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id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Creole_language" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Creole_language" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Creole+language" data-event-name="menu.watch" 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class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"ISO 639:crp" redirects here. But that language code incorporates <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgins</a> as well as creoles.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the computer markup language, see <a href="/wiki/Creole_(markup)" title="Creole (markup)">Creole (markup)</a>.</div> A creole language,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> or simply creole, is a stable <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> that develops from the process of different languages simplifying and mixing into a new form (often a <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a>), and then that form expanding and elaborating into a full-fledged language with <a href="/wiki/Nativization" title="Nativization">native speakers</a>, all within a fairly brief period.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> While the concept is similar to that of a <a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">mixed or hybrid language</a>, creoles are often characterized by a tendency to systematize their inherited grammar (e.g., by eliminating irregularities or regularizing the conjugation of otherwise irregular verbs). Like any language, creoles are characterized by a consistent system of <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, possess large stable vocabularies, and are <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">acquired</a> by children as their native language.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> These three features distinguish a creole language from a pidgin.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Creolistics, or creology, is the study of creole languages and, as such, is a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>. Someone who engages in this study is called a creolist. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guadeloupe_creole_2010-03-30.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Guadeloupe_creole_2010-03-30.JPG/220px-Guadeloupe_creole_2010-03-30.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Guadeloupe_creole_2010-03-30.JPG/330px-Guadeloupe_creole_2010-03-30.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Guadeloupe_creole_2010-03-30.JPG/440px-Guadeloupe_creole_2010-03-30.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592"></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Antillean_Creole" title="Antillean Creole">Antillean Creole</a> traffic sign in <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> sign stating Lévé pié aw / Ni ti moun ka joué la!, literally translated is "Lift your foot. Small people are playing here" in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> The precise number of creole languages is not known, particularly as many are poorly attested or documented. About one hundred creole languages have arisen since 1500. These are predominantly based on European languages such as English and French<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> due to the European <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> that arose at that time.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> With the improvements in <a href="/wiki/Ship-building" class="mw-redirect" title="Ship-building">ship-building</a> and <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a>, traders had to learn to communicate with people around the world, and the quickest way to do this was to develop a pidgin; in turn, full creole languages developed from these pidgins. In addition to creoles that have European languages as their base, there are, for example, creoles based on <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> of a creole language is largely supplied by the parent languages, particularly that of the most dominant group in the social context of the creole's construction. However, there are often clear <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic">semantic</a> shifts. On the other hand, the grammar that has evolved often has new or unique features that differ substantially from those of the parent languages.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Overview">1 Overview</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History">2 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Etymology">2.1 Etymology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Geographic_distribution">2.2 Geographic distribution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Social_and_political_status">2.3 Social and political status</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Classification">3 Classification</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Historic_classification">3.1 Historic classification</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Substrate_and_superstrate">3.2 Substrate and superstrate</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Decreolization">3.3 Decreolization</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Creole_genesis">4 Creole genesis</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Theories_focusing_on_European_input">4.1 Theories focusing on European input</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#Monogenetic_theory_of_pidgins_and_creoles">4.1.1 Monogenetic theory of pidgins and creoles</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Domestic_origin_hypothesis">4.1.2 Domestic origin hypothesis</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#European_dialect_origin_hypothesis">4.1.3 European dialect origin hypothesis</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Foreigner_talk_and_baby_talk">4.1.4 Foreigner talk and baby talk</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Imperfect_L2_learning">4.1.5 Imperfect L2 learning</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Theories_focusing_on_non-European_input">4.2 Theories focusing on non-European input</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Gradualist_and_developmental_hypotheses">4.3 Gradualist and developmental hypotheses</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Universalist_approaches">4.4 Universalist approaches</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Recent_studies">5 Recent studies</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Creole_prototype">5.1 Creole prototype</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Exceptionalism">5.2 Exceptionalism</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Controversy">6 Controversy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#%22Creole%22,_a_sociohistoric_concept">6.1 "Creole", a sociohistoric concept</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#%22Creole%22,_a_genuine_linguistic_concept">6.2 "Creole", a genuine linguistic concept</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Additional_resources">6.3 Additional resources</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Further_reading">7 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#See_also">8 See also</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Creoles_by_parent_language">8.1 Creoles by parent language</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#References">9 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Bibliography">10 Bibliography</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Further_reading_2">10.1 Further reading</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#External_links">11 External links</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#In_French">11.1 In French</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> A creole is believed to arise when a <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a>, developed by adults for use as a second language, becomes the native and primary language of their children – a process known as <a href="/wiki/Nativization" title="Nativization">nativization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a>-creole life cycle was studied by American linguist <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Hall,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Robert A. Hall, Jr.">Robert Hall</a> in the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Some linguists, such as Derek Bickerton, posit that creoles share more grammatical similarities with each other than with the languages from which they are phylogenetically derived.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> However, there is no widely accepted theory that would account for those perceived similarities.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Moreover, no grammatical feature has been shown to be specific to creoles.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gil_2001-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Muysken_2001-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-DeGraff_2003-20">[20]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] Many of the creoles known today arose in the last 500 years, as a result of the worldwide expansion of European maritime power and trade in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>, which led to extensive <a href="/wiki/European_colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonialism">European colonial empires</a>. Like most non-official and minority languages, creoles have generally been regarded in popular opinion as degenerate variants or <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a> of their parent languages. Because of that prejudice, many of the creoles that arose in the European colonies, having been stigmatized, have become <a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">extinct</a>. However, political and academic changes in recent decades have improved the status of creoles, both as living languages and as object of linguistic study.<a href="#cite_note-DeCamp-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sebba-22">[22]</a> Some creoles have even been granted the status of official or semi-official languages of particular political territories. Linguists now recognize that creole formation is a universal phenomenon, not limited to the European colonial period, and an important aspect of language evolution.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Other scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Salikoko_Mufwene" title="Salikoko Mufwene">Salikoko Mufwene</a>, argue that pidgins and creoles arise independently under different circumstances, and that a pidgin need not always precede a creole nor a creole evolve from a pidgin. Pidgins, according to Mufwene, emerged in trade colonies among "users who preserved their native vernaculars for their day-to-day interactions". Creoles, meanwhile, developed in settlement colonies in which speakers of a European language, often <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servants" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servants">indentured servants</a> whose language would be far from the standard in the first place, interacted extensively with non-European <a href="/wiki/Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave">slaves</a>, absorbing certain words and features from the slaves' non-European native languages, resulting in a heavily <a href="/wiki/Basilect" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilect">basilectalized</a> version of the original language. These servants and slaves would come to use the creole as an everyday vernacular, rather than merely in situations in which contact with a speaker of the superstrate was necessary.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Etymology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The English term creole comes from <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cr%C3%A9ole" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:créole">French</a> créole, which is <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> with the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/criollo" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:criollo">Spanish term</a> criollo and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/crioulo" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:crioulo">Portuguese</a> crioulo, all descending from the verb criar ('to breed' or 'to raise'), all coming from Latin creare 'to produce, create'.