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</div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Grammatical aspect</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Grammatical_aspect" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> In <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, aspect is a <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_category" title="Grammatical category">grammatical category</a> that expresses how a <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbal</a> action, event, or state, extends over time. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a> is used in referring to an event conceived as <a href="/wiki/Boundedness_(linguistics)" title="Boundedness (linguistics)">bounded</a> and unitary, without reference to any flow of time during the event ("I helped him"). <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">Imperfective aspect</a> is used for situations conceived as existing continuously or habitually as time flows ("I was helping him"; "I used to help people"). Further distinctions can be made, for example, to distinguish <a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">states</a> and ongoing actions (<a href="/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects" title="Continuous and progressive aspects">continuous and progressive aspects</a>) from repetitive actions (<a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habitual aspect</a>). Certain aspectual distinctions express a relation between the time of the event and the time of reference. This is the case with the <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)#Perfect_as_aspect" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect aspect</a>, which indicates that an event occurred prior to (but has continuing relevance at) the time of reference: "I have eaten"; "I had eaten"; "I will have eaten".<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Different languages make different grammatical aspectual distinctions; some (such as <a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a>; see <a href="#German_vernacular_and_colloquial">below</a>) do not make any. The marking of aspect is often conflated with the marking of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">tense–aspect–mood</a>). Aspectual distinctions may be restricted to certain tenses: in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, for example, the perfective–imperfective distinction is marked in the <a href="/wiki/Past_tense" title="Past tense">past tense</a>, by the division between <a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">preterites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperfect" title="Imperfect">imperfects</a>. Explicit consideration of aspect as a category first arose out of study of the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>; here verbs often occur in pairs, with two related verbs being used respectively for imperfective and perfective meanings. The concept of grammatical aspect (or verbal aspect) should not be confused with <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperfect" title="Imperfect">imperfect</a> verb forms; the meanings of the latter terms are somewhat different, and in some languages, the common names used for verb forms may not follow the actual aspects precisely. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Basic_concept">1 Basic concept</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#History">1.1 History</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Modern_usage">1.2 Modern usage</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Common_aspectual_distinctions">2 Common aspectual distinctions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Aspect_vs._tense">3 Aspect vs. tense</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Lexical_vs._grammatical_aspect">4 Lexical vs. grammatical aspect</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Indicating_aspect">5 Indicating aspect</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#By_language">6 By language</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Germanic_languages">6.1 Germanic languages</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#English">6.1.1 English</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#African_American_Vernacular_English">6.1.2 African American Vernacular English</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#German_vernacular_and_colloquial">6.1.3 German vernacular and colloquial</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Dutch">6.1.4 Dutch</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Slavic_languages">6.2 Slavic languages</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Romance_languages">6.3 Romance languages</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Italian">6.3.1 Italian</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Hindi">6.4 Hindi</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Finnic_languages">6.5 Finnic languages</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Austronesian_languages">6.6 Austronesian languages</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Reo_Rapa">6.6.1 Reo Rapa</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Hawaiian">6.6.2 Hawaiian</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Wuvulu">6.6.3 Wuvulu</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Tokelauan">6.6.4 Tokelauan</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Torau">6.6.5 Torau</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Malay/Indonesian">6.6.6 Malay/Indonesian</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#Philippine_languages">6.6.7 Philippine languages</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Creole_languages">6.7 Creole languages</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#American_Sign_Language">6.8 American Sign Language</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Terms_for_various_aspects">7 Terms for various aspects</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#See_also">8 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Notes">9 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Other_references">10 Other references</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#External_links">11 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Basic_concept">Basic concept</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Basic concept" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Indian linguist <a href="/wiki/Yaska" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaska">Yaska</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 7th century BCE) dealt with grammatical aspect, distinguishing actions that are processes (bhāva), from those where the action is considered as a completed whole (mūrta). This is the key distinction between the imperfective and perfective. Yaska also applied this distinction to a verb versus an action nominal.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Grammarians of the Greek and Latin languages also showed an interest in aspect, but the idea did not enter into the modern Western grammatical tradition until the 19th century via the study of the grammar of the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>. The earliest use of the term recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> dates from 1853.<a href="#cite_note-Binnick1991-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_usage">Modern usage</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern usage" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Aspect is often confused with the closely related concept of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>, because they both convey information about time. While tense relates the time of <a href="/wiki/Referent" title="Referent">referent</a> to some other time, commonly the speech event, aspect conveys other temporal information, such as duration, completion, or frequency, as it relates to the time of action. Thus tense refers to temporally when while aspect refers to temporally how. Aspect can be said to describe the texture of the time in which a situation occurs, such as a single point of time, a continuous range of time, a sequence of discrete points in time, etc., whereas tense indicates its location in time. For example, consider the following sentences: "I eat", "I am eating", "I have eaten", and "I have been eating". All are in the <a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present tense</a>, indicated by the present-tense verb of each sentence (eat, am, and have). Yet since they differ in aspect each conveys different information or points of view as to how the action pertains to the present. Grammatical aspect is a formal property of a <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, distinguished through overt <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a>, derivational affixes, or independent words that serve as grammatically required <a href="/wiki/Marker_(linguistics)" title="Marker (linguistics)">markers</a> of those aspects. For example, the <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCiche%CA%BC_language" title="Kʼicheʼ language">Kʼicheʼ language</a> spoken in Guatemala has the inflectional prefixes k- and x- to mark incompletive and completive aspect;<a href="#cite_note-pye1-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-pye2-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Standard_Mandarin" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin">Mandarin Chinese</a> has the aspect markers -le 了, -zhe 着, zài- 在, and -guò 过 to mark the perfective, durative stative, durative progressive, and experiential aspects,<a href="#cite_note-lithomp-5">[5]</a> and also marks aspect with <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbs</a>;<a href="#cite_note-zhangandzhang-6">[6]</a> and English marks the <a href="/wiki/Continuous_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous aspect">continuous aspect</a> with the verb to be coupled with <a href="/wiki/Present_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Present participle">present participle</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a> with the verb to have coupled with <a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participle</a>. Even languages that do not mark aspect <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphologically</a> or through <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verbs</a>, however, can convey such distinctions by the use of adverbs or other <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> constructions.<a href="#cite_note-gabriele-7">[7]</a> Grammatical aspect is distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Lexical_aspect" title="Lexical aspect">lexical aspect</a> or Aktionsart, which is an inherent feature of verbs or verb phrases and is determined by the nature of the situation that the verb describes. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Common_aspectual_distinctions">Common aspectual distinctions</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Common aspectual distinctions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Grammatical_aspect" title="Special:EditPage/Grammatical aspect">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (January 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The most fundamental aspectual distinction, represented in many languages, is between perfective aspect and imperfective aspect. This is the basic aspectual distinction in the Slavic languages. It semantically corresponds to the distinction between the <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological forms</a> known respectively as the <a href="/wiki/Aorist" title="Aorist">aorist</a> and imperfect in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, the preterite and imperfect in Spanish, the <a href="/wiki/Simple_past" title="Simple past">simple past</a> (passé simple) and imperfect in French, and the perfect and imperfect in Latin (from the Latin perfectus, meaning "completed"). <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Language </th> <th>Perfective Aspect </th> <th>Imperfective Aspect </th></tr> <tr> <th>Latin </th> <td>Perfect </td> <td rowspan="5">Imperfect </td></tr> <tr> <th>Spanish </th> <td>Preterite </td></tr> <tr> <th>French </th> <td>Passé simple </td></tr> <tr> <th>Greek </th> <td>Aorist </td></tr> <tr> <th>Portuguese </th> <td>Preterite perfect </td></tr></tbody></table> Essentially, the perfective aspect looks at an event as a complete action, while the imperfective aspect views an event as the process of unfolding or a repeated or habitual event (thus corresponding to the progressive/continuous aspect for events of short-term duration and to habitual aspect for longer terms). For events of short durations in the past, the distinction often coincides with the distinction in the English language between the simple past "X-ed," as compared to the progressive "was X-ing". Compare "I wrote the letters this morning" (i.e. finished writing the letters: an action completed) and "I was writing the letters this morning" (the letters may still be unfinished). In describing longer time periods, English needs context to maintain the distinction between the habitual ("I called him often in the past" – a habit that has no point of completion) and perfective ("I called him once" – an action completed), although the construct "used to" marks both habitual aspect and past tense and can be used if the aspectual distinction otherwise is not clear. Sometimes, English has a lexical distinction where other languages may use the distinction in grammatical aspect. For example, the English verbs "to know" (the state of knowing) and "to find out" (knowing viewed as a "completed action") correspond to the imperfect and perfect forms of the equivalent verbs in French and Spanish, savoir and saber. This is also true when the sense of verb "to know" is "to know somebody", in this case opposed in aspect to the verb "to meet" (or even to the construction "to get to know"). These correspond to imperfect and perfect forms of conocer in Spanish, and connaître in French. In German, on the other hand, the distinction is also lexical (as in English) through verbs kennen and kennenlernen, although the semantic relation between both forms is much more straightforward since kennen means "to know" and lernen means "to learn". </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Aspect_vs._tense">Aspect vs. tense</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Aspect vs. tense" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> The <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> combine the concept of aspect with the concept of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>. Although English largely separates tense and aspect formally, its aspects (neutral, progressive, perfect, progressive perfect, and [in the past tense] habitual) do not correspond very closely to the distinction of <a href="/wiki/Perfective_and_imperfective" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfective and imperfective">perfective vs. imperfective</a> that is found in most languages with aspect. Furthermore, the separation of tense and aspect in English is not maintained rigidly. One instance of this is the alternation, in some forms of English, between sentences such as "Have you eaten?" and "Did you eat?". In European languages, rather than locating an event time, the way tense does, aspect describes "the internal temporal constituency of a situation", or in other words, aspect is a way "of conceiving the flow of the process itself".