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<span>Arguments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arguments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intellectual_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intellectual_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Intellectual influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intellectual_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quotes_from_Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quotes_from_Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Quotes from <i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quotes_from_Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" 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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8A%D0%B2_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Размисли за революцията във Франция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Размисли за революцията във Франция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexions_sobre_la_Revoluci%C3%B3_Francesa" title="Reflexions sobre la Revolució Francesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Reflexions sobre la Revolució Francesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexiones_sobre_la_Revoluci%C3%B3n_francesa" title="Reflexiones sobre la Revolución francesa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reflexiones sobre la Revolución francesa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensoj_pri_la_Revolucio_en_Francio" title="Pensoj pri la Revolucio en Francio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Pensoj pri la Revolucio en Francio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87" title="تأملاتی بر انقلاب در فرانسه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تأملاتی بر انقلاب در فرانسه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9flexions_sur_la_R%C3%A9volution_de_France" title="Réflexions sur la Révolution de France – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réflexions sur la Révolution de France" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%9E%91%EC%8A%A4_%ED%98%81%EB%AA%85%EC%97%90_%EA%B4%80%ED%95%9C_%EC%84%B1%EC%B0%B0" title="프랑스 혁명에 관한 성찰 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="프랑스 혁명에 관한 성찰" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Reflections on the Revolution in France" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riflessioni_sulla_Rivoluzione_in_Francia" title="Riflessioni sulla Rivoluzione in Francia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Riflessioni sulla Rivoluzione in Francia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9B%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%AA" title="מחשבות על המהפכה בצרפת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מחשבות על המהפכה בצרפת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E3%81%AE%E7%9C%81%E5%AF%9F" title="フランス革命の省察 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フランス革命の省察" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Political pamphlet by Edmund Burke, published November 1790</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title" style="font-size:125%; font-style:italic; padding-bottom:0.2em;">Reflections on the Revolution in France <span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France&rft.author=%5B%5BEdmund+Burke%5D%5D&rft.date=November+1790&rft.pub=%5B%5BJames+Dodsley%5D%5D%2C+%5B%5BPall+Mall%2C+London%7CPall+Mall%5D%5D%2C+London&rft.place=%5B%5BKingdom+of+Great+Britain%7CGreat+Britain%5D%5D&rft_id=info:oclcnum/49294790"></span></caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:BurkeReflections.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/BurkeReflections.jpg/220px-BurkeReflections.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="394" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/BurkeReflections.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="273" data-file-height="489" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Author</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Genre</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Political_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Political theory">Political theory</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publisher</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/James_Dodsley" title="James Dodsley">James Dodsley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pall_Mall,_London" title="Pall Mall, London">Pall Mall</a>, London</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Publication date</div></th><td class="infobox-data">November 1790</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publication place</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Media type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pamphlet" title="Pamphlet">Pamphlet</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)"><abbr title="Online Computer Library Center number">OCLC</abbr></a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49294790">49294790</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Decimal_Classification" title="Dewey Decimal Classification">Dewey Decimal</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data">944.04</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/LCC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCC (identifier)"><abbr title="Library of Congress Classification">LC Class</abbr></a></th><td class="infobox-data">DC150.B9</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Text</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" class="extiw" title="s:Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Reflections on the Revolution in France</b></i><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a political <a href="/wiki/Pamphlet" title="Pamphlet">pamphlet</a> written by the British statesman <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> and published in November 1790. It is fundamentally a contrast of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> to that time with the unwritten <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom">British Constitution</a> and, to a significant degree, an argument with <a href="/wiki/Influence_of_the_French_Revolution#Britain" title="Influence of the French Revolution">British supporters</a> and interpreters of the events in France. One of the best-known intellectual attacks against the French Revolution,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Reflections</i> is a defining <a href="/wiki/Tract_(literature)" title="Tract (literature)">tract</a> of modern <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a> as well as an important contribution to international theory. The Norton Anthology of English Literature describes <i>Reflections</i> as becoming the "most eloquent statement of <a href="/wiki/British_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="British conservatism">British conservatism</a> favoring <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_succession" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereditary succession">hereditary succession</a>, and the wisdom of the ages."