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The specific sense of the term was coined in the 16th and 17th century, during the great expansion in European maritime power and trade that led to the establishment of European colonies in other continents. The terms criollo and crioulo were originally qualifiers used throughout the Spanish and Portuguese colonies to distinguish the members of an ethnic group who were born and raised locally from those who immigrated as adults. They were most commonly applied to nationals of the colonial power, e.g. to distinguish <a href="/wiki/Criollo_people" title="Criollo people">españoles criollos</a> (people born in the colonies from Spanish ancestors) from españoles peninsulares (those born in the Iberian Peninsula, i.e. Spain). However, in Brazil the term was also used to distinguish between negros crioulos (blacks born in Brazil from African slave ancestors) and negros africanos (born in Africa). Over time, the term and its derivatives (Creole, Kréol, Kreyol, <a href="/wiki/Krey%C3%B2l" class="mw-redirect" title="Kreyòl">Kreyòl</a>, Kriol, <a href="/wiki/Krio_language" title="Krio language">Krio</a>, etc.) lost the generic meaning and became the proper name of many distinct ethnic groups that developed locally from immigrant communities. Originally, therefore, the term "creole language" meant the speech of any of those <a href="/wiki/Creole_peoples" title="Creole peoples">creole peoples</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Geographic distribution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> As a consequence of colonial European trade patterns, most of the known European-based creole languages arose in coastal areas in the equatorial belt around the world, including the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, western <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a> along the west of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and along Southeast <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> up to <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>, Réunion, <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Many of those creoles are now extinct, but others still survive in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, the north and east coasts of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> (<a href="/wiki/The_Guyanas" class="mw-redirect" title="The Guyanas">The Guyanas</a>), western <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Australian_Kriol_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Kriol language">Australian Kriol language</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Chavacano" title="Chavacano">Chavacano</a>), Island Countries such as <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Creole" title="Atlantic Creole">Atlantic Creole</a> languages are based on European languages with elements from African and possibly <a href="/wiki/Amerindian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Amerindian languages">Amerindian languages</a>. <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> Creole languages are based on European languages with elements from <a href="/wiki/Malagasy_language" title="Malagasy language">Malagasy</a> and possibly other Asian languages. There are, however, creoles like <a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sango_language" title="Sango language">Sango</a> that are derived solely from non-European languages. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_and_political_status">Social and political status</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Social and political status" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Because of the generally low status of the Creole peoples in the eyes of prior European colonial powers, creole languages have generally been regarded as "degenerate" languages, or at best as rudimentary "dialects" of the politically dominant parent languages. Because of this, the word "creole" was generally used by linguists in opposition to "language", rather than as a <a href="/wiki/Qualifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Qualifier">qualifier</a> for it.<a href="#cite_note-Meijer-26">[26]</a> Another factor that may have contributed to the relative neglect of creole languages in linguistics is that they do not fit the 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Neogrammarian" title="Neogrammarian">neogrammarian</a> "tree model" for the evolution of languages, and its postulated regularity of sound changes (these critics including the earliest advocates of the <a href="/wiki/Wave_model_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave model (linguistics)">wave model</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Schmidt_(linguist)" title="Johannes Schmidt (linguist)">Johannes Schmidt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Schuchardt" title="Hugo Schuchardt">Hugo Schuchardt</a>, the forerunners of modern <a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">sociolinguistics</a>). This controversy of the late 19th century profoundly shaped modern approaches to the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> in <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Creolistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Creolistics">creolistics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DeCamp-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Meijer-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Traugott_1977-27">[27]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Timoun_Sy%C3%A8j_(Creole).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Timoun_Sy%C3%A8j_%28Creole%29.jpg/220px-Timoun_Sy%C3%A8j_%28Creole%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1974" data-file-height="1233"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 137px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Timoun_Sy%C3%A8j_%28Creole%29.jpg/220px-Timoun_Sy%C3%A8j_%28Creole%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="137" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Timoun_Sy%C3%A8j_%28Creole%29.jpg/330px-Timoun_Sy%C3%A8j_%28Creole%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Timoun_Sy%C3%A8j_%28Creole%29.jpg/440px-Timoun_Sy%C3%A8j_%28Creole%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole" title="Haitian Creole">Haitian Creole</a> in use at car rental counter in <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, U.S. in 2014</figcaption></figure> Because of social, political, and academic changes brought on by decolonization in the second half of the 20th century, creole languages have experienced revivals in the past few decades. They are increasingly being used in print and film, and in many cases, their community prestige has improved dramatically. In fact, some have been standardized, and are used in local schools and universities around the world.<a href="#cite_note-DeCamp-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sebba-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> At the same time, linguists have begun to come to the realization that creole languages are in no way inferior to other languages. They now use the term "creole" or "creole language" for any language suspected to have undergone <a href="/wiki/Creolization" title="Creolization">creolization</a>, terms that now imply no geographic restrictions nor ethnic prejudices. There is controversy about the extent to which creolization influenced the evolution of <a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a> (AAVE). In the American education system, as well as in the past, the use of the word <a href="/wiki/Ebonics_(word)" title="Ebonics (word)">ebonics</a> to refer to AAVE mirrors the historical negative connotation of the word creole.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Classification" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historic_classification">Historic classification</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Historic classification" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> According to their external history, four types of creoles have been distinguished: plantation creoles, fort creoles, <a href="/wiki/Maroon_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maroon (people)">maroon</a> creoles, and creolized pidgins.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> By the very nature of a creole language, the <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogenetic</a> classification of a particular creole usually is a matter of dispute; especially when the pidgin precursor and its parent tongues (which may have been other creoles or pidgins) have disappeared before they could be documented. Phylogenetic classification traditionally relies on inheritance of the lexicon, especially of "core" terms, and of the grammar structure. However, in creoles, the core lexicon often has mixed origin, and the grammar is largely original. For these reasons, the issue of which language is the parent of a creole – that is, whether a language should be classified as a "French creole", "Portuguese creole" or "English creole", etc. – often has no definitive answer, and can become the topic of long-lasting controversies, where social prejudices and political considerations may interfere with scientific discussion.<a href="#cite_note-DeCamp-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sebba-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Traugott_1977-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Substrate_and_superstrate">Substrate and superstrate</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Substrate and superstrate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The terms <a href="/wiki/Substrata_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrata (linguistics)">substrate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Superstratum" class="mw-redirect" title="Superstratum">superstrate</a> are often used when two languages interact. However, the meaning of these terms is reasonably well-defined only in <a href="/wiki/Second_language_acquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language acquisition">second language acquisition</a> or <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">language replacement</a> events, when the native speakers of a certain source language (the substrate) are somehow compelled to abandon it for another target language (the superstrate).<a href="#cite_note-Weinreich-31">[31]</a> The outcome of such an event is that erstwhile speakers of the substrate will use some version of the superstrate, at least in more formal contexts. The substrate may survive as a second language for informal conversation. As demonstrated by the fate of many replaced European languages (such as <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">Venetian</a>), the influence of the substrate on the official speech is often limited to pronunciation and a modest number of loanwords. The substrate might even disappear altogether without leaving any trace.<a href="#cite_note-Weinreich-31">[31]</a> However, there is dispute over the extent to which the terms "substrate" and "superstrate" are applicable to the genesis or the description of creole languages.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The language replacement model may not be appropriate in creole formation contexts, where the emerging language is derived from multiple languages without any one of them being imposed as a replacement for any other.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The substratum–superstratum distinction becomes awkward when multiple superstrata must be assumed (such as in <a href="/wiki/Papiamento" title="Papiamento">Papiamento</a>), when the substratum cannot be identified, or when the presence or the survival of substratal evidence is inferred from mere typological analogies.<a href="#cite_note-Muysken_2001-18">[18]</a> On the other hand, the distinction may be meaningful when the contributions of each parent language to the resulting creole can be shown to be very unequal, in a scientifically meaningful way.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In the literature on <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Creole" title="Atlantic Creole">Atlantic Creoles</a>, "superstrate" usually means European and "substrate" non-European or African.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decreolization">Decreolization</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Decreolization" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Since creole languages rarely attain official status, the speakers of a fully formed creole may eventually feel compelled to conform their speech to one of the parent languages. This <a href="/wiki/Decreolization" title="Decreolization">decreolization</a> process typically brings about a <a href="/wiki/Post-creole_speech_continuum" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-creole speech continuum">post-creole speech continuum</a> characterized by large-scale variation and <a href="/wiki/Hypercorrection" title="Hypercorrection">hypercorrection</a> in the language.<a href="#cite_note-DeCamp-21">[21]</a> It is generally acknowledged that creoles have a simpler grammar and more internal variability than older, more established languages.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> However, these notions are occasionally challenged.