<a href="#cite_note-Comrie-8">[8]</a> English aspectual distinctions in the past tense include "I went, I used to go, I was going, I had gone"; in the present tense "I lose, I am losing, I have lost, I have been losing, I am going to lose"; and with the future modal "I will see, I will be seeing, I will have seen, I am going to see". What distinguishes these aspects within each tense is not (necessarily) when the event occurs, but how the time in which it occurs is viewed: as complete, ongoing, consequential, planned, etc. In most dialects of Ancient Greek, aspect is indicated uniquely by verbal morphology. For example, the very frequently used <a href="/wiki/Aorist" title="Aorist">aorist</a>, though a functional <a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">preterite</a> in the indicative mood, conveys historic or 'immediate' aspect in the subjunctive and optative. The perfect in all moods is used as an aspectual marker, conveying the sense of a resultant state. E.g. ὁράω – I see (present); εἶδον – I saw (aorist); οἶδα – I am in a state of having seen = I know (perfect). Turkish has a same/similar aspect, such as in Görmüş bulunuyorum/durumdayım, where görmüş means "having seen" and bulunuyorum/durumdayım means "I am in the state".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In many Sino-Tibetan languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a>, verbs lack grammatical markers of tense, but are rich in aspect (Heine, Kuteva 2010,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] p. 10). Markers of aspect are attached to verbs to indicate aspect. Event time is inferred through use of these aspectual markers, along with optional inclusion of adverbs.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Lexical_vs._grammatical_aspect">Lexical vs. grammatical aspect</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Lexical vs. grammatical aspect" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lexical_aspect" title="Lexical aspect">Lexical aspect</a></div> There is a distinction between grammatical aspect, as described here, and <a href="/wiki/Lexical_aspect" title="Lexical aspect">lexical aspect</a>. Other terms for the contrast lexical vs. grammatical include: situation vs. viewpoint and inner vs. outer.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Lexical aspect, also known as Aktionsart, is an inherent property of a verb or verb-complement phrase, and is not marked formally. The distinctions made as part of lexical aspect are different from those of grammatical aspect. Typical distinctions are between states ("I owned"), activities ("I shopped"), accomplishments ("I painted a picture"), achievements ("I bought"), and punctual, or <a href="/wiki/Semelfactive" title="Semelfactive">semelfactive</a>, events ("I sneezed"). These distinctions are often relevant syntactically. For example, states and activities, but not usually achievements, can be used in English with a prepositional for-phrase describing a time duration: "I had a car for five hours", "I shopped for five hours", but not "*I bought a car for five hours". Lexical aspect is sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Lexical_aspect" title="Lexical aspect">Aktionsart</a>, especially by German and <a href="/wiki/Slavist" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavist">Slavic</a> linguists. Lexical or situation aspect is marked in <a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan languages</a>. One of the factors in situation aspect is <a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">telicity</a>. Telicity might be considered a kind of lexical aspect, except that it is typically not a property of a verb in isolation, but rather a property of an entire verb phrase. Achievements, accomplishments and <a href="/wiki/Semelfactive" title="Semelfactive">semelfactives</a> have telic situation aspect, while states and activities have atelic situation aspect. The other factor in situation aspect is duration, which is also a property of a verb phrase. Accomplishments, states, and activities have duration, while achievements and semelfactives do not. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Indicating_aspect">Indicating aspect</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Indicating aspect" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> In some languages, aspect and time are very clearly separated, making them much more distinct to their speakers. There are a number of languages that mark aspect much more saliently than time. Prominent in this category are Chinese and <a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a>, which both differentiate many aspects but rely exclusively on optional time-indicating terms to pinpoint an action with respect to time. In other language groups, for example in most modern <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> (except <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> and some Indo-Aryan languages like <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindi</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-12">[12]</a>), aspect has become almost entirely conflated, in the verbal morphological system, with time. In <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, aspect is more salient than tense in narrative. Russian, like other Slavic languages, uses different lexical entries for the different aspects, whereas other languages mark them <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphologically</a>, and still others with <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliaries</a> (e.g., English). In <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindi</a>, the aspect marker is overtly separated from the tense/mood marker. <a href="/wiki/Periphrasis" title="Periphrasis">Periphrastic</a> Hindi verb forms consist of two elements. The first of these two elements is the aspect marker and the second element (the copula) is the common tense/mood marker. In <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">literary Arabic</a> (الْفُصْحَى al-fuṣḥā) the verb has two aspect-tenses: perfective (past), and imperfective (non-past). There is some disagreement among grammarians whether to view the distinction as a distinction in aspect, or tense, or both. The past verb (الْفِعْل الْمَاضِي al-fiʿl al-māḍī) denotes an event (حَدَث ḥadaṯ) completed in the past, but it says nothing about the relation of this past event to present status. For example, وَصَلَ waṣala, "arrived", indicates that arrival occurred in the past without saying anything about the present status of the arriver – maybe they stuck around, maybe they turned around and left, etc. – nor about the aspect of the past event except insofar as completeness can be considered aspectual. This past verb is clearly similar if not identical to the Greek aorist, which is considered a tense but is more of an aspect marker. In the Arabic, aorist aspect is the logical consequence of past tense. By contrast, the "Verb of Similarity" (الْفِعْل الْمُضَارِع al-fiʿl al-muḍāriʿ), so called because of its resemblance to the active participial noun, is considered to denote an event in the present or future without committing to a specific aspectual sense beyond the incompleteness implied by the tense: يَضْرِبُ (yaḍribu, he strikes/is striking/will strike/etc.). Those are the only two "tenses" in Arabic (not counting أَمْر amr, command or imperative, which is traditionally considered as denoting future events.) To explicitly mark aspect, Arabic uses a variety of lexical and syntactic devices. Contemporary Arabic dialects are another matter. One major change from al-fuṣḥā is the use of a prefix particle (بِ bi in Egyptian and Levantine dialects—though it may have a slightly different range of functions in each dialect) to explicitly mark progressive, continuous, or habitual aspect: بيكتب, bi-yiktib, he is now writing, writes all the time, etc. Aspect can mark the stage of an action. The <a href="/wiki/Prospective_aspect" title="Prospective aspect">prospective aspect</a> is a combination of tense and aspect that indicates the action is in preparation to take place. The inceptive aspect identifies the beginning stage of an action (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a> uses <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ek-" class="extiw" title="wikt:ek-">ek-</a>, e.g. Mi ekmanĝas, "I am beginning to eat".) and inchoative and ingressive aspects identify a change of state (The flowers started blooming) or the start of an action (He started running). Aspects of stage continue through progressive, pausative, resumptive, cessive, and terminative. Important qualifications: <ul><li>Although the perfective is often thought of as representing a "momentary action", this is not strictly correct. It can equally well be used for an action that took time, as long as it is conceived of as a unit, with a clearly defined start and end, such as "Last summer I visited France".</li> <li>Grammatical aspect represents a formal distinction encoded in the grammar of a language. Although languages that are described as having imperfective and perfective aspects agree in most cases in their use of these aspects, they may not agree in every situation. For example: <ul><li>Some languages have additional grammatical aspects. Spanish and Ancient Greek, for example, have a <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a> (not the same as the perfective), which refers to a state resulting from a previous action (also described as a previous action with relevance to a particular time, or a previous action viewed from the perspective of a later time). This corresponds (roughly) to the "have X-ed" construction in English, as in "I have recently eaten". Languages that lack this aspect (such as Portuguese, which is closely related to Spanish) often use the past perfective to render the present perfect (compare the roughly synonymous English sentences "Have you eaten yet?" and "Did you eat yet?").</li> <li>In some languages, the formal representation of aspect is optional, and can be omitted when the aspect is clear from context or does not need to be emphasized. This is the case, for example, in Mandarin Chinese, with the perfective suffix le and (especially) the imperfective zhe.</li> <li>For some verbs in some languages, the difference between perfective and imperfective conveys an additional meaning difference; in such cases, the two aspects are typically translated using separate verbs in English. In Greek, for example, the imperfective sometimes adds the notion of "try to do something" (the so-called conative imperfect); hence, the same verb, in the imperfective (present or imperfect) and aorist, respectively, is used to convey look and see, search and find, listen and hear. (For example, ἠκούομεν (ēkouomen, "we listened") vs. ἠκούσαμεν (ēkousamen, "we heard").) Spanish has similar pairs for certain verbs, such as (imperfect and preterite, respectively) sabía ("I knew") vs. supe ("I found out"), podía ("I was able to") vs. pude ("I succeeded (in doing something)"), quería ("I wanted to") vs. quise ("I tried to"), and no quería ("I did not want to") vs. no quise ("I refused (to do something)"). Such differences are often highly language-specific.