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Above all else, it has been one of the defining efforts of Edmund Burke's transformation of "<a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism" title="Traditionalist conservatism">traditionalism</a> into a self-conscious and fully conceived <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> of conservatism".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The pamphlet has not been easy to classify. Before seeing this work as a pamphlet, Burke wrote in the mode of a <a href="/wiki/Open_letter" title="Open letter">letter</a>, invoking expectations of openness and selectivity that added a layer of meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Academics have had trouble identifying whether Burke, or his tract, can best be understood as "a <a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">realist</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Rationalist">Rationalist</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Revolutionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionist">Revolutionist</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thanks to its thoroughness, rhetorical skill and literary power, it has become one of the most widely known of Burke's writings and a classic text in political theory.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 20th century, it influenced a number of conservative intellectuals, who recast Burke's <a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whiggish</a> arguments as a critique of <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> programmes. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke#French_Revolution:_1688_versus_1789" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke § French Revolution: 1688 versus 1789</a></div> <p>Burke served in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_Great_Britain" title="House of Commons of Great Britain">House of Commons of Great Britain</a>, representing the <a href="/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)" title="Whigs (British political party)">Whig</a> party, in close alliance with liberal politician <a href="/wiki/Charles_Watson-Wentworth,_2nd_Marquess_of_Rockingham" title="Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham">Lord Rockingham</a>. In Burke's political career, he vigorously defended constitutional limitation of the Crown's authority, denounced the religious persecution of Catholics in his native Ireland, voiced the grievances of Britain's American colonies, supported <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Independence</a> and vigorously pursued <a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Warren_Hastings" title="Impeachment of Warren Hastings">impeachment of Warren Hastings</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_India" title="Governor-General of India">Governor-General</a> of <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>, for corruption and abuse of power. For these actions, Burke was widely respected by liberals in Great Britain, the United States and the European continent. Earlier in his career, Burke had championed many liberal causes and sided with the Americans in their war for independence. Thus, opponents and allies alike were surprised at the strength of his conviction that the French Revolution was "a disaster" and the revolutionists "a swinish multitude".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Soon after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Bastille" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of the Bastille">fall of the Bastille</a> in 1789, the French aristocrat Charles-Jean-François Depont asked his impressions of the Revolution and Burke replied with two letters. The longer, second letter, drafted after he read <a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Richard Price</a>'s speech <i><a href="/wiki/A_Discourse_on_the_Love_of_Our_Country" title="A Discourse on the Love of Our Country">A Discourse on the Love of Our Country</a></i> in January 1790, became <i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i>. Published in November 1790, the work was an instant bestseller as thirteen thousand copies were purchased in the first five weeks and by the following September had gone through eleven editions. According to Stephen Greenblatt in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Norton_Anthology_of_English_Literature" title="The Norton Anthology of English Literature">The Norton Anthology of English Literature</a></i>, "part of its appeal to contemporary readers lay in the highly wrought accounts of the mob's violent treatment of the French king and queen (who at the time Burke was writing were imprisoned in Paris...)."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French king and queen were executed three years later, in <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">January</a> and <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Marie_Antoinette" class="mw-redirect" title="Execution of Marie Antoinette">October 1793</a> respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Burke wrote that he did not like abstract thinking, that freedom and equality were different, that genuine equality must be judged by God and that liberty was a construct of the law and no excuse to do whatever one would like.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was not comfortable with radical change and believed that the revolutionaries would find themselves further in trouble as their actions would cause more problems. In his opinions, the revolutionaries did not understand that "there are no rights without corresponding duties, or without some strict qualifications".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With his view of what he believed would happen to the revolutionaries, one can see why Burke did not like change. Burke believed that people such as the revolutionaries cannot handle large amounts of power. "When men play God", Burke said, "presently they behave like devils".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arguments">Arguments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Arguments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <i>Reflections</i>, Burke argued that the French Revolution would end disastrously because its abstract foundations, purportedly rational, ignored the complexities of human nature and society. Further, he focused on the practicality of solutions instead of the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, writing: "What is the use of discussing a man's abstract right to food or to medicine? The question is upon the method of procuring and administering them. In this deliberation I shall always advise to call in the aid of the farmer and the physician, rather than the professor of metaphysics".