CINXE.COM
The Holocaust in Poland - Wikipedia
<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>The Holocaust in Poland - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"30613d0a-49fd-4295-9740-9342e6024fc5","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"The_Holocaust_in_Poland","wgTitle":"The Holocaust in Poland","wgCurRevisionId":1258519951,"wgRevisionId":1258519951,"wgArticleId":4700769,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 Polish-language sources (pl)","CS1 errors: periodical ignored","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages","Use mdy dates from June 2019","Use American English from December 2017","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024", "All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from October 2024","Articles containing German-language text","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2023","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023","Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021","All articles containing potentially dated statements","Articles lacking reliable references from May 2023","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","The Holocaust in Poland","The Holocaust by country"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"The_Holocaust_in_Poland","wgRelevantArticleId":4700769,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["extendedconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true, "wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":90000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q2587808","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready", "ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface", "ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg/1200px-Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="640"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg/800px-Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="427"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg/640px-Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="341"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="The Holocaust in Poland - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-The_Holocaust_in_Poland rootpage-The_Holocaust_in_Poland skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=The+Holocaust+in+Poland" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=The+Holocaust+in+Poland" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=The+Holocaust+in+Poland" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=The+Holocaust+in+Poland" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasion_of_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasion_of_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Invasion of Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasion_of_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resettlement_plans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resettlement_plans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Resettlement plans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resettlement_plans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ghettoization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ghettoization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Ghettoization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ghettoization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extermination_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extermination_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Extermination of Jews in Eastern Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extermination_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liquidation_of_the_ghettos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liquidation_of_the_ghettos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Liquidation of the ghettos</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Liquidation_of_the_ghettos-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Liquidation of the ghettos subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Liquidation_of_the_ghettos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Extermination_camps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extermination_camps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Extermination camps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extermination_camps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>General Government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German-annexed_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German-annexed_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>German-annexed areas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German-annexed_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armed_resistance_and_ghetto_uprisings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armed_resistance_and_ghetto_uprisings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Armed resistance and ghetto uprisings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armed_resistance_and_ghetto_uprisings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>International response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Escape,_hiding_and_rescue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Escape,_hiding_and_rescue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Escape, hiding and rescue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Escape,_hiding_and_rescue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_toll" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_toll"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Death toll</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_toll-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Aftermath</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emigration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emigration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Emigration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emigration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">The Holocaust in Poland</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="الهولوكوست في بولندا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الهولوكوست في بولندا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%B2_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Холокост в Полша – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Холокост в Полша" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holokaust_v_Polsku" title="Holokaust v Polsku – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Holokaust v Polsku" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocausto_en_Polonia" title="Holocausto en Polonia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Holocausto en Polonia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%84%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="هولوکاست در لهستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هولوکاست در لهستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoah_en_Pologne" title="Shoah en Pologne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Shoah en Pologne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%84%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A8_%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Հոլոքոստը Լեհաստանում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հոլոքոստը Լեհաստանում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olocausto_in_Polonia" title="Olocausto in Polonia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Olocausto in Polonia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%90%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F" title="שואת יהודי פולין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שואת יהודי פולין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="പോളണ്ടിലെ ഹോളോകോസ്റ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പോളണ്ടിലെ ഹോളോകോസ്റ്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%81%AB%E3%81%8A%E3%81%91%E3%82%8B%E3%83%9B%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B3%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88" title="ポーランドにおけるホロコースト – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ポーランドにおけるホロコースト" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust_i_Polen" title="Holocaust i Polen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Holocaust i Polen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%87_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%DA%89_%DA%A9%DB%90_%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%84%E2%80%8C_%D9%88%DA%98%D9%86%D9%87" title="په پولنډ کې ټول وژنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="په پولنډ کې ټول وژنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zag%C5%82ada_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w_na_ziemiach_polskich_podczas_okupacji_niemieckiej" title="Zagłada Żydów na ziemiach polskich podczas okupacji niemieckiej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zagłada Żydów na ziemiach polskich podczas okupacji niemieckiej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocausto_na_Pol%C3%B4nia" title="Holocausto na Polônia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Holocausto na Polônia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%B2_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%B5" title="Холокост в Польше – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Холокост в Польше" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82_%D1%83_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%99%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%98" title="Холокауст у Пољској – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Холокауст у Пољској" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6rintelsen_i_Polen" title="Förintelsen i Polen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Förintelsen i Polen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%8C" title="ฮอโลคอสต์ในโปแลนด์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฮอโลคอสต์ในโปแลนด์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonya%27da_Holokost" title="Polonya'da Holokost – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Polonya'da Holokost" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82_%D1%83_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%89%D1%96" title="Голокост у Польщі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Голокост у Польщі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E5%85%B0%E5%A2%83%E5%86%85%E7%9A%84%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA%E5%A4%A7%E5%B1%A0%E6%9D%80" title="波兰境内的犹太人大屠杀 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="波兰境内的犹太人大屠杀" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2587808#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:The_Holocaust_in_Poland" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&action=edit" title="This page is protected. You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Poland"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&action=edit"><span>View source</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/The_Holocaust_in_Poland" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&oldid=1258519951" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&id=1258519951&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FThe_Holocaust_in_Poland"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FThe_Holocaust_in_Poland"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:The_Holocaust_in_Poland" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2587808" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#extended" title="This article is extended-protected due to vandalism"><img alt="Page extended-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8c/Extended-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Extended-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8c/Extended-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Extended-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8c/Extended-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Extended-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Polish_Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Holocaust">Polish Holocaust</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">The Holocaust in Poland</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div style="background-color:#ffffff;border-collapse:collapse;border:0px solid black;width:330px;display:table;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:2px 0 0 2px"><div style="display:table;background-color:#ffffff;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 2px 2px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning,_1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg/330px-Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg/495px-Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg/660px-Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4998" data-file-height="2665" /></a></span></div></div></div><div style="display:table;background-color:#ffffff;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 2px 2px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lodz_Ghetto_children_deportation_to_Chelmno.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Lodz_Ghetto_children_deportation_to_Chelmno.jpg/164px-Lodz_Ghetto_children_deportation_to_Chelmno.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Lodz_Ghetto_children_deportation_to_Chelmno.jpg/246px-Lodz_Ghetto_children_deportation_to_Chelmno.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Lodz_Ghetto_children_deportation_to_Chelmno.jpg/328px-Lodz_Ghetto_children_deportation_to_Chelmno.jpg 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="537" /></a></span></div><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 2px 2px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:German_officer_executes_Jewish_women_who_survived_a_mass_shooting_outside_the_Mizocz_ghetto,_14_October_1942.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/German_officer_executes_Jewish_women_who_survived_a_mass_shooting_outside_the_Mizocz_ghetto%2C_14_October_1942.jpg/164px-German_officer_executes_Jewish_women_who_survived_a_mass_shooting_outside_the_Mizocz_ghetto%2C_14_October_1942.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/German_officer_executes_Jewish_women_who_survived_a_mass_shooting_outside_the_Mizocz_ghetto%2C_14_October_1942.jpg/246px-German_officer_executes_Jewish_women_who_survived_a_mass_shooting_outside_the_Mizocz_ghetto%2C_14_October_1942.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/German_officer_executes_Jewish_women_who_survived_a_mass_shooting_outside_the_Mizocz_ghetto%2C_14_October_1942.jpg/328px-German_officer_executes_Jewish_women_who_survived_a_mass_shooting_outside_the_Mizocz_ghetto%2C_14_October_1942.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1145" /></a></span></div></div></div><div style="display:table;background-color:#ffffff;border-collapse:collapse"><div style="display:table-row"><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 2px 2px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_10.jpg/164px-Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_10.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_10.jpg/246px-Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_10.jpg/328px-Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1895" data-file-height="1307" /></a></span></div><div style="display:table-cell;border-top:0;padding:0 2px 2px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau,_1944_(Auschwitz_Album)_1b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau%2C_1944_%28Auschwitz_Album%29_1b.jpg/164px-Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau%2C_1944_%28Auschwitz_Album%29_1b.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau%2C_1944_%28Auschwitz_Album%29_1b.jpg/246px-Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau%2C_1944_%28Auschwitz_Album%29_1b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau%2C_1944_%28Auschwitz_Album%29_1b.jpg/328px-Selection_on_the_ramp_at_Auschwitz-Birkenau%2C_1944_%28Auschwitz_Album%29_1b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4205" data-file-height="2814" /></a></span></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="infobox-caption" style="font-size:88%;">Top, clockwise: <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a> burning, May 1943 • <i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Einsatzgruppe">Einsatzgruppe</a></i> shooting of women from the <a href="/wiki/Mizocz_Ghetto" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizocz Ghetto">Mizocz Ghetto</a>, 1942 • Selection of people to be sent directly to the gas chamber right after their arrival at Auschwitz-II <a href="/wiki/Birkenau" class="mw-redirect" title="Birkenau">Birkenau</a> • Jews captured in the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a> led to the <i><a href="/wiki/Umschlagplatz" title="Umschlagplatz">Umschlagplatz</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Waffen_SS" class="mw-redirect" title="Waffen SS">Waffen SS</a> • <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto" title="Łódź Ghetto">Łódź Ghetto</a> children deported to <a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno</a> <a href="/wiki/Death_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Death camp">death camp</a>, 1942</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddf;">Overview</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Period</th><td class="infobox-data">1941–1945</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Territory</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Occupied_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupied Poland">Occupied Poland</a>, also present day <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">western Ukraine</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belarus" title="The Holocaust in Belarus">western Belarus</a> among others</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrators</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">its collaborators</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Killed</th><td class="infobox-data">3,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Polish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Jews">Polish Jews</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_survivors" title="Holocaust survivors">Survivors</a></th><td class="infobox-data">157,000–375,000 in the Soviet Union<sup id="cite_ref-Edele_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edele-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />50,000 liberated from <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Nazi concentration camps</a><sup id="cite_ref-Stola2017_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stola2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />30,000–60,000 in hiding<sup id="cite_ref-Stola2017_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stola2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>The Holocaust in Poland</b> was the ghettoization, robbery, deportation and mass murder of Jews, alongside other groups under <a href="/wiki/Nazi_racial_theories" title="Nazi racial theories">similar racial pretexts</a> in <a href="/wiki/German-occupied_Poland" title="German-occupied Poland">occupied Poland</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. 