</li></ul></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="By_language">By language</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: By language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germanic_languages">Germanic languages</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Germanic languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="English">English</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: English" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms#Tenses,_aspects_and_moods" title="Uses of English verb forms">English tense–aspect system</a> has two morphologically distinct tenses, <a href="/wiki/Past_tense#English" title="Past tense">past</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nonpast_tense" title="Nonpast tense">non-past</a>, the latter of which is also known as the present-future or, more commonly and less formally, simply the present. No marker of a distinct future tense exists on the verb in English; the futurity of an event may be expressed through the use of the <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verbs</a> "<a href="/wiki/Will_future" class="mw-redirect" title="Will future">will</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Shall" class="mw-redirect" title="Shall">shall</a>", by a non-past form plus an <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverb</a>, as in "tomorrow we go to New York City", or by some other means. Past is distinguished from non-past, in contrast, with internal modifications of the verb. These two tenses may be modified further for <a href="/wiki/Progressive_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive aspect">progressive aspect</a> (also called continuous aspect), for the <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a>, or for both. These two aspectual forms are also referred to as BE +ING<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> and HAVE +EN,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> respectively, which avoids what may be unfamiliar terminology. Aspects of the present tense: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Present_simple" class="mw-redirect" title="Present simple">Present simple</a> (not progressive, not perfect): "I eat"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Present progressive">Present progressive</a> (progressive, not perfect): "I am eating"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_perfect" title="Present perfect">Present perfect</a> (not progressive, perfect): "I have eaten"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_perfect_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Present perfect progressive">Present perfect progressive</a> (progressive, perfect): "I have been eating"</li></ul> (While many elementary discussions of English grammar classify the present perfect as a past tense, it relates the action to the present time. One cannot say of someone now deceased that they "have eaten" or "have been eating". The present auxiliary implies that they are in some way present (alive), even when the action denoted is completed (perfect) or partially completed (progressive perfect).) Aspects of the past tense: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Past_simple" class="mw-redirect" title="Past simple">Past simple</a> (not progressive, not perfect): "I ate"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Past_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Past progressive">Past progressive</a> (progressive, not perfect): "I was eating"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Past_perfect" class="mw-redirect" title="Past perfect">Past perfect</a> (not progressive, perfect): "I had eaten"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Past_perfect_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Past perfect progressive">Past perfect progressive</a> (progressive, perfect): "I had been eating"</li></ul> Aspects can also be marked on <a href="/wiki/Non-finite_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-finite verb">non-finite</a> forms of the verb: "(to) be eating" (<a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> with progressive aspect), "(to) have eaten" (infinitive with perfect aspect), "having eaten" (<a href="/wiki/Present_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Present participle">present participle</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">gerund</a> with perfect aspect), etc. The perfect infinitive can further be governed by <a href="/wiki/English_modal_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="English modal verbs">modal verbs</a> to express various meanings, mostly combining modality with past reference: "I should have eaten" etc. In particular, the modals will and shall and their subjunctive forms would and should are used to combine future or hypothetical reference with aspectual meaning: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simple_future" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple future">Simple future</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simple_conditional" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple conditional">simple conditional</a>: "I will eat", "I would eat"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Future progressive">Future progressive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conditional_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional progressive">conditional progressive</a>: "I will be eating", "I would be eating"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_perfect" title="Future perfect">Future perfect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conditional_perfect" title="Conditional perfect">conditional perfect</a>: "I will have eaten", "I would have eaten"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_perfect_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Future perfect progressive">Future perfect progressive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conditional_perfect_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional perfect progressive">conditional perfect progressive</a>: "I will have been eating", "I would have been eating"</li></ul> The uses of the progressive and perfect aspects are quite complex. They may refer to the viewpoint of the speaker: <dl><dd>I was walking down the road when I met Michael Jackson's lawyer. (Speaker viewpoint in middle of action)</dd> <dd>I have traveled widely, but I have never been to <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>. (Speaker viewpoint at end of action)</dd></dl> But they can have other <a href="/wiki/Illocutionary_act" title="Illocutionary act">illocutionary forces</a> or additional modal components: <dl><dd>You are being stupid now. (You are doing it deliberately)</dd> <dd>You are not having chocolate with your sausages! (I forbid it)</dd> <dd>I am having lunch with Mike tomorrow. (It is decided)</dd></dl> English expresses some other aspectual distinctions with other constructions. <a href="/wiki/Used_to" class="mw-redirect" title="Used to">Used to</a> + VERB is a past <a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habitual</a>, as in "I used to go to school," and <a href="/wiki/Going_to" class="mw-redirect" title="Going to">going to</a> / gonna + VERB is a <a href="/wiki/Prospective_aspect" title="Prospective aspect">prospective</a>, a future situation highlighting current intention or expectation, as in "I'm going to go to school next year." <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="African_American_Vernacular_English">African American Vernacular English</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: African American Vernacular English" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The aspectual systems of certain dialects of English, such as <a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a> (see for example <a href="/wiki/Habitual_be" title="Habitual be">habitual be</a>), and of <a href="/wiki/English-based_creole_language" class="mw-redirect" title="English-based creole language">creoles</a> based on English vocabulary, such as <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Creole_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawaiian Creole English">Hawaiian Creole English</a>, are quite different from those of standard English, and often reflect a more elaborate paradigm of aspectual distinctions (often at the expense of tense).<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The following table, appearing originally in Green (2002)<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> shows the possible aspectual distinctions in AAVE in their prototypical, negative and <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stressed</a>/emphatic affirmative forms: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Aspectual Marking in AAVE </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Aspect/Tense </th> <th>Prototypical </th> <th>Stressed / Emphatic Affirmative </th> <th>Negative </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">Habitual</a> </td> <td>'be eating' (see <a href="/wiki/Habitual_be" title="Habitual be">Habitual be</a>) </td> <td>'DO be eating' </td> <td>'don('t) be eating' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Remote_past_tense" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote past tense">Remote Past</a> </td> <td>'BIN eating' (see <a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a>) </td> <td>'HAVE BIN eating' </td> <td>'ain('t)/haven't BIN eating' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Remote Past Completive </td> <td>'BIN ate' </td> <td>'HAD BIN ate' </td> <td>'ain('t)/haven't BIN ate' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">Remote Past Perfect</a> </td> <td>'had BIN ate' </td> <td>'HAD BIN ate' </td> <td>'hadn't BIN ate' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Resultative" title="Resultative">Resultant State</a> </td> <td>'dən ate' </td> <td>'HAVE dən ate' </td> <td>'ain('t) dən ate' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Past Perfect Resultant State </td> <td>'had dən ate' </td> <td>'HAD dən ate' </td> <td>'hadn't dən ate' </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">Modal</a> Resultant State </td> <td>'should'a dən ate' </td> <td>-- </td> <td>-- </td></tr> <tr> <td>Remote Past Resultant State </td> <td>'BIN dən ate' </td> <td>'HAVE BIN dən ate' </td> <td>'ain('t)/haven't BIN dən ate' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Remote Past Perfect Resultant State </td> <td>'had BIN dən ate' </td> <td>-- </td> <td>-- </td></tr> <tr> <td>Future Resultant State/<a href="/wiki/Conditional_sentence" title="Conditional sentence">Conditional</a> </td> <td>' 'a be dən ate' </td> <td>'WILL be dən ate' </td> <td>'won't be dən ate' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Modal Resultant State </td> <td>'might/may be dən ate' </td> <td>'MIGHT/MAY be dən ate' </td> <td>'might/may not be dən ate' </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="German_vernacular_and_colloquial">German vernacular and colloquial</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: German vernacular and colloquial" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Grammatical_aspect" title="Special:EditPage/Grammatical aspect">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (December 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Although <a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a> does not have aspects, many <a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a> and all <a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a> dialects,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and some more vernacular forms of German do make an aspectual distinction which partly corresponds with the English <a href="/wiki/Continuous_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous aspect">continuous form</a>: alongside the standard present tense Ich esse ('I eat') and past Ich aß ('I ate') there is the form Ich bin/war am essen/Essen ('I am/was at the eating'; capitalization varies). This is formed by the conjugated auxiliary verb sein ("to be") followed by the preposition and article am (=an dem) and the infinitive, which German uses in many constructions as a verbal noun. In the Tyrolean and other Bavarian regiolect the prefix *da can be found, which form perfective aspects. "I hu's gleant" (Ich habe es gelernt = I learnt it) vs. "I hu's daleant" (*Ich habe es DAlernt = I succeeded in learning).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dutch">Dutch</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Dutch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> (a <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic language</a>), two types of <a href="/wiki/Continuous_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous aspect">continuous form</a> are used. Both types are considered Standard Dutch. The first type is very similar to the non-standard German type. It is formed by the conjugated auxiliary verb zijn ("to be"), followed by aan het and the <a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">gerund</a> (which in Dutch matches the infinitive). For example: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Present_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Present progressive">Present progressive</a>: Ik ben aan het werken ("I am working")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Past_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Past progressive">Past progressive</a>: Ik was aan het werken ("I was working")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Future progressive">Future progressive</a>: Ik zal aan het werken zijn ("I will be working")</li></ul> The second type is formed by one of the conjugated auxiliary verbs liggen ("to lie"), zitten ("to sit"), hangen ("to hang"), staan ("to stand") or lopen ("to walk"), followed by the preposition te and the infinitive. The conjugated verbs indicate the stance of the subject performing or undergoing the action. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Present_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Present progressive">Present progressive</a>: Ik zit te eten ("I am eating [while sitting]"), De was hangt te drogen ("The laundry is drying [while hanging]")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Past_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Past progressive">Past progressive</a>: Ik lag te lezen ("I was reading [while lying]"), Ik stond te kijken ("I was watching [while standing]")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Future progressive">Future progressive</a>: Ik zal zitten te werken ("I will be working [while sitting]")</li></ul> Sometimes the meaning of the auxiliary verb is diminished to 'being engaged in'. Take for instance these examples: <ul><li>De leraar zit steeds te zeggen dat we moeten luisteren ("The teacher keeps telling us to listen")</li> <li>Iedereen loopt te beweren dat het goed was ("Everyone keeps on saying that it was good")</li> <li>Zit niet zo te zeuren ("Stop whining")</li></ul> In these cases, there is generally an undertone of irritation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavic_languages">Slavic languages</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Slavic languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect_in_Slavic_languages" title="Grammatical aspect in Slavic languages">Grammatical aspect in Slavic languages</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> make a clear distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects; it was in relation to these languages that the modern concept of aspect originally developed. In Slavic languages, a given verb is, in itself, either perfective or imperfective. Consequently, each language contains many pairs of verbs, corresponding to each other in meaning, except that one expresses perfective aspect and the other imperfective. (This may be considered a form of <a href="/wiki/Lexical_aspect" title="Lexical aspect">lexical aspect</a>.) Perfective verbs are commonly formed from imperfective ones by the addition of a prefix, or else the imperfective verb is formed from the perfective one by modification of the stem or ending. <a href="/wiki/Suppletion" title="Suppletion">Suppletion</a> also plays a small role. Perfective verbs cannot generally be used with the meaning of a present tense – their present-tense forms in fact have future reference. An example of such a pair of verbs, from <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, is given below: <ul><li>Infinitive (and <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictionary form">dictionary form</a>): pisać ("to write", imperfective); napisać ("to write", perfective)</li> <li>Present/simple future tense: pisze ("writes"); napisze ("will write", perfective)</li> <li>Compound future tense (imperfective only): będzie pisać ("will write, will be writing")</li> <li>Past tense: pisał ("was writing, used to write, wrote", imperfective); napisał ("wrote", perfective)</li></ul> In at least the East Slavic and West Slavic languages, there is a three-way aspect differentiation for verbs of motion with the determinate imperfective, indeterminate imperfective, and perfective. The two forms of imperfective can be used in all three tenses (past, present, and future), but the perfective can only be used with past and future. The indeterminate imperfective expresses <a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habitual aspect</a> (or motion in no single direction), while the determinate imperfective expresses <a href="/wiki/Progressive_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive aspect">progressive aspect</a>. The difference corresponds closely to that between the English "I (regularly) go to school" and "I am going to school (now)". The three-way difference is given below for the <a href="/wiki/Russian_grammar#Verbs_of_motion" title="Russian grammar">Russian basic (unprefixed) verbs of motion</a>. When <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefixes</a> are attached to Russian verbs of motion they become more or less normal imperfective/perfective pairs, with the indeterminate imperfective becoming the prefixed imperfective and the determinate imperfective becoming the prefixed perfective. For example, prefix при- pri- + indeterminate ходи́ть khodít' = приходи́ть prikhodít' (to arrive (on foot), impf.); and prefix при- pri- + determinate идти́ idtí = прийти prijtí (to arrive (on foot), pf.). <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4">Russian verbs of motion </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Imperfective </th> <th rowspan="2">Perfective </th> <th rowspan="2">Translation </th></tr> <tr> <th>Indeterminate</th> <th>Determinate </th></tr> <tr> <td>ходи́ть khodít'</td> <td>идти́ idtí</td> <td>пойти́ pojtí</td> <td>to go by foot (walk) </td></tr> <tr> <td>е́здить jézdit'</td> <td>е́хать jékhat'</td> <td>пое́хать pojékhat'</td> <td>to go by transport (drive, train, bus, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td>бе́гать bégat'</td> <td>бежа́ть bezhát'</td> <td>побежа́ть pobezhát'</td> <td>to run </td></tr> <tr> <td>броди́ть brodít'</td> <td>брести́ brestí</td> <td>побрести́ pobrestí</td> <td>to stroll, to wander </td></tr> <tr> <td>гоня́ть gonját'</td> <td>гнать gnat'</td> <td>погна́ть pognát'</td> <td>to chase, to drive (cattle, etc.) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ла́зить lázit'</td> <td>лезть lezt'</td> <td>поле́зть polézt'</td> <td>to climb </td></tr> <tr> <td>лета́ть letát'</td> <td>лете́ть letét'</td> <td>полете́ть poletét'</td> <td>to fly </td></tr> <tr> <td>пла́вать plávat'</td> <td>плыть plyt'</td> <td>поплы́ть poplýt'</td> <td>to swim, to sail </td></tr> <tr> <td>по́лзать pólzat'</td> <td>ползти́ polztí</td> <td>поползти́ popolztí</td> <td>to crawl </td></tr> <tr> <td>вози́ть vozít'</td> <td>везти́ veztí</td> <td>повезти́ poveztí</td> <td>to carry (by vehicle) </td></tr> <tr> <td>носи́ть nosít'</td> <td>нести́ nestí</td> <td>понести́ ponestí</td> <td>to carry, to wear </td></tr> <tr> <td>води́ть vodít'</td> <td>вести́ vestí</td> <td>повести́ povestí</td> <td>to lead, to accompany, to drive (a car) </td></tr> <tr> <td>таска́ть taskát'</td> <td>тащи́ть tashchít'</td> <td>потащи́ть potashchít'</td> <td>to drag, to pull </td></tr> <tr> <td>ката́ть katát'</td> <td>кати́ть katít'</td> <td>покати́ть pokatít'</td> <td>to roll </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romance_languages">Romance languages</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Romance languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Modern Romance languages merge the concepts of aspect and tense but consistently distinguish perfective and imperfective aspects in the past tense. This derives directly from the way the <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin language</a> used to render both aspects and <a href="/wiki/Consecutio_temporum" class="mw-redirect" title="Consecutio temporum">consecutio temporum</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italian">Italian</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Italian" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Italian language example using the verb mangiare ("to eat"): <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="4">Mood: indicativo (indicative) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tense </td> <td>Italian </td> <td>English </td> <td>Explanation </td></tr> <tr> <td>Presente (Present) </td> <td>io mangio </td> <td>"I eat", "I'm eating" </td> <td>merges habitual and continuous aspects, among others </td></tr> <tr> <td>Passato prossimo (Recent past) </td> <td>io ho mangiato </td> <td>"I ate", "I have eaten" </td> <td>merges perfective and perfect </td></tr> <tr> <td>Imperfetto (Imperfect) </td> <td>io mangiavo </td> <td>"I was eating", "I usually ate" </td> <td>merges habitual and progressive aspects </td></tr> <tr> <td>Trapassato prossimo (Recent pluperfect) </td> <td>io avevo mangiato </td> <td>"I had eaten" </td> <td>tense, not ordinarily marked for aspect </td></tr> <tr> <td>Passato remoto (Far past) </td> <td>io mangiai </td> <td>"I ate" </td> <td>perfective aspect </td></tr> <tr> <td>Trapassato remoto (Far pluperfect) </td> <td>io ebbi mangiato </td> <td>"I had eaten" </td> <td>tense </td></tr> <tr> <td>Futuro semplice (Simple future) </td> <td>io mangerò </td> <td>"I shall eat" </td> <td>tense </td></tr> <tr> <td>Futuro anteriore (Future perfect) </td> <td>io avrò mangiato </td> <td>"I shall have eaten" </td> <td>future tense and perfect tense/aspect </td></tr></tbody></table> The imperfetto/trapassato prossimo contrasts with the passato remoto/trapassato remoto in that imperfetto renders an imperfective (continuous) past while passato remoto expresses an aorist (punctual/historical) past. Other aspects in Italian are rendered with other periphrases, like <a href="/wiki/Prospective_aspect" title="Prospective aspect">prospective</a> (io sto per mangiare "I'm about to eat", io starò per mangiare "I shall be about to eat"), or <a href="/wiki/Continuous_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous aspect">continuous</a>/<a href="/wiki/Progressive_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive aspect">progressive</a> (io sto mangiando "I'm eating", io starò mangiando "I shall be eating"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hindi">Hindi</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Hindi" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hindi_verbs#Aspects" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi verbs">Hindi verbs § Aspects</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> has three aspects, <a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habitual aspect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects" title="Continuous and progressive aspects">progressive aspect</a>. Each of these three aspects are formed from their participles. The aspects of Hindi when conjugated into their personal forms can be put into five grammatical moods: <a href="/wiki/Realis_mood" title="Realis mood">indicative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irrealis_mood" title="Irrealis mood">presumptive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_conditional" title="Counterfactual conditional">contrafactual</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a>. In Hindi, the aspect marker is overtly separated from the tense/mood marker. <a href="/wiki/Periphrasis" title="Periphrasis">Periphrastic</a> Hindi verb forms consist of two elements. The first of these two elements is the aspect marker. The second element (the copula) is the common tense/mood marker.<a href="#cite_note-:13-12">[12]</a> There are a couple of verbs which can be used as the copula to the aspectual participles: होना (honā) [to be, happen], रहना (rêhnā) [to stay, remain], आना (ānā) [to come], and जाना (jānā) [to go]. Each of these copulas provide a unique nuance to the aspect. The default (unmarked) copula is होना (honā) [to be]. These copulas can themselves be conjugated into an aspectual participle and used with another copula, hence forming subaspects. (Seeː <a href="/wiki/Hindi_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi verbs">Hindi verbs</a>)<a href="#cite_note-:13-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-18">[18]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Simple Aspect </th> <th colspan="3">Perfective Aspect </th> <th colspan="4">Habitual Aspect </th> <th colspan="2">Progressive Aspect </th> <th>Translation </th></tr> <tr> <td>होना honā </td> <td>हुआ होना huā honā </td> <td>हुआ रहना huā rêhnā </td> <td>हुआ जाना huā jānā </td> <td>होता होना hotā honā </td> <td>होता रहना hotā rêhnā </td> <td>होता आना hotā ānā </td> <td>होता जाना hotā jānā </td> <td>हो रहा होना ho rahā honā </td> <td>हो रहा रहना ho rahā rêhnā </td> <td>to happen </td></tr> <tr> <td>करना karnā </td> <td>किया होना kiyā honā </td> <td>किया रहना kiyā rêhnā </td> <td>किया जाना kiyā jānā </td> <td>करता होना kartā honā </td> <td>करता रहना kartā rêhnā </td> <td>करता आना kartā ānā </td> <td>करता जाना kartā jānā </td> <td>कर रहा होना kar rahā honā </td> <td>कर रहा रहना kar rahā rêhnā </td> <td>to do </td></tr> <tr> <td>मरना marnā </td> <td>मरा होना marā honā </td> <td>मरा रहना marā rêhnā </td> <td>मरा जाना marā jānā </td> <td>मरता होना martā honā </td> <td>मरता रहना martā rêhnā </td> <td>मरता आना martā ānā </td> <td>मरता जाना martā jānā </td> <td>मर रहा होना mar rahā honā </td> <td>मर रहा रहना mar rahā rêhnā </td> <td>to die </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finnic_languages">Finnic languages</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Finnic languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estonian_language" title="Estonian language">Estonian</a>, among others, have a grammatical aspect contrast of <a href="/wiki/Telicity" title="Telicity">telicity</a> between telic and atelic. Telic sentences signal that the intended goal of an action is achieved. Atelic sentences do not signal whether any such goal has been achieved. The aspect is indicated by the <a href="/wiki/List_of_grammatical_cases" title="List of grammatical cases">case</a> of the object: <a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a> is telic and <a href="/wiki/Partitive" title="Partitive">partitive</a> is atelic. For example, the (implicit) purpose of shooting is to kill, such that: <ul><li>Ammuin karhun -- "I shot the bear (succeeded; it is done)" i.e., "I shot the bear dead".</li> <li>Ammuin karhua -- "I shot at the bear" i.e. the bear may have survived.</li></ul> In rare cases corresponding telic and atelic forms can be unrelated by meaning. Derivational suffixes exist for various aspects. Examples: <ul><li>-ahta- ("once"), as in huudahtaa ("to yell once") (used for emotive verbs like "laugh", "smile", "growl", "bark"; is not used for verbs like "shoot", "say", "drink")</li> <li>-ele- "repeatedly" as in ammuskella "to go shooting around"</li></ul> There are derivational suffixes for verbs, which carry <a href="/wiki/Frequentative" title="Frequentative">frequentative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Momentane" title="Momentane">momentane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causative</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inchoative" class="mw-redirect" title="Inchoative">inchoative</a> aspect meanings. Also, pairs of verbs differing only in <a href="/wiki/Transitivity_(grammatical_category)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitivity (grammatical category)">transitivity</a> exist. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Austronesian_languages">Austronesian languages</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Austronesian languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reo_Rapa">Reo Rapa</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Reo Rapa" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rapa_language" title="Rapa language">Rapa language</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Rapa_language" title="Rapa language">Rapa language</a> (Reo Rapa) is a mixed language that grew out of <a href="/wiki/Tahitian_language" title="Tahitian language">Tahitian</a> and Old Rapa among monolingual inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Rapa_Iti" title="Rapa Iti">Rapa Iti</a>. Old Rapa words are still used for grammar and sentence structure, but most common words were replaced by <a href="/wiki/Tahitian_language" title="Tahitian language">Tahitian</a> words.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Rapa is similar to <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> as they both have specific tense words such as did or do. <ul><li>Past negative: ki’ere /kiʔere/ <a href="#cite_note-:0-20">[20]</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ki’ere<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">vau<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">i<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PFV</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">haerego</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">i<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="preposition, prepositional case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PREP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">te<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="article" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ART</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">farehouse</div>ki’ere vau i haere i te fareNEG.PST 1.SG PFV go PREP ART house'I did not go to a house.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>Non-past negative (Regular negative) kāre /kaːre/ <a href="#cite_note-:0-20">[20]</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">kāre<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPST</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">tā-koe<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="article" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ART</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">putabook</div>kāre tā-koe putaNEG.NPST ART-2SG book'You don't have your book.' (Lit. 'Your book doesn't exist')<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hawaiian">Hawaiian</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Hawaiian" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_language" title="Hawaiian language">Hawaiian language</a> conveys aspect as follows:<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <ul><li>The unmarked verb, frequently used, can indicate habitual aspect or perfective aspect in the past.</li> <li>ke + verb + nei is frequently used and conveys the progressive aspect in the present.</li> <li>e + verb + ana conveys the progressive aspect in any tense.</li> <li>ua + verb conveys the perfective aspect but is frequently omitted.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wuvulu">Wuvulu</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Wuvulu" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wuvulu-Aua_language" title="Wuvulu-Aua language">Wuvulu-Aua language</a></div> Wuvulu language is a minority language in Pacific. The Wuvulu verbal aspect is hard to organize because of its number of morpheme combinations and the interaction of semantics between morphemes.<a href="#cite_note-:1-24">[24]</a> Perfective, imperfective negation, simultaneous and habitual are four aspects markers in Wuvulu language. <ul><li>Perfective: The perfective marker -li indicates the action is done before other action.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">maʔuabut</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ʔi=na-li-ware-fa-rawani<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="realis mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REAL</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PERF</abbr>-talk-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="causative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">CAUS</abbr>-good</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ʔaʔawith</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">roʔou,them</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">BarafiBarafi</div>maʔua ʔi=na-li-ware-fa-rawani ʔaʔa roʔou, Barafibut 3SG=REAL-PERF-talk-CAUS-good with them Barafi'But, Barafi had already clearly told them.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <a href="#cite_note-:1-24">[24]</a> <ul><li>Imperfect negation: The marker ta- indicates the action has not done and also doesn't show anything about the action will be done in the future.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ʔi=ta-no-mai<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>=not.yet-move-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="directional" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DIR</abbr></div>ʔi=ta-no-mai3SG=not.yet-move-<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="directional" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DIR</abbr>'It has not yet come.'<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div><a href="#cite_note-:2-25">[25]</a> <ul><li>Simultaneous: The marker fi indicates the two actions are done at the same time or one action occurs while other action is in progress.</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ʔi=na-panaro-puluʔi-na<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="realis mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REAL</abbr>-hold-together-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="transitive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TR</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ruapalotwo</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ʔeithe.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">panihand</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">PuleafoPuleafo</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">maand</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ʔi=fi-unu<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="simultaneous" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SIM</abbr>-drink</div>ʔi=na-panaro-puluʔi-na ruapalo ʔei pani Puleafo ma ʔi=fi-unu3SG=REAL-hold-together-TR two the.PL hand Puleafo and 3SG=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="simultaneous" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SIM</abbr>-drink'He held together the two hands of Puleafo while drinking.' (Note: marker ta- is only for singular subject. When the subject is dual or plural, the marker ʔei and i- are used in same situation.) <a href="#cite_note-:2-25">[25]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <ul><li>Habitual: The marker fane- can indicate a habitual activity, which means "keep doing something" in English. Example:</li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ʔi=na-fane-naranara<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="realis mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REAL</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="habitual aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HAB</abbr>-think(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="reduplication" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REDUP</abbr>)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">feithe</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">narathought</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">FaniniloFaninilo</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ba,<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="comparative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COMP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ʔaleʔenalike</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ba<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="comparative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COMP</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">iniwho</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">liaiagain</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">meithe</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ramaʔaperson</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">meithe</div>ʔi=na-fane-naranara fei nara Faninilo ba, ʔaleʔena ba ini liai mei ramaʔa mei3SG=REAL-HAB-think(REDUP) the thought Faninilo COMP like COMP who again the person the'And the thought kept occurring to Faninilo, "who is this particular person?"' <a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tokelauan">Tokelauan</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Tokelauan" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tokelauan_language" title="Tokelauan language">Tokelauan language</a></div> There are three types of aspects one must consider when analyzing the Tokelauan language: inherent aspect, situation aspect, and viewpoint aspect.<a href="#cite_note-:0-20">[20]</a> The inherent aspect describes the purpose of a verb and what separates verbs from one another. According to Vendler, inherent aspect can be categorized into four different types: activities, achievements, accomplishments, and states. Simple activities include verbs such as pull, jump, and punch. Some achievements are continue and win. Drive-a-car is an accomplishment while hate is an example of a state. Another way to recognize a state inherent aspect is to note whether or not it changes. For example, if someone were to hate vegetables because they are allergic, this state of hate is unchanging and thus, a state inherent aspect. On the other hand, an achievement, unlike a state, only lasts for a short amount of time. Achievement is the highpoint of an action.<a href="#cite_note-:0-20">[20]</a> Another type of aspect is situation aspect. Situation aspect is described to be what one is experiencing in his or her life through that circumstance. Therefore, it is his or her understanding of the situation. Situation aspect are abstract terms that are not physically tangible. They are also used based upon one's point of view. For example, a professor may say that a student who comes a minute before each class starts is a punctual student. Based upon the professor's judgment of what punctuality is, he or she may make that assumption of the situation with the student. Situation aspect is firstly divided into states and occurrences, then later subdivided under occurrences into processes and events, and lastly, under events, there are accomplishments and achievements.<a href="#cite_note-:0-20">[20]</a> The third type of aspect is viewpoint aspect. Viewpoint aspect can be likened to situation aspect such that they both take into consideration one's inferences. However, viewpoint aspect diverges from situation aspect because it is where one decides to view or see such event. A perfect example is the glass metaphor: <a href="/wiki/Is_the_glass_half_empty_or_half_full%3F" title="Is the glass half empty or half full?">Is the glass half full or is it half empty</a>. The choice of being half full represents an optimistic viewpoint while the choice of being half empty represents a pessimistic viewpoint. Not only does viewpoint aspect separate into negative and positive, but rather different point of views. Having two people describe a painting can bring about two different viewpoints. One may describe a situation aspect as a perfect or imperfect. A perfect situation aspect entails an event with no reference to time, while an imperfect situation aspect makes a reference to time with the observation.<a href="#cite_note-:0-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Torau">Torau</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Torau" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Aspect in Torau is marked with post-verbal particles or clitics. While the system for marking the imperfective aspect is complex and highly developed, it is unclear if Torau marks the perfective and neutral viewpoints. The imperfective clitics index one of the core arguments, usually the nominative subject, and follow the rightmost element in a syntactic structure larger than the word. The two distinct forms for marking the imperfective aspect are (i)sa- and e-. While more work needs to be done on this language, the preliminary hypothesis is that (i)sa- encodes the stative imperfective and e- encodes the active imperfective. Reduplication always cooccurs with e-, but it usually does not with (i)sa-. This example below shows these two imperfective aspect markers giving different meanings to similar sentences. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">PitaPeter</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ma-to<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="RL: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">RL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">mate=sa-la.be.dead=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></div>Pita ma-to mate=sa-la.Peter RL.3SG-PST be.dead=IPFV-3SG'Peter was dead.' Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">PitaPeter</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ma-to<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-error error" title="RL: glossing abbreviation not found" style="font-size: inherit">RL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">maa≈mate=e-la.