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Augustine">St. Augustine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, he believed in "human heart"-based government. Nevertheless, he was both contemptuous and apprehensive of <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> ideas from intellectuals such as <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Anne Robert Jacques Turgot</a>; intellectuals who did not believe in a divine moral order and <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>. Burke said that society should be handled like a living organism and that people and society are limitlessly complicated, leading him to conflict with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>' assertion that politics might be reducible to a <a href="/wiki/Deductive_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Deductive system">deductive system</a> akin to mathematics. </p><p>As a Whig, Burke expressly repudiated the belief in <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divinely appointed monarchic</a> authority and the idea that a people have no right to depose an oppressive government. However, he advocated central roles for private property, tradition and prejudice (i.e. adherence to values regardless of their rational basis) to give citizens a stake in their nation's social order. He argued for gradual, constitutional reform, not revolution (in every case, except the most qualified case), emphasizing that a political doctrine founded upon abstractions such as liberty and the rights of man could be easily abused to justify tyranny. He saw inherited rights, restated in England from the <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">Declaration of Right</a>, as firm and concrete providing continuity (like tradition, prejudice and inheritable private property). By contrast, enforcement of speculative abstract rights might waver and be subject to change based on currents of politics. Instead, he called for the constitutional enactment of specific, concrete rights and liberties as protection against governmental oppression. </p><p>In the phrase, "[prejudice] renders a man's virtue his habit", Burke defends people's cherished, but untaught, irrational prejudices (the greater it behooved them, the more they cherished it). Because a person's moral estimation is limited, people are better off drawing from the "general bank and capital of nations and of ages" than from their own intellects.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Burke predicted that the Revolution's concomitant disorder would make the army "mutinous and full of faction" and then a "popular general", commanding the soldiery's allegiance, would become "master of your assembly, the master of your whole republic".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although he may have been thinking of <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette</a>, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> fulfilled this prophecy on the <a href="/wiki/18_Brumaire" class="mw-redirect" title="18 Brumaire">18th Brumaire</a>, two years after Burke's death. </p><p>Most of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> disagreed with Burke and his popularity declined. As the French Revolution broke into factions, the Whig Party broke in two, namely the New Whig party and the Old Whig party. As founder of the Old Whigs, Burke always took the opportunity to engage in debate with the New Whigs about French <a href="/wiki/Jacobinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobinism">Jacobinism</a>. </p><p>After trying to loosen the Protestant minority's control of Irish government, he was voted out of the House of Commons with a great pension. He later adopted French and Irish children, believing himself correct in rescuing them from government oppression. Before dying, he ordered his family to bury him secretly, believing his cadaver would be a political target for desecration should the Jacobins prevail in England. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Intellectual_influence">Intellectual influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Intellectual influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #154E9D; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatism" title="Category:Conservatism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Joseph de Maistre"><img alt="Joseph de Maistre" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg/100px-Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg/150px-Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg/200px-Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="634" data-file-height="634" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">Counter-revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-enlightenment">Counter-enlightenment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political Catholicism">Political Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integralism" title="Integralism">Integralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postliberalism" title="Postliberalism">Postliberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(Europe)" title="Radical right (Europe)">Radical conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_New_Right" title="European New Right">European New Right</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_Droite" title="Nouvelle Droite">Nouvelle Droite</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalism_(perennialism)" title="Traditionalism (perennialism)">Perennialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_values" title="Christian values">Christian values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Civilizational impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_movements" title="Anti-abortion movements">Pro-Life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopluralism" title="Ethnopluralism">Ethnic pluralism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Europe_of_100_Flags" title="Europe of 100 Flags">Europe of 100 Flags</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_roles" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender roles">Gender roles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royalist" title="Royalist">Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organicism#In_politics_and_sociology" title="Organicism">Organicism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Paideia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_identity" title="Pan-European identity">Pan-European identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euroscepticism" title="Euroscepticism">Euroscepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_nationalism" title="Pan-European nationalism">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Europe" title="Federal Europe">Federalist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Social institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">Social order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity" title="Subsidiarity">Subsidiarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Metamodern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Western values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occidentalism" title="Occidentalism">Occidentalism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_More" title="Hannah More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilaire_Belloc" title="Hilaire Belloc">Belloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Iorga" title="Nicolae Iorga">Iorga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrado_Gini#Italian_Unionist_Movement" title="Corrado Gini">Gini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_J%C3%BCnger" title="Ernst