3,000,000+ <a href="/wiki/Polish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Jews">Polish Jews</a> were murdered, primarily at the <a href="/wiki/Chelmno" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelmno">Chelmno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belzec_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Belzec concentration camp">Belzec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Treblinka concentration camp">Treblinka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a> <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a>, who made up half of the Jewish Holocaust victims.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During Nazi occupation, the country lost 20% of its population, or six million people, including three million Jews (90% of the country's Jewish population). The important Polish Jewish community pre-war was almost destroyed. All Poles, Christian or Jewish, were bound for total annihilation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (October 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 1939, Nazi Germany <a href="/wiki/Invaded_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Invaded Poland">invaded Poland</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">invaded Poland from the east</a>. In German-occupied Poland, Jews were killed, subjected to forced labor, and forced to move to ghettos. Some 7,000 Jews were killed in 1939, but open mass killings subsided until June of 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201663,_437_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201663,_437-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union deported many Jews to the Soviet interior, where most survived the war. In 1941, <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Germany invaded the Soviet Union</a> and began the systematic murder of Jews. 1.8 million Jews were killed in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Reinhard" title="Operation Reinhard">Operation Reinhard</a>, shot in roundups in ghettos, died during <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trains" title="Holocaust trains">the train journey</a>, or killed by poison gas in the <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a>. In 1943 and 1944, the remaining labor camps and ghettos were liquidated. Many Jews tried to escape, but surviving in hiding was very difficult due to factors such as the lack of money to pay helpers and the risk of denunciation. Only 1 to 2 percent of Polish Jews in German-occupied territory survived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurzlaff20201065_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurzlaff20201065-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the war, survivors faced difficulties in regaining their property and rebuilding their lives. Especially after the <a href="/wiki/Kielce_pogrom" title="Kielce pogrom">Kielce pogrom</a>, many fled to <a href="/wiki/Displaced_persons_camps_in_post%E2%80%93World_War_II_Europe" title="Displaced persons camps in post–World War II Europe">displaced persons camps</a> in <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Allied-occupied Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <p><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Jews have lived in Poland</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelfth century">twelfth century</a>. Many Polish Jews settled on noble estates where they were offered protection in exchange for the economic benefits they could provide.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An estimated 3 million Jews lived in Poland in 1933 around ten percent of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201813_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201813-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-YIVO_interwar_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YIVO_interwar-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to historical restrictions on what occupations Jews were allowed to have, they became concentrated in trades such as commerce and craftsmen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201812_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201812-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many lived in small towns called <a href="/wiki/Shtetl" title="Shtetl">shtetls</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201814_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201814-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Second Polish Republic</a> simultaneously with the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">armistice of 11 November 1918</a> ending <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, Jews suffered from institutionalized discrimination and many were poor.<sup id="cite_ref-YIVO_interwar_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YIVO_interwar-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1927_IB.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/1927_IB.webp/220px-1927_IB.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/1927_IB.webp/330px-1927_IB.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/1927_IB.webp/369px-1927_IB.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="369" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>Cover of a <a href="/wiki/German_Nazi_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="German Nazi Party">German Nazi Party</a> magazine <i><a href="/wiki/Illustrierter_Beobachter" title="Illustrierter Beobachter">Illustrierter Beobachter</a></i> of November 15, 1927, showing the depiction of the stereotypical <i>Ostjude</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Jewry" title="Eastern European Jewry">Jew of the East</a>")</figcaption></figure> <p>Anti-Semitism became a state ideology in Germany after the Nazis gained power, but even before that, Eastern European Jews, called in Germany <i>Ostjuden</i> held a particularly low position in German perception.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003188_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003188-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jews in Germany tended to be secularized and largely assimilated into German society, while most Polish Jews lived in traditionalist religious communities, speaking Yiddish and distinguishing themselves in dress and customs from their surroundings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder2010122_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder2010122-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prejudice was intensified during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, when many Jews from the occupied eastern territories moved to Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKliymuk2018101_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKliymuk2018101-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were accused by antisemitic press and politicians of criminal activity, lack of hygiene, spreading disease, speculation, trafficking of women, spreading revolution, and were eventually <a href="/wiki/Stab_in_the_back_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Stab in the back myth">blamed for Germany's defeat in the war</a> and interwar economic problems faced by Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKliymuk2018101-103_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKliymuk2018101-103-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon, especially in the Nazi press, the term <i>Ostjude</i> began to be used as a slur, and as a synonym for <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolshevik</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKliymuk2018104_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKliymuk2018104-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the interwar period Polish Jews in Germany faced also legal persecution. In 1918, the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Ministry_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian Ministry of the Interior">Prussian Ministry of the Interior</a> banned Polish Jews from entering the country on the pretext of their unwillingness to work, low morals, physical uncleanliness and the spread of typhus by them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003189_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003189-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1923, the <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavarian</a> government ordered the deportation of Jews with Polish citizenship as undesirables.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003188_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003188-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26,_N%C3%BCrnberg,_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1984-092-26%2C_N%C3%BCrnberg%2C_Ausweisung_polnischer_Juden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption>Polish Jews expelled from <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In Poland, after the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> and the death of Marshal <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Józef Piłsudski">Józef Piłsudski</a> in 1935, the situation of Polish Jews worsened.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmerman201514_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmerman201514-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Endecja" class="mw-redirect" title="Endecja">Endecja</a> faction waged a campaign against Jews consisting of economic boycotts, limitations on the number of Jewish students at universities, and restrictions on <a href="/wiki/Kosher_slaughter" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosher slaughter">kosher slaughter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluth202113_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluth202113-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Polish government stated its intention to "settle the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish problem">Jewish problem</a>" by the emigration of most Polish Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmerman201519–20_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmerman201519–20-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1938, after Poland passed a law to <a href="/wiki/Denaturalize" class="mw-redirect" title="Denaturalize">denaturalize</a> Jews living abroad, Germany <a href="/wiki/1938_expulsion_of_Polish_Jews_from_Germany" title="1938 expulsion of Polish Jews from Germany">expelled all Polish Jews</a> in October 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003188_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003188-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because Poland refused to admit them, these Jews were stranded in no-man's land along the border.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Invasion_of_Poland">Invasion of Poland</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Antisemitism" title="Category:Antisemitism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Yellow_badge" title="Yellow badge"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Yellowbadge_logo.svg/100px-Yellowbadge_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Yellowbadge_logo.svg/150px-Yellowbadge_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Yellowbadge_logo.svg/200px-Yellowbadge_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="503" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Part of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_antisemitism" title="Timeline of antisemitism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_on_antisemitism" title="List of writers on antisemitism">Reference</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);border-top:none;">Definitions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Working_definition_of_antisemitism" title="Working definition of antisemitism">IHRA definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Declaration_on_Antisemitism" title="Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism">Jerusalem Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nexus_Task_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Nexus Task Force">Nexus Document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ds_of_antisemitism" title="Three Ds of antisemitism">Three Ds</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);border-top:none;"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_antisemitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of antisemitism">Geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Argentina" title="Antisemitism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Australia" title="Antisemitism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_contemporary_Austria" title="Antisemitism in contemporary Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_contemporary_Belgium" title="Antisemitism in contemporary Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Canada" title="Antisemitism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_China" title="Antisemitism in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Chile" title="Antisemitism in Chile">Chilean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Antisemitism in Costa Rica">Costa Rican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Europe" title="Antisemitism in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_France" title="Antisemitism in France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dreyfus_affair" title="Dreyfus affair">Dreyfus affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_21st-century_France" title="Antisemitism in 21st-century France">21st-century</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_21st-century_Germany" title="Antisemitism in 21st-century Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Greece" title="Antisemitism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_contemporary_Hungary" title="Antisemitism in contemporary Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_21st-century_Italy" title="Antisemitism in 21st-century Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Japan" title="Antisemitism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_New_Zealand" title="Antisemitism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_contemporary_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in contemporary Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Pakistan" title="Antisemitism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Racism in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Romania" title="Antisemitism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Russia" title="Antisemitism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Antisemitism in the Russian Empire">Imperial Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin_and_antisemitism" title="Joseph Stalin and antisemitism">Stalinist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Antisemitism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabian_textbook_controversy" title="Saudi Arabian textbook controversy">textbook controversy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_South_Africa" title="Antisemitism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Spain" title="Antisemitism in Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matar_jud%C3%ADos" title="Matar judíos">Matar judíos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Sweden" title="Antisemitism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Turkey" title="Antisemitism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Ukraine" title="Antisemitism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Antisemitism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_UK_Conservative_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in the UK Conservative Party">Conservative Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_UK_Labour_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in the UK Labour Party">Labour Party</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">USA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States_in_the_21st_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century">21st century</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Venezuela" title="Antisemitism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base);border-top:none;">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Universities_and_antisemitism" title="Universities and antisemitism">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alt-right" title="Alt-right">Alt-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Arab_world" title="Antisemitism in the Arab world">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity_(religion)" title="Creativity (religion)">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_antisemitism" title="Economic antisemitism">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_incidents_during_the_Gaza_War_(2008%E2%80%932009)" title="Antisemitic incidents during the Gaza War (2008–2009)">Gaza War ('08-'09)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_during_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Antisemitism during the Israel–Hamas war">Israel-Hamas war ('23-'24)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_antisemitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish antisemitism">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_antisemitism" title="Medieval antisemitism">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strasserism" title="Strasserism">Strasserism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Olympic_Games" title="Antisemitism in the Olympic Games">Olympic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_antisemitism" title="Racial antisemitism">Racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Christianity" title="Antisemitism in Christianity">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Identity" title="Christian