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="reduplication" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REDUP</abbr>≈be.dead=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></div>Pita ma-to maa≈mate=e-la.Peter RL.3SG-PST {REDUP}≈be.dead=IPFV-3SG'Peter was dying.' Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (<a href="/wiki/Template:Interlinear#gloss_abbr" title="Template:Interlinear">help</a>);<div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> In Torau, the suffix -to, which must attach to a preverbal particle, may indicate similar meaning to the perfective aspect. In realis clauses, this suffix conveys an event that is entirely in the past and no longer occurring. When -to is used in irrealis clauses, the speaker conveys that the event will definitely occur (Palmer, 2007). Although this suffix is not explicitly stated as a perfective viewpoint marker, the meaning that it contributes is very similar to the perfective viewpoint.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Malay/Indonesian">Malay/Indonesian</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Malay/Indonesian" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Malay_grammar" title="Malay grammar">Malay grammar</a></div> Like many <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a>, the verbs of the <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay language</a> follow a system of affixes to express changes in meaning. To express the aspects, Malay uses a number of <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Auxiliary verbs">auxiliary verbs</a>: <dl><dd><ul><li>sudah: <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective</a>, 'saya sudah makan' = 'I have [already] eaten'</li> <li>baru: near perfective, 'saya baru makan' = 'I have just eaten'</li> <li>belum: <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a>, 'saya belum makan' = 'I have not eaten'</li> <li>sedang: <a href="/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects" title="Continuous and progressive aspects">progressive</a> not implicating an end</li> <li>masih: progressive implicating an end</li> <li>pernah: <a href="/wiki/Semelfactive" title="Semelfactive">semelfactive</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philippine_languages">Philippine languages</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Philippine languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_grammar#Verbs" title="Tagalog grammar">Tagalog grammar § Verbs</a></div> Like many <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a>, the verbs of the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_languages" title="Philippine languages">Philippine languages</a> follow a complex system of affixes to express subtle changes in meaning. However, the verbs in this family of languages are conjugated to express the aspects and not the tenses. Though many of the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_languages" title="Philippine languages">Philippine languages</a> do not have a fully codified grammar, most of them follow the verb aspects that are demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Filipino_language" title="Filipino language">Filipino</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creole_languages">Creole languages</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Creole languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole languages</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> typically use the unmarked verb for timeless habitual aspect, or for stative aspect, or for perfective aspect in the past. Invariant pre-verbal markers are often used. Non-stative verbs typically can optionally be marked for the progressive, habitual, completive, or irrealis aspect. The progressive in English-based <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Creole" title="Atlantic Creole">Atlantic Creoles</a> often uses de (from English "be"). <a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamaican Creole">Jamaican Creole</a> uses a (from English "are") or de for the present progressive and a combination of the past time marker (did, behn, ehn or wehn) and the progressive marker (a or de) for the past progressive (e.g. did a or wehn de). <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole" title="Haitian Creole">Haitian Creole</a> uses the progressive marker ap. Some Atlantic Creoles use one marker for both the habitual and progressive aspects. In <a href="/wiki/Tok_Pisin" title="Tok Pisin">Tok Pisin</a>, the optional progressive marker follows the verb. Completive markers tend to come from superstrate words like "done" or "finish", and some creoles model the future/irrealis marker on the superstrate word for "go". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Sign_Language">American Sign Language</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: American Sign Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a> (ASL) is similar to many other sign languages in that it has no grammatical tense but many verbal aspects produced by modifying the base verb sign. An example is illustrated with the verb <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/1@Chin-PalmBack_1@FromChin-PalmUp" class="extiw" title="wikt:1@Chin-PalmBack 1@FromChin-PalmUp">TELL</a>. The basic form of this sign is produced with the initial posture of the index finger on the chin, followed by a movement of the hand and finger tip toward the indirect object (the recipient of the telling). Inflected into the unrealized inceptive aspect ("to be just about to tell"), the sign begins with the hand moving from in front of the trunk in an arc to the initial posture of the base sign (i.e., index finger touching the chin) while inhaling through the mouth, dropping the jaw, and directing eye gaze toward the verb's object. The posture is then held rather than moved toward the indirect object. During the hold, the signer also stops the breath by closing the glottis. Other verbs (such as "look at", "wash the dishes", "yell", "flirt") are inflected into the unrealized inceptive aspect similarly: The hands used in the base sign move in an arc from in front of the trunk to the initial posture of the underlying verb sign while inhaling, dropping the jaw, and directing eye gaze toward the verb's object (if any), but subsequent movements and postures are dropped as the posture and breath are held.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Other aspects in ASL include the following: stative, inchoative ("to begin to..."), predispositional ("to tend to..."), susceptative ("to... easily"), frequentative ("to... often"), protractive ("to... continuously"), incessant ("to... incessantly"), durative ("to... for a long time"), iterative ("to... over and over again"), intensive ("to... very much"), resultative ("to... completely"), approximative ("to... somewhat"), semblitive ("to appear to..."), increasing ("to... more and more"). Some aspects combine with others to create yet finer distinctions. Aspect is unusual in ASL in that transitive verbs derived for aspect lose their grammatical transitivity. They remain semantically transitive, typically assuming an object made prominent using a topic marker or mentioned in a previous sentence. See <a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar#DP_syntax" title="American Sign Language grammar">Syntax in ASL</a> for details. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Terms_for_various_aspects">Terms for various aspects</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Terms for various aspects" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> The following aspectual terms are found in the literature. Approximate English equivalents are given. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">Perfective</a>: 'I struck the bell' (an event viewed in its entirety, without reference to its temporal structure during its occurrence)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momentane" title="Momentane">Momentane</a>: 'The mouse squeaked once' (contrasted to 'The mouse squeaked / was squeaking')</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">Perfect</a> (a common conflation of aspect and tense): 'I have arrived' (brings attention to the consequences of a situation in the past) <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Recent_perfect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Recent perfect (page does not exist)">Recent perfect</a>, also known as after perfect: 'I just ate' or 'I am after eating' (<a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Hiberno-English</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discontinuous_past" title="Discontinuous past">Discontinuous past</a>: In English a sentence such as "I put it on the table" is neutral in implication (the object could still be on the table or not), but in some languages such as <a href="/wiki/Chewa_language" title="Chewa language">Chichewa</a> the equivalent tense carries an implication that the object is no longer there. It is thus the opposite of the perfect aspect.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospective_aspect" title="Prospective aspect">Prospective</a> (a conflation of aspect and tense): 'He is about to fall', 'I am going to cry" (brings attention to the anticipation of a future situation)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">Imperfective</a> (an activity with ongoing nature: combines the meanings of both the continuous and the habitual aspects): 'I was walking to work' (continuous) or 'I walked (used to walk, would walk) to work every day' (habitual). <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">Habitual</a>: 'I used to walk home from work', 'I would walk home from work every day', 'I walk home from work every day' (a subtype of imperfective)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous aspect">Continuous</a>: 'I am eating' or 'I know' (situation is described as ongoing and either evolving or unevolving; a subtype of imperfective) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive aspect">Progressive</a>: 'I am eating' (action is described as ongoing and evolving; a subtype of continuous)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">Stative</a>: 'I know French' (situation is described as ongoing but not evolving; a subtype of continuous)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnomic_aspect" title="Gnomic aspect">Gnomic/generic</a>: 'Fish swim and birds fly' (general truths)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Episodic_aspect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Episodic aspect (page does not exist)">Episodic</a>: 'The bird flew' (non-gnomic)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuative_aspect" title="Continuative aspect">Continuative aspect</a>: 'I am still eating'</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inceptive_aspect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inceptive aspect (page does not exist)">Inceptive/ingressive</a>: 'I started to run' (beginning of a new action: dynamic)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inchoative" class="mw-redirect" title="Inchoative">Inchoative</a>: 'The flowers started to bloom' (beginning of a new state: static)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminative_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminative aspect">Terminative/cessative</a>: 'I finished eating/reading'</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Defective_aspect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Defective aspect (page does not exist)">Defective</a>: 'I almost fell'</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pausative_aspect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pausative aspect (page does not exist)">Pausative</a>: 'I stopped working for a while'</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resumptive_aspect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Resumptive aspect (page does not exist)">Resumptive</a>: 'I resumed sleeping'</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Punctual_aspect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Punctual aspect (page does not exist)">Punctual</a>: 'I slept'</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delimitative_aspect" title="Delimitative aspect">Durative/Delimitative</a>: 'I slept for a while'</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Protractive_aspect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protractive aspect (page does not exist)">Protractive</a>: 'The argument went on and on'</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iterative_aspect" title="Iterative aspect">Iterative</a>: 'I read the same books again and again'</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequentative" title="Frequentative">Frequentative</a>: 'It sparkled', contrasted with 'It sparked'. Or, 'I run around', vs. 