)">Jacobin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jezebel_(website)" title="Jezebel (website)">Jezebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucifer_the_Lightbearer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucifer the Lightbearer">Lucifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Jones_(magazine)" title="Mother Jones (magazine)">Mother Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MSNBC" title="MSNBC">MSNBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Statesman" title="New Statesman">New Statesman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Progressive" title="The Progressive">The Progressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salon.com" title="Salon.com">Salon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Searchlight_(magazine)" title="Searchlight (magazine)">Searchlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Young_Turks" title="The Young Turks">The Young Turks</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">By region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kirchnerism" title="Kirchnerism">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lulism" title="Lulism">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_political_parties_(Japan)" title="Progressive political parties (Japan)">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_South_Korea" title="Progressivism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_Taiwan" title="Progressivism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #800080; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerationism" title="Accelerationism">Accelerationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_progressivism" title="Economic progressivism">Economic progressivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">Democratic socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red%E2%80%93green_alliance" title="Red–green alliance">Red–green alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_populism" title="Left-wing populism">Left-wing populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">In United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_Wall_Street" title="Occupy Wall Street">Occupy Wall Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">Pink tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Progress Studies">Progress Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive era">Progressive era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist"> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></b></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Progressivism_sidebar" title="Template:Progressivism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Progressivism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Progressivism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Progressivism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Progressivism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Rawls published three main books. The first, <i>A Theory of Justice</i>, focused on distributive justice and attempted to reconcile the competing claims of the values of freedom and equality. The second, <i>Political Liberalism</i>, addressed the question of how citizens divided by intractable religious and philosophical disagreements could come to endorse a constitutional democratic regime. The third, <i>The Law of Peoples</i>, focused on the issue of global justice. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_Theory_of_Justice"><i>A Theory of Justice</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: A Theory of Justice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></div> <p><i>A Theory of Justice</i>, published in 1971, aimed to resolve the seemingly competing claims of freedom and equality. The shape Rawls's resolution took, however, was not that of a balancing act that compromised or weakened the moral claim of one value compared with the other. Rather, his intent was to show that notions of freedom and equality could be integrated into a seamless unity he called <i>justice as fairness</i>. By attempting to enhance the perspective which his readers should take when thinking about justice, Rawls hoped to show the supposed conflict between freedom and equality to be illusory. </p><p>Rawls's <i>A Theory of Justice</i> (1971) includes a thought experiment he called the "<a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">original position</a>." The intuition motivating its employment is this: the enterprise of political philosophy will be greatly benefited by a specification of the correct standpoint a person should take in their thinking about justice. When we think about what it would mean for a just state of affairs to obtain between persons, we eliminate certain features (such as hair or eye color, height, race, etc.) and fixate upon others. Rawls's original position is meant to encode all of our intuitions about which features are relevant, and which irrelevant, for the purposes of deliberating well about justice. </p><p>The original position is Rawls's <a href="/wiki/Hypothetical" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothetical">hypothetical</a> scenario in which a group of persons is set the task of reaching an agreement about the kind of political and economic structure they want for a society, which they will then occupy. Each individual, however, deliberates behind a "<a href="/wiki/Veil_of_ignorance" class="mw-redirect" title="Veil of ignorance">veil of ignorance</a>": each lacks knowledge, for example, of their gender, race, age, intelligence, wealth, skills, education and religion. The only thing that a given member knows about themselves is that they are in possession of the basic capacities necessary to fully and willfully participate in an enduring system of mutual cooperation; each knows they can be a member of the society. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:126px;max-width:126px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:184px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Theory_of_Justice_-_first_American_hardcover_edition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Green book cover" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/A_Theory_of_Justice_-_first_American_hardcover_edition.jpg/124px-A_Theory_of_Justice_-_first_American_hardcover_edition.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/A_Theory_of_Justice_-_first_American_hardcover_edition.jpg/186px-A_Theory_of_Justice_-_first_American_hardcover_edition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/A_Theory_of_Justice_-_first_American_hardcover_edition.jpg/248px-A_Theory_of_Justice_-_first_American_hardcover_edition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="478" data-file-height="713" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><span style="font-size:90%;"><i>A Theory of Justice</i>, <abbr title="First edition">1st<span class="nowrap"> </span>ed.</abbr></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:262px;max-width:262px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:184px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Original_Position.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Illustration showing two groups and a wall (or veil) separating them: the first group at left are uniform stick figures, while the group at right are more diverse in terms of gender, race, and other qualities" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Original_Position.svg/260px-Original_Position.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Original_Position.svg/390px-Original_Position.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Original_Position.svg/520px-Original_Position.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><span style="font-size:90%;">Visual illustration of the "<a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">original position</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Veil_of_ignorance" class="mw-redirect" title="Veil of ignorance">veil of ignorance</a>"</span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Citizens making choices about their society are asked to make them from an "original position" of equality <i>(at left)</i> behind a "veil of ignorance" <i>(wall, center)</i>, without knowing what gender, race, abilities, tastes, wealth, or position in society they will have <i>(at right)</i>. Rawls claims this will cause them to choose "fair" policies.</div></div></div></div> <p>Rawls posits two basic capacities that the individuals would know themselves to possess. First, individuals know that they have the capacity to form, pursue and revise a conception of the good, or life plan. Exactly what sort of conception of the good this is, however, the individual does not yet know. It may be, for example, religious or secular, but at the start, the individual in the original position does not know which. Second, each individual understands themselves to have the capacity to develop a sense of justice and a generally effective desire to abide by it. Knowing only these two features of themselves, the group will deliberate in order to design a social structure, during which each person will seek their maximal advantage. The idea is that proposals that we would ordinarily think of as unjust—such as that black people or women should not be allowed to hold public office—will not be proposed, in this, Rawls's original position, because it would be <i>irrational</i> to propose them. The reason is simple: one does not know whether he himself would be a woman or a black person. This position is expressed in the <a href="/wiki/Difference_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Difference principle">difference principle</a>, according to which, in a system of ignorance about one's status, one would strive to improve the position of the worst off, because he might find himself in that position. </p><p>Rawls develops his original position by modeling it, in certain respects at least, after the "initial situations" of various social contract thinkers who came before him, including <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>. Each social contractarian constructs their initial situation somewhat differently, having in mind a unique political morality they intend the thought experiment to generate.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Iain_King" title="Iain King">Iain King</a> has suggested the original position draws on Rawls's experiences in post-war Japan, where the US Army was challenged with designing new social and political authorities for the country, while "imagining away all that had gone before."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In social justice processes, each person early on makes decisions about which features of persons to consider and which to ignore. Rawls's aspiration is to have created a thought experiment whereby a version of that process is carried to its completion, illuminating the correct standpoint a person should take in their thinking about justice. If he has succeeded, then the original position thought experiment may function as a full specification of the moral standpoint we should attempt to achieve when deliberating about social justice. </p><p>In setting out his theory, Rawls described his method as one of "<a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">reflective equilibrium</a>," a concept which has since been used in other areas of philosophy. Reflective equilibrium is achieved by mutually adjusting one's general principles and one's considered judgements on particular cases, to bring the two into line with one another. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Principles_of_justice">Principles of justice</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Principles of justice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rawls derives two principles of justice from the original position. The first of these is the Liberty Principle, which establishes equal basic liberties for all citizens. 