Identity">Christian Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Islam" title="Antisemitism in Islam">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam_and_antisemitism" title="Nation of Islam and antisemitism">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_antisemitism" title="Secondary antisemitism">Secondary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_antisemitism" title="Zionist antisemitism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_trope" title="Antisemitic trope">Antisemitic tropes</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andinia_Plan" title="Andinia Plan">Andinia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohen_Plan" title="Cohen Plan">Cohen Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Bolshevism" title="Cultural Bolshevism">Cultural Bolshevism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Marxism_conspiracy_theory" title="Cultural Marxism conspiracy theory">Cultural Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_deicide" title="Jewish deicide">Deicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_canards#Controlling_the_world_financial_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitic canards">Finance control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Prophecy" title="Franklin Prophecy">Franklin Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_desecration#Medieval_accusations_against_Jews" title="Host desecration">Host desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy" title="International Jewish conspiracy">International<wbr />​ Jewish conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_lobby#Viewed_as_antisemitic_and/or_pejorative" title="Jewish lobby">Jewish lobby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_war_conspiracy_theory" title="Jewish war conspiracy theory">Jewish war conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judensau" title="Judensau">Judensau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Bolshevism" title="Jewish Bolshevism">Judeo-Bolshevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBydokomuna" title="Żydokomuna">Żydokomuna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Masonic_conspiracy_theory" title="Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory">Judeo-Masonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosher_tax_conspiracy_theory" title="Kosher tax conspiracy theory">Kosher tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_canards#Controlling_the_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitic canards">Media control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QAnon#Antisemitism" title="QAnon">QAnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rootless_cosmopolitan" title="Rootless cosmopolitan">Rootless cosmopolitan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doctors%27_plot" title="Doctors' plot">Doctors' plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sl%C3%A1nsk%C3%BD_trial" title="Slánský trial">Slánský trial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-hating_Jew" title="Self-hating Jew">Self-hating Jew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth" title="Stab-in-the-back myth">Stab-in-the-back myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_poisoning#History_of_well_poisoning_as_libel" title="Well poisoning">Well poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory#Neo-Nazis'_accusations_against_Jews" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_Occupation_Government_conspiracy_theory" title="Zionist Occupation Government conspiracy theory">ZOG conspiracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Antisemitic_publications" title="Category:Antisemitic publications">Antisemitic publications</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Barnes_Review" title="The Barnes Review">The Barnes Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Critique_series" title="The Culture of Critique series">Culture of Critique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Currency_Wars" title="Currency Wars">Currency Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dearborn_Independent" title="The Dearborn Independent">The Dearborn Independent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_Cleansing_(video_game)" title="Ethnic Cleansing (video game)">Ethnic Cleansing <i>(video game)</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_France_juive" title="La France juive">La France juive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitlers_Zweites_Buch" title="Hitlers Zweites Buch">Hitlers Zweites Buch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunter_(Pierce_novel)" title="Hunter (Pierce novel)">Hunter (William Luther Pierce)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Hamas_charter" title="1988 Hamas charter">1988 Hamas Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_International_Jew" title="The International Jew">The International Jew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Libre_Parole" title="La Libre Parole">La Libre Parole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Light_(newspaper)" title="The Light (newspaper)">The Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Jews_and_Their_Lies" title="On the Jews and Their Lies">On the Jews and Their Lies</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Our_Race_Will_Rule_Undisputed_Over_The_World" title="Our Race Will Rule Undisputed Over The World">Our Race Will Rule<br />Undisputed Over The World</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Protocols_of_the_Elders_of_Zion" title="The Protocols of the Elders of Zion">Protocols of the Elders of Zion</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/The_Secret_Relationship_Between_Blacks_and_Jews" title="The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews">The Secret Relationship<br />Between Blacks and Jews</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Mason_book)" title="Siege (Mason book)">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Turner_Diaries" title="The Turner Diaries">The Turner Diaries</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Antisemitism on the Internet</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki//pol/" title="/pol/">4chan (/pol/)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8chan" title="8chan">8chan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Stormer" title="The Daily Stormer">The Daily Stormer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disclose.tv" title="Disclose.tv">Disclose.tv</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Europa:_The_Last_Battle" title="Europa: The Last Battle">Europa: The Last Battle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gab_(social_network)" title="Gab (social network)">Gab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goebbels_Gap" class="mw-redirect" title="Goebbels Gap">Goebbels Gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GoyimTV" class="mw-redirect" title="GoyimTV">GoyimTV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groypers" title="Groypers">Groypers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jew_Watch" title="Jew Watch">Jew Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapedia" title="Metapedia">Metapedia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Occidental_Observer" title="Occidental Observer">The Occidental Observer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Ice" title="Red Ice">Red Ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renegade_Tribune" class="mw-redirect" title="Renegade Tribune">Renegade Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Right_Stuff_(blog)" title="The Right Stuff (blog)"><i>The Right Stuff</i> (blog)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/StoneToss" title="StoneToss">StoneToss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormfront_(website)" title="Stormfront (website)">Stormfront</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorgram" title="Terrorgram">Terrorgram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_parentheses" title="Triple parentheses">Triple parentheses</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/TruNews" title="TruNews">TruNews</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ron_Unz" title="Ron Unz">The Unz Review</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterans_Today" title="Veterans Today">Veterans Today</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Prominent figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baked_Alaska_(activist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Baked Alaska (activist)">Baked Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Anglin" title="Andrew Anglin">Andrew Anglin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Beam" title="Louis Beam">Louis Beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Black_(white_supremacist)" title="Don Black (white supremacist)">Don Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_von_Brunn" class="mw-redirect" title="James von Brunn">James von Brunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Butler_(white_supremacist)" title="Richard Butler (white supremacist)">Richard Girnt Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Drumont" title="Édouard Drumont">Édouard Drumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Duke" title="David Duke">David Duke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann" title="Adolf Eichmann">Adolf Eichmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Andreas_Eisenmenger" title="Johann Andreas Eisenmenger">Johann Eisenmenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Farrakhan" title="Louis Farrakhan">Louis Farrakhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Fritsch" title="Theodor Fritsch">Theodor Fritsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Fuentes" title="Nick Fuentes">Nick Fuentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler" title="Heinrich Himmler">Heinrich Himmler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_J._Jones" title="Arthur J. Jones">Arthur Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lane_(white_supremacist)" title="David Lane (white supremacist)">David Lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_G._Liebold" title="Ernest G. Liebold">Ernest G. Liebold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_and_antisemitism" title="Martin Luther and antisemitism">Martin Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_MacDonald_(evolutionary_psychologist)" title="Kevin MacDonald (evolutionary psychologist)">Kevin MacDonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustace_Mullins" title="Eustace Mullins">Eustace Mullins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Luther_Pierce" title="William Luther Pierce">William Luther Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Spencer" title="Richard B. Spencer">Richard B. Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Streicher" title="Julius Streicher">Julius Streicher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Alfred_Strom" title="Kevin Alfred Strom">Kevin Alfred Strom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Wiles" title="Rick Wiles">Rick Wiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Z%C3%BCndel" title="Ernst Zündel">Ernst Zündel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneliu_Zelea_Codreanu" title="Corneliu Zelea Codreanu">Corneliu Zelea Codreanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Antonescu" title="Ion Antonescu">Ion Antonescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horia_Sima" title="Horia Sima">Horia Sima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._C._Cuza" title="A. C. Cuza">A. C. Cuza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octavian_Goga" title="Octavian Goga">Octavian Goga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Buzatu" title="Gheorghe Buzatu">Gheorghe Buzatu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nae_Ionescu" title="Nae Ionescu">Nae Ionescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichifor_Crainic" title="Nichifor Crainic">Nichifor Crainic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ioan_Slavici" title="Ioan Slavici">Ioan Slavici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Ferenczy" title="László Ferenczy">László Ferenczy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symon_Petliura" title="Symon Petliura">Symon Petliura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepan_Bandera" title="Stepan Bandera">Stepan Bandera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhineland_massacres" title="Rhineland massacres">Rhineland massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews_during_the_Black_Death" title="Persecution of Jews during the Black Death">Black Death persecutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_boycotts" title="Anti-Jewish boycotts">Boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsions_and_exoduses_of_Jews" title="Expulsions and exoduses of Jews">Expulsions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quarter_(diaspora)" title="Jewish quarter (diaspora)">Jewish quarter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_Europe" title="Jewish ghettos in Europe">Ghettos in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mellah" title="Mellah">Mellah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_hat" title="Jewish hat">Jewish hat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judensau" title="Judensau">Judensau</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrdom_in_Judaism" title="Martyrdom in Judaism">Martyrdom in Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogroms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Pogroms in the Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogroms_during_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Pogroms during the Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusenik" title="Refusenik">Refuseniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">Segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_badge" title="Yellow badge">Yellow badge</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Anti-antisemitism" title="Anti-antisemitism">Opposition</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_Against_Antisemitism" title="Campaign Against Antisemitism">Campaign Against Antisemitism</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_Security_Trust" title="Community Security Trust">Community Security Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_Rights_Agency" title="Fundamental Rights Agency">Fundamental Rights Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosemitism" title="Philosemitism">Philosemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Wiesenthal_Center" title="Simon Wiesenthal Center">Simon Wiesenthal Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center" title="Southern Poverty Law Center">Southern Poverty Law Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Roth_Institute" title="Stephen Roth Institute">Stephen Roth Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Committee_Against_Antisemitism" title="Swedish Committee Against Antisemitism">Swedish Committee Against Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Councils_for_Soviet_Jews" title="Union of Councils for Soviet Jews">Union of Councils for Soviet Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Watch" title="UN Watch">UN Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._National_Strategy_to_Counter_Antisemitism" title="U.S. National Strategy to Counter Antisemitism">U.S. National Strategy to Counter Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiener_Holocaust_Library" title="Wiener Holocaust Library">Wiener Holocaust Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_definition_of_antisemitism" title="Working definition of antisemitism">Working definition of antisemitism</a> (IHRA) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Declaration_on_Antisemitism" title="Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism">Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ds_of_antisemitism" title="Three Ds of antisemitism">Three Ds of antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Antisemitism" title="Category:Antisemitism">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Antisemitism_sidebar" title="Template:Antisemitism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Antisemitism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Antisemitism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Antisemitism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Antisemitism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The German <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a> (armed forces) <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">invaded Poland</a> on 1 September 1939, triggering declarations of war <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1939)" title="United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)">from the United Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1939)" title="French declaration of war on Germany (1939)">France</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201656_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201656-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the invasion of Poland as many as 16,000 civilians, hostages, and prisoners of war may have been shot by the German invaders;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201657_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201657-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there was also a great deal of looting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201898_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201898-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Special units known as <i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></i> followed the army to eliminate any possible resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201899,_101_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201899,_101-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Already during the hostilities, the Germans carried out pogroms against the Jewish population, for example, 600 people were <a href="/w/index.php?title=Massacre_in_Przemy%C5%9Bl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Massacre in Przemyśl (page does not exist)">murdered in Przemyśl</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakra_w_Przemy%C5%9Blu_(1939)" class="extiw" title="pl:Masakra w Przemyślu (1939)">pl</a>]</span>, <a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_massacre" title="Częstochowa massacre">200 in Częstochowa</a>, and 200 were burned in a synagogue in <a href="/wiki/B%C4%99dzin" title="Będzin">Będzin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thousands of Jews were chased away to areas occupied by Soviet troops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 6,000 Polish soldiers of Jewish descent were killed and 60,000 were taken prisoner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008107_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008107-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Germany gained control of 1.7 million Jews in Poland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201896_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201896-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010148_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010148-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parts of western and northern Poland were <a href="/wiki/Areas_annexed_by_Nazi_Germany" title="Areas annexed by Nazi Germany">annexed into Germany</a> and incorporated into the administrative structure of the German Reich as <a href="/wiki/Zichenau_(region)" title="Zichenau (region)">Zichenau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reichsgau_Danzig-West_Prussia" title="Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia">Danzig–West Prussia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Wartheland" class="mw-redirect" title="Wartheland">Wartheland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/East_Upper_Silesia" title="East Upper Silesia">East Upper Silesia</a>—while the rest of the German-occupied territories were designated the <a href="/wiki/General_Government" title="General Government">General Government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrunerOsterloh20156_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrunerOsterloh20156-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 50,000 Polish leaders and intellectuals <a href="/wiki/Intelligenzaktion" title="Intelligenzaktion">were arrested or executed</a>, especially in West Prussia, with fewer victims in the Wartheland and fewer still in the General Government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201657–58_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201657–58-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polish Jewish intellectuals and community leaders were not spared.