'I run'</li> <li>Experiential: 'I have gone to school many times' (see for example <a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar#Aspects" title="Chinese grammar">Chinese aspects</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intentional_aspect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Intentional aspect (page does not exist)">Intentional</a>: 'I listened carefully'</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Accidental_aspect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Accidental aspect (page does not exist)">Accidental</a>: 'I accidentally knocked over the chair'</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Intensive">Intensive</a>: 'It glared'</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attenuative_aspect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Attenuative aspect (page does not exist)">Attenuative</a>: 'It glimmered'</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Segmentative_aspect&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Segmentative aspect (page does not exist)">Segmentative</a>: 'It is coming out in successive multitudes'<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_aspect" title="Lexical aspect">Aktionsart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_grammar#Dependence_of_moods_and_tenses" title="Ancient Greek grammar">Ancient Greek grammar: Dependence of moods and tenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar#Aspects" title="Chinese grammar">Aspect in Standard Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">Grammatical conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">Grammatical tense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">Grammatical mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_TAM" title="Nominal TAM">Nominal TAM</a> (tense–aspect–mood)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Henk J. Verkuyl, Henriette De Swart, Angeliek Van Hout, Perspectives on Aspect, Springer 2006, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-Binnick1991-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Binnick1991_2-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRobert_I._Binnick1991" class="citation book cs1">Robert I. Binnick (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A1fSUowGY8kC&pg=PA135">Time and the verb: a guide to tense and aspect</a>. Oxford University Press US. pp. 135–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506206-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506206-9"><bdi>978-0-19-506206-9</bdi></a>. 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"Brain responses to agreement violations of Chinese grammatical aspect". <a href="/wiki/NeuroReport" title="NeuroReport">NeuroReport</a>. 19 (10): 1039–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2FWNR.0b013e328302f14f">10.1097/WNR.0b013e328302f14f</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18580575">18580575</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35873020">35873020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NeuroReport&rft.atitle=Brain+responses+to+agreement+violations+of+Chinese+grammatical+aspect&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1039-43&rft.date=2008-07-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A35873020%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18580575&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2FWNR.0b013e328302f14f&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Yaxu&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Jingting&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-gabriele-7"><a href="#cite_ref-gabriele_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabriele2008" class="citation journal cs1">Gabriele, Alison (2008). "Transfer and Transition in the L2 Acquisition of Aspect". Studies in Second Language Acquisition: 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Second+Language+Acquisition&rft.atitle=Transfer+and+Transition+in+the+L2+Acquisition+of+Aspect&rft.pages=6&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Gabriele&rft.aufirst=Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Comrie-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Comrie_8-0">^</a> Bernard Comrie, 1976. Aspect. Cambridge University Press </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2015" class="citation web cs1">Liu, Meichun (1 April 2015). Wang, William S-Y; Sun, Chaofen (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199856336.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199856336-e-70">"Tense and Aspect in Mandarin Chinese"</a>. The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199856336.001.0001">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199856336.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-985633-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-985633-6"><bdi>978-0-19-985633-6</bdi></a>. 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University of British Columbia. </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_12-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVAN_OLPHEN1975" class="citation journal cs1">VAN OLPHEN, HERMAN (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/24651488">"Aspect, Tense, and Mood in the Hindi Verb"</a>. Indo-Iranian Journal. 16 (4): 284–301. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F000000075791615397">10.1163/000000075791615397</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0019-7246">0019-7246</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24651488">24651488</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161530848">161530848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indo-Iranian+Journal&rft.atitle=Aspect%2C+Tense%2C+and+Mood+in+the+Hindi+Verb&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=284-301&rft.date=1975&rft.issn=0019-7246&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161530848%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24651488%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F000000075791615397&rft.aulast=VAN+OLPHEN&rft.aufirst=HERMAN&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24651488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> See, for example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabrieleMcClure2003" class="citation journal cs1">Gabriele, Allison; McClure, William (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://netfiles.uiuc.edu/tionin/www/MyDownloads/gabriele_2003.pdf">"Why swimming is just as difficult as dying for Japanese learners of English"</a> (PDF). ZAS Papers in Linguistics. 29: 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21248%2Fzaspil.29.2003.170">10.21248/zaspil.29.2003.170</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ZAS+Papers+in+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Why+swimming+is+just+as+difficult+as+dying+for+Japanese+learners+of+English&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21248%2Fzaspil.29.2003.170&rft.aulast=Gabriele&rft.aufirst=Allison&rft.au=McClure%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnetfiles.uiuc.edu%2Ftionin%2Fwww%2FMyDownloads%2Fgabriele_2003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> See, for example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPartee1973" class="citation journal cs1">Partee, Barbara H (1973). "Some Structural Analogies between Tenses and Pronouns in English". Journal of Philosophy. 70 (18): 601–609. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2025024">10.2307/2025024</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2025024">2025024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Some+Structural+Analogies+between+Tenses+and+Pronouns+in+English&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=601-609&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2025024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2025024%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Partee&rft.aufirst=Barbara+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Green, L. (1998). Aspect and predicate phrases in African-American vernacular English. African-American English: Structure, history, and use, 37-68. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2002" class="citation book cs1">Green, Lisa J. (8 August 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9780511800306/type/book">African American English: A Linguistic Introduction</a> (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511800306">10.1017/cbo9780511800306</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81449-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81449-2"><bdi>978-0-521-81449-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+American+English%3A+A+Linguistic+Introduction&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002-08-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511800306&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81449-2&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Lisa+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2F9780511800306%2Ftype%2Fbook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Harris, Alysia and Jim Wood. 2013. Stressed BIN. Yale Grammatical Diversity Project: English in North America. (Available online at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://ygdp.yale.edu/phenomena/stressed-bin">http://ygdp.yale.edu/phenomena/stressed-bin</a> . Accessed on 2020-06-10). Updated by Tom McCoy (2015) and Katie Martin (2018). </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-18"><a href="#cite_ref-:22_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiro1989" class="citation book cs1">Shapiro, Michael C. (1989). A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 216–246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0475-9" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0475-9"><bdi>81-208-0475-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Primer+of+Modern+Standard+Hindi&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=216-246&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=81-208-0475-9&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalworth2017" class="citation journal cs1">Walworth, Mary (2017). "Reo Rapa: A Polynesian Contact Language Contact". Journal of Language: 119.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Language&rft.atitle=Reo+Rapa%3A+A+Polynesian+Contact+Language+Contact&rft.pages=119&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Walworth&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooper1994" class="citation book cs1">Hooper, Robin (1994). Studies in Tokelauan syntax. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International. pp. 137–143.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Tokelauan+syntax&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Michigan&rft.pages=137-143&rft.pub=University+Microfilms+International&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Hooper&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="/wiki/%C3%96sten_Dahl" title="Östen Dahl">Östen Dahl</a>, Tense and Aspect Systems, Blackwell, 1985: ch. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Schütz, Albert J., All about Hawaiian, Univ. of Hawaii Press, 1995: pp. 23–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H., New Pocket Hawaiian Dictionary, Univ. of Hawaii Press, 1992: pp. 228–231. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHafford2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hafford, James (2015). "Verb Morphology". Wuvulu Grammar and Vocabulary: 91.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wuvulu+Grammar+and+Vocabulary&rft.atitle=Verb+Morphology&rft.pages=91&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hafford&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHafford2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hafford, James (2015). "Verb Morphology". Wuvulu Grammar and Vocabulary: 92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wuvulu+Grammar+and+Vocabulary&rft.atitle=Verb+Morphology&rft.pages=92&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Hafford&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHafford2015" class="citation journal cs1">Hafford, James (2015). "Verb Morphology". 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Oceanic Linguistics. 46 (2): 499–519. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fol.2008.0000">10.1353/ol.2008.0000</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1959.13%2F803129">1959.13/803129</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20172325">20172325</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145227019">145227019</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oceanic+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Imperfective+Aspect+and+the+Interplay+of+Aspect%2C+Tense%2C+and+Modality+in+Torau&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=499-519&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1959.13%2F803129&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145227019%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20172325%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fol.2008.0000&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Bill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Holm, John, An Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000: pp. 173–189. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhorf1936" class="citation journal cs1">Whorf, Benjamin Lee (1936). "The punctual and segmentative aspects of verbs in Hopi". Language. 12 (2): 127–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F408755">10.2307/408755</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/408755">408755</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=The+punctual+and+segmentative+aspects+of+verbs+in+Hopi&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=127-131&rft.date=1936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F408755&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F408755%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Whorf&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Other_references">Other references</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Other references" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <ul><li>Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-20319-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-20319-8">0-415-20319-8</a>), by Hadumod Bussmann, edited by Gregory P. Trauth and Kerstin Kazzazi, Routledge, London 1996. Translation of German Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft Kröner Verlag, <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a> 1990.