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> (See also <a href="/wiki/Language_complexity" title="Language complexity">language complexity</a>.) Phylogenetic or <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">typological</a> comparisons of creole languages have led to divergent conclusions. Similarities are usually higher among creoles derived from related languages, such as the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">languages of Europe</a>, than among broader groups that include also creoles based on non-<a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> (like Nubi or Sango). <a href="/wiki/French-based_creole_languages" title="French-based creole languages">French-based creole languages</a> in turn are more similar to each other (and to varieties of French) than to other European-based creoles. It was observed, in particular, that <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite articles</a> are mostly prenominal in <a href="/wiki/English-based_creole_languages" title="English-based creole languages">English-based creole languages</a> and English whereas they are generally postnominal in French creoles and in the <a href="/wiki/Quebec_French" title="Quebec French">variety of French</a> that was <a href="/wiki/History_of_Quebec_French" title="History of Quebec French">exported to what is now Quebec in the 17th and 18th century</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Moreover, the European languages which gave rise to the creole languages of European colonies all belong to the same subgroup of Western <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> and have highly convergent grammars; to the point that <a href="/wiki/Sapir_Whorf" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapir Whorf">Whorf</a> joined them into a single <a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a> language group.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> French and English are particularly close, since English, through extensive borrowing, is typologically closer to French than to other Germanic languages.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Thus the claimed similarities between creoles may be mere consequences of similar parentage, rather than characteristic features of all creoles. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Creole_genesis">Creole genesis</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Creole genesis" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> There are a variety of theories on the origin of creole languages, all of which attempt to explain the similarities among them. <a href="#CITEREFArendsMuyskenSmith1995">Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995)</a> outline a fourfold classification of explanations regarding creole genesis: <ol><li>Theories focusing on European input</li> <li>Theories focusing on non-European input</li> <li>Gradualist and developmental hypotheses</li> <li>Universalist approaches</li></ol> In addition to the precise mechanism of creole genesis, a more general debate has developed whether creole languages are characterized by different mechanisms than traditional languages (which is McWhorter's 2018 main point)<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> or whether in that regard creole languages develop by the same mechanisms as any other languages (e.g. DeGraff 2001).<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theories_focusing_on_European_input">Theories focusing on European input</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Theories focusing on European input" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monogenetic_theory_of_pidgins_and_creoles">Monogenetic theory of pidgins and creoles</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Monogenetic theory of pidgins and creoles" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Monogenetic_theory_of_pidgins" title="Monogenetic theory of pidgins">monogenetic theory of pidgins</a> and creoles hypothesizes that all Atlantic creoles derived from a single <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Franca" title="Mediterranean Lingua Franca">Mediterranean Lingua Franca</a>, via a West African Pidgin Portuguese of the seventeenth century, <a href="/wiki/Relexification" title="Relexification">relexified</a> in the so-called "slave <a href="/wiki/Factory_(trading_post)" title="Factory (trading post)">factories</a>"[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">further explanation needed</a>] of Western Africa that were the source of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>. This theory was originally formulated by <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Schuchardt" title="Hugo Schuchardt">Hugo Schuchardt</a> in the late nineteenth century and popularized in the late 1950s and early 1960s by Taylor,<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Whinnom,<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Thompson,<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> and Stewart.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> However, this hypothesis is now not widely accepted, since it relies on all creole-speaking slave populations being based on the same Portuguese-based creole, despite no to very little historical exposure to Portuguese for many of these populations, no strong direct evidence for this claim, and with Portuguese leaving almost no trace on the lexicon of most of them, with the similarities in grammar explainable by analogous processes of loss of inflection and grammatical forms not common to European and West African languages. For example, <a href="#CITEREFBickerton1977">Bickerton (1977)</a> points out that relexification postulates too many improbabilities and that it is unlikely that a language "could be disseminated round the entire tropical zone, to peoples of widely differing language background, and still preserve a virtually complete identity in its grammatical structure wherever it took root, despite considerable changes in its phonology and virtually complete changes in its lexicon".<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Domestic_origin_hypothesis">Domestic origin hypothesis</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Domestic origin hypothesis" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Proposed by <a href="#CITEREFHancock1985">Hancock (1985)</a> for the origin of English-based creoles of the West Indies, the domestic origin hypothesis argues that, towards the end of the 16th century, English-speaking traders began to settle in the Gambia and <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> rivers as well as in neighboring areas such as the Bullom and Sherbro coasts. These settlers intermarried with the local population leading to mixed populations, and, as a result of this intermarriage, an English pidgin was created. This pidgin was learned by slaves in slave depots, who later on took it to the West Indies and formed one component of the emerging English creoles. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="European_dialect_origin_hypothesis">European dialect origin hypothesis</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: European dialect origin hypothesis" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/French-based_creole_languages" title="French-based creole languages">French creoles</a> are the foremost candidates to being the outcome of "normal" <a href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">linguistic change</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Creoleness" class="mw-redirect" title="Creoleness">creoleness</a> to be sociohistoric in nature and relative to their colonial origin.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Within this theoretical framework, a <a href="/wiki/French-based_creole_languages" title="French-based creole languages">French creole</a> is a language <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic">phylogenetically</a> based on <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, more specifically on a 17th-century <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">koiné</a> French extant in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, the French Atlantic harbors, and the nascent French colonies. Supporters of this hypothesis suggest that the non-Creole French dialects still spoken in many parts of the Americas share mutual descent from this single koiné. These dialects are found in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> (mostly in <a href="/wiki/Qu%C3%A9bec" class="mw-redirect" title="Québec">Québec</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Acadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Acadian">Acadian</a> communities), <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint-Barth%C3%A9lemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Barthélemy">Saint-Barthélemy</a> and as <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">isolates</a> in other parts of the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Approaches under this hypothesis are compatible with <a href="/wiki/Gradualism" title="Gradualism">gradualism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Language_change" title="Language change">change</a> and models of <a href="#Imperfect_L2_learning">imperfect language transmission</a> in koiné genesis. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foreigner_talk_and_baby_talk">Foreigner talk and baby talk</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Foreigner talk and baby talk" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The Foreigner Talk (FT) hypothesis argues that a pidgin or creole language forms when native speakers attempt to simplify their language in order to address speakers who do not know their language at all. Because of the similarities found in this type of speech and speech directed to a small child, it is also sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Baby_talk" title="Baby talk">baby talk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <a href="#CITEREFArendsMuyskenSmith1995">Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995)</a> suggest that four different processes are involved in creating Foreigner Talk: <ul><li>Accommodation</li> <li>Imitation</li> <li>Telegraphic condensation</li> <li>Conventions</li></ul> This could explain why creole languages have much in common, while avoiding a monogenetic model. However, <a href="#CITEREFHinnenkamp1984">Hinnenkamp (1984)</a>, in analyzing German Foreigner Talk, claims that it is too inconsistent and unpredictable to provide any model for language learning. While the simplification of input was supposed to account for creoles' simple grammar, commentators have raised a number of criticisms of this explanation:<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <ol><li>There are a great many grammatical similarities amongst pidgins and creoles despite having very different <a href="/wiki/Lexifier" title="Lexifier">lexifier</a> languages.</li> <li>Grammatical simplification can be explained by other processes, i.e. the innate grammar of <a href="/wiki/Derek_Bickerton" title="Derek Bickerton">Bickerton's</a> <a href="/wiki/Language_bioprogram_theory" title="Language bioprogram theory">language bioprogram theory</a>.</li> <li>Speakers of a creole's lexifier language often fail to understand, without learning the language, the grammar of a pidgin or creole.</li> <li>Pidgins are more often used amongst speakers of different substrate languages than between such speakers and those of the lexifier language.</li></ol> Another problem with the FT explanation is its potential circularity. <a href="#CITEREFBloomfield1933">Bloomfield (1933)</a> points out that FT is often based on the imitation of the incorrect speech of the non-natives, that is the pidgin. Therefore, one may be mistaken in assuming that the former gave rise to the latter. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imperfect_L2_learning">Imperfect L2 learning</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Imperfect L2 learning" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The imperfect L2 (<a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a>) learning hypothesis claims that pidgins are primarily the result of the imperfect L2 learning of the dominant lexifier language by the slaves. Research on naturalistic L2 processes has revealed a number of features of "interlanguage systems" that are also seen in pidgins and creoles: <ul><li>invariant verb forms derived from the infinitive or the least marked finite verb form;</li> <li>loss of determiners or use of demonstrative pronouns, adjectives or adverbs as determiners;</li> <li>placement of a negative particle in preverbal position;</li> <li>use of adverbs to express <a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">modality</a>;</li> <li>fixed single word order with no inversion in questions;</li> <li>reduced or absent nominal plural marking.</li></ul> Imperfect L2 learning is compatible with other approaches, notably the European dialect origin hypothesis and the universalist models of language transmission.