'Basic' liberty entails the (familiar in the liberal tradition) freedoms of conscience, association and expression as well as democratic rights; Rawls also includes a <i>personal property</i> right, but this is defended in terms of moral capacities and self-respect,<sup id="cite_ref-Rawls_114_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rawls_114-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rather than an appeal to a natural right of self-ownership (this distinguishes Rawls's account from the <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberalism</a> of John Locke and the <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarianism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a>). </p><p>Rawls argues that a second principle of equality would be agreed upon to guarantee liberties that represent meaningful options for all in society and ensure distributive justice. For example, formal guarantees of political voice and freedom of assembly are of little real worth to the desperately poor and marginalized in society. Demanding that everyone have exactly the same effective opportunities in life would almost certainly offend the very liberties that are supposedly being equalized. Nonetheless, we would want to ensure at least the "fair worth" of our liberties: wherever one ends up in society, one wants life to be worth living, with enough effective freedom to pursue personal goals. Thus, participants would be moved to affirm a two-part second principle comprising Fair Equality of Opportunity and the famous (and controversial<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) <a href="/wiki/Justice_as_Fairness#Difference_Principle" title="Justice as Fairness">difference principle</a>. This second principle ensures that those with comparable talents and motivation face roughly similar life chances and that inequalities in society work to the benefit of the least advantaged. </p><p>Rawls held that these principles of justice apply to the "basic structure" of fundamental social institutions (such as the judiciary, the economic structure and the political constitution), a qualification that has been the source of some controversy and constructive debate (see the work of <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Cohen" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerald Cohen">Gerald Cohen</a>). Rawls's theory of justice stakes out the task of equalizing the distribution of primary social goods to those least advantaged in society and thus may be seen as a largely political answer to the question of justice, with matters of morality somewhat conflated into a political account of justice and just institutions. Relational approaches to the question of justice, by contrast, seek to examine the connections between individuals and focuses on their relations in societies, with respect to how these relationships are established and configured.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rawls further argued that these principles were to be 'lexically ordered' to award priority to basic liberties over the more equality-oriented demands of the second principle. This has also been a topic of much debate among moral and political philosophers. </p><p>Finally, Rawls took his approach as applying in the first instance to what he called a "well-ordered society ... designed to advance the good of its members and effectively regulated by a public conception of justice."<sup id="cite_ref-Rawls_397_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rawls_397-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this respect, he understood justice as fairness as a contribution to "ideal theory," the determination of "principles that characterize a well-ordered society under favorable circumstances."<sup id="cite_ref-Rawls_216_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rawls_216-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_Liberalism"><i>Political Liberalism</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Political Liberalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Political_Liberalism_by_John_Rawls_(1993_1st_ed.).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Beige book cover with simple black and red shapes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Political_Liberalism_by_John_Rawls_%281993_1st_ed.%29.png/180px-Political_Liberalism_by_John_Rawls_%281993_1st_ed.%29.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Political_Liberalism_by_John_Rawls_%281993_1st_ed.%29.png/270px-Political_Liberalism_by_John_Rawls_%281993_1st_ed.%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Political_Liberalism_by_John_Rawls_%281993_1st_ed.%29.png/360px-Political_Liberalism_by_John_Rawls_%281993_1st_ed.%29.png 2x" data-file-width="840" data-file-height="1260" /></a><figcaption>First edition of <i>Political Liberalism</i></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/John_Rawls" title="Special:EditPage/John Rawls">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22John+Rawls%22">"John Rawls"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22John+Rawls%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22John+Rawls%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22John+Rawls%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22John+Rawls%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22John+Rawls%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Political_Liberalism" title="Political Liberalism">Political Liberalism</a></i> (1993), Rawls turned towards the question of political legitimacy in the context of intractable philosophical, religious, and moral disagreement amongst citizens regarding the human good. Such disagreement, he insisted, was reasonable—the result of the free exercise of human rationality under the conditions of open enquiry and free conscience that the liberal state is designed to safeguard. The question of legitimacy in the face of reasonable disagreement was urgent for Rawls because his own justification of Justice as Fairness relied upon a <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kantian</a> conception of the human good that can be reasonably rejected. If the political conception offered in <i>A Theory of Justice</i> can only be shown to be good by invoking a controversial conception of human flourishing, it is unclear how a liberal state ordered according to it could possibly be legitimate. </p><p>The intuition animating this seemingly new concern is actually no different from the guiding idea of <i>A Theory of Justice</i>, namely that the fundamental charter of a society must rely only on principles, arguments and reasons that cannot be reasonably rejected by the citizens whose lives will be limited by its social, legal, and political circumscriptions. In other words, the legitimacy of a law is contingent upon its justification being impossible to reasonably reject. This old insight took on a new shape, however, when Rawls realized that its application must extend to the deep justification of Justice as Fairness itself, which he had presented in terms of a reasonably rejectable (Kantian) conception of human flourishing as the free development of autonomous moral agency. </p><p>The core of Political Liberalism is its insistence that in order to retain its legitimacy, the liberal state must commit itself to the "ideal of <a href="/wiki/Public_reason" title="Public reason">public reason</a>." This roughly means that citizens in their public capacity must engage one another only in terms of reasons whose status <i>as</i> reasons is shared between them. Political reasoning, then, is to proceed purely in terms of "public reasons." For example: a Supreme Court justice deliberating on whether or not the denial to homosexuals of the ability to marry constitutes a violation of the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause may not advert to his religious convictions on the matter, but he may take into account the argument that a same-sex household provides sub-optimal conditions for a child's development.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This is because reasons based upon the interpretation of sacred text are non-public (their force as reasons relies upon faith commitments that can be reasonably rejected), whereas reasons that rely upon the value of providing children with environments in which they may develop optimally are public reasons—their status as reasons draws upon no deep, controversial conception of human flourishing. </p><p>Rawls held that the duty of civility—the duty of citizens to offer one another reasons that are mutually understood as reasons—applies within what he called the "public political forum." This forum extends from the upper reaches of government—for example the supreme legislative and judicial bodies of the society—all the way down to the deliberations of a citizen deciding for whom to vote in state legislatures or how to vote in public referendums. Campaigning politicians should also, he believed, refrain from pandering to the non-public religious or moral convictions of their constituencies. </p><p>The ideal of public reason secures the dominance of the public political values—freedom, equality, and fairness—that serve as the foundation of the liberal state. But what about the justification of these values? Since any such justification would necessarily draw upon deep (religious or moral) metaphysical commitments which would be reasonably rejectable, Rawls held that the public political values may only be justified privately by individual citizens. The public liberal political conception and its attendant values may and will be affirmed publicly (in judicial opinions and presidential addresses, for example) but its deep justifications will not. The task of justification falls to what Rawls called the "reasonable comprehensive doctrines" and the citizens who subscribe to them. A reasonable Catholic will justify the liberal values one way, a reasonable Muslim another, and a reasonable secular citizen yet another way. One may illustrate Rawls's idea using a Venn diagram: the public political values will be the shared space upon which overlap numerous reasonable comprehensive doctrines. Rawls's account of stability presented in <i>A Theory of Justice</i> is a detailed portrait of the compatibility of one—Kantian—comprehensive doctrine with justice as fairness. His hope is that similar accounts may be presented for many other comprehensive doctrines. This is Rawls's famous notion of an "<a href="/wiki/Overlapping_consensus" title="Overlapping consensus">overlapping consensus</a>." </p><p>Such a consensus would necessarily exclude some doctrines, namely, those that are "unreasonable", and so one may wonder what Rawls has to say about such doctrines. An unreasonable comprehensive doctrine is unreasonable in the sense that it is incompatible with the duty of civility. This is simply another way of saying that an unreasonable doctrine is incompatible with the fundamental political values a liberal theory of justice is designed to safeguard—freedom, equality and fairness. So one answer to the question of what Rawls has to say about such doctrines is—nothing. For one thing, the liberal state cannot justify itself to individuals (such as religious fundamentalists) who hold to such doctrines, because any such justification would—as has been noted—proceed in terms of controversial moral or religious commitments that are excluded from the public political forum. But, more importantly, the goal of the Rawlsian project is primarily to determine whether or not the liberal conception of political legitimacy is internally coherent, and this project is carried out by the specification of what sorts of reasons persons committed to liberal values are permitted to use in their dialogue, deliberations and arguments with one another about political matters. The Rawlsian project has this goal to the exclusion of concern with justifying liberal values to those not already committed—or at least open—to them. Rawls's concern is with whether or not the idea of political legitimacy fleshed out in terms of the duty of civility and mutual justification can serve as a viable form of public discourse in the face of the religious and moral pluralism of modern democratic society, not with justifying this conception of political legitimacy in the first place. </p><p>Rawls also modified the principles of justice as follows (with the first principle having priority over the second, and the first half of the second having priority over the latter half): </p> <ol><li>Each person has an equal claim to a fully adequate scheme of basic rights and liberties, which scheme is compatible with the same scheme for all; and in this scheme the equal political liberties, and only those liberties, are to be guaranteed their fair value.