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ling.helsinki.fi/~lcarlson/02-03/ctl104/ctl104h03facit.html">Morfofonologian harjoituksia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051212142820/http://www.ling.helsinki.fi/~lcarlson/02-03/ctl104/ctl104h03facit.html">Archived</a> 12 December 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Lauri Carlson</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBache1982" class="citation journal cs1">Bache, C (1982). "Aspect and Aktionsart: Towards a semantic distinction". Journal of Linguistics. 18 (1): 57–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022226700007234">10.1017/s0022226700007234</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144397004">144397004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Aspect+and+Aktionsart%3A+Towards+a+semantic+distinction&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=57-72&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0022226700007234&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144397004%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bache&rft.aufirst=C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Berdinetto, P. M., & Delfitto, D. (2000). "Aspect vs. Actionality: Some reasons for keeping them apart". In O. Dahl (Ed.), Tense and Aspect in the Languages of Europe (pp. 189–226). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.</li> <li>Binnick, R. I. (1991). Time and the verb: A guide to tense and aspect. New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Binnick, R. I. (2006). "Aspect and Aspectuality". In B. Aarts & A. M. S. McMahon (Eds.), The Handbook of English Linguistics (pp. 244–268). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChertkova2004" class="citation journal cs1">Chertkova, M. Y. (2004). ""Vid or Aspect? On the Typology of a Slavic and Romance Category" [Using Russian and Spanish Material]". 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(2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9780792365389">Aspect in English: a "common-sense" view of the interplay between verbal and nominal referents</a> (Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy). Springer. Retrieved 2016-05-18.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKortmann1991" class="citation journal cs1">Kortmann, B (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.freidok.uni-freiburg.de/dnb/download/5207">"The Triad 'Tense–Aspect–Aktionsart'"</a>. 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Linguistic Typology. 6 (2): 199–271. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Flity.2002.007">10.1515/lity.2002.007</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistic+Typology&rft.atitle=Recent+activity+in+the+theory+of+aspect%3A+Accomplishments%2C+achievements%2C+or+just+non-progressive+state%3F&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=199-271&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Flity.2002.007&rft.aulast=Sasse&rft.aufirst=H.-J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublikationen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de%2Ffiles%2F24552%2FAP40NF-Sasse%25282001%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Sasse, H.-J. (2006). "Aspect and Aktionsart". In E. K. Brown (Ed.), Encyclopedia of language and linguistics (Vol. 1, pp. 535–538). Boston: Elsevier.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlota_S._Smith" title="Carlota S. Smith">Smith, Carlota S.</a> (1991). The parameter of aspect. Dordrecht; Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTatevosov2002" class="citation journal cs1">Tatevosov, S (2002). "The parameter of actionality". Linguistic Typology. 6 (3): 317–401. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Flity.2003.003">10.1515/lity.2003.003</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistic+Typology&rft.atitle=The+parameter+of+actionality&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=317-401&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Flity.2003.003&rft.aulast=Tatevosov&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGrammatical+aspect" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Travis, Lisa deMena (2010). "Inner aspect", Dordrecht, Springer..</li> <li>Verkuyl, H. (1972). On the Compositional Nature of the Aspects, Reidel, Dordrecht.</li> <li>Verkuyl, H. (1993). A Theory of Aspectuality: the interaction between temporal and atemporal structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Verkuyl, H. (2005). "How (in-)sensitive is tense to aspectual information?" In B. Hollebrandse, A. van Hout & C. Vet (Eds.), Crosslinguistic views on tense, aspect and modality (pp. 145–169). Amsterdam: Rodopi.</li> <li>Zalizniak, A. A., & Shmelev, A. D. (2000). Vvedenie v russkuiu aspektologiiu [Introduction to Russian aspectology]. Moskva: IAzyki russkoi kul’tury.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Grammatical_aspect&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.471.8160&rep=rep1&type=pdf">Robert Binnick, Annotated tense/aspect bibliography</a> (around 9000 entries)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://calleteach.wordpress.com/2010/02/01/aspect/">TAMPA: Aspect Explained</a></li> <li>Anna Kibort, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smg.surrey.ac.uk/features/morphosemantic/aspect/">Aspekt</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15126%2FSMG.18%2F1.08">10.15126/SMG.18/1.08</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060628003141/http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/dissertations/2004-0309-140804/inhoud.htm">Anna Katarzyna Młynarczyk: Aspectual Pairing in Polish</a>, a pdf version of the book</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lbt-languages.de/english/lernhilfe/lernhilfe.html">Grammar Tutorials</a> - a column overview of the English tenses</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bcbsr.com/greek/gtense.html">Greek tenses</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091130145020/http://www.rickharrison.com/language/aspect.html">Verb Aspect</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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<section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%8A" title="الجانب النحوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الجانب النحوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspeutu_verbal" title="Aspeutu verbal – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Aspeutu verbal" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B4_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Вид на глагола – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Вид на глагола" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecte_gramatical" title="Aspecte gramatical – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Aspecte gramatical" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Аспект (лингвистика) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Аспект (лингвистика)" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovesn%C3%BD_vid" title="Slovesný vid – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Slovesný vid" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspekt_(Linguistik)" title="Aspekt (Linguistik) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aspekt (Linguistik)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspekt_(keeleteadus)" title="Aspekt (keeleteadus) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aspekt (keeleteadus)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%B9%CF%8C%CE%BD_%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%82_(%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE)" title="Ποιόν ενέργειας (γραμματική) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ποιόν ενέργειας (γραμματική)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecto_gramatical" title="Aspecto gramatical – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Aspecto gramatical" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspekto" title="Aspekto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aspekto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF" title="نمود – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نمود" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_(grammaire)" title="Aspect (grammaire) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Aspect (grammaire)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecto" title="Aspecto – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Aspecto" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%B8%EB%B2%95%EC%83%81" title="문법상 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="문법상" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspek_(linguistik)" title="Aspek (linguistik) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Aspek (linguistik)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspetto_verbale" title="Aspetto verbale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Aspetto verbale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A7%D7%98" title="אספקט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אספקט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98_(%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90)" title="ასპექტი (გრამატიკა) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ასპექტი (გრამატიკა)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspectus_(ars_grammatica)" title="Aspectus (ars grammatica) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aspectus (ars grammatica)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veikslas" title="Veikslas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Veikslas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspeta_(gramatica)" title="Aspeta (gramatica) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Aspeta (gramatica)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igeszeml%C3%A9let_%C3%A9s_igejelleg" title="Igeszemlélet és igejelleg – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Igeszemlélet és igejelleg" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4" title="Глаголски вид – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Глаголски вид" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanehoan-javatra_(fitsipiteny)" title="Fanehoan-javatra (fitsipiteny) – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fanehoan-javatra (fitsipiteny)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_(taalkunde)" title="Aspect (taalkunde) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Aspect (taalkunde)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%B8_(%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E5%AD%A6)" title="相 (言語学) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="相 (言語学)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspekt_(grammatikk)" title="Aspekt (grammatikk) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Aspekt (grammatikk)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspekt_i_grammatikken" title="Aspekt i grammatikken – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Aspekt i grammatikken" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspekt_(j%C4%99zykoznawstwo)" title="Aspekt (językoznawstwo) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Aspekt (językoznawstwo)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecto_gramatical" title="Aspecto gramatical – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Aspecto gramatical" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_%C8%99i_mod_de_ac%C8%9Biune" title="Aspect și mod de acțiune – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Aspect și mod de acțiune" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B4_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Вид (лингвистика) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вид (лингвистика)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspekti_gramatikor" title="Aspekti gramatikor – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Aspekti gramatikor" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cira_(aspettu)" title="Cira (aspettu) – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Cira (aspettu)" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovesn%C3%BD_vid" title="Slovesný vid – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Slovesný vid" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glagolski_vid" title="Glagolski vid – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Glagolski vid" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspekti_(kielitiede)" title="Aspekti (kielitiede) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Aspekti (kielitiede)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspekt" title="Aspekt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Aspekt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B0" title="การณ์ลักษณะ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การณ์ลักษณะ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B4_(%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE)" title="Вид (мовознавство) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вид (мовознавство)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%83_c%E1%BB%A7a_%C4%91%E1%BB%99ng_t%E1%BB%AB" title="Thể của động từ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thể của động từ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BD%93" title="体 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="体" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95%E9%AB%94" title="文法體 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="文法體" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BD%93_(%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95)" title="体 (语法) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="体 (语法)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" 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