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theories_focusing_on_non-European_input">Theories focusing on non-European input</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Theories focusing on non-European input" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Theories focusing on the substrate, or non-European, languages attribute similarities amongst creoles to the similarities of African substrate languages. These features are often assumed to be transferred from the substrate language to the creole or to be preserved invariant from the substrate language in the creole through a process of <a href="/wiki/Relexification" title="Relexification">relexification</a>: the substrate language replaces the native <a href="/wiki/Lexical_items" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical items">lexical items</a> with lexical material from the superstrate language while retaining the native grammatical categories.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> The problem with this explanation is that the postulated substrate languages differ amongst themselves and with creoles in meaningful ways. <a href="#CITEREFBickerton1981">Bickerton (1981)</a> argues that the number and diversity of African languages and the paucity of a historical record on creole genesis makes determining lexical correspondences a matter of chance. <a href="#CITEREFDillard1970">Dillard (1970)</a> coined the term "cafeteria principle" to refer to the practice of arbitrarily attributing features of creoles to the influence of substrate African languages or assorted substandard dialects of European languages. For a representative debate on this issue, see the contributions to <a href="#CITEREFMufwene1993">Mufwene (1993)</a>; for a more recent view, <a href="#CITEREFParkvall2000">Parkvall (2000)</a>. Because of the sociohistoric similarities amongst many (but by no means all) of the creoles, the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> and the plantation system of the European colonies have been emphasized as factors by linguists such as <a href="#CITEREFMcWhorter1999">McWhorter (1999)</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gradualist_and_developmental_hypotheses">Gradualist and developmental hypotheses</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Gradualist and developmental hypotheses" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> One class of creoles might start as <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgins</a>, rudimentary second languages improvised for use between speakers of two or more non-intelligible native languages. Keith Whinnom (in <a href="#CITEREFHymes1971">Hymes (1971)</a>) suggests that pidgins need three languages to form, with one (the superstrate) being clearly dominant over the others. The lexicon of a pidgin is usually small and drawn from the vocabularies of its speakers, in varying proportions. Morphological details like word <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflections</a>, which usually take years to learn, are omitted; the syntax is kept very simple, usually based on strict word order. In this initial stage, all aspects of the speech – syntax, lexicon, and pronunciation – tend to be quite variable, especially with regard to the speaker's background. If a pidgin manages to be learned by the children of a community as a native language, it may become fixed and acquire a more complex grammar, with fixed phonology, syntax, morphology, and syntactic embedding. Pidgins can become full languages in only a single <a href="/wiki/Generation" title="Generation">generation</a>. "Creolization" is this second stage where the pidgin language develops into a fully developed native language. The vocabulary, too, will develop to contain more and more items according to a rationale of lexical enrichment.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Universalist_approaches">Universalist approaches</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Universalist approaches" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Universal_grammar" title="Universal grammar">Universal grammar</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">Universalist</a> models stress the intervention of specific general processes during the transmission of language from generation to generation and from speaker to speaker. The process invoked varies: a general tendency towards <a href="/wiki/Semantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic">semantic</a> <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(linguistic)" title="Transparency (linguistic)">transparency</a>, first-<a href="/wiki/Language_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Language learning">language learning</a> driven by universal process, or a general process of <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a> <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organization</a>. <a href="/wiki/Derek_Bickerton" title="Derek Bickerton">Bickerton's</a> <a href="/wiki/Language_bioprogram_theory" title="Language bioprogram theory">language bioprogram theory</a>, proposed in the 1980s, remains the main universalist theory.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Bickerton claims that creoles are inventions of the children growing up on newly founded <a href="/wiki/Plantations" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantations">plantations</a>. Around them, they only heard pidgins spoken, without enough structure to function as <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural languages</a>; and the children used their own <a href="/wiki/Innate" title="Innate">innate</a> linguistic capacities to transform the pidgin input into a full-fledged language. The alleged common features of all creoles would then stem from those innate abilities being universal. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Recent_studies">Recent studies</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Recent studies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> The last decades have seen the emergence of some new questions about the nature of creoles: in particular, the question of how complex creoles are and the question of whether creoles are indeed "exceptional" languages. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creole_prototype">Creole prototype</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Creole prototype" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Some features that distinguish creole languages from noncreoles have been proposed (by Bickerton,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> for example). <a href="/wiki/John_McWhorter" title="John McWhorter">John McWhorter</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> has proposed the following list of features as defining the creole prototype, that is, any language born recently of a pidgin: <ul><li>a lack of contextual inflection, that is, a lack of inflection that marks only agreement in case or gender (as opposed to inherent inflection that marks tense, mood or number);</li> <li>a lack of functional tone marking, that is, a lack of tone that serves to distinguish lexical items (e.g. Mandarin Chinese mā 'mother' vs. mǎ 'horse') or to encode grammatical features; and</li> <li>a lack of semantically opaque word formation, that is, a lack of words like "understand" or "make up", the meaning of which is not analyzable in terms of the meanings of their components.</li></ul> McWhorter argues that the absence of these three features is predictable in languages that were born recently of a pidgin, since learning them would constitute a distinct challenge to the non-native speaker. Over the course of generations, however, such features would be expected to gradually (re-)appear, and therefore "many creoles would harbor departures from the Prototype identifiable as having happened after the creole was born" (McWhorter 2018). As one example, McWhorter (2013) notes that the creole <a href="/wiki/Sranan_Tongo" title="Sranan Tongo"> Sranan</a>, which has existed for centuries in a <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossic</a> relationship with Dutch, has borrowed some Dutch verbs containing the ver- prefix (fer- in Sranan) and whose meaning is not analyzable; for instance the pair morsu 'to soil', fermorsu 'to squander'. McWhorter claims that these three properties characterize any language that was born recently as a pidgin, and states "At this writing, in twenty years I have encountered not a single counterexample" (McWhorter 2018). Nevertheless, the existence of a creole prototype has been disputed by others: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Wittmann" title="Henri Wittmann">Henri Wittmann</a> (1999) and David <a href="#CITEREFGil2001">Gil (2001)</a> argue that languages such as <a href="/wiki/Manding_languages" title="Manding languages">Manding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soninke_language" title="Soninke language">Soninke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magoua_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Magoua dialect">Magoua French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Riau_Indonesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Riau Indonesian">Riau Indonesian</a> have all these three features but show none of the sociohistoric traits of creole languages. McWhorter (2011, 2018) disagrees: for instance, he points out that Soninke has "a goodly amount" of inherent (i.e. non-contextual) inflection, that Magoua "retains ample marking of gender, person and number distinctions on verbs as well as conjugational classes" and therefore that these languages should not be considered creoles.</li> <li>Others (see overview in <a href="#CITEREFMuyskenLaw2001">Muysken & Law (2001)</a>) have claimed the existence of creoles that serve as counterexamples to McWhorter's hypothesis – the existence of <a href="/wiki/Inflectional_morphology" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflectional morphology">inflectional morphology</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berbice_Dutch_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Berbice Dutch Creole">Berbice Dutch Creole</a>, for example, or <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> in <a href="/wiki/Papiamentu" class="mw-redirect" title="Papiamentu">Papiamentu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Again, McWhorter (2018) disagrees. For instance, he points out that the use of tone in Papiamentu to distinguish participial verb forms from base ones appeared only after extensive contact with native Spanish speakers.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exceptionalism">Exceptionalism</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Exceptionalism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Building up on this discussion, McWhorter proposed that "the world's simplest grammars are Creole grammars", claiming that every noncreole language's grammar is at least as complex as any creole language's grammar.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Gil has replied that <a href="/wiki/Riau_Indonesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Riau Indonesian">Riau Indonesian</a> has a simpler grammar than <a href="/wiki/Saramaccan" class="mw-redirect" title="Saramaccan">Saramaccan</a>, the language McWhorter uses as a showcase for his theory.<a href="#cite_note-Gil_2001-17">[17]</a> The same objections were raised by Wittmann in his 1999 debate with McWhorter.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The lack of progress made in defining creoles in terms of their morphology and syntax has led scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_Chaudenson" title="Robert Chaudenson">Robert Chaudenson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salikoko_Mufwene" title="Salikoko Mufwene">Salikoko Mufwene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_DeGraff" title="Michel DeGraff">Michel DeGraff</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Henri_Wittmann" title="Henri Wittmann">Henri Wittmann</a> to question the value of creole as a typological class; they argue that creoles are structurally no different from any other language, and that creole is a sociohistoric concept – not a linguistic one – encompassing displaced populations and slavery.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomasonKaufman1988">Thomason & Kaufman (1988)</a> spell out the idea of creole exceptionalism, claiming that creole languages are an instance of nongenetic language change due to language shift with abnormal transmission. Gradualists question the abnormal transmission of languages in a creole setting and argue that the processes which created today's creole languages are no different from universal patterns of language change. Given these objections to creole as a concept, DeGraff and others question the idea that creoles are exceptional in any meaningful way.<a href="#cite_note-DeGraff_2003-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Additionally, <a href="#CITEREFMufwene2002">Mufwene (2002)</a> argues that some <a href="/wiki/Romance_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance language">Romance languages</a> are potential creoles but that they are not considered as such by linguists because of a historical bias against such a view. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Controversy">Controversy</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Controversy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> Creolistics investigates the relative creoleness of languages suspected to be creoles, what <a href="#CITEREFSchneider1990">Schneider (1990)</a> calls "the <a href="/wiki/Cline_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cline (linguistics)">cline</a> of creoleness". No consensus exists among creolists as to whether the nature of creoleness is <a href="/wiki/Prototypical" class="mw-redirect" title="Prototypical">prototypical</a> or merely evidence indicative of a set of recognizable phenomena seen in association with little inherent unity and no underlying single cause. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id='"Creole",_a_sociohistoric_concept'>"Creole", a sociohistoric concept</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=24" title='Edit section: "Creole", a sociohistoric concept' class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Creoleness is at the heart of the controversy with <a href="/wiki/John_McWhorter" title="John McWhorter">John McWhorter</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> and Mikael Parkvall<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParkvall2001-66">[66]</a> opposing <a href="/wiki/Henri_Wittmann" title="Henri Wittmann">Henri Wittmann</a> (1999) and <a href="/wiki/Michel_DeGraff" title="Michel DeGraff">Michel DeGraff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> In McWhorter's definition, creoleness is a matter of degree, in that prototypical creoles exhibit all of the three traits he proposes to diagnose creoleness: little or no <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflection</a>, little or no <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(linguistic)" title="Transparency (linguistic)">transparent</a> <a href="/wiki/Derivation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivation (linguistics)">derivation</a>. In McWhorter's view, less prototypical creoles depart somewhat from this <a href="/wiki/Prototype" title="Prototype">prototype</a>. Along these lines, McWhorter defines <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole" title="Haitian Creole">Haitian Creole</a>, exhibiting all three traits, as "the most creole of creoles".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcWhorter1998809-68">[68]</a> A creole like <a href="/wiki/Palenquero" title="Palenquero">Palenquero</a>, on the other hand, would be less prototypical, given the presence of inflection to mark plural, past, gerund, and participle forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcWhorter2000-69">[69]</a> Objections to the McWhorter-Parkvall hypotheses point out that these typological <a href="/wiki/Parameters" class="mw-redirect" title="Parameters">parameters</a> of creoleness can be found in languages such as <a href="/wiki/Manding_languages" title="Manding languages">Manding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soninke_language" title="Soninke language">Sooninke</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Magoua_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Magoua dialect">Magoua French</a> which are not considered creoles. Wittmann and DeGraff come to the conclusion that efforts to conceive a <a href="/wiki/Yardstick" class="mw-redirect" title="Yardstick">yardstick</a> for measuring <a href="/wiki/Creoleness" class="mw-redirect" title="Creoleness">creoleness</a> in any scientifically meaningful way have failed so far.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWittmann1999-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeGraff2003-71">[71]</a> <a href="#CITEREFGil2001">Gil (2001)</a> comes to the same conclusion for <a href="/wiki/Riau_Indonesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Riau Indonesian">Riau Indonesian</a>. <a href="#CITEREFMuyskenLaw2001">Muysken & Law (2001)</a> have adduced evidence as to creole languages which respond unexpectedly to one of McWhorter's three features (for example, <a href="/wiki/Inflectional_morphology" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflectional morphology">inflectional morphology</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berbice_Creole_Dutch" title="Berbice Creole Dutch">Berbice Creole Dutch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> in <a href="/wiki/Papiamentu" class="mw-redirect" title="Papiamentu">Papiamentu</a>). <a href="#CITEREFMufwene2000">Mufwene (2000)</a> and <a href="#CITEREFWittmann2001">Wittmann (2001)</a> have argued further that Creole languages are structurally no different from any other language, and that Creole is in fact a sociohistoric concept (and not a linguistic one), encompassing displaced population and slavery. <a href="#CITEREFDeGraffWalicek2005">DeGraff & Walicek (2005)</a> discuss creolistics in relation to <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialist</a> ideologies, rejecting the notion that Creoles can be responsibly defined in terms of specific grammatical characteristics. They discuss the history of linguistics and nineteenth-century work that argues for the consideration of the sociohistorical contexts in which Creole languages emerged. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id='"Creole",_a_genuine_linguistic_concept'>"Creole", a genuine linguistic concept</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=25" title='Edit section: "Creole", a genuine linguistic concept' class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> On the other hand, McWhorter points out that in languages such as <a href="/wiki/Bambara_language" title="Bambara language">Bambara</a>, essentially a dialect of <a href="/wiki/Manding_languages" title="Manding languages">Manding</a>, there is ample non-transparent derivation, and that there is no reason to suppose that this would be absent in close relatives such as <a href="/wiki/Mandinka_language" title="Mandinka language">Mandinka</a> itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcWhorter200516-72">[72]</a> Moreover, he also observes that <a href="/wiki/Soninke_language" title="Soninke language">Soninke</a> has what all linguists would analyze as <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflections</a>, and that current lexicography of Soninke is too elementary for it to be stated with authority that it does not have non-transparent derivation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcWhorter200535,_369-73">[73]</a> Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Magoua_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Magoua dialect">Magoua French</a>, as described by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Wittmann" title="Henri Wittmann">Henri Wittmann</a>, retains some indication of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a>, which qualifies as inflection, and it also retains non-transparent derivation.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Michel DeGraff's argument has been that <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole" title="Haitian Creole">Haitian Creole</a> retains non-transparent derivation from French. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Additional_resources">Additional resources</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Additional resources" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="#CITEREFAnsaldoMatthewsLim2007">Ansaldo, Matthews & Lim (2007)</a> critically assesses the proposal that creole languages exist as a homogeneous structural type with shared and/ or peculiar origins. <a href="#CITEREFArendsMuyskenSmith1995">Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995)</a> groups creole genesis theories into four categories: <ul><li>Theories focusing on the <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> input</li> <li>Theories focusing on the non-European input</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gradualist" class="mw-redirect" title="Gradualist">Gradualist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Developmental_linguistics" title="Developmental linguistics">developmental</a> hypotheses</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Universalist">Universalist</a> approaches</li></ul> The authors also confine <a href="/wiki/Pidgins" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgins">Pidgins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mixed_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed languages">mixed languages</a> into separate chapters outside this scheme whether or not relexification come into the picture. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMuysken2016" class="citation web cs1">Muysken, Pieter (9 June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-68?d=%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199384655-e-68&p=emailAaW29v.yG9TnU">"Creole Languages"</a>. Oxford Research Encyclopedias: Linguistics. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.013.68">10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.68</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Creole+Languages&rft.pub=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedias%3A+Linguistics&rft.date=2016-06-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.013.68&rft.aulast=Muysken&rft.aufirst=Pieter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Flinguistics%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199384655-e-68%3Fd%3D%252F10.1093%252Facrefore%252F9780199384655.001.0001%252Facrefore-9780199384655-e-68%26p%3DemailAaW29v.yG9TnU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people" title="Criollo people">Criollo people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">Diglossia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">Language contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">Lingua franca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creole_languages" title="List of creole languages">List of creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macaronic_language" title="Macaronic language">Macaronic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_language" title="Nation language">Nation language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Sign_Language" title="Nicaraguan Sign Language">Nicaraguan Sign Language</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creoles_by_parent_language">Creoles by parent language</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Creoles by parent language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic-based creole languages">Arabic-based creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assamese_language" title="Assamese language">Assamese</a>-based: <a href="/wiki/Nagamese_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagamese Creole">Nagamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a>-<a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a> creole: <a href="/wiki/Bishnupriya_Manipuri_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishnupriya Manipuri language">Bishnupriya Manipuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese-based creole languages">Chinese-based creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch-based_creole_languages" title="Dutch-based creole languages">Dutch-based creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-based_creole_languages" title="English-based creole languages">English-based creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French-based_creole_languages" title="French-based creole languages">French-based creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="German-based creole languages">German-based creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>-based: <a href="/wiki/Andaman_Creole_Hindi" title="Andaman Creole Hindi">Andaman Creole Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese-based_creole_languages" title="Japanese-based creole languages">Japanese-based creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">Kongo</a>-based: <a href="/wiki/Kituba_language" title="Kituba language">Kituba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay-based creole languages">Malay-based creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngbandi_language" title="Ngbandi language">Ngbandi</a>-based: <a href="/wiki/Sango_language" title="Sango language">Sango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Portuguese-based creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish-based_creole_languages" title="Spanish-based creole languages">Spanish-based creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_language" title="Sinhala language">Sinhala</a>-based: <a href="/wiki/Vedda_language" title="Vedda language">Vedda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a>-based: <a href="/wiki/Kutchi-Swahili" title="Kutchi-Swahili">Kutchi-Swahili</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://languagesindanger.eu/book-of-knowledge/multilingualism-and-language-contact/">"Multilingualism and 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(2015). Trask's historical linguistics. Routledge. pp. 305-306. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Calvet, Louis-Jean. (2006). Toward an Ecology of World Languages. Malden, MA: Polity Press. [173-6] </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> McWhorter, J. H. (2005). Defining creole. Oxford University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170620093817/https://www.alsintl.com/resources/languages/Creole/">"Creole – Language Information & Resources"</a>. www.alsintl.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.alsintl.com/resources/languages/Creole/">the original</a> on June 20, 2017. Retrieved October 9, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.alsintl.com&rft.atitle=Creole+%E2%80%93+Language+Information+%26+Resources&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.alsintl.com%2Fresources%2Flanguages%2FCreole%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Linguistics, ed. Anne E. Baker, Kees Hengeveld, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R8uWDVdRQlYC&pg=PT436">p. 436</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegel2008" class="citation book cs1">Siegel, Jeff (2008). The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole Languages. New York: Oxford Linguistics. pp. 68–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921666-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921666-6"><bdi>978-0-19-921666-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emergence+of+Pidgin+and+Creole+Languages&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=68-69&rft.pub=Oxford+Linguistics&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-921666-6&rft.aulast=Siegel&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWardhaugh2002">Wardhaugh (2002</a>:61) </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHall1966">Hall (1966)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBickerton1983">Bickerton (1983</a>:116–122) </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinford1997">Winford (1997</a>:138); cited in <a href="#CITEREFWardhaugh2002">Wardhaugh (2002)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWittmann1999">Wittmann (1999)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMufwene2000">Mufwene (2000)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gil_2001-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gil_2001_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gil_2001_17-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGil2001">Gil (2001)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muysken_2001-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Muysken_2001_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Muysken_2001_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuyskenLaw2001">Muysken & Law (2001)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLefebvre2002">Lefebvre (2002)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeGraff_2003-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DeGraff_2003_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeGraff_2003_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeGraff2003">DeGraff (2003)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeCamp-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DeCamp_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeCamp_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeCamp_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeCamp_21-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeCamp_21-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeCamp1977">DeCamp (1977)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sebba-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sebba_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sebba_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sebba_22-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebba1997">Sebba (1997)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMufwene" class="citation web cs1">Mufwene, Salikoko. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130603044826/http://humanities.uchicago.edu/faculty/mufwene/pidginCreoleLanguage.html">"Pidgin and Creole Languages"</a>. Humanities.uchicago.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://humanities.uchicago.edu/faculty/mufwene/pidginCreoleLanguage.html">the original</a> on 2013-06-03. Retrieved 2010-04-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Humanities.uchicago.edu&rft.atitle=Pidgin+and+Creole+Languages&rft.aulast=Mufwene&rft.aufirst=Salikoko&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhumanities.uchicago.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fmufwene%2FpidginCreoleLanguage.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolm1988">Holm (1988)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChambers2008" class="citation journal cs1">Chambers, Douglas B. (2008-12-01). "Slave trade merchants of Spanish New Orleans, 1763–1803: Clarifying the colonial slave trade to Louisiana in Atlantic perspective". Atlantic Studies. 5 (3): 335–346. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14788810802445024">10.1080/14788810802445024</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1478-8810">1478-8810</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159786747">159786747</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atlantic+Studies&rft.atitle=Slave+trade+merchants+of+Spanish+New+Orleans%2C+1763%E2%80%931803%3A+Clarifying+the+colonial+slave+trade+to+Louisiana+in+Atlantic+perspective&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=335-346&rft.date=2008-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159786747%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1478-8810&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14788810802445024&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=Douglas+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meijer-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meijer_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meijer_26-1">b</a> See <a href="#CITEREFMeijerMuysken1977">Meijer & Muysken (1977)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Traugott_1977-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Traugott_1977_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Traugott_1977_27-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTraugott1977">Traugott (1977)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Holm (1988, 1989) </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2016" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Robert L. (2016-07-25). "The Ebonics Controversy". Journal of Black Psychology. 23 (3): 208–214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00957984970233002">10.1177/00957984970233002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145764278">145764278</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Black+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+Ebonics+Controversy&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=208-214&rft.date=2016-07-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F00957984970233002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145764278%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArendsMuyskenSmith1995">Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995</a>:15) </li> <li id="cite_note-Weinreich-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weinreich_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weinreich_31-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinreich1979">Weinreich (1979)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMufwene1993">Mufwene (1993)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSingler1988">Singler (1988)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSingler1996">Singler (1996)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Recent investigations about substrates and superstrates, in creoles and other languages, includes <a href="#CITEREFFeist1932">Feist (1932)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFWeinreich1979">Weinreich (1979)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFJungemann1955">Jungemann (1955)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFMartinet1964">Martinet (1964)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFHall1974">Hall (1974)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFSingler1983">Singler (1983)</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFSingler1988">Singler (1988)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkvall2000">Parkvall (2000)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/conference/2013_APiCS/files/abstracts.html">"Creole and pidgin language structure in cross-linguistic perspective"</a>. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology – Department of Linguistics. August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Creole+and+pidgin+language+structure+in+cross-linguistic+perspective&rft.pub=Max+Planck+Institute+for+Evolutionary+Anthropology+%E2%80%93+Department+of+Linguistics&rft.date=2013-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eva.mpg.de%2Flingua%2Fconference%2F2013_APiCS%2Ffiles%2Fabstracts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArendsMuyskenSmith1995">Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995</a>:9) </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFournier1998">Fournier (1998)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFWittmann1995">Wittmann (1995)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFWittmann1998">Wittmann (1998)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhorf1956">Whorf (1956)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaileyMaroldt1977">Bailey & Maroldt (1977)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcWhorter2018" class="citation book cs1">McWhorter, John (2018). The Creole Debate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creole+Debate&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=McWhorter&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeGraff2001" class="citation journal cs1">DeGraff, Michael (2001). "On the origin of creoles". Linguistic Typology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistic+Typology&rft.atitle=On+the+origin+of+creoles&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=DeGraff&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> such as in <a href="#CITEREFTaylor1977">Taylor (1977)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhinnom1956">Whinnom (1956)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFWhinnom1965">Whinnom (1965)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThompson1961">Thompson (1961)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStewart1962">Stewart (1962)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBickerton1977">Bickerton (1977</a>:62) </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> There are some similarities in this line of thinking with <a href="/wiki/Ian_F._Hancock" class="mw-redirect" title="Ian F. Hancock">Hancock's</a> domestic origin hypothesis. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Wittmann (1983, 1995, 2001), <a href="#CITEREFFournier1998">Fournier (1998)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFFournierWittmann1995">Fournier & Wittmann (1995)</a>; cf. the article on Quebec French and the History of Quebec French </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> See, for example, <a href="#CITEREFFerguson1971">Ferguson (1971)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWardhaugh2002">Wardhaugh (2002</a>:73) </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Based on 19th-century intuitions, approaches underlying the imperfect L2 learning hypothesis have been followed up in the works of <a href="#CITEREFSchumann1978">Schumann (1978)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFAnderson1983">Anderson (1983)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFSeurenWekker1986">Seuren & Wekker (1986)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFArendsMuyskenSmith1995">Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFGeeslin2002">Geeslin (2002)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFHamiltonCoslett2008">Hamilton & Coslett (2008)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> See the article on <a href="/wiki/Relexification" title="Relexification">relexification</a> for a discussion of the controversy surrounding the retaining of substrate grammatical features through relexification. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWardhaugh2002">Wardhaugh (2002</a>:56–57) </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> See <a href="#CITEREFBickerton1981">Bickerton (1981)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFBickerton1983">Bickerton (1983)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFBickerton1984">Bickerton (1984)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFBickerton1988">Bickerton (1988)</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFBickerton1991">Bickerton (1991)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> See <a href="#CITEREFBickerton1983">Bickerton (1983)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> See <a href="#CITEREFMcWhorter1998">McWhorter (1998)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFMcWhorter2005">McWhorter (2005)</a>, <a href="#CITEREFMcWhorter2018">McWhorter (2018)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuyskenLaw2001">Muysken & Law (2001)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcWhorter1998">McWhorter (1998)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcWhorter2005">McWhorter (2005)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nou-la.org/ling/1999a-prototype.html">"Prototype as a Typological Yardstick to Creoleness"</a>. www.nou-la.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nou-la.org&rft.atitle=Prototype+as+a+Typological+Yardstick+to+Creoleness&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nou-la.org%2Fling%2F1999a-prototype.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMufwene2000">Mufwene (2000)</a>, Wittmann (2001) </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnsaldoMatthews2007">Ansaldo & Matthews (2007)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> As in <a href="#CITEREFMcWhorter1998">McWhorter (1998)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParkvall2001-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParkvall2001_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParkvall2001">Parkvall (2001)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> As in <a href="#CITEREFDeGraff2003">DeGraff (2003)</a> and <a href="#CITEREFDeGraff2005">DeGraff (2005)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcWhorter1998809-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcWhorter1998809_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcWhorter1998">McWhorter (1998)</a>, p. 809. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcWhorter2000-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcWhorter2000_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcWhorter2000">McWhorter (2000)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWittmann1999-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWittmann1999_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWittmann1999">Wittmann (1999)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeGraff2003-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeGraff2003_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeGraff2003">DeGraff (2003)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcWhorter200516-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcWhorter200516_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcWhorter2005">McWhorter (2005)</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcWhorter200535,_369-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcWhorter200535,_369_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcWhorter2005">McWhorter (2005)</a>, pp. 35, 369. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWittmann1996">Wittmann (1996)</a> and <a href="#CITEREFWittmann1998">Wittmann (1998)</a> as interpreted by <a href="#CITEREFParkvall2000">Parkvall (2000)</a>. </li> </ol></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Bibliography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1983" class="citation cs2">Anderson, Roger W., ed. (1983), Pidginization and Creolization as Language Acquisition, Rowley, MA: Newbury House</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pidginization+and+Creolization+as+Language+Acquisition&rft.place=Rowley%2C+MA&rft.pub=Newbury+House&rft.date=1983&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnsaldoMatthews2007" class="citation cs2">Ansaldo, U.; Matthews, S. 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Robert (ed.), Mélanges linguistiques, Revue québécoise de linguistique théorique et appliquée 13, Trois-Rivières: Presses universitaires de Trois-Rivières, pp. 245–280</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Contraintes+sur+la+relexification%3A+les+limites+impos%C3%A9es+dans+un+cadre+th%C3%A9orique+minimaliste&rft.btitle=M%C3%A9langes+linguistiques&rft.place=Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res&rft.series=Revue+qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9coise+de+linguistique+th%C3%A9orique+et+appliqu%C3%A9e%27%27+13&rft.pages=245-280&rft.pub=Presses+universitaires+de+Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Wittmann&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft.au=Fournier%2C+Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nou-la.org%2Fling%2F1996e-chiar.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading_2">Further reading</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Arends, Jacques; Muysken, Pieter; Smith, Norval (1995), Pidgins and Creoles: An introduction, Amsterdam: Benjamins, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-272-5236-X" title="Special:BookSources/90-272-5236-X"><bdi>90-272-5236-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pidgins+and+Creoles%3A+An+introduction&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=Benjamins&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=90-272-5236-X&rft.aulast=Arends&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft.au=Muysken%2C+Pieter&rft.au=Smith%2C+Norval&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Arends, Jacques (1989), Syntactic Developments in Sranan: Creolization as a gradual process, Nijmegen: Katholieke Universiteit ti Nijmegen, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-900268-3-5" title="Special:BookSources/90-900268-3-5"><bdi>90-900268-3-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syntactic+Developments+in+Sranan%3A+Creolization+as+a+gradual+process&rft.place=Nijmegen&rft.pub=Katholieke+Universiteit+ti+Nijmegen&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=90-900268-3-5&rft.aulast=Arends&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Bickerton" title="Derek Bickerton">Bickerton, Derek</a> (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7yRB7V1oE4sC">Bastard Tongues: A Trailblazing Linguist Finds Clues to Our Common Humanity in the World's Lowliest Languages</a>, Macmillan, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-2816-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-2816-0"><bdi>978-0-8090-2816-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bastard+Tongues%3A+A+Trailblazing+Linguist+Finds+Clues+to+Our+Common+Humanity+in+the+World%27s+Lowliest+Languages&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8090-2816-0&rft.aulast=Bickerton&rft.aufirst=Derek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7yRB7V1oE4sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">DeGraff, Michel (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/linguistics/people/faculty/degraff/darwin/anti-simplest.html">"On the origin of creoles: A Cartesian critique of Neo-Darwinian linguistics"</a>, Linguistic Typology, 5 (2–3): 213–310</cite><span 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href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fjpcl.11.2.02sin">10.1075/jpcl.11.2.02sin</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pidgin+and+Creole+Languages&rft.atitle=Theories+of+creole+genesis%2C+sociohistorical+considerations%2C+and+the+evaluation+of+evidence%3A+The+case+of+Haitian+Creole+and+the+Relexification+Hypothesis&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=185-230&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fjpcl.11.2.02sin&rft.aulast=Singler&rft.aufirst=John+Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Wittmann" title="Henri Wittmann">Wittmann, Henri</a> (1983), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nou-la.org/ling/1983c-morphodia.pdf">"Les réactions en chaîne en morphologie diachronique"</a> (PDF), Actes du Colloque de la Société Internationale de Linguistique Fonctionnelle, 10: 285–92</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Actes+du+Colloque+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+Internationale+de+Linguistique+Fonctionnelle&rft.atitle=Les+r%C3%A9actions+en+cha%C3%AEne+en+morphologie+diachronique&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=285-92&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Wittmann&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nou-la.org%2Fling%2F1983c-morphodia.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Wittmann, Henri (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nou-la.org/ling/1998a-fpparis.pdf">"Le français de Paris dans le français des Amériques"</a> (PDF), Proceedings of the International Congress of Linguists, 16, Amsterdam: Elsevier</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+International+Congress+of+Linguists&rft.atitle=Le+fran%C3%A7ais+de+Paris+dans+le+fran%C3%A7ais+des+Am%C3%A9riques&rft.volume=16&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Wittmann&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nou-la.org%2Fling%2F1998a-fpparis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACreole+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Wittmann, Henri (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nou-la.org/ling/1999a-prototype.html">"Prototype as a typological yardstick to creoleness."</a> The Creolist Archives Papers On-Line, Stockholms Universitet.</li> <li>Wittmann, Henri (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nou-la.org/ling/2001c-lexical_diffusion/01h2LexDiffFin.html">"Lexical diffusion and the glottogenetics of creole French."</a> CreoList debate, parts I-VI, appendixes 1–9. The Linguist List, Eastern Michigan University|Wayne State University</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 30px;height: 40px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="30" data-height="40" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Creole_languages" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Creole languages">Creole languages</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kreolmagazine.com/">International Magazine Kreol</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acblpe.com/en">Association of Portuguese and Spanish Lexically-based Creoles</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hawaii.edu/satocenter/langnet/index.html">Language Varieties</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.answers.com/topic/creoles">Creole language</a> at <a href="/wiki/Answers.com" title="Answers.com">Answers.com</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.odlt.org/ballast/creole.html">Creole definition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190924003940/http://odlt.org/ballast/creole.html">Archived</a> 2019-09-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at the Online Dictionary of Language Terminology (ODLT)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.louisianacreoledictionary.com/">Louisiana Creole Dictionary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190929115406/http://www.louisianacreoledictionary.com/">Archived</a> 2019-09-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/societypidgncreolelinguistics/home">Society for Pidgin & Creole Linguistics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201011105330/https://sites.google.com/site/societypidgncreolelinguistics/home">Archived</a> 2020-10-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apics-online.info/">Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures (APiCS)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_French">In French</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: In French" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://creoles.free.fr/">Groupe Européen de Recherches en Langues Créoles</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n80009567//">Groupe d'études et de recherches en espace créolophone</a> in libraries (<a href="/wiki/WorldCat" title="WorldCat">WorldCat</a> catalog)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abecsnet.wordpress.com/">Associação Brasileira de Estudos Crioulos e Similares</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scl-online.net/">Society for Caribbean Linguistics</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&oldid=1258059928">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&oldid=1258059928</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 17 November 2024, at 23:20 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreools" title="Kreools – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kreools" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolsprachen" title="Kreolsprachen – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kreolsprachen" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="لغة مولدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة مولدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llingua_criolla" title="Llingua criolla – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingua criolla" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreol_dili" title="Kreol dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kreol dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_gi%C3%A2n-g%C3%BA" title="Creole giân-gú – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Creole