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018102–103_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018102–103-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 400,000 Poles were expelled from the Wartheland to the General Governorate occupation zone from 1939 to 1941, and the area was <a href="/wiki/Heim_ins_Reich" title="Heim ins Reich">resettled</a> by <a href="/wiki/Volksdeutsche" title="Volksdeutsche">ethnic Germans from eastern Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201658_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201658-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rest of Poland was <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_Poland_annexed_by_the_Soviet_Union#Soviet_annexation_of_eastern_Poland,_1939–1941" title="Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union">occupied by the Soviet Union</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">invaded Poland from the east</a> on 17 September pursuant to the <a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Soviet_pact" class="mw-redirect" title="German–Soviet pact">German–Soviet pact</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201846,_73_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201846,_73-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 1.6 million Polish Jews came under Soviet rule, 250-300,000 of whom were refugees or expellees from the German occupation zone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008106-107_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008106-107-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the refugees, 35-40,000 people were forced in late autumn 1939 to go deep into Ukraine and Belarus to work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union <a href="/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">deported hundreds of thousands of Polish citizens</a> to the Soviet interior in four big deportations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201886_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201886-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Jews were particularly affected by the third one, which began on 28/29 June 1940, which affected refugees willing to return to the area under German rule, but to whose return the Germans did not agree. More than 77,700 Jewish refugees were deported at this time, representing 84% of the total deportees.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008108_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008108-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fourth deportation included 7,000 Jews from the Vilnius region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although most Jews were not pro-communist,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some accepted positions in the Soviet administration, contributing to a pre-existing perception among many non-Jews that Soviet rule was a Jewish conspiracy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201889–90_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201889–90-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (October 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some 10,000 Polish Jews had left the USSR for Palestine, the Middle East and the West by June 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resettlement_plans">Resettlement plans</h2></div> <p>As a result of expulsions and escapes, about 500,000 Jews lived in the lands incorporated into the Reich at the beginning of the German occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Germans planned to deport all Jews from these territories by the end of 1940, by which time the plan was to place them in ghettos.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They <a href="/wiki/Nisko_Plan" title="Nisko Plan">tried to concentrate Jews</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Lublin_District" title="Lublin District">Lublin District</a> of the General Government. 45,000 Jews were deported by November and left to fend for themselves, causing many deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018108_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018108-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deportations stopped in early 1940 due to the opposition of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a>, the appointed head of the General Government, who did not want his fiefdom to become a dumping ground for unwanted Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018107–109_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018107–109-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023201_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023201-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, between 80-90,000 Jews were deported to the General Government from Wartheland in that time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008113_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008113-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, escapes, expulsions and murders continued unabated. As a result of these, only 1,800 Jews lived in the province of West Prussia in February 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Wartheland, their number dropped to 260,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008111_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008111-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deportations to the General Government resumed in January 1941, but only 2140 Jews and 20,000 Poles were deported from Wartheland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008113_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008113-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At this point, efforts to concentrate Jews in a compact territory were abandoned, the focus was on separating and enclosing Jews in ghettos. However, such plans were not completely dropped. After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">conquest of France</a> in 1940, the Nazis considered <a href="/wiki/Madagascar_Plan" title="Madagascar Plan">deporting Jews</a> to <a href="/wiki/French_Madagascar" title="French Madagascar">French Madagascar</a>, but this proved impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010164_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010164-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018109,_117_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018109,_117-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nazis planned that harsh conditions in these areas would kill many Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010164_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010164-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023201_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023201-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the attack on the Soviet Union, plans were made to remove the Jewish population to the swampy areas of <a href="/wiki/Polesia" title="Polesia">Polesia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008117_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008117-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the fall of 1941, any such plans were abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008117_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008117-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ghettoization">Ghettoization</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">Nazi ghettos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_German-occupied_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland">Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unpaved_steet_in_the_Frysztak_Ghetto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="People and buildings with an unpaved street" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Unpaved_steet_in_the_Frysztak_Ghetto.jpg/220px-Unpaved_steet_in_the_Frysztak_Ghetto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Unpaved_steet_in_the_Frysztak_Ghetto.jpg/330px-Unpaved_steet_in_the_Frysztak_Ghetto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Unpaved_steet_in_the_Frysztak_Ghetto.jpg/440px-Unpaved_steet_in_the_Frysztak_Ghetto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption>Unpaved street in the <a href="/wiki/Frysztak_Ghetto" title="Frysztak Ghetto">Frysztak Ghetto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krakow_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Krakow District">Kraków District</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-134-0771A-39,_Polen,_Ghetto_Warschau,_Kind_in_Lumpen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="People walking on a paved surface around a still body" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-134-0771A-39%2C_Polen%2C_Ghetto_Warschau%2C_Kind_in_Lumpen.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-134-0771A-39%2C_Polen%2C_Ghetto_Warschau%2C_Kind_in_Lumpen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-134-0771A-39%2C_Polen%2C_Ghetto_Warschau%2C_Kind_in_Lumpen.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-134-0771A-39%2C_Polen%2C_Ghetto_Warschau%2C_Kind_in_Lumpen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-134-0771A-39%2C_Polen%2C_Ghetto_Warschau%2C_Kind_in_Lumpen.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-134-0771A-39%2C_Polen%2C_Ghetto_Warschau%2C_Kind_in_Lumpen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>A body lying in the street of the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a> in the <a href="/wiki/General_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="General Governorate">General Government</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the invasion, synagogues were burned and thousands of Jews fled or were expelled into the Soviet occupation zone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201887,_103_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201887,_103-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various anti-Jewish regulations were soon issued. In October 1939, adult Jews in the General Government were required to perform forced labor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018116_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018116-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 1939 they were ordered to wear white armbands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018115_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018115-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laws decreed the seizure of most Jewish property and the takeover of Jewish-owned businesses. When Jews were forced into ghettos, they lost their homes and belongings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018116_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018116-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">Nazi ghettos</a> were established in the Wartheland and General Government in 1939 and 1940 on the initiative of local German administrators.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiron2020247,_251,_254_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiron2020247,_251,_254-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018117_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018117-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest ghettos, such as <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto" title="Łódź Ghetto">Łódź</a>, were established in existing residential neighborhoods and closed by fences or walls. In many smaller ghettos, Jews were forced into poor neighborhoods but with no fence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiron2020252_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiron2020252-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forced labor programs provided subsistence to many ghetto inhabitants, and in some cases protected them from deportation. Workshops and factories were operated inside some ghettos, while in other cases Jews left the ghetto to work outside it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiron2020253_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiron2020253-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the ghettos were not segregated by sex some family life continued.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiron2020253–254_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiron2020253–254-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Jewish community leadership (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Judenrat" title="Judenrat">Judenrat</a></i></span>) exercised some authority and tried to sustain the Jewish community while following German demands. As a survival strategy, many tried to make the ghettos useful to the occupiers as a labor reserve.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiron2020254_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiron2020254-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngel2020240_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngel2020240-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_ghetto" class="mw-redirect" title="Warsaw ghetto">Warsaw ghetto</a> contained more Jews than all of France; the <a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_ghetto" class="mw-redirect" title="Łódź ghetto">Łódź ghetto</a> more Jews than all of the Netherlands. More Jews lived in the <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Kraków Ghetto">city of Kraków</a> than in all of Italy, and virtually any medium-sized town in Poland had a larger Jewish population than all of Scandinavia. All of southeast Europe – Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Greece – had fewer Jews than the original four districts of the <a href="/wiki/General_Government" title="General Government">General Government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CRB/Path_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRB/Path-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The plight of Jews in war-torn Poland could be divided into stages defined by the <a href="/wiki/Ghettos_in_Nazi-occupied_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe">existence of the ghettos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gutman12_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gutman12-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Warsaw, up to 80 percent of food consumed in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">the ghetto</a> was brought in illegally. The <a href="/wiki/Ration_stamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Ration stamp">food stamps</a> introduced by the Germans provided only 9 percent of the calories necessary for survival.<sup id="cite_ref-Laqueur_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laqueur-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most ghettos were not fully sealed from the outside world and although many Jews suffered from hunger, fewer died from it because they were able to supplement their rations from the black market.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016255_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016255-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 'productionists' among the German authorities – who attempted to make the ghettos self-sustaining by turning them into enterprises – prevailed over the 'attritionists' only after the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">German invasion of the Soviet Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Browning2005_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browning2005-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most prominent ghettos were thus temporarily stabilized through the production of goods needed <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">at the front</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-holocaust-education.dk_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-holocaust-education.dk-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as death rates among the Jewish population there began to decline.