Jünger">Jünger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Lefebvre" title="Marcel Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_von_Kuehnelt-Leddihn" title="Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn">Kuehnelt-Leddihn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yann_Fou%C3%A9r%C3%A9" title="Yann Fouéré">Fouéré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhart_Koselleck" title="Reinhart Koselleck">Koselleck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bat_Ye%27or" title="Bat Ye'or">Ye'or</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Hitchens" title="Peter Hitchens">Hitchens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Peterson" title="Jordan Peterson">Peterson</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Christianity_or_Europe_(Novalis)" title="Christianity or Europe (Novalis)">Christianity or Europe</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1799)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Considerations_on_France" title="Considerations on France">Considerations on France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1796)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Memoirs_Illustrating_the_History_of_Jacobinism" title="Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism">Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Genius_of_Christianity" title="The Genius of Christianity">The Genius of Christianity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1802)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Decline_of_the_West" title="The Decline of the West">The Decline of the West</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1918, 1922)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_the_Political" title="The Concept of the Political">The Concept of the Political</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1932)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Peace_(essay)" title="The Peace (essay)">The Peace</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1943)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_the_West" title="The Death of the West">The Death of the West</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2001)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/While_Europe_Slept" title="While Europe Slept">While Europe Slept</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2006)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_Europe" title="Reflections on the Revolution in Europe">Reflections on the Revolution in Europe</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2009)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/We_Are_Doomed" title="We Are Doomed">We Are Doomed</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2009)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/How_to_Be_a_Conservative" title="How to Be a Conservative">How to Be a Conservative</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2014)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Strange_Death_of_Europe" title="The Strange Death of Europe">The Strange Death of Europe</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2017)</span></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger" title="William Pitt the Younger">Pitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Canning" title="George Canning">Canning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Disraeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Salisbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_Emil_Mannerheim" title="Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim">Mannerheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Baldwin" title="Stanley Baldwin">Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_Horthy" title="Miklós Horthy">Horthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ioannis_Metaxas" title="Ioannis Metaxas">Metaxas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Adenauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">De Gasperi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">De Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_von_Coudenhove-Kalergi" title="Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi">von Coudenhove-Kalergi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoch_Powell" title="Enoch Powell">Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Habsburg" title="Otto von Habsburg">von Habsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Thatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Kohl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pim_Fortuyn" title="Pim Fortuyn">Fortuyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Orbán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geert_Wilders" title="Geert Wilders">Wilders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgia_Meloni" title="Giorgia Meloni">Meloni</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_European_Renewal" title="Center for European Renewal">Center for European Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_Democrat_International" title="Centrist Democrat International">Centrist Democrat International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke_Stichting" title="Edmund Burke Stichting">Edmund Burke Stichting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Conservatives_Group_and_Democratic_Alliance" title="European Conservatives Group and Democratic Alliance">European Conservatives Group<br />and Democratic Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Democrats" title="European Democrats">European Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europe_of_Sovereign_Nations_Group" title="Europe of Sovereign Nations Group">Europe of Sovereign Nations Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europe_of_Sovereign_Nations_(party)" title="Europe of Sovereign Nations (party)">Europe of Sovereign Nations (party)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Conservatives_and_Reformists_Party" title="European Conservatives and Reformists Party">European Conservatives and Reformists<br />Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_People%27s_Party" title="European People's Party">European People's Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_People%27s_Party_Group" title="European People's Party Group">European People's Party Group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Monarchist_League" title="International Monarchist League">International Monarchist League</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Libertas.eu" title="Libertas.eu">Libertas.eu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Movement_(right-wing_populist_group)" title="The Movement (right-wing populist group)">The Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_European_Reform" title="Movement for European Reform">Movement for European Reform</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Conservatism_Conference" title="National Conservatism Conference">NatCon</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriots_for_Europe" title="Patriots for Europe">Patriots for Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegida" title="Pegida">Pegida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Islamisation_of_Europe" title="Stop Islamisation of Europe">Stop Islamisation of Europe</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_European_Conservative" title="The European Conservative">The European