</li> <li>Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions: first, they are to be attached to positions and offices open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity; and second, they are to be to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society.</li></ol> <p>These principles are subtly modified from the principles in <i>Theory</i>. The first principle now reads "equal claim" instead of "equal right", and he also replaces the phrase "system of basic liberties" with "a fully adequate scheme of equal basic rights and liberties". The two parts of the second principle are also switched, so that the difference principle becomes the latter of the three. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Law_of_Peoples"><i>The Law of Peoples</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Law of Peoples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Law_of_Peoples" title="The Law of Peoples">The Law of Peoples</a></div> <p>Although there were passing comments on international affairs in <i>A Theory of Justice</i>, it was not until late in his career that Rawls formulated a comprehensive theory of international politics with the publication of <i>The Law of Peoples</i>. He claimed there that "well-ordered" peoples could be either "liberal" or "decent". Rawls's basic distinction in international politics is that his preferred emphasis on a society of peoples is separate from the more conventional and historical discussion of international politics as based on relationships between states. </p><p>Rawls argued that the legitimacy of a <a href="/wiki/Liberal_international_order" title="Liberal international order">liberal international order</a> is contingent on tolerating <i>decent peoples</i>, which differ from <i>liberal peoples</i>, among other ways, in that they might have state religions and deny adherents of <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">minority</a> <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faiths</a> the right to hold positions of power within the state and might organize political participation via consultation hierarchies rather than elections. However, no well-ordered peoples may violate human rights or behave in an externally aggressive manner. Peoples that fail to meet the criteria of "liberal" or "decent" peoples are referred to as 'outlaw states', 'societies burdened by unfavorable conditions' or 'benevolent absolutisms', depending on their particular failings. Such peoples do not have the right to mutual respect and toleration possessed by liberal and decent peoples. </p><p>Rawls's views on global distributive justice as they were expressed in this work surprised many of his fellow egalitarian liberals. For example, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Beitz" title="Charles Beitz">Charles Beitz</a> had previously written a study that argued for the application of Rawls's Difference Principles globally. Rawls denied that his principles should be so applied, partly on the grounds that a world state does not exist and would not be stable. This notion has been challenged, as a comprehensive system of global governance has arisen, amongst others in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system" title="Bretton Woods system">Bretton Woods system</a>, that serves to distribute primary social goods between human beings. It has thus been argued that a cosmopolitan application of the theory of justice as fairness is the more reasonable alternative to the application of The Law of Peoples, as it would be more legitimate towards all persons over whom political coercive power is exercised.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Rawls however, nation states, unlike citizens, were self-sufficient in the cooperative enterprises that constitute domestic societies. Although Rawls recognized that aid should be given to governments which are unable to protect human rights for economic reasons, he claimed that the purpose for this aid is not to achieve an eventual state of global equality, but rather only to ensure that these societies could maintain liberal or decent political institutions. He argued, among other things, that continuing to give aid indefinitely would see nations with industrious populations subsidize those with idle populations and would create a <a href="/wiki/Moral_hazard" title="Moral hazard">moral hazard</a> problem where governments could spend irresponsibly in the knowledge that they will be bailed out by those nations who had spent responsibly. </p><p>Rawls's discussion of "non-ideal" theory, on the other hand, included a condemnation of bombing civilians and of the American bombing of German and Japanese cities in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, as well as discussions of immigration and nuclear proliferation. He also detailed here the ideal of the statesman, a political leader who looks to the next generation and promotes international harmony, even in the face of significant domestic pressure to act otherwise. Rawls also controversially claimed that violations of human rights can legitimize military intervention in the violating states, though he also expressed the hope that such societies could be induced to reform peacefully by the good example of liberal and decent peoples. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_and_reception">Influence and reception</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Influence and reception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Original_position#Criticisms" title="Original position">Original position § Criticisms</a></div> <p>Despite the exacting, academic tone of Rawls's writing and his reclusive personality, his philosophical work has exerted an enormous impact on not only contemporary moral and political philosophy but also public political discourse. During the <a href="/wiki/Tiananmen_Square_pro-democracy_protests_of_1989" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiananmen Square pro-democracy protests of 1989">student protests at Tiananmen Square in 1989</a>, copies of "A Theory of Justice" were brandished by protesters in the face of government officials.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite being approximately 600 pages long, over 300,000 copies of that book have been sold,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stimulating critical responses from <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a>, conservative, <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">communitarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green</a> scholars. </p><p>Although having a profound influence on <a href="/wiki/Distributive_justice" title="Distributive justice">theories of distributive justice</a> both in theory and in practice, the generally anti-<a href="/wiki/Meritocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Meritocratic">meritocratic</a> sentiment of Rawls's thinking has not been widely accepted by the political left. He consistently held the view that naturally developed skills and endowments could not be neatly distinguished from inherited ones, and that neither could be used to justify <a href="/wiki/Moral_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral desert">moral desert</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, he held the view that individuals could "legitimately expect" entitlements to the earning of income or development of abilities based on institutional arrangements. This aspect of Rawls's work has been instrumental in the development of such ideas as <a href="/wiki/Luck_egalitarianism" title="Luck egalitarianism">luck egalitarianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unconditional_basic_income" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconditional basic income">unconditional basic income</a>, which have themselves been criticized.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The strictly <a href="/wiki/Egalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Egalitarian">egalitarian</a> quality of Rawls's second principle of justice has called into question the <a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">type of equality</a> that fair societies ought to embody.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 2008 national survey of political theorists, based on 1,086 responses from professors at accredited, four-year colleges and universities in the United States, Rawls was voted first on the list of "Scholars Who Have Had the Greatest Impact on Political Theory in the Past 20 Years".<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communitarian_critique">Communitarian critique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Communitarian critique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_Macintyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Alasdair Macintyre">Alasdair Macintyre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Michael Sandel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a> produced a range of critical responses contesting the <a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">universalist</a> basis of Rawls' <a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">original position</a>. While these criticisms, which emphasize the cultural and social roots of normative political principles, are typically described as <a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">communitarian</a> critiques of Rawlsian liberalism, none of their authors identified with philosophical <a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">communitarianism</a>. In his later works, Rawls attempted to reconcile his theory of justice with the possibility that its normative foundations may not be universally applicable.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="September_Group">September Group</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: September Group"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The late philosopher <a href="/wiki/G._A._Cohen" title="G. A. Cohen">G. A. Cohen</a>, along with political scientist <a href="/wiki/Jon_Elster" title="Jon Elster">Jon Elster</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Roemer" title="John Roemer">John Roemer</a>, used Rawls's writings extensively to inaugurate the <a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a> movement in the 1980s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frankfurt_School">Frankfurt School</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Frankfurt School"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the later part of Rawls's career, he engaged with the scholarly work of <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Habermas-Rawls_debate" class="mw-redirect" title="Habermas-Rawls debate">Habermas-Rawls debate</a>). Habermas's reading of Rawls led to an appreciation of Rawls's work and other <a href="/wiki/Analytical_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical philosophers">analytical philosophers</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a> of <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, and many of Habermas's own students and associates were expected to be familiar with Rawls by the late 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Leibniz_Prize" title="Leibniz Prize">Leibniz Prize</a>-winning political philosopher <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Forst" title="Rainer Forst">Rainer Forst</a> was advised by both by Rawls and Habermas in completing his PhD.