<sup id="cite_ref-Browning2005_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browning2005-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ghettos were established both in the territory incorporated into the Reich and in the General Government. Characteristic of the Wartheland were the so-called "rural ghettos," which encompassed several contiguous villages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008113_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008113-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Germans also set up ghettos in areas of eastern Poland occupied as a result of the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. Most were established in the Galicia district and the Białystok District.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008120_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008120-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the fall of 1942, there were more than 400 ghettos on Polish soil.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008120_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008120-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extermination_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Poland">Extermination of Jews in Eastern Poland</h2></div> <p>Germany and its allies <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">invaded the Soviet Union</a> on 22 June 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201667_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201667-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023201_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023201-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 100,000 Polish Jews fled deep into the USSR from German soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Wehrmacht was followed by four special groups (<a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a>) which perpetrated mass executions of the Jewish population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From September 1941, entire Jewish communities were liquidated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The General Government was expanded by adding <a href="/wiki/Galicia_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Galicia District">Galicia District</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010265_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010265-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Bialystok_District" title="Bialystok District">Białystok District</a> was administered separately.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016108_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016108-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the invasion, local inhabitants carried out at least <a href="/wiki/1941_pogroms_in_eastern_Poland" title="1941 pogroms in eastern Poland">219 pogroms</a>, killing around twenty-five thousand to fifty thousand Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopsteinWittenberg20182,_121_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopsteinWittenberg20182,_121-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201669,_440_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201669,_440-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023105,_107–108_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023105,_107–108-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pogroms were extremely violent with many Jews beaten, raped, stolen from, and brutally murdered.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023104_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023104-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although German forces tried to incite pogroms, their role in causing violence is controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023107_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023107-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023202_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023202-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to political science research, pogroms were most likely to occur "where <a href="/wiki/Political_polarization" title="Political polarization">political polarization</a> was high, where the Jewish community was large, and where Jews pressed for national equality in the decades before 1941".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023106_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023106-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Parallel to <a href="/wiki/Operation_Reinhard" title="Operation Reinhard">Operation Reinhard</a>, which was organised in the General Government, the final mass murder of the Jewish population was organised in eastern Poland in the spring and summer of 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jews from the Galicia district were transported to the extermination centres at Belzec and Sobibor, among them some 150,000 Jews deported to Galicia by the Romanian authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127_69-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Liquidation_of_the_ghettos">Liquidation of the ghettos</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cumulative_murders_at_Belzec,_Sobibor,_and_Treblinka_from_January_1942_to_February_1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Cumulative_murders_at_Belzec%2C_Sobibor%2C_and_Treblinka_from_January_1942_to_February_1943.jpg/220px-Cumulative_murders_at_Belzec%2C_Sobibor%2C_and_Treblinka_from_January_1942_to_February_1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Cumulative_murders_at_Belzec%2C_Sobibor%2C_and_Treblinka_from_January_1942_to_February_1943.jpg/330px-Cumulative_murders_at_Belzec%2C_Sobibor%2C_and_Treblinka_from_January_1942_to_February_1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Cumulative_murders_at_Belzec%2C_Sobibor%2C_and_Treblinka_from_January_1942_to_February_1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="345" /></a><figcaption>Cumulative murders of Jews from the <a href="/wiki/General_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="General Governorate">General Government</a> at <a href="/wiki/Belzec" class="mw-redirect" title="Belzec">Belzec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sobibor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sobibor">Sobibor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Treblinka" class="mw-redirect" title="Treblinka">Treblinka</a> from January 1942 to February 1943</figcaption></figure> <p>Plans to kill most of the Jews in the General Government were affected by various goals of the <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">SS</a> (<i>Schutzstaffel</i>), military, and civil administration; stretching from purely racial one to the more pragmatic, such as the need to reduce the amount of food consumed by Jews, in order enable a slight increase in rations to non-Jewish Poles, and combat the <a href="/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a>, to avoid hunger and increase of the resistance among them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201691_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201691-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By mid-1942, Nazi leaders decided to allow only 300,000 Jews to survive in the General Government by the end of the year for forced labor;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201691_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201691-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for the most part, only those working in <a href="/wiki/Military_production_during_World_War_II" title="Military production during World War II">armaments production</a> were spared.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010342_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010342-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 19 July, Himmler decreed the "resettlement of the entire Jewish population of the General Government should have been implemented and completed by 31 December 1942"; henceforth, Jews would only be allowed to live in Warsaw, Częstochowa, Kraków, and Majdanek.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010335_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010335-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of ghettos were liquidated in mass executions nearby, especially if they were not near a train station. Larger ghettos were more commonly liquidated during multiple deportations to extermination camps.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018220_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018220-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021200_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021200-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this campaign around 1.8 million Jews<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were murdered in the largest killing operation of the Holocaust.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010340_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010340-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to reduce resistance the ghetto would be raided without warning, usually in the early morning, and the extent of the operation would be concealed as long as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Trawniki_men" title="Trawniki men">Trawniki men</a> (<i>Trawnikimänner</i>) made up of Soviet prisoners-of-war<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010338_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010338-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Polish <a href="/wiki/Blue_Police" title="Blue Police">Blue Police</a><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> would cordon off the ghetto while the German <a href="/wiki/Order_Police" class="mw-redirect" title="Order Police">Order Police</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">Security Police</a> carried out the action.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010338_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010338-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to local non-Jewish collaborators, the Jewish councils and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghetto_police" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish ghetto police">Jewish ghetto police</a> were often ordered to assist with liquidation actions, although these Jews were in most cases murdered later.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023209_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023209-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chaotic, capriciously executed selections determined who would be loaded onto the trains.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Jews were shot during the action—making up perhaps 20 percent or more of the total deaths—often leaving ghettos strewn with corpses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surviving Jews were forced to clean up the bodies and collect any valuables from the victims.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339_86-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extermination_camps">Extermination camps</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prze%C5%82adunek_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w_do_wagon%C3%B3w_kolejki_w%C4%85skotorowej_do_Che%C5%82mna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prze%C5%82adunek_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w_do_wagon%C3%B3w_kolejki_w%C4%85skotorowej_do_Che%C5%82mna.jpg/220px-Prze%C5%82adunek_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w_do_wagon%C3%B3w_kolejki_w%C4%85skotorowej_do_Che%C5%82mna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prze%C5%82adunek_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w_do_wagon%C3%B3w_kolejki_w%C4%85skotorowej_do_Che%C5%82mna.jpg/330px-Prze%C5%82adunek_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w_do_wagon%C3%B3w_kolejki_w%C4%85skotorowej_do_Che%C5%82mna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Prze%C5%82adunek_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w_do_wagon%C3%B3w_kolejki_w%C4%85skotorowej_do_Che%C5%82mna.jpg/440px-Prze%C5%82adunek_%C5%BByd%C3%B3w_do_wagon%C3%B3w_kolejki_w%C4%85skotorowej_do_Che%C5%82mna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1529" data-file-height="1369" /></a><figcaption>Deportation to Chełmno</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Gas_vans" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas vans">Gas vans</a> developed from those used to kill mental patients since 1939 were assigned to the <i>Einsatzgruppen</i> and first used in November 1941; victims were forced into the van and killed with engine exhaust.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010279_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010279-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first extermination camp was <a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno</a> in the Wartheland, established on the initiative of the local civil administrator <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Greiser" title="Arthur Greiser">Arthur Greiser</a> with Himmler's approval; it began operations in December 1941 using gas vans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018209_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018209-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010290–291_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010290–291-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 1941, <a href="/wiki/Higher_SS_and_Police_Leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher SS and Police Leader">Higher SS and Police Leader</a> of Lublin <a href="/wiki/Odilo_Globocnik" title="Odilo Globocnik">Odilo Globocnik</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018210_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018210-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> began work planning <a href="/wiki/Belzec_extermination_camp" title="Belzec extermination camp">Belzec</a>—the first purpose-built extermination camp to feature stationary <a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">gas chambers</a>—amid increasing talk among German administrators in Poland of large-scale murder of Jews in the General Government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010280,_293–294,_302_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010280,_293–294,_302-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In late 1941 in <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_East_Upper_Silesia" title="The Holocaust in East Upper Silesia">East Upper Silesia</a>, Jews in forced-labor camps operated by the <a href="/wiki/Schmelt_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Schmelt Organization">Schmelt Organization</a> deemed "unfit for work" began to be sent in groups to Auschwitz where they were murdered.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010280–281,_292_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010280–281,_292-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016208–209_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016208–209-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 1942, killings began in Belzec, targeting Jews from Lublin who were not capable of work. This action reportedly reduced the black market and was deemed a success to be replicated elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016243_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016243-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021200_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021200-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belzec was the prototype camp on which the others were based.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010330_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010330-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The camps were located on rail lines to make it easier to transport Jews to their deaths, but in remote places to avoid notice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018210_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018210-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stench caused by mass killing operations was noticeable to anyone nearby.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergen2016247,_251_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergen2016247,_251-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People were typically deported to the camps in <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trains" title="Holocaust trains">overcrowded cattle cars</a>. As many as 150 people were forced into a single <a href="/wiki/Boxcar" title="Boxcar">boxcar</a>. Many died <i>en route</i>, partly because of the low priority accorded to these transports.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016286–287_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016286–287-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021204_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021204-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortage of rail transport sometimes led to postponement or cancellation of deportations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016283_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016283-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon arrival, the victims were robbed of their remaining possessions, forced to undress, had their hair cut, and were chased into the gas chamber.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021204–205_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021204–205-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Death from the gas was agonizing and could take as long as 30 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010330_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010330-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021199_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021199-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gas chambers were primitive and sometimes malfunctioned. Some prisoners were shot because the gas chambers were not functioning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone2010153–154_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone2010153–154-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At other extermination camps, nearly everyone on a transport was killed on arrival, but at Auschwitz around 20-25 percent were separated out for labor,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016199_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016199-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although many of these prisoners died later on.