Conservative</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">EU</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Le_Figaro" title="Le Figaro">Le Figaro</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Fr)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_%C3%89cole" title="Nouvelle École">Nouvelle École</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(FR)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neue_Z%C3%BCricher_Zeitung" class="mw-redirect" title="Neue Züricher Zeitung">NZZ</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(CH)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Personal variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlusconism" title="Berlusconism">Berlusconism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_positions_of_David_Cameron" title="Political positions of David Cameron">Cameronism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortuynism" title="Fortuynism">Fortuynism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Francoism">Francoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaullism" title="Gaullism">Gaullism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maurrassisme" title="Maurrassisme">Maurrassisme</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mellismo" title="Mellismo">Mellismo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaxism" title="Metaxism">Metaxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powellism" title="Powellism">Powellism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaganism">Reaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarkozysm" title="Sarkozysm">Sarkozysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thatcherism" title="Thatcherism">Thatcherism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Australia" title="Conservatism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Austria" title="Conservatism">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Belgium" title="Conservatism">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Canada" title="Conservatism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Denmark" title="Conservatism">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Finland" title="Conservatism">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_France" title="Conservatism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Conservatism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Greece" title="Conservatism">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Hungary" title="Conservatism">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Iceland" title="Conservatism">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Italy" title="Conservatism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Luxembourg" title="Conservatism">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Netherlands" title="Conservatism">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_conservatism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic conservatism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Norway" title="Conservatism">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Poland" title="Conservatism">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Conservatism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Serbia" title="Conservatism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Sweden" title="Conservatism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Switzerland" title="Conservatism">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Ukraine" title="Conservatism">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conservatism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Historical background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restauration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Order" title="Conservative Order">Conservative Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary#France" title="Counter-revolutionary">Counter-revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">German Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-royalist" title="Ultra-royalist">Ultra-royalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related 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0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Special:EditPage/Reflections on the Revolution in France">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France%22">"Reflections on the Revolution in France"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i> was read widely when it was published in 1790, although not every Briton approved of Burke's kind treatment of their historic enemy or its royal family. His English enemies speculated he either had become mentally unbalanced or was a secret Catholic, outraged by the democratic French government's anti-clerical policies and expropriation of Church land. The publication of this work drew a swift response, first with <i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Men" title="A Vindication of the Rights of Men">A Vindication of the Rights of Men</a></i> (1790) by <a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a> and then with <i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> (1791) by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>. Nonetheless, Burke's work became popular with King <a href="/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="George III of the United Kingdom">George III</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Savoy" title="Savoy">Savoyard</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Joseph de Maistre</a>. </p><p>Historically, <i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i> became the founding philosophic opus of <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a> when some of Burke's predictions occurred, namely when the <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> under the new French Republic executed thousands (including <a href="/wiki/Drownings_at_Nantes" title="Drownings at Nantes">many nuns and clergy</a>) from 1793 to 1794 to purge so-called counter-revolutionary elements of society. In turn, that led to the political reaction of General <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>'s government which appeared to some to be a <a href="/wiki/Military_dictator" class="mw-redirect" title="Military dictator">military dictatorship</a>. Burke had predicted the rise of a military dictatorship and that the revolutionary government instead of protecting the rights of the people would be corrupt and violent. </p><p>In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivist</a> French historian <a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Hippolyte Taine</a> repeated Burke's arguments in <i>Origins of Contemporary France</i> (1876–1885), namely that centralisation of power is the essential fault of the Revolutionary French government system; that it does not promote democratic control; and that the Revolution transferred power from the divinely chosen <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> to an "<a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">enlightened</a>" heartless elite more incompetent and tyrannical than the aristocrats. </p><p>In the 20th century, Western conservatives applied Burke's anti-revolutionary <i>Reflections</i> to popular <a href="/wiki/Revolutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions">revolutions</a>, thus establishing Burke's iconic political value to conservatives. For example, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a>, a noted Austrian economist, acknowledged an intellectual debt to Burke. <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hitchens" title="Christopher Hitchens">Christopher Hitchens</a> wrote that the "tremendous power of the <i>Reflections</i> lies" in being "the first serious argument that revolutions devour their own children and turn into their own opposites".