giân-gú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Крэольскія мовы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Крэольскія мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Креолски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Креолски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_kreolek" title="Yezhoù kreolek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù kreolek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llengua_criolla" title="Llengua criolla – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengua criolla" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreol%C5%A1tina" title="Kreolština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kreolština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creol" title="Creol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Creol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolsprog" title="Kreolsprog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kreolsprog" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolsprache" title="Kreolsprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kreolsprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolska_r%C4%9Bc" title="Kreolska rěc – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Kreolska rěc" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreoolkeel" title="Kreoolkeel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kreoolkeel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Κρεολή γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κρεολή γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_criolla" title="Lengua criolla – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lengua criolla" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreola_lingvo" title="Kreola lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kreola lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolera" title="Kreolera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kreolera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84" title="کریول – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کریول" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langues_cr%C3%A9oles" title="Langues créoles – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langues créoles" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreoalske_taal" title="Kreoalske taal – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kreoalske taal" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cri%C3%B3l" title="Criól – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Criól" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_crioulas" title="Linguas crioulas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguas crioulas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E5%A5%A7%E7%88%BE%E8%AA%9E" title="克里奧爾語 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="克里奧爾語" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%81%AC%EB%A6%AC%EC%98%AC_(%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99)" title="크리올 (언어학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="크리올 (언어학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B8%D5%AC_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82" title="Կրեոլ լեզու – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կրեոլ լեզու" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="क्रियोल भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="क्रियोल भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolska_r%C4%9B%C4%8D" title="Kreolska rěč – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Kreolska rěč" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolski_jezici" title="Kreolski jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kreolski jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreola_linguo" title="Kreola linguo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kreola linguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_kreol" title="Bahasa kreol – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa kreol" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_creol" title="Lingua creol – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Lingua creol" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kre%C3%B3lam%C3%A1l" title="Kreólamál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kreólamál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_creola" title="Lingua creola – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua creola" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA" title="שפה קריאולית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שפה קריאולית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="კრეოლური ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კრეოლური ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krioli" title="Krioli – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Krioli" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lang_krey%C3%B2l" title="Lang kreyòl – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lang kreyòl" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriy%C3%B2l" title="Kriyòl – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Kriyòl" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_creola" title="Lingua creola – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua creola" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolisk%C4%81s_valodas" title="Kreoliskās valodas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kreoliskās valodas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreol%C5%B3_kalbos" title="Kreolų kalbos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kreolų kalbos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creooltaol" title="Creooltaol – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Creooltaol" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creol" title="Creol – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Creol" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreol_nyelv" title="Kreol nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kreol nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84" title="کریول – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="کریول" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_campuran" title="Bahasa campuran – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa campuran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcm mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriole_langwej" title="Kriole langwej – Nigerian Pidgin" lang="pcm" hreflang="pcm" data-title="Kriole langwej" data-language-autonym="Naijá" data-language-local-name="Nigerian Pidgin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Naijá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creoolse_talen" title="Creoolse talen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Creoolse talen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreoolsproake" title="Kreoolsproake – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Kreoolsproake" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AC%E3%82%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E" title="クレオール言語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="クレオール言語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreoolspriak" title="Kreoolspriak – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Kreoolspriak" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolspr%C3%A5k" title="Kreolspråk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kreolspråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolspr%C3%A5k" title="Kreolspråk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kreolspråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cre%C3%B2l_(lenga)" title="Creòl (lenga) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Creòl (lenga)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_krioyo" title="Idioma krioyo – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Idioma krioyo" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="کريول ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کريول ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenghe_cr%C3%A9ole" title="Lenghe créole – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenghe créole" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreoolspraak" title="Kreoolspraak – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kreoolspraak" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyki_kreolskie" title="Języki kreolskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Języki kreolskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_crioulas" title="Línguas crioulas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas crioulas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limb%C4%83_creol%C4%83" title="Limbă creolă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limbă creolă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Креольские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Креольские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_cr%C3%A8ola" title="Limba crèola – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limba crèola" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_e_Kreoleve" title="Gjuha e Kreoleve – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha e Kreoleve" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Creole language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreol%C4%8Dina" title="Kreolčina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kreolčina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreol%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Kreolščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kreolščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Креолски језици – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Креолски језици" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolski_jezici" title="Kreolski jezici – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kreolski jezici" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolikieli" title="Kreolikieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kreolikieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreolspr%C3%A5k" title="Kreolspråk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kreolspråk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="கிரியோல் மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கிரியோல் மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A5" title="ภาษาครีโอล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาครีโอล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreol" title="Kreol – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kreol" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Креольська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Креольська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="کریول زبانیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کریول زبانیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creolo" title="Creolo – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Creolo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%B4n_ng%E1%BB%AF_Creole" title="Ngôn ngữ Creole – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngôn ngữ Creole" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creyole" title="Creyole – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Creyole" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E5%A5%A5%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD" title="克里奥尔语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="克里奥尔语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AD%B8%E8%9E%8D%E8%A9%B1" title="歸融話 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="歸融話" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E5%A5%A7%E7%88%BE%E8%AA%9E" title="克里奧爾語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="克里奧爾語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_peranakan" title="Basa peranakan – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Basa peranakan" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 17 November 2024, at 23:20 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li 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id="footer-places-desktop-toggle"><a id="mw-mf-display-toggle" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Creole_language&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktop" data-event-name="switch_to_desktop">Desktop</a></li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div> </div> <div class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-g2dn4","wgBackendResponseTime":215,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.885","walltime":"2.202","ppvisitednodes":{"value":10960,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":308676,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":5084,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":15,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":8,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":308509,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1928.846 1 -total"," 27.56% 531.571 96 Template:Citation"," 11.91% 229.817 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