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016211_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016211-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Belzec, <a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a> reported a combined revenue of RM 178.7 million from belongings stolen from their victims, far exceeding costs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016273_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016273-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021209_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021209-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Combined, the camps required the labor of less than 3,000 Jewish prisoners, 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Trawniki_men" title="Trawniki men">Trawniki men</a> (largely Ukrainian auxiliaries), and very few German guards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016274_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016274-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021204_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021204-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About half of the Jews killed in the Holocaust died by poison gas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016121_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016121-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thousands of Romani people were also murdered in the extermination camps.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021247_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021247-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prisoner uprisings at <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_uprising" title="Treblinka uprising">Treblinka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sobibor_uprising" title="Sobibor uprising">Sobibor</a> meant that these camps were shut down earlier than envisioned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016111_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016111-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021208_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021208-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fewer than 150 Jews survived these death camps.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202162_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202162-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="float:center; margin-left:1.0em"> <caption>Major extermination camps<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Camp </th> <th scope="col">Location </th> <th scope="col">Number of Jews killed </th> <th scope="col">Killing technology </th> <th scope="col">Planning began </th> <th scope="col">Mass gassing duration </th></tr> <tr> <td scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wartheland" class="mw-redirect" title="Wartheland">Wartheland</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>150,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gas_vans" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas vans">Gas vans</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>July 1941<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>8 December 1941–April 1943 and April–July 1944<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674,_120_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674,_120-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Belzec_extermination_camp" title="Belzec extermination camp">Belzec</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lublin_District" title="Lublin District">Lublin District</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>440,823–596,200<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Stationary <a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">gas chamber</a>, engine exhaust<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>October 1941<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674,_120_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674,_120-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>17 March 1942–December 1942<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674,_120_119-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674,_120-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibor</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lublin_District" title="Lublin District">Lublin District</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>170,618–238,900<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163_84-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Stationary <a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">gas chamber</a>, engine exhaust<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Late 1941 or March 1942<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201693–94,_120_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201693–94,_120-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>May 1942–October 1942<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201693–94,_120_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201693–94,_120-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_District" title="Warsaw District">Warsaw District</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>780,863–951,800<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163_84-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Stationary <a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">gas chamber</a>, engine exhaust<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>April 1942<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>23 July 1942–October 1943<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_II%E2%80%93Birkenau" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz II–Birkenau">Auschwitz II–Birkenau</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_East_Upper_Silesia" title="The Holocaust in East Upper Silesia">East Upper Silesia</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>900,000–1,000,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Stationary <a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">gas chamber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zyklon_B" title="Zyklon B">hydrogen cyanide</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>September 1941<br /><small>(built as POW camp)</small><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010281–282_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010281–282-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>February 1942–October 1944<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_Government">General Government</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Reinhard" title="Operation Reinhard">Operation Reinhard</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Krakow_Ghetto_06694.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Krakow_Ghetto_06694.jpg/220px-Krakow_Ghetto_06694.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Krakow_Ghetto_06694.jpg/330px-Krakow_Ghetto_06694.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Krakow_Ghetto_06694.jpg/440px-Krakow_Ghetto_06694.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1376" data-file-height="845" /></a><figcaption>Liquidation of <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Kraków Ghetto">Kraków Ghetto</a> in March 1943 to <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_boy" title="Warsaw Ghetto boy"><img alt="A young boy surrounded by other unarmed civilians holds his hands over his head while a man in uniform points a submachine gun in his direction" resource="/wiki/File:Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_06c.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_06c.jpg/220px-Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_06c.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_06c.jpg/330px-Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_06c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_06c.jpg/440px-Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_06c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1777" data-file-height="1231" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Warsaw Ghetto uprising">Warsaw Ghetto uprising</a> became significant as a symbol of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Jewish resistance against the Nazis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023209_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023209-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Systematic murder began in the <a href="/wiki/Lublin_District" title="Lublin District">Lublin District</a> in mid-March 1942. The <a href="/wiki/Lublin_Ghetto" title="Lublin Ghetto">Lublin Ghetto</a> was emptied between 16 March and 20 April; many Jews were shot in the ghetto and 30,000 were deported to Belzec.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010330–331_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010330–331-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most victims from the Lublin District were sent to Sobibor except 2,000 forced laborers imprisoned at Majdanek. The killing was interrupted on 10 June, to resume in August and September.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010332–333_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010332–333-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time as these killings, many Jews were deported from Germany and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_transports_from_Slovakia" title="List of Holocaust transports from Slovakia">Slovakia</a> to ghettos in the Lublin District that had previously been cleared.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010331_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010331-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the end of May and especially since the cessation of deportations in Lublin, thousands of Jews were deported from the <a href="/wiki/Krakow_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Krakow District">Kraków District</a> to Belzec. These transports were halted by a railway moratorium on 19 June.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010334_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010334-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Warsaw Ghetto <a href="/wiki/Grossaktion_Warsaw" title="Grossaktion Warsaw">was cleared</a> between 22 July and 12 September. Of the original population of 350,000 Jews, 250,000 were killed at Treblinka, a newly built extermination camp 50 kilometres (30 mi) distant, 11,000 were deported to labor camps, 10,000 were shot in the ghetto, 35,000 were allowed to remain in the ghetto after a final selection, and around 20,000 or 25,000 managed to hide in the ghetto. Misdirection efforts convinced many Jews that they could avoid deportation until it was too late.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010335–336_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010335–336-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During a six-week period beginning in August, 300,000 Jews from the <a href="/wiki/Radom_District" title="Radom District">Radom District</a> were sent to Treblinka.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021203_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021203-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010337_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010337-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was practically no Jewish resistance in the General Government in 1942.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010341,_353–354_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010341,_353–354-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ghetto_uprisings" title="Ghetto uprisings">Ghetto uprisings</a> were only undertaken when the inhabitants began to believe that their death was certain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngel2020241–242_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngel2020241–242-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1943, larger uprisings in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Warsaw Ghetto uprising">Warsaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto_uprising" title="Białystok Ghetto uprising">Białystok</a> necessitated the use of heavy weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016110_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016110-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The uprising in Warsaw prompted the Nazi leadership to liquidate additional ghettos and labor camps in German-occupied Poland with their inhabitants shot or deported to extermination camps for fear of additional Jewish resistance developing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010378–380_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010378–380-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, in early 1944 more than 70,000 Jews were performing forced labor in the General Government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016214_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016214-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German-annexed_areas">German-annexed areas</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sosnowiec_Ghetto_liquidation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Sosnowiec_Ghetto_liquidation.jpg/220px-Sosnowiec_Ghetto_liquidation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Sosnowiec_Ghetto_liquidation.jpg/330px-Sosnowiec_Ghetto_liquidation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Sosnowiec_Ghetto_liquidation.jpg/440px-Sosnowiec_Ghetto_liquidation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>Liquidation of <a href="/wiki/Sosnowiec_Ghetto" title="Sosnowiec Ghetto">Sosnowiec Ghetto</a> to <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz concentration camp</a>, 1943</figcaption></figure> <p>Tens of thousands of Jews were deported from ghettos in the Wartheland and East Upper Silesia to Chełmno and Auschwitz.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010343_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010343-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Armed_resistance_and_ghetto_uprisings">Armed resistance and ghetto uprisings</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ghetto_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghetto uprising">Ghetto uprising</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_13.jpg/170px-Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_13.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_13.jpg/255px-Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_13.jpg/340px-Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="2937" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Captured_Hehalutz_fighters_photograph" title="Captured Hehalutz fighters photograph">Photograph</a> of Jewish women insurgents captured by the <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">SS</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Stroop_Report" title="Stroop Report">Stroop Report</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Jews resisted the Nazis with not only armed struggle, but also spiritual and cultural opposition that upheld their dignity despite the inhumane conditions of life in the ghettos.<sup id="cite_ref-Tot-Fein/Gersh_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tot-Fein/Gersh-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many forms of resistance existed, although the elders feared mass retaliation against women and children in the event of an anti-Nazi revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-Trunk_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trunk-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the German authorities began to liquidate the ghettos, armed resistance was offered in over 100 locations on both sides of Polish-Soviet <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Riga" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace of Riga">border of 1939</a>, especially in eastern Poland.<sup id="cite_ref-ushmm2011_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ushmm2011-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uprisings erupted in five major cities, 45 provincial towns, five major concentration and extermination camps, and at least 18 forced labor camps.