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, historians have regarded Burke's arguments as inconsistent with the actual history of the events. Despite being the most respected conservative historian of the events, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Cobban" title="Alfred Cobban">Alfred Cobban</a> acknowledged that Burke's pamphlet in so far as it "deals with the causes of the Revolution [...] they are not merely inadequate, but misleading" and that its main success is as a "violent parti pris". Cobban notes that Burke was extremely well informed on America, Ireland and India, but in the case of the French Revolution relied on weak information and poor sources and as a result his thesis does not cohere to the ground reality of France at the onset of the Revolution, where the situation was indeed dire enough to sweep existing institutions. Cobban concludes: "As literature, as political theory, as anything but history, his Reflections is magnificent".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2020, <i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i> was banned in China, as part of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a>'s wider censorship of certain books under <a href="/wiki/Xi_Jinping" title="Xi Jinping">Xi Jinping</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quotes_from_Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France">Quotes from <i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Quotes from Reflections on the Revolution in France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Copy_to_Wikiquote plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Edit-copy_purple-wikiq.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Edit-copy_purple-wikiq.svg/40px-Edit-copy_purple-wikiq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Edit-copy_purple-wikiq.svg/60px-Edit-copy_purple-wikiq.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Edit-copy_purple-wikiq.svg/80px-Edit-copy_purple-wikiq.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>is a candidate for <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Help:Transwiki" class="extiw" title="m:Help:Transwiki">copying</a> over to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Main_Page" class="extiw" title="q:Main Page">Wikiquote</a> using the Transwiki process</b>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <blockquote><p>All circumstances taken together, the French revolution is the most astonishing that has hitherto happened in the world. The most wonderful things are brought about in many instances by means the most absurd and ridiculous; in the most ridiculous modes; and apparently, by the most contemptible instruments. Every thing seems out of nature in this strange chaos of levity and ferocity, and of all sorts of crimes jumbled together with all sorts of follies.</p></blockquote> <blockquote><p>In viewing this tragi-comic scene, the most opposite passions necessarily succeed, and sometimes mix with each other in the mind; alternate contempt and indignation; alternate laughter and tears; alternate scorn and horror.</p></blockquote> <blockquote><p>A spirit of innovation is generally the result of a selfish temper and confined views. People will not look forward to posterity, who never look backward to their ancestors.</p></blockquote> <blockquote><p>They are surrounded by an army not raised either by the authority of their crown or by their command, and which, if they should order to dissolve itself, would instantly dissolve them. Our political system is placed in a just correspondence and symmetry with the order of the world, and with the mode of existence decreed to a permanent body composed of transitory parts; wherein, by the disposition of a stupendous wisdom, moulding together the great mysterious incorporation of the human race, the whole, at one time, is never old, or middle-aged, or young, but in a condition of unchangeable constancy, moves on through the varied tenour of perpetual decay, fall, renovation, and progression. Thus, by preserving the method of nature in the conduct of the state, in what we improve we are never wholly new; in what we retain we are never wholly obsolete.</p></blockquote> <blockquote><p>If civil society be made for the advantage of man, all the advantages for which it is made become his right. [...] Men have a right to [...] justice; as between their fellows, whether their fellows are in politic function or in ordinary occupation. They have a right to the fruits of their industry; and to the means of making their industry fruitful. They have a right to the acquisitions of their parents; to the nourishment and improvement of their offspring; to instruction in life, and to consolation in death.</p></blockquote> <blockquote><p>All the pleasing illusions, which made power gentle, and obedience liberal, which harmonized the different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments which beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason. All the decent drapery of life is to be rudely torn off.</p></blockquote> <blockquote><p>Where trade and manufactures are wanting to a people, an the spirit of nobility and religion remains, sentiment supplies, and not always ill supplies their place; but if commerce and the arts should be lost in an experiment to try how well a state may stand without these old fundamental principles, what sort of a thing must be a nation of gross, stupid, ferocious, and at the same time, poor and sordid barbarians, destitute of religion, honor, or manly pride, possessing nothing at present, and hoping for nothing hereafter? I wish you may not be going fast, and by the shortest cut, to that horrible and disgustful situation. Already there appears a poverty of conception, a coarseness and vulgarity in all the proceedings of the assembly and of all their instructors. Their liberty is not liberal. Their science is presumptuous ignorance. Their humanity is savage and brutal.</p></blockquote> <blockquote><p>Society is indeed a contract. Subordinate contracts for objects of mere occasional interest may be dissolved at pleasure – but the state ought not to be considered as nothing better than a partnership agreement in a trade of pepper and coffee, calico or tobacco, or some other such low concern, to be taken up for a little temporary interest, and to be dissolved by the fancy of the parties. It is to be looked on with other reverence; because it is not a partnership in things subservient only to the gross animal existence of a temporary and perishable nature. It is a partnership in all science; a partnership in all art; a partnership in every virtue, and in all perfection. As the ends of such a partnership cannot be obtained in many generations, it becomes a partnership not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <blockquote><p>"People who never look back to their ancestors will not look forward to posterity".