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Axel_Honneth" title="Axel Honneth">Axel Honneth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fabian_Freyenhagen" title="Fabian Freyenhagen">Fabian Freyenhagen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Gordon_Finlayson" class="mw-redirect" title="James Gordon Finlayson">James Gordon Finlayson</a> have also drawn on Rawls's work in comparison to Habermas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feminist_political_philosophy">Feminist political philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Feminist political philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Eva_Kittay" title="Eva Kittay">Eva Kittay</a> has extended the work of John Rawls to address the concerns of women and cognitively disabled people.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_developments_in_liberalism">Later developments in liberalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Later developments in liberalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> critiques and attempts to revitalize <i>A Theory of Justice</i> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Idea_of_Justice" title="The Idea of Justice">The Idea of Justice</a></i> (2009). He praises Rawls for revitalizing interest in the topic of justice and defends his focus on fairness, but also argues that a focus on abstract, ideal scenarios detracts from finding practical solutions to injustice, as well as arguing for alternatives to Rawls's thought experiments and focus on institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his book <i><a href="/wiki/Free_and_Equal_(book)" title="Free and Equal (book)">Free and Equal</a></i> (2023), the economist and philosopher Daniel Chandler argued that Rawls had been "overlooked within mainstream political debate" despite his profound influence in academia, which he attributed to Rawls's reclusive personality, the abstract nature of his work and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberalism</a> in the 1980s. Chandler argued that Rawls's foremost achievement was creating a theory that could support both freedom and equality, respectively the core tenets of <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, and that his ideas remain relevant today.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards_and_honors">Awards and honors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Awards and honors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal" title="Bronze Star Medal">Bronze Star</a> for radio work behind enemy lines in World War II<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Elected to the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> (1966)<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson_Award" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson Award">Ralph Waldo Emerson Award</a> (1972)</li> <li>Elected to the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> (1974)<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Member of the <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Academy_of_Science_and_Letters" title="Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters">Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters</a> (1992)<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schock_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Schock Prize">Schock Prize</a> for Logic and Philosophy (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Humanities_Medal" title="National Humanities Medal">National Humanities Medal</a> (1999)</li> <li>Asteroid <a href="/wiki/16561_Rawls" class="mw-redirect" title="16561 Rawls">16561 Rawls</a> is named in his honor.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>John Rawls is featured as the protagonist of <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice:_The_Musical" title="A Theory of Justice: The Musical">A Theory of Justice: The Musical</a></i>, a musical comedy that premiered at Oxford in 2013 and was revived for the Edinburgh Fringe Festival.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge: Considered with Reference to Judgments on the Moral Worth of Character</i>. <a href="/wiki/Ph.D._dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ph.D. dissertation">Ph.D. dissertation</a>, Princeton University, 1950.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a>.</i> Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971. The revised edition of 1999 incorporates changes that Rawls made for translated editions of <i>A Theory of Justice.</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Political_Liberalism" title="Political Liberalism">Political Liberalism</a>. The John Dewey Essays in Philosophy, 4.</i> New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. The hardback edition published in 1993 is not identical. The paperback adds a valuable new introduction and an essay titled "Reply to Habermas."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Law_of_Peoples" title="The Law of Peoples">The Law of Peoples</a>: with "The Idea of Public Reason Revisited."</i> Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999. This slim book includes two works; a further development of his essay entitled "The Law of Peoples" and another entitled "Public Reason Revisited," both published earlier in his career.</li> <li><i>Collected Papers.</i> Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999. This collection of shorter papers was edited by Samuel Freeman.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Lectures_on_the_History_of_Moral_Philoso.html?id=CUBTPfTaEHYC"><i>Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy.</i></a> Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2000. This collection of lectures was edited by Barbara Herman. It has an introduction on modern moral philosophy from 1600 to 1800 and then lectures on Hume, Leibniz, Kant and Hegel.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Justice_as_Fairness:_A_Restatement" title="Justice as Fairness: A Restatement">Justice as Fairness: A Restatement</a>.</i> Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press, 2001. This shorter summary of the main arguments of Rawls's political philosophy was edited by Erin Kelly. Many versions of this were circulated in typescript and much of the material was delivered by Rawls in lectures when he taught courses covering his own work at Harvard University.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Lectures_on_the_History_of_Political_Phi.html?id=yKclZky1oUkC"><i>Lectures on the History of Political Philosophy.</i></a> Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2007. Collection of lectures on <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Joseph Butler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, edited by Samuel Freeman.</li> <li><i>A Brief Inquiry into the Meaning of Sin and Faith.</i> Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2010. With introduction and commentary by Thomas Nagel, Joshua Cohen and Robert Merrihew Adams. Senior thesis, Princeton, 1942. This volume includes a brief late essay by Rawls entitled <i>On My Religion</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>"Outline of a Decision Procedure for Ethics." <i>Philosophical Review</i> (April 1951), 60 (2): 177–197.</li> <li>"Two Concepts of Rules." <i>Philosophical Review</i> (January 1955), 64 (1):3–32.</li> <li>"Justice as Fairness." <i>Journal of Philosophy</i> (October 24, 1957), 54 (22): 653–362.</li> <li>"Justice as Fairness." <i>Philosophical Review</i> (April 1958), 67 (2): 164–194.</li> <li>"The Sense of Justice." <i>Philosophical Review</i> (July 1963), 72 (3): 281–305.</li> <li>"Constitutional Liberty and the Concept of Justice" <i>Nomos VI</i> (1963)</li> <li>"Distributive Justice: Some Addenda." Natural Law Forum (1968), 13: 51–71.</li> <li>"Reply to Lyons and Teitelman." <i>Journal of Philosophy</i> (October 5, 1972), 69 (18): 556–557.</li> <li>"Reply to Alexander and Musgrave." <i>Quarterly Journal of Economics</i> (November 1974), 88 (4): 633–655.</li> <li>"Some Reasons for the Maximin Criterion." <i>American Economic Review</i> (May 1974), 64 (2): 141–146.</li> <li>"Fairness to Goodness." <i>Philosophical Review</i> (October 1975), 84 (4): 536–554.</li> <li>"The Independence of Moral Theory." <i>Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association</i> (November 1975), 48: 5–22.</li> <li>"A Kantian Conception of Equality." <i>Cambridge Review</i> (February 1975), 96 (2225): 94–99.</li> <li>"The Basic Structure as Subject." <i>American Philosophical Quarterly</i> (April 1977), 14 (2): 159–165.</li> <li>"Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory." <i>Journal of Philosophy</i> (September 1980), 77 (9): 515–572.</li> <li>"Justice as Fairness: Political not Metaphysical." <i>Philosophy & Public Affairs</i> (Summer 1985), 14 (3): 223–251.</li> <li>"The Idea of an Overlapping Consensus." <i>Oxford Journal for Legal Studies</i> (Spring 1987), 7 (1): 1–25.</li> <li>"The Priority of Right and Ideas of the Good." <i>Philosophy & Public Affairs</i> (Fall 1988), 17 (4): 251–276.</li> <li>"The Domain of the Political and Overlapping Consensus." <i>New York University Law Review</i> (May 1989), 64 (2): 233–255.</li> <li>"Roderick Firth: His Life and Work." <i>Philosophy and Phenomenological Research</i> (March 1991), 51 (1): 109–118.</li> <li>"The Law of Peoples." <i>Critical Inquiry</i> (Fall 1993), 20 (1): 36–68.</li> <li>"Political Liberalism: Reply to Habermas." <i>Journal of Philosophy</i> (March 1995), 92 (3):132–180.</li> <li>"The Idea of Public Reason Revisited." <i>Chicago Law Review</i> (1997), 64 (3): 765–807. [PRR]</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_chapters">Book chapters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Book chapters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>"Constitutional Liberty and the Concept of Justice." In Carl J. Friedrich and John W. Chapman, eds., <i>Nomos, VI: Justice,</i> pp. 98–125. Yearbook of the American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy. New York: Atherton Press, 1963.</li> <li>"Legal Obligation and the Duty of Fair Play." In Sidney Hook, ed., <i>Law and Philosophy: A Symposium</i>, pp. 3–18. New York: New York University Press, 1964. Proceedings of the 6th Annual New York University Institute of Philosophy.</li> <li>"Distributive Justice." In <a href="/wiki/Peter_Laslett" title="Peter Laslett">Peter Laslett</a> and <a href="/wiki/W._G._Runciman" class="mw-redirect" title="W. G. Runciman">W. G. Runciman</a>, eds., <i>Philosophy, Politics, and Society</i>. Third Series, pp. 58–82. London: Blackwell; New York: Barnes & Noble, 1967.</li> <li>"The Justification of Civil Disobedience." In <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Adam_Bedau" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugo Adam Bedau">Hugo Adam Bedau</a>, ed., <i>Civil Disobedience: Theory and Practice</i>, pp. 240–255. New York: Pegasus Books, 1969.</li> <li>"Justice as Reciprocity." In Samuel Gorovitz, ed., <i>Utilitarianism: John Stuart Mill: With Critical Essays</i>, pp. 242–268. New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1971.</li> <li>"Author's Note." In Thomas Schwartz, ed., <i>Freedom and Authority: An Introduction to Social and Political Philosophy</i>, p. 260. Encino & Belmont, California: Dickenson, 1973.</li> <li>"Distributive Justice." In <a href="/wiki/Edmund_S._Phelps" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund S. Phelps">Edmund S. Phelps</a>, ed., <i>Economic Justice: Selected Readings</i>, pp. 319–362. Penguin Modern Economics Readings. Harmondsworth & Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1973.</li> <li>"Personal Communication, January 31, 1976." In Thomas Nagel's "The Justification of Equality." Critica (April 1978), 10 (28): 9n4.</li> <li>"The Basic Liberties and Their Priority." In <a href="/wiki/Sterling_M._McMurrin" title="Sterling M. McMurrin">Sterling M. McMurrin</a>, ed., <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tanner_Lectures_on_Human_Values" class="mw-redirect" title="The Tanner Lectures on Human Values">The Tanner Lectures on Human Values</a>, III</i> (1982), pp. 1–87. Salt Lake City: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Utah_Press" title="University of Utah Press">University of Utah Press</a>; Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1982.