<sup id="cite_ref-LermanCenter_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LermanCenter-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nie%C5%9Bwie%C5%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="Nieśwież">Nieśwież</a> Ghetto insurgents in eastern Poland fought back on July 22, 1942. The <a href="/wiki/%C5%81achwa_Ghetto" title="Łachwa Ghetto">Łachwa Ghetto</a> revolt erupted on September 3. On October 14, 1942, the <a href="/wiki/Mizocz_Ghetto" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizocz Ghetto">Mizocz Ghetto</a> followed suit. The <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</a> <a href="/wiki/Gross_Aktion" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross Aktion">firefight</a> of January 18, 1943, led to the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">largest Jewish uprising of World War II</a> launched on April 19, 1943. On June 25, the Jews of the <a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_Ghetto#The_uprising" title="Częstochowa Ghetto">Częstochowa Ghetto</a> rose up. At <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp#Treblinka_prisoner_uprising" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sonderkommando" title="Sonderkommando">Sonderkommando</a></i> prisoners armed with stolen weapons attacked the guards on August 2, 1943. A day later, the <a href="/wiki/B%C4%99dzin_Ghetto#Uprising" title="Będzin Ghetto">Będzin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sosnowiec_Ghetto#The_uprising" title="Sosnowiec Ghetto">Sosnowiec</a> ghetto revolts broke out. On August 16, the <a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto_uprising" title="Białystok Ghetto uprising">Białystok Ghetto uprising</a> erupted. The <a href="/wiki/Sobib%C3%B3r_extermination_camp#The_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Sobibór extermination camp">revolt in Sobibór</a> extermination camp occurred on October 14, 1943. At <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz-Birkenau" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz-Birkenau">Auschwitz-Birkenau</a>, the insurgents blew up one of Birkenau's crematoria on October 7, 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-ushmm2011_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ushmm2011-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LermanCenter_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LermanCenter-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar resistance was offered in <a href="/wiki/%C5%81uck_Ghetto#Jewish_uprising_and_the_ghetto_liquidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Łuck Ghetto">Łuck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mi%C5%84sk_Mazowiecki_Ghetto#Ghetto_resistance" title="Mińsk Mazowiecki Ghetto">Mińsk Mazowiecki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pi%C5%84sk_Ghetto#Ghetto_resistance_and_liquidation" title="Pińsk Ghetto">Pińsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poniatowa_concentration_camp#The_uprising" title="Poniatowa concentration camp">Poniatowa</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Vilna_Ghetto#Resistance" title="Vilna Ghetto">Wilno</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_response">International response</h2></div> <p>On 26 June 1942, <a href="/wiki/BBC_World_Service" title="BBC World Service">BBC services</a> in all languages publicized <a href="/w/index.php?title=1942_Bund_report&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1942 Bund report (page does not exist)">a report</a> by the <a href="/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund_in_Poland" title="General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland">Jewish Social-Democratic Bund</a> and other resistance groups and transmitted by the <a href="/wiki/Polish_government-in-exile" title="Polish government-in-exile">Polish government-in-exile</a>, documenting the killing of 700,000 Jews in Poland. In December 1942, the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">United Nations</a> adopted a <a href="/wiki/Joint_Declaration_by_Members_of_the_United_Nations" title="Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations">joint declaration</a> condemning the systematic murder of Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELáníček201274–75,_81_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELáníček201274–75,_81-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Escape,_hiding_and_rescue"><span id="Escape.2C_hiding_and_rescue"></span>Escape, hiding and rescue</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Polish_Righteous_among_the_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Righteous among the Nations">Polish Righteous among the Nations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Poles_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust">Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust</a>, and <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBegota" title="Żegota">Żegota</a></div> <p>Many Jews attempted to escape death by jumping from trains, but the most of these immediately returned to the ghetto to avoid the risk of being denounced by Poles, which would lead to immediate death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163_84-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018236_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018236-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ability to speak Polish was a key factor in managing to survive,<sup id="cite_ref-Brethour_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brethour-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as were financial resources to pay helpers.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/German_retribution_against_Poles_who_helped_Jews" title="German retribution against Poles who helped Jews">death penalty was threatened</a> for <a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Poles_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust">individuals hiding Jews</a> and their families.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each village head was responsible for handing over all Jews and escaped Soviet prisoners of war, partisans, and other strangers to the German occupation authorities under the threat of <a href="/wiki/Collective_punishment" title="Collective punishment">collective punishment</a> for the village.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrydel2018190–191_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrydel2018190–191-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although one study found that at least 700 Poles were executed for helping Jews,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018269_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018269-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the death penalty was not always carried out in practice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016360_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016360-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rescuers' motivations varied on a spectrum from altruism to expecting sex or money; it was not uncommon for helpers to betray or murder Jews if their money ran out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018269–270_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018269–270-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206_145-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurzlaff20201065,_1075_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurzlaff20201065,_1075-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also not uncommon for the same people to help some Jews yet hunting down or kill others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206_145-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrydel2018197_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrydel2018197-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 1942, on the initiative of <a href="/wiki/Zofia_Kossak-Szczucka" title="Zofia Kossak-Szczucka">Zofia Kossak-Szczucka</a> and with financial assistance from the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Underground_State" title="Polish Underground State">Polish Underground State</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Committee_to_Aid_Jews" title="Provisional Committee to Aid Jews">Provisional Committee to Aid Jews</a> (<i>Tymczasowy Komitet Pomocy Żydom</i>) was founded for the purpose of rescuing Jews. It was superseded by the Council for Aid to Jews (<i>Rada Pomocy Żydom</i>), known by the <a href="/wiki/Code_name" title="Code name">code name</a> <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBegota" title="Żegota">Żegota</a> and chaired by <a href="/wiki/Julian_Grobelny" title="Julian Grobelny">Julian Grobelny</a>. It is not known how many Jews, overall, were helped by Żegota; at one point in 1943 it had 2,500 Jewish children under its care in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> alone, under <a href="/wiki/Irena_Sendler" title="Irena Sendler">Irena Sendler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-google12_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google12-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shoa_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shoa-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An estimated 30,000 to 60,000 Polish Jews survived in hiding.<sup id="cite_ref-Stola2017_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stola2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some rescuers faced hostility or violence for their actions after the war.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Polish peasants participated in German-organized <i><a href="/wiki/Judenjagd" title="Judenjagd">Judenjagd</a></i> ("Jew hunt") in the countryside, where according to <a href="/wiki/Jan_Grabowski_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Grabowski (historian)">Jan Grabowski</a>, approximately 80% of the Jews who attempted to hide from the Germans ended up being murdered.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Grabowski, the number of "Judenjagd" victims could reach 200,000 in Poland alone;<sup id="cite_ref-Grabowski_2016_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grabowski_2016-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Szymon Datner gave a lower estimate - 100,000 Jews who "fell prey to the Germans and their local helpers, or were murdered in various unexplained circumstances."<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to peasantry and individual collaborators, the German authorities also <a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">mobilized</a> the prewar <a href="/wiki/Polish_police" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish police">Polish police</a> as what became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Blue_Police" title="Blue Police">Blue Police</a>". Among other duties, Polish policemen were tasked with patrolling for Jewish ghetto escapees, and in support of military operations against the <a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish resistance in World War II">Polish resistance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KPF_2005_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KPF_2005-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Haaretz_interview_11-02-2017_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haaretz_interview_11-02-2017-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its peak in May 1944, the Blue Police numbered some 17,000 men.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Germans also formed the <i><a href="/wiki/Baudienst" title="Baudienst">Baudienst</a></i> ("construction service") in several districts of the General Government. <i>Baudienst</i> servicemen were sometimes deployed in support of <i>aktion</i>s (roundup of Jews for <a href="/wiki/Final_Solution#Phase_two:_deportations_to_killing_centres" title="Final Solution">deportation or extermination</a>), for example to blockade Jewish quarters or to search Jewish homes for hideaways and valuables.<sup id="cite_ref-KPF_2005_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KPF_2005-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Polish right-wing <a href="/wiki/National_Armed_Forces" title="National Armed Forces">National Armed Forces</a> (<i>Narodowe Siły Zbrojne</i>, or <i>NSZ</i>) – a nationalist, anti-communist organization,<sup id="cite_ref-Garlinsky_1985_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garlinsky_1985-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmerman2015_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmerman2015-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> widely perceived as anti-Semitic<sup id="cite_ref-Cymet_1999_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cymet_1999-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cooper_2000_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2000-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmerman2015371_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmerman2015371-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – also collaborated with the Germans on several occasions, killing or giving away <a href="/wiki/Jewish_partisans" title="Jewish partisans">Jewish partisans</a> to the German authorities,<sup id="cite_ref-Cooper_2000_166-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper_2000-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 149">: 149 </span></sup> and murdering Jewish refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECymet1999_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECymet1999-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper2000141_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper2000141-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among some 30,000 Ukrainian nationalists who fled to <i><a href="/wiki/General_Government_administration" title="General Government administration">polnischen Gebiete</a></i>, thousands joined the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pokhidny_hrupy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pokhidny hrupy (page does not exist)">pokhidny hrupy</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grupy_marszowe_OUN" class="extiw" title="pl:Grupy marszowe OUN">pl</a>]</span> as saboteurs, interpreters, and civilian militiamen, trained at the German bases across <i><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_District" title="Kraków District">Distrikt Krakau</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Getter_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Getter-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The genocidal techniques learned from the Germans, such as the advanced <a href="/wiki/Pacification_actions_in_German-occupied_Poland" title="Pacification actions in German-occupied Poland">planning of the pacification actions</a>, site selection, and sudden encirclement, became the hallmark of the <a href="/wiki/OUN-UPA" class="mw-redirect" title="OUN-UPA">OUN-UPA</a> <a href="/wiki/Massacres_of_Poles_in_Volhynia_and_Eastern_Galicia" title="Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia">massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia</a> beginning in March 1943, and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Insurgent_Army#Holocaust" title="Ukrainian Insurgent Army">killing of Jews in Western Ukraine</a>, parallel with the liquidation of the ghettos in <i>Reichskommissariat Ostland</i> ordered by Himmler.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thousands of Jews who escaped deportations and hid in the forests were murdered by the <a href="/wiki/Banderites" class="mw-redirect" title="Banderites">Banderites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The existence of <i><a href="/wiki/Sonderdienst" title="Sonderdienst">Sonderdienst</a></i> paramilitary formations of Germans from Poland was a grave danger to those who attempted to help ghettoized Jews in cities with sizable German and pro-German minorities, as in the case of the <a href="/wiki/Izbica_Ghetto" title="Izbica Ghetto">Izbica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mi%C5%84sk_Mazowiecki_Ghetto" title="Mińsk Mazowiecki Ghetto">Mińsk Mazowiecki Ghettos</a>, among many others.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death_toll">Death toll</h2></div> <p>Half of all Jewish Holocaust victims, around 3 million, were from Poland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergen2016155_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergen2016155-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is estimated that about 350,000 Polish Jews survived the Holocaust.<sup id="cite_ref-Joc/Lew2010_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joc/Lew2010-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some 230,000 of them survived in the USSR and the Soviet-controlled territories of Poland, including men and women who escaped from areas occupied by Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-Joc/Lew2010_180-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joc/Lew2010-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tr-Maz_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tr-Maz-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After World War II, over 150,000 Polish Jews according to <a href="/wiki/Grzegorz_Berendt" title="Grzegorz Berendt">Grzegorz Berendt</a> or 180,000 according to <a href="/wiki/David_Engel_(historian)" title="David Engel (historian)">David Engel</a>, were repatriated or expelled back to new Poland along with the younger men conscripted to the Red Army from the <i><a href="/wiki/Kresy" title="Kresy">Kresy</a></i> in 1940–1941. Their families were murdered in the Holocaust.<sup id="cite_ref-Berendt_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berendt-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gunnar_S._Paulsson" title="Gunnar S. Paulsson">Gunnar S. Paulsson</a> estimated that 30,000 Polish Jews survived in the labor camps;<sup id="cite_ref-GSPau-JHE_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GSPau-JHE-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but according to Engel as many as 70,000–80,000 of them were liberated from camps in Germany and Austria alone, except that declaring their own nationality was of no use to those who did not intend to return.<sup id="cite_ref-Engel2005_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Engel2005-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dariusz_Stola" title="Dariusz Stola">Dariusz Stola</a> found that the most plausible estimates for Jews who survived in hiding were between 30,000 and 60,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Stola2017_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stola2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">German surrender</a> in May 1945 was followed by a massive change in the political geography of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Lukas1989_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lukas1989-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nazism2000_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nazism2000-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Poland's <a href="/wiki/Territorial_changes_of_Poland_immediately_after_World_War_II" title="Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II">borders were redrawn</a> by the Allies according to the demands made by Joseph Stalin during the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a>, confirmed as not negotiable at the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a> of 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-BP285_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BP285-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Polish_government-in-exile" title="Polish government-in-exile">Polish government-in-exile</a> was excluded from the negotiations.<sup id="cite_ref-Fertacz_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fertacz-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The territory of Poland was reduced by approximately 20 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-Slay2014_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slay2014-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the end of 1946 some 1.8 million Polish citizens were <a href="/wiki/Polish_population_transfers_(1944%E2%80%931946)" title="Polish population transfers (1944–1946)">expelled and forcibly resettled</a> within the new borders.<sup id="cite_ref-BP285_187-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BP285-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fertacz_188-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fertacz-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first time in its history Poland became a homogeneous one <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a> by force, with the national wealth reduced by 38 percent. Poland's financial system had been destroyed. Intelligentsia was largely obliterated along with the Jews, and the population reduced by about 33 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-Slay2014_189-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Slay2014-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zegota(Rada_Pomocy_Zydom)1946.