</p></blockquote> <blockquote><p>"You will observe that from Magna Charta to the Declaration of Right it has been the uniform policy of our constitution to claim and assert our liberties as an entailed inheritance derived to us from our forefathers, and to be transmitted to our posterity — as an estate specially belonging to the people of this kingdom, without any reference whatever to any other more general or prior right. By this means our constitution preserves a unity in so great a diversity of its parts. We have an inheritable crown, an inheritable peerage, and a House of Commons and a people inheriting privileges, franchises, and liberties from a long line of ancestors."</p></blockquote> <blockquote><p>“Better to be despised for too anxious apprehensions, than ruined by too confident a security.”</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Considerations_on_France" title="Considerations on France">Considerations on France</a></i> (1796) by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Joseph de Maistre</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Full title: <i>Reflections on the Revolution in France, and on the Proceedings in Certain Societies in London Relative to That Event. In a Letter Intended to Have Been Sent to a Gentleman in Paris</i></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBurke1790" class="citation book cs1">Burke, Edmund (1790). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k111218p.r=.langEN"><i>Reflections on the Revolution in France, And on the Proceedings in Certain Societies in London Relative to that Event. In a Letter Intended to Have Been Sent to a Gentleman in Paris</i></a> (1 ed.). London: J.Dodsley in Pall Mall<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France%2C+And+on+the+Proceedings+in+Certain+Societies+in+London+Relative+to+that+Event.+In+a+Letter+Intended+to+Have+Been+Sent+to+a+Gentleman+in+Paris&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=J.Dodsley+in+Pall+Mall&rft.date=1790&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k111218p.r%3D.langEN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span> via Gallica</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenblatt2012" class="citation book cs1">Greenblatt, Stephen (2012). <i>The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Romantic Period</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-39391252-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-39391252-4"><bdi>978-0-39391252-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Norton+Anthology+of+English+Literature%3A+The+Romantic+Period&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=187&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-39391252-4&rft.aulast=Greenblatt&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMazlish1958">Mazlish 1958</a>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrant2006" class="citation book cs1">Brant, Clare (2006). <i>Eighteenth-Century Letters and British Culture</i>. London: Palgrave, Inc. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-9482-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-9482-0"><bdi>978-1-4039-9482-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eighteenth-Century+Letters+and+British+Culture&rft.place=London&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Palgrave%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-9482-0&rft.aulast=Brant&rft.aufirst=Clare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArmitage2000">Armitage 2000</a>, p. 619</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBruyn2001">Bruyn 2001</a>, p. 577</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenblatt2012" class="citation book cs1">Greenblatt, Stephen (2012). <a href="/wiki/Norton_Anthology_of_English_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Norton Anthology of English Literature"><i>The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Romantic Period</i></a>. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-39391252-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-39391252-4"><bdi>978-0-39391252-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Norton+Anthology+of+English+Literature%3A+The+Romantic+Period&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=187&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-39391252-4&rft.aulast=Greenblatt&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke1965" class="citation book cs1">Burke, Edmund (1965). <i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i>. New York: Arlington House. pp. xi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=xi&rft.pub=Arlington+House&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke1965" class="citation book cs1">Burke, Edmund (1965). <i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i>. New York: Arlington House. pp. xix.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=xix&rft.pub=Arlington+House&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke1965" class="citation book cs1">Burke, Edmund (1965). <i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i>. New York: Arlington House. pp. xix.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=xix&rft.pub=Arlington+House&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edmund Burke, <i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i> [1790] (Pearson Longman, 2006), p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edmund Burke, <i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i> [1790] (Penguin Classics, 1986), p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edmund Burke, <i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i> [1790] (Penguin Classics, 1986), p. 342.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHitchens2004" class="citation web cs1">Hitchens, Christopher (April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2004/04/reactionary-prophet/302914/?single_page=true">"Reactionary Prophet"</a>. <i>theatlantic.com</i>. The Atlantic<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=theatlantic.com&rft.atitle=Reactionary+Prophet&rft.date=2004-04&rft.aulast=Hitchens&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F2004%2F04%2Freactionary-prophet%2F302914%2F%3Fsingle_page%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCobban1968" class="citation book cs1">Cobban, Alfred (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aspectsoffrenchr0000cobb/page/32"><i>Aspects of the French Revolution</i></a>. New York: George Brazille. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aspectsoffrenchr0000cobb/page/32">32</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393005127" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393005127"><bdi>978-0393005127</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=George+Brazille&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0393005127&rft.aulast=Cobban&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faspectsoffrenchr0000cobb%2Fpage%2F32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMudie2020" class="citation news cs1">Mudie, Luisetta, ed. (18 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/book-08182020093812.html">"Chinese Publisher Removes Burke's French Revolution Book From Shelves"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Asia" title="Radio Free Asia">Radio Free Asia</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200819233839/https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/book-08182020093812.