</li> <li>"Social unity and primary goods" in <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSenWilliams1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen, Amartya</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams, Bernard</a>, eds. (1982). <i>Utilitarianism and beyond</i>. Cambridge / Paris: Cambridge University Press / Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme. pp. 159–185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0511611964" title="Special:BookSources/978-0511611964"><bdi>978-0511611964</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Utilitarianism+and+beyond&rft.place=Cambridge+%2F+Paris&rft.pages=159-185&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press+%2F+Editions+de+la+Maison+des+Sciences+de+l%27Homme&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0511611964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>"Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy." In Eckhart Forster, ed., <i>Kant's Transcendental Deductions: The Three Critiques and the Opus postumum</i>, pp. 81–113, 253–256. Stanford Series in Philosophy. Studies in Kant and German Idealism. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1989.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reviews">Reviews</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Reviews"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Review of <a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Axel Hägerström</a>'s <i>Inquiries into the Nature of Law and Morals</i> (C.D. Broad, tr.). <i>Mind</i> (July 1955), 64 (255):421–422.</li> <li>Review of <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a>'s <i>An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics</i> (1950). <i>Philosophical Review</i> (October 1951), 60 (4): 572–580.</li> <li>Review of <a href="/wiki/A._Vilhelm_Lundstedt" class="mw-redirect" title="A. Vilhelm Lundstedt">A. Vilhelm Lundstedt</a>'s <i>Legal Thinking Revised</i>. <i>Cornell Law Quarterly</i> (1959), 44: 169.</li> <li>Review of <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Klibansky" title="Raymond Klibansky">Raymond Klibansky</a>, ed., <i>Philosophy in Mid-Century: A Survey</i>. <i>Philosophical Review</i> (January 1961), 70 (1): 131–132.</li> <li>Review of <a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Brandt" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard B. Brandt">Richard B. Brandt</a>, ed., <i>Social Justice</i> (1962). <i>Philosophical Review</i> (July 1965), 74(3): 406–409.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_philosophers" title="List of American philosophers">List of American philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">List of liberal theorists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Philosophy and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Vickrey" title="William Vickrey">William Vickrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Harsanyi" title="John Harsanyi">John Harsanyi</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2002" class="citation book cs1">Young, Shaun (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beyondrawlsanaly0000youn"><i>Beyond Rawls: An Analysis of the Concept of Political Liberalism</i></a></span>. Lanham, MD: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_America" title="University Press of America">University Press of America</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beyondrawlsanaly0000youn/page/59">59</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0761822400" title="Special:BookSources/978-0761822400"><bdi>978-0761822400</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Rawls%3A+An+Analysis+of+the+Concept+of+Political+Liberalism&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0761822400&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Shaun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbeyondrawlsanaly0000youn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Rawls" entry in <i><a href="/wiki/Random_House_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Random House Dictionary">Random House Dictionary</a></i>, Random House, 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Martin-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Martin_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Martin_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin,_Douglas2002" class="citation news cs1">Martin, Douglas (November 26, 2002). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/26/obituaries/26RAWL.html">"John Rawls, Theorist on Justice, Is Dead at 82 [corrected]"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. p. C19. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160411104210/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/26/obituaries/26RAWL.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 11, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 19,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=John+Rawls%2C+Theorist+on+Justice%2C+Is+Dead+at+82+%5Bcorrected%5D&rft.pages=C19&rft.date=2002-11-26&rft.au=Martin%2C+Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2002%2F11%2F26%2Fobituaries%2F26RAWL.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWenar2017" class="citation book cs1">Wenar, Leif (2017). "John Rawls". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/rawls/"><i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a> (Spring 2017 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190404052150/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/rawls/">Archived</a> from the original on April 4, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 22,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Rawls&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Spring+2017&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Wenar&rft.aufirst=Leif&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2017%2Fentries%2Frawls%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamson2012" class="citation web cs1">Williamson, Thad (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/political-philosophy-in-the-twentieth-century-authors-and-argument/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Political Philosophy in the Twentieth Century: Authors and Argument" by Catherine H. Zuckert (Ed.)"</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224204035/https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/political-philosophy-in-the-twentieth-century-authors-and-argument/">Archived</a> from the original on February 24, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 21,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Political+Philosophy+in+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+Authors+and+Argument%22+by+Catherine+H.+Zuckert+%28Ed.%29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Williamson&rft.aufirst=Thad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fndpr.nd.edu%2Fnews%2Fpolitical-philosophy-in-the-twentieth-century-authors-and-argument%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKymlicka1990" class="citation book cs1">Kymlicka, Will (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/contemporarypoli00kyml_0/page/11"><i>Contemporary political philosophy : an introduction</i></a>. Oxford [England]: Clarendon Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/contemporarypoli00kyml_0/page/11">11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198277248" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198277248"><bdi>978-0198277248</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/21762535">21762535</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+political+philosophy+%3A+an+introduction&rft.place=Oxford+%5BEngland%5D&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F21762535&rft.isbn=978-0198277248&rft.aulast=Kymlicka&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcontemporarypoli00kyml_0%2Fpage%2F11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwift,_Adam2006" class="citation book cs1">Swift, Adam (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalphiloso00swif/page/10"><i>Political philosophy : a beginners' guide for students and politicians</i></a></span> (Second edition, revised and expanded ed.). Cambridge: Polity. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalphiloso00swif/page/10">10</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0745635323" title="Special:BookSources/978-0745635323"><bdi>978-0745635323</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63136336">63136336</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+philosophy+%3A+a+beginners%27+guide+for+students+and+politicians&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=10&rft.edition=Second+edition%2C+revised+and+expanded&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F63136336&rft.isbn=978-0745635323&rft.au=Swift%2C+Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticalphiloso00swif%2Fpage%2F10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinstein2002" class="citation news cs1">Weinstein, Michael M. (December 1, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/01/weekinreview/the-nation-bringing-logic-to-bear-on-liberal-dogma.html">"The Nation; Bringing Logic To Bear on Liberal Dogma"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230628191347/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/01/weekinreview/the-nation-bringing-logic-to-bear-on-liberal-dogma.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 28, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 7,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Nation%3B+Bringing+Logic+To+Bear+on+Liberal+Dogma&rft.date=2002-12-01&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Weinstein&rft.aufirst=Michael+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2002%2F12%2F01%2Fweekinreview%2Fthe-nation-bringing-logic-to-bear-on-liberal-dogma.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130328055154/http://ojs.unbc.ca/index.php/cpsr/article/viewPDFInterstitial/136/187">"Fair Opportunity to Participate"</a>. The Canadian Political Science Review. June 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ojs.unbc.ca/index.php/cpsr/article/viewPDFInterstitial/136/187">the original</a> on March 28, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fair+Opportunity+to+Participate&rft.pub=The+Canadian+Political+Science+Review&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fojs.unbc.ca%2Findex.php%2Fcpsr%2Farticle%2FviewPDFInterstitial%2F136%2F187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2009" class="citation journal cs1">Moore, Matthew J. (2009). "Political Theory Today: Results of a National Survey". <i>American Political Science Association 2009 Annual Meeting</i>. Rochester, NY. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1463648">1463648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Political+Science+Association+2009+Annual+Meeting&rft.atitle=Political+Theory+Today%3A+Results+of+a+National+Survey&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1463648%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Matthew+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philosophynow.org/issues/121/John_Rawls_1921-2002">"John Rawls (1921-2002) | Issue 121 | Philosophy Now"</a>. <i>philosophynow.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221104035848/https://philosophynow.org/issues/121/John_Rawls_1921-2002">Archived</a> from the original on November 4, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 4,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=philosophynow.org&rft.atitle=John+Rawls+%281921-2002%29+%7C+Issue+121+%7C+Philosophy+Now&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilosophynow.org%2Fissues%2F121%2FJohn_Rawls_1921-2002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers2002" class="citation news cs1">Rogers, Ben (November 27, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/nov/27/guardianobituaries.obituaries">"Obituary: John Rawls"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190807100815/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/nov/27/guardianobituaries.obituaries">Archived</a> from the original on August 7, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 26,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Obituary%3A+John+Rawls&rft.date=2002-11-27&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fnews%2F2002%2Fnov%2F27%2Fguardianobituaries.obituaries&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Freemanxix-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Freemanxix_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freemanxix_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freemanxix_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freemanxix_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Freeman, 2010:xix</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gordon-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gordon_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/David_Gordon_(philosopher)" title="David Gordon (philosopher)">Gordon, David</a> (2008-07-28) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theamericanconservative.com/article/2008/jul/28/00024/">Going Off the Rawls</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120224221101/http://www.theamericanconservative.com/article/2008/jul/28/00024/">Archived</a> 2012-02-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Conservative" title="The American Conservative">The American Conservative</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWenar2013" class="citation book cs1">Wenar, Leif (January 1, 2013). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2013/entries/rawls/"><i>John Rawls</i></a> (Winter 2013 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Rawls&rft.edition=Winter+2013&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2013-01-01&rft.aulast=Wenar&rft.aufirst=Leif&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2013%2Fentries%2Frawls%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawls1942" class="citation thesis cs1">Rawls, John Bordley (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dataspace.princeton.edu/handle/88435/dsp01tt44pn90s"><i>A Brief Inquiry Into The Meaning of Sin and Faith</i></a> (BA thesis). Princeton University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223160438/https://dataspace.princeton.edu/handle/88435/dsp01tt44pn90s">Archived</a> from the original on December 23, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=A+Brief+Inquiry+Into+The+Meaning+of+Sin+and+Faith&rft.degree=BA&rft.inst=Princeton+University&rft.date=1942&rft.aulast=Rawls&rft.aufirst=John+Bordley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdataspace.princeton.edu%2Fhandle%2F88435%2Fdsp01tt44pn90s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.military-history.org/feature/thinkers-at-war-john-rawls.htm">"Thinkers at War - John Rawls | Military History Matters"</a>. <i>Military History Matters</i>. June 13, 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223164023/https://www.military-history.org/feature/thinkers-at-war-john-rawls.htm">Archived</a> from the original on December 23, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 23,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Military+History+Matters&rft.atitle=Thinkers+at+War+-+John+Rawls+%7C+Military+History+Matters&rft.date=2014-06-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.military-history.org%2Ffeature%2Fthinkers-at-war-john-rawls.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heritage.org/political-process/report/john-rawls-theorist-modern-liberalism">"John Rawls: Theorist of Modern Liberalism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Heritage_Foundation" title="The Heritage Foundation">The Heritage Foundation</a>. August 13, 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191102090242/https://www.heritage.org/political-process/report/john-rawls-theorist-modern-liberalism">Archived</a> from the original on November 2, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Rawls%3A+Theorist+of+Modern+Liberalism&rft.pub=The+Heritage+Foundation&rft.date=2014-08-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.heritage.org%2Fpolitical-process%2Freport%2Fjohn-rawls-theorist-modern-liberalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_J._SiderPaul_Charles_KemenyDerek_H._DavisClarke_E._Cochran2009" class="citation book cs1">Ronald J. Sider; Paul Charles Kemeny; Derek H. Davis; Clarke E. Cochran; Corwin Smidt (2009). <i>Church, State and Public Justice: Five Views</i>. InterVarsity Press. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0830874743" title="Special:BookSources/978-0830874743"><bdi>978-0830874743</bdi></a>. <q>Religious beliefs, argues John Rawls—a Harvard philosopher and self-identifying atheist—can be so divisive in a pluralistic culture that they subvert the stability of a society.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Church%2C+State+and+Public+Justice%3A+Five+Views&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0830874743&rft.au=Ronald+J.+Sider&rft.au=Paul+Charles+Kemeny&rft.au=Derek+H.+Davis&rft.au=Clarke+E.+Cochran&rft.au=Corwin+Smidt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/26/us/john-rawls-theorist-on-justice-is-dead-at-82.html">"John Rawls, Theorist on Justice, Is Dead at 82 | New York Times"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>. November 26, 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=John+Rawls%2C+Theorist+on+Justice%2C+Is+Dead+at+82+%7C+New+York+Times&rft.date=2002-11-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2002%2F11%2F26%2Fus%2Fjohn-rawls-theorist-on-justice-is-dead-at-82.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOfferSöderberg2016" class="citation book cs1">Offer, Avner; Söderberg, Gabriel (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=88iXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA272"><i>The Nobel Factor: The Prize in Economics, Social Democracy, and the Market Turn</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 272. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691166032" title="Special:BookSources/9780691166032"><bdi>9780691166032</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Factor%3A+The+Prize+in+Economics%2C+Social+Democracy%2C+and+the+Market+Turn&rft.pages=272&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780691166032&rft.aulast=Offer&rft.aufirst=Avner&rft.au=S%C3%B6derberg%2C+Gabriel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D88iXDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA272&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2002/12/john-rawls-influential-political-philosopher-dead-at-81-2/">"John Rawls, influential political philosopher, dead at 81"</a>. December 5, 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190720034805/https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2002/12/john-rawls-influential-political-philosopher-dead-at-81-2/">Archived</a> from the original on July 20, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 25,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Rawls%2C+influential+political+philosopher%2C+dead+at+81&rft.date=2002-12-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.harvard.edu%2Fgazette%2Fstory%2F2002%2F12%2Fjohn-rawls-influential-political-philosopher-dead-at-81-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNussbaum2007" class="citation book cs1">Nussbaum, Martha Craven (2007). <i>Frontiers of justice: disability, nationality, species membership</i>. The Tanner lectures on human values (1st ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674024106" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674024106"><bdi>978-0674024106</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frontiers+of+justice%3A+disability%2C+nationality%2C+species+membership&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.series=The+Tanner+lectures+on+human+values&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0674024106&rft.aulast=Nussbaum&rft.aufirst=Martha+Craven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rawls_114-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rawls_114_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawls2001">Rawls 2001</a>, pp. 114</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNozick" class="citation book cs1">Nozick, Robert. <i><a href="/wiki/Anarchy,_State,_and_Utopia" title="Anarchy, State, and Utopia">Anarchy, State, and Utopia</a></i>. pp. Chapter 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anarchy%2C+State%2C+and+Utopia&rft.pages=Chapter+7&rft.aulast=Nozick&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Young Kim, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781498516518/Justice-as-Right-Actions-An-Original-Theory-of-Justice-in-Conversation-with-Major-Contemporary-Accounts"><i>Justice as Right Actions: An Original Theory of Justice in Conversation with Major Contemporary Accounts</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230609012056/https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781498516518/Justice-as-Right-Actions-An-Original-Theory-of-Justice-in-Conversation-with-Major-Contemporary-Accounts">Archived</a> June 9, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Lexington Books</a>, 2015. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1498516518" title="Special:BookSources/978-1498516518">978-1498516518</a>; <a href="/wiki/Iris_Marion_Young" title="Iris Marion Young">Iris Marion Young</a>, <i>Justice and the Politics of Difference</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1990.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rawls_397-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rawls_397_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawls1971">Rawls 1971</a>, pp. 397</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rawls_216-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rawls_216_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawls1971">Rawls 1971</a>, pp. 216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPols2010" class="citation thesis cs1">Pols, Paul (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://studenttheses.uu.nl/handle/20.500.12932/5516"><i>Applying Rawls in a Globalizing World</i></a> (Thesis). University of Utrecht. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220809114119/https://studenttheses.uu.nl/handle/20.500.12932/5516">Archived</a> from the original on August 9, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 9,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=With+NEH+grant%2C+Notre+Dame+philosopher+Paul+Weithman+planning+conference+on+enduring+impact+of+John+Rawls+%2F%2F+College+of+Arts+and+Letters+%2F%2F+University+of+Notre+Dame&rft.date=2020-09-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fal.nd.edu%2Fnews%2Flatest-news%2Fwith-neh-grant-notre-dame-philosopher-paul-weithman-planning-conference-on-enduring-impact-of-john-rawls%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKorsgaardSenThompsonScanlon2005" class="citation news cs1">Korsgaard, Christine; Sen, Amartya; Thompson, Dennis; Scanlon, Thomas (May 19, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2005/05/john-rawls/">"John Rawls"</a>. <i>Harvard Gazette</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230602090122/https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2005/05/john-rawls/">Archived</a> from the original on June 2, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Equality of What?" <i>The Tanner Lecture on Human Values</i>, Stanford University"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230622102515/https://www.ophi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Sen-1979_Equality-of-What.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on June 22, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 9,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Amartya+Sen+%28May+22%2C1979%29.+%22Equality+of+What%3F%22+The+Tanner+Lecture+on+Human+Values%2C+Stanford+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ophi.org.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FSen-1979_Equality-of-What.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1990" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, G. A. (1990). "Equality of What? 