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Zegota%28Rada_Pomocy_Zydom%291946.jpg/220px-Zegota%28Rada_Pomocy_Zydom%291946.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Zegota%28Rada_Pomocy_Zydom%291946.jpg/330px-Zegota%28Rada_Pomocy_Zydom%291946.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Zegota%28Rada_Pomocy_Zydom%291946.jpg/440px-Zegota%28Rada_Pomocy_Zydom%291946.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="732" /></a><figcaption>1946 meeting of <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBegota" title="Żegota">Żegota</a> members on the anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Theatre_in_Warsaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Theatre in Warsaw">Polish Theatre</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Many non-Jews had obtained property or jobs vacated by Jews during the war, and refused to give up these gains to Jewish survivors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016354_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016354-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The elimination of the Polish aristocracy as well as Polish Jews cleared the way for the foundation of an ethnically Polish middle class.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluth2021273_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluth2021273-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An estimated 650 to 1,200 Jews were killed in Poland after the war.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most notable incident was the <a href="/wiki/Kielce_pogrom" title="Kielce pogrom">Kielce pogrom</a> in July 1946, which cost 42 lives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECichopek2014116_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECichopek2014116-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Polish state held trials of war criminals under the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Decree_of_31_August_1944&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Decree of 31 August 1944 (page does not exist)">decree of 31 August 1944</a>. Historian Andrew Kornbluth estimates that "several dozen Poles were executed for denouncing, capturing, and killing their Jewish neighbors during the war", and thousands more perpetrators were investigated or received a lesser sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluth2021274_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluth2021274-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emigration">Emigration</h3></div> <p>Many Jews, fearing for their lives, fled to <a href="/wiki/Displaced_persons_camps_in_post%E2%80%93World_War_II_Europe" title="Displaced persons camps in post–World War II Europe">displaced persons camps</a> in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016354_190-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016354-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pogrom prompted General <a href="/wiki/Marian_Spychalski" title="Marian Spychalski">Spychalski</a> of <a href="/wiki/Polish_Workers%27_Party" title="Polish Workers' Party">PWP</a> from wartime Warsaw,<sup id="cite_ref-TWł2010_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TWł2010-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to sign a legislative decree allowing the remaining survivors to leave Poland without Western visas or Polish exit permits.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochavi-175_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochavi-175-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DeHakoh2003_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeHakoh2003-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This also served to strengthen the government's acceptance among the anti-Communist right, as well as weaken the British hold in the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-Engel2005_184-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Engel2005-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most refugees crossing the new borders left Poland without a valid passport.<sup id="cite_ref-DeHakoh2003_197-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeHakoh2003-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uninterrupted traffic across the Polish borders increased dramatically.<sup id="cite_ref-Marrus_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marrus-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Engel2005_184-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Engel2005-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ther-Siljak_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ther-Siljak-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the spring of 1947 only 90,000 Jews remained in Poland.<sup id="cite_ref-MS109_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MS109-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stankowski_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stankowski-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain demanded that Poland (among others) halt the Jewish exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful.<sup id="cite_ref-Kochavi-xi_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kochavi-xi-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 13,000 Polish Jews left the country between 1968 and 1972 because of the <a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Communist state</a> <a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">antisemitic campaign</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620_179-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as much as one-third of those remaining back then. An apology was made by the democratic Polish government in March 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2019, the Polish Jewish population was estimated at 4,000, around 0.133% of the pre-1939 population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBazyler_''et_al.''2019311_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBazyler_''et_al.''2019311-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_memorials_and_museums#Poland" title="List of Holocaust memorials and museums">List of Holocaust memorials and museums § Poland</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monument_to_the_Ghetto_Heroes_in_Warsaw_05_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Monument_to_the_Ghetto_Heroes_in_Warsaw_05_%28cropped%29.JPG/220px-Monument_to_the_Ghetto_Heroes_in_Warsaw_05_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Monument_to_the_Ghetto_Heroes_in_Warsaw_05_%28cropped%29.JPG/330px-Monument_to_the_Ghetto_Heroes_in_Warsaw_05_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Monument_to_the_Ghetto_Heroes_in_Warsaw_05_%28cropped%29.JPG/440px-Monument_to_the_Ghetto_Heroes_in_Warsaw_05_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2414" /></a><figcaption>Monument to the Ghetto Heroes in Warsaw, inaugurated in 1948</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the postwar Jewish community wanted to make Treblinka the main memorial site, the Polish government decided to instead build a memorial at the former Warsaw Ghetto and to focus memorialization efforts at Auschwitz.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202166_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202166-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the communist era, the differences between different persecuted groups were elided.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620_179-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Memorials were established at Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka during the 1960s as a reaction to West German trials, but these camps remain much less well known.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202162,_66_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202162,_66-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most well-known Holocaust museum in the world is the <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz-Birkenau_State_Museum" title="Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum">Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620–621_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620–621-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which receives about 2 million visitors per year as of 2021<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202162_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202162-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 1988, the <a href="/wiki/March_of_the_Living" title="March of the Living">March of the Living</a> has been held annually at the site of the former camp.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020630_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020630-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/POLIN_Museum_of_the_History_of_Polish_Jews" title="POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews">POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews</a> opened in 2014 on the site of the former Warsaw Ghetto and is connected with earlier memorials such as the 1948 <a href="/wiki/Monument_to_the_Ghetto_Heroes" title="Monument to the Ghetto Heroes">Monument to the Ghetto Heroes</a> and the memorial at the Umschlagplatz.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020628_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020628-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_tourism" title="Holocaust tourism">Holocaust tourism</a> exploded after 1989 due to reduced travel restrictions and brought along with it increasing tourism and commercialization that sometimes was criticized as <a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">kitsch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020630_208-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020630-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1999, the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance" title="Institute of National Remembrance">Institute of National Remembrance</a> was established in order to promote state-sponsored historical narratives, although the degree to which it is politicized has changed over time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluth2021269–270_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluth2021269–270-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2018 the Polish government caused a <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Diplomatic crisis">diplomatic crisis</a> by proposing the <a href="/wiki/Amendment_to_the_Act_on_the_Institute_of_National_Remembrance" title="Amendment to the Act on the Institute of National Remembrance">Amendment to the Act on the Institute of National Remembrance</a>, that would have prescribed up to three years' imprisonment for someone who "attributes to the Polish Nation or Polish State...co-responsibility for Nazi crimes committed by the Third Reich...or otherwise glaringly minimizes the responsibility of the real perpetrators of these crimes".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluth20211_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluth20211-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law was later revised to a civil penalty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluth20211,_271_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluth20211,_271-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Edele-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Edele_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEdeleWarlick2017" class="citation book cs1">Edele, Mark; Warlick, Wanda (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/2698140">"Saved by Stalin? Trajectories and Numbers of Polish Jews in the Soviet Second World War"</a>. <i>Shelter from the Holocaust: Rethinking Jewish Survival in the Soviet Union</i>. Wayne State University Press. pp. 96, 123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-4268-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-4268-8"><bdi>978-0-8143-4268-8</bdi></a>. <q>Including several other contingents of Polish Jews, at least 157,000 and no more than 375,000 were inadvertently saved from the Holocaust by Stalin's Soviet Union, which provided a harsh but mostly livable alternative to genocide.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Saved+by+Stalin%3F+Trajectories+and+Numbers+of+Polish+Jews+in+the+Soviet+Second+World+War&rft.btitle=Shelter+from+the+Holocaust%3A+Rethinking+Jewish+Survival+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pages=96%2C+123&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-4268-8&rft.aulast=Edele&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Warlick%2C+Wanda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fchapter%2F2698140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stola2017-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stola2017_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stola2017_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stola2017_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stola2017_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStola2017" class="citation journal cs1">Stola, Dariusz (2017). "Jewish emigration from communist Poland: the decline of Polish Jewry in the aftermath of the Holocaust". <i>East European Jewish Affairs</i>. <b>47</b> (2–3): 169–188 [171]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13501674.2017.1398446">10.1080/13501674.2017.1398446</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:166031765">166031765</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=East+European+Jewish+Affairs&rft.atitle=Jewish+emigration+from+communist+Poland%3A+the+decline+of+Polish+Jewry+in+the+aftermath+of+the+Holocaust&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=169-188+171&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13501674.2017.1398446&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A166031765%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stola&rft.aufirst=Dariusz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolonsky1989" class="citation journal cs1">Polonsky, Antony (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/doi/abs/10.3828/polin.1989.4.226">"Polish-Jewish relations and the Holocaust"</a>. <i>Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry</i>. <b>4</b>: 226–242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3828%2Fpolin.1989.4.226">10.3828/polin.1989.4.226</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Polin%3A+Studies+in+Polish+Jewry&rft.atitle=Polish-Jewish+relations+and+the+Holocaust&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=226-242&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3828%2Fpolin.1989.4.226&rft.aulast=Polonsky&rft.aufirst=Antony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.3828%2Fpolin.1989.4.226&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yadvashem.org/holocaust/about/fate-of-jews/poland.html">"Murder of the Jews of Poland"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2024</span>. <q>On the eve of the German occupation of Poland in 1939, 3.3 million Jews lived there. At the end of the war, approximately 380,000 Polish Jews remained alive, the rest having been murdered, mostly in the ghettos and the six death camps: <a href="/wiki/Chelmo" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelmo">Chelmo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belzec_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Belzec concentration camp">Belzec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treblinka_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Treblinka concentration camp">Treblinka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz-Birkenau</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yad+Vashem&rft.atitle=Murder+of+the+Jews+of+Poland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yadvashem.org%2Fholocaust%2Fabout%2Ffate-of-jews%2Fpoland.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/polish-victims">"POLISH VICTIMS"</a>. <i>Holocaust Encyclopedia</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2024</span>. <q>After defeating the Polish army in September 1939, the Germans ruthlessly suppressed the Poles by murdering thousands of civilians, establishing massive forced-labor programs, and relocating hundreds of thousands.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Holocaust+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=POLISH+VICTIMS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fpolish-victims&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker2010" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Lee D. (2010). <i>Anthropology and the Racial Politics of Culture</i>. <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822346982" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822346982"><bdi>978-0822346982</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anthropology+and+the+Racial+Politics+of+Culture&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0822346982&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Lee+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaltmanHaas2010" class="citation book cs1">Waltman, Michael; Haas, John (2010). <i>The Communication of Hate</i>. Peter Lang. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1433104473" title="Special:BookSources/978-1433104473"><bdi>978-1433104473</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Communication+of+Hate&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1433104473&rft.aulast=Waltman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Haas%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bpb.de/fsd/centropa/ermordete_juden_nach_land.php">"Unter der NS-Herrschaft ermordete Juden nach Land. / Jews by country murdered under Nazi rule"</a>. <i>Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung / Federal Agency for Civic Education (Germany)</i>. April 29, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bundeszentrale+f%C3%BCr+politische+Bildung+%2F+Federal+Agency+for+Civic+Education+%28Germany%29&rft.atitle=Unter+der+NS-Herrschaft+ermordete+Juden+nach+Land.+%2F+Jews+by+country+murdered+under+Nazi+rule.&rft.date=2018-04-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bpb.de%2Ffsd%2Fcentropa%2Fermordete_juden_nach_land.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201663,_437-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201663,_437_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 63, 437.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurzlaff20201065-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurzlaff20201065_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurzlaff2020">