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radio+Free+Asia&rft.atitle=Chinese+Publisher+Removes+Burke%27s+French+Revolution+Book+From+Shelves&rft.date=2020-08-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfa.org%2Fenglish%2Fnews%2Fchina%2Fbook-08182020093812.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurke2003" class="citation book cs1">Burke, Edmund (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reflectionsonrev00burk_0"><i>Reflections on the Revolution in France</i></a></span>. London: Yale University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reflectionsonrev00burk_0/page/82">82</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300099799" title="Special:BookSources/9780300099799"><bdi>9780300099799</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France&rft.place=London&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780300099799&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freflectionsonrev00burk_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmitage2000" class="citation journal cs1">Armitage, Dave (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/3373615/armitage_burke.pdf?sequence=2">"Edmund Burke and Reason of State"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>61</b> (4). 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New York: George Braziller.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+the+French+Revolution.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=George+Braziller&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Cobban&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHampsher-Monk2005" class="citation journal cs1">Hampsher-Monk, Ian (2005). "Edmund Burke's Changing Justification for Intervention". <i>The Historical Journal</i>. <b>48</b> (1). Cambridge University Press: 65–100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0018246x04004224">10.1017/s0018246x04004224</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145680137">145680137</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=Edmund+Burke%27s+Changing+Justification+for+Intervention&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65-100&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0018246x04004224&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145680137%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hampsher-Monk&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazlish1958" class="citation journal cs1">Mazlish, Bruce (1958). "The Conservative Revolution of Edmund Burke". <i>The Review of Politics</i>. <b>20</b> (1). Cambridge University Press: 21–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0034670500020842">10.1017/s0034670500020842</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144225315">144225315</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Politics&rft.atitle=The+Conservative+Revolution+of+Edmund+Burke&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=21-23&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0034670500020842&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144225315%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mazlish&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacpherson1980" class="citation book cs1">Macpherson, C. R. (1980). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/burke00macp"><i>Burke</i></a></span>. New York: Hilland Wang.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Burke&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hilland+Wang&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Macpherson&rft.aufirst=C.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fburke00macp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AReflections+on+the+Revolution+in+France" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpinner1991" class="citation journal cs1">Spinner, Jeff (1991). "Constructing Communities: Edmund Burke on Revolution". <i>Polity</i>. <b>23</b> (3). Palgrave Macmillan Journals: 395–421. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3235133">10.2307/3235133</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3235133">3235133</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147079449">147079449</a>.</cite><span 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Edmund_Burke" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Edmund_Burke" title="Template:Edmund Burke"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Edmund_Burke" title="Template talk:Edmund Burke"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Edmund_Burke" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Edmund Burke"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Edmund_Burke" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> (1756)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Philosophical_Enquiry_into_the_Origin_of_Our_Ideas_of_the_Sublime_and_Beautiful" title="A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful">A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</a></i> (1757)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_the_Cause_of_the_Present_Discontents" title="Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents">Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents</a></i> (1770)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_American_Taxation" title="On American Taxation">On American Taxation</a>" (1774)</li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> (1790)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_from_the_New_to_the_Old_Whigs" title="An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs">An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs</a></i> (1791)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_and_Details_on_Scarcity" title="Thoughts and Details on Scarcity">Thoughts and Details on Scarcity</a></i> (1795)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Letters_on_a_Regicide_Peace" title="Letters on a Regicide Peace">Letters on a Regicide Peace</a></i> (1796)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke_Stichting" title="Edmund Burke Stichting">Edmund Burke Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Club_(dining_club)" title="The Club (dining club)">The Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Bounty_Fund" title="Royal Bounty Fund">Royal Bounty Fund</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke_(Thomas)" title="Edmund Burke (Thomas)">Edmund Burke</a></i> (Thomas statue)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Warren_Hastings" title="Impeachment of Warren Hastings">Impeachment of Warren Hastings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_thought_of_Edmund_Burke" title="Religious thought of Edmund Burke">Religious thought of Edmund Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Burke_Jr." title="Richard Burke Jr.">Richard Burke Jr.</a> (son)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th 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