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Communitarianism&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcommunitarianism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.marcuse.org/herbert/scholaractivists/00JoelAnderson3rdGeneration.html">https://www.marcuse.org/herbert/scholaractivists/00JoelAnderson3rdGeneration.html</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2022">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jeanmonnetprogram.org/fellow/rainer-forst/">"Rainer Forst"</a>. <i>The Jean Monnet Program</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230605135520/https://jeanmonnetprogram.org/fellow/rainer-forst/">Archived</a> from the original on June 5, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jean+Monnet+Program&rft.atitle=Rainer+Forst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjeanmonnetprogram.org%2Ffellow%2Frainer-forst%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForstForst2002" class="citation book cs1">Forst, Rainer; Forst, Professor Rainer (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520232259/contexts-of-justice"><i>Contexts of Justice</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520232259" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520232259"><bdi>978-0520232259</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230603080110/https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520232259/contexts-of-justice">Archived</a> from the original on June 3, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contexts+of+Justice&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0520232259&rft.aulast=Forst&rft.aufirst=Rainer&rft.au=Forst%2C+Professor+Rainer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucpress.edu%2Fbook%2F9780520232259%2Fcontexts-of-justice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAfeeHoward2022" class="citation cs2">McAfee, Noëlle; Howard, Katie B. (2022), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/feminism-political/">"Feminist Political Philosophy"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2022 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240111121942/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/feminism-political/">archived</a> from the original on January 11, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 1,</span> 2022</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Feminist+Political+Philosophy&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Spring+2022&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=McAfee&rft.aufirst=No%C3%ABlle&rft.au=Howard%2C+Katie+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2022%2Fentries%2Ffeminism-political%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen,_Amartya2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen, Amartya</a> (2009). <i>The Idea of Justice</i>. New York: Belknap Press (Harvard University Press). pp. 52–74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06047-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06047-0"><bdi>978-0-674-06047-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Idea+of+Justice&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=52-74&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+%28Harvard+University+Press%29&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-06047-0&rft.au=Sen%2C+Amartya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler,_Daniel2023" class="citation book cs1">Chandler, Daniel (2023). <i>Free and Equal: What Would a Fair Society Look Like?</i>. London: Allen Lane. pp. 3–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780141991948" title="Special:BookSources/9780141991948"><bdi>9780141991948</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Free+and+Equal%3A+What+Would+a+Fair+Society+Look+Like%3F&rft.place=London&rft.pages=3-8&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9780141991948&rft.au=Chandler%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Page 12 of 'John Rawls: His Life and Theory of Justice' by Thomas Pogge, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amacad.org/person/john-rawls">"John Rawls"</a>. <i>American Academy of Arts & Sciences</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220809162448/https://www.amacad.org/person/john-rawls">Archived</a> from the original on August 9, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 9,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Academy+of+Arts+%26+Sciences&rft.atitle=John+Rawls&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amacad.org%2Fperson%2Fjohn-rawls&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=John+Rawls&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced">"APS Member History"</a>. <i>search.amphilsoc.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220524092203/https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=John+Rawls&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced">Archived</a> from the original on May 24, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 9,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=search.amphilsoc.org&rft.atitle=APS+Member+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.amphilsoc.org%2Fmemhist%2Fsearch%3Fcreator%3DJohn%2BRawls%26title%3D%26subject%3D%26subdiv%3D%26mem%3D%26year%3D%26year-max%3D%26dead%3D%26keyword%3D%26smode%3Dadvanced&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070715102608/http://www.dnva.no/c26849/artikkel/vis.html?tid=26861">"Utenlandske medlemmer"</a> (in Norwegian). <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Academy_of_Science_and_Letters" title="Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters">Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dnva.no/c26849/artikkel/vis.html?tid=26861">the original</a> on July 15, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 27,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Utenlandske+medlemmer&rft.pub=Norwegian+Academy+of+Science+and+Letters&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dnva.no%2Fc26849%2Fartikkel%2Fvis.html%3Ftid%3D26861&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cherwell.org/news/college/2012/10/02/ppe-finalists-create-revision-musical">"Oxford / News / Colleges / PPE finalists create revision musical"</a>. Cherwell.org. October 3, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160329154957/http://www.cherwell.org/news/college/2012/10/02/ppe-finalists-create-revision-musical">Archived</a> from the original on March 29, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 31,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oxford+%2F+News+%2F+Colleges+%2F+PPE+finalists+create+revision+musical&rft.pub=Cherwell.org&rft.date=2012-10-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cherwell.org%2Fnews%2Fcollege%2F2012%2F10%2F02%2Fppe-finalists-create-revision-musical&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Freeman, S. (2007) <i>Rawls</i> (Routledge, Abingdon)</li> <li>Freeman, Samuel (2009) "Original Position" (The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2009/entries/original-position">Original Position</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPols2010" class="citation thesis cs1">Pols, Paul (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210813010125/http://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/179525"><i>Applying Rawls in a Globalizing World</i></a> (Thesis). University of Utrecht. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1874%2F179525">1874/179525</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/179525">the original</a> on August 13, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Applying+Rawls+in+a+Globalizing+World&rft.inst=University+of+Utrecht&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1874%2F179525&rft.aulast=Pols&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdspace.library.uu.nl%2Fhandle%2F1874%2F179525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rawls, John (1993/1996/2005) <i><a href="/wiki/Political_Liberalism" title="Political Liberalism">Political Liberalism</a></i> (Columbia University Press, New York)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawls1971" class="citation book cs1">Rawls, John (1971). <a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice"><i>A Theory of Justice</i></a> (Original ed.). Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674017726" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674017726"><bdi>978-0674017726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Theory+of+Justice&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.edition=Original&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0674017726&rft.aulast=Rawls&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawls2001" class="citation book cs1">Rawls, John (2001). <a href="/wiki/Justice_as_Fairness:_A_Restatement" title="Justice as Fairness: A Restatement"><i>Justice as Fairness: A Restatement</i></a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674005112" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674005112"><bdi>978-0674005112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Justice+as+Fairness%3A+A+Restatement&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0674005112&rft.aulast=Rawls&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rogers, B. (27.09.02) "Obituary: John Rawls" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/nov/27/guardianobituaries.obituaries">Obituary: John Rawls</a></li> <li>Tampio, N. (2011) "A Defense of Political Constructivism" (Contemporary Political Theory, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palgrave-journals.com/cpt/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/cpt201127a.html">A defense of political constructivism</a><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span>)</li> <li>Wenar, Leif (2008) "John Rawls" (The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/rawls/">John Rawls</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Will_Wilkinson" title="Will Wilkinson">Wilkinson, Will</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n255.xml">"Rawls, John (1921–2002)"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC"><i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i></a>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">Sage</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 415–416. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n255">10.4135/9781412965811.n255</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412965804" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412965804"><bdi>978-1412965804</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rawls%2C+John+%281921%E2%80%932002%29&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=415-416&rft.pub=Sage%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n255&rft.isbn=978-1412965804&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsk.sagepub.com%2Freference%2Flibertarianism%2Fn255.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJohn+Rawls" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/John_Rawls" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/John Rawls">John Rawls</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.openculture.com/2015/06/free-listen-to-john-rawls-course-on-modern-political-philosophy-recorded-at-harvard-1984.html/">Audio recordings of Rawls's 1983 lecture course "Modern Political Philosophy"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-rawls-lexicon/56E9EFE4800DFA831929F3F563A9C016">Cambridge Rawls Lexicon</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/rawls/">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry on John Rawls by Henry S. Richardson</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/poli-con/">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry on Political Constructivisim by Michael Buckley</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rawls/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry on John Rawls by Leif Wenar</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/original-position/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry on Original Position by Fred D'Agostino</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reflective-equilibrium/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry on Reflective Equilibrium by Norman Daniels</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=clG4xHAAAAAJ">John Rawls</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190417085925/https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=clG4xHAAAAAJ">Archived</a> April 17, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> on <a href="/wiki/Google_Scholar" title="Google Scholar">Google Scholar</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 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.navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/19px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/29px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/38px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Economics" title="Portal:Economics">Economics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_flag_waving.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/18px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/27px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/35px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Liberalism" title="Portal:Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="diagram" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/19px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/29px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:John_Rawls" title="Template:John Rawls"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:John_Rawls" title="Template talk:John Rawls"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:John_Rawls" title="Special:EditPage/Template:John Rawls"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="John_Rawls" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">John Rawls</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Justice_as_Fairness" title="Justice as Fairness">Justice as Fairness</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Political_Liberalism" title="Political Liberalism">Political Liberalism</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Law_of_Peoples" title="The Law of Peoples">The Law of Peoples</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Justice_as_Fairness:_A_Restatement" title="Justice as Fairness: A Restatement">Justice as Fairness: A Restatement</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable ideas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">Reflective equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overlapping_consensus" title="Overlapping consensus">Overlapping consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_reason" title="Public reason">Public reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_goods" title="Primary goods">Primary goods</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habermas%E2%80%93Rawls_debate" title="Habermas–Rawls debate">Habermas–Rawls debate</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice:_The_Musical" title="A Theory of Justice: The Musical">A Theory of Justice: The Musical</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jurisprudence" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li 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navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_legal_studies" title="Critical legal studies">Critical legal studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Economic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal norms">Legal norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="International legal theory">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_law" title="Category:Philosophers of law">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Alexy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Bobbio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartosz_Bro%C5%BCek" title="Bartosz Brożek">Brożek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Gurvitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Hägerström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Jellinek" title="Georg Jellinek">Jellinek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Jhering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Kelsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Leoni" title="Bruno Leoni">Leoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Llewellyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Olivecrona" title="Karl Olivecrona">Olivecrona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Petra%C5%BCycki" title="Leon Petrażycki">Petrażycki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Radbruch</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Raz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Reinach" title="Adolf Reinach">Reinach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Renner" title="Karl Renner">Renner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_Ross" title="Alf Ross">Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Pontifex" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex">Scaevola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">Stahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Mangabeira_Unger" title="Roberto Mangabeira Unger">Unger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Books_about_jurisprudence" title="Category:Books about jurisprudence">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 355 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pure_Theory_of_Law" title="Pure Theory of Law">Pure Theory of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1934)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1961)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law_and_Natural_Rights" title="Natural Law and Natural Rights">Natural Law and Natural Rights</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Law%27s_Empire" title="Law's Empire">Law's Empire</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1986)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_law" title="Category:Theories of law">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical jurisprudence">Analytical jurisprudence</a></li> 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<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rolf_Schock_Prize_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#d3d3d3;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Schock_Prize_laureates" title="Template:Schock Prize laureates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Schock_Prize_laureates" title="Template talk:Schock 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selflink">John Rawls</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Feferman" title="Solomon Feferman">Solomon Feferman</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Jaakko Hintikka</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Millikan" title="Ruth Millikan">Ruth Millikan</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saharon_Shelah" title="Saharon Shelah">Saharon Shelah</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dag_Prawitz" title="Dag Prawitz">Dag Prawitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Per_Martin-L%C3%B6f" title="Per Martin-Löf">Per Martin-Löf</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Kaplan_(philosopher)" title="David Kaplan (philosopher)">David Kaplan</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d3d3d3;;width:1%">Mathematics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elias_M._Stein" title="Elias M. Stein">Elias M. Stein</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wiles" title="Andrew Wiles">Andrew Wiles</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikio_Sato" title="Mikio Sato">Mikio Sato</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_I._Manin" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuri I. Manin">Yuri I. Manin</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_H._Lieb" title="Elliott H. Lieb">Elliott H. Lieb</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_P._Stanley" title="Richard P. Stanley">Richard P. Stanley</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Caffarelli" title="Luis Caffarelli">Luis Caffarelli</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endre_Szemer%C3%A9di" title="Endre Szemerédi">Endre Szemerédi</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Aschbacher" title="Michael Aschbacher">Michael Aschbacher</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yitang_Zhang" title="Yitang Zhang">Yitang Zhang</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Schoen" title="Richard Schoen">Richard Schoen</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coifman" title="Ronald Coifman">Ronald Coifman</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_G._Makarov" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolai G. Makarov">Nikolai G. Makarov</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Pila" title="Jonathan Pila">Jonathan Pila</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d3d3d3;;width:1%">Visual arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rafael_Moneo" title="Rafael Moneo">Rafael Moneo</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claes_Oldenburg" title="Claes Oldenburg">Claes Oldenburg</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torsten_Andersson" title="Torsten Andersson">Torsten Andersson</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herzog_%26_de_Meuron" title="Herzog & de Meuron">Herzog & de Meuron </a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Penone" title="Giuseppe Penone">Giuseppe Penone</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Rothenberg" title="Susan Rothenberg">Susan Rothenberg</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SANAA" title="SANAA">SANAA</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kazuyo_Sejima" title="Kazuyo Sejima">Kazuyo Sejima</a> + <a href="/wiki/Ryue_Nishizawa" title="Ryue Nishizawa">Ryue Nishizawa</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mona_Hatoum" title="Mona Hatoum">Mona Hatoum</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marlene_Dumas" title="Marlene Dumas">Marlene Dumas</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Lacaton" title="Anne Lacaton">Anne Lacaton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jean-Philippe_Vassal" title="Jean-Philippe Vassal">Jean-Philippe Vassal</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doris_Salcedo" title="Doris Salcedo">Doris Salcedo</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Branzi" title="Andrea Branzi">Andrea Branzi</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Al%C3%BFs" title="Francis Alÿs">Francis Alÿs</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rem_Koolhaas" title="Rem Koolhaas">Rem Koolhaas</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#d3d3d3;;width:1%">Musical arts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ingvar_Lidholm" title="Ingvar Lidholm">Ingvar Lidholm</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Ligeti" title="György Ligeti">György Ligeti</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jorma_Panula" title="Jorma Panula">Jorma Panula</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronos_Quartet" title="Kronos Quartet">Kronos Quartet</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaija_Saariaho" title="Kaija Saariaho">Kaija Saariaho</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Sofie_von_Otter" title="Anne Sofie von Otter">Anne Sofie von Otter</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauricio_Kagel" title="Mauricio Kagel">Mauricio Kagel</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gidon_Kremer" title="Gidon Kremer">Gidon Kremer</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Manze" title="Andrew Manze">Andrew Manze</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Blomstedt" title="Herbert Blomstedt">Herbert Blomstedt</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_Shorter" title="Wayne Shorter">Wayne Shorter</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Hannigan" title="Barbara Hannigan">Barbara Hannigan</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Kurt%C3%A1g" title="György Kurtág">György Kurtág</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%ADkingur_%C3%93lafsson" title="Víkingur Ólafsson">Víkingur Ólafsson</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027572749">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6s548gs">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&oldid=1258472246">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&oldid=1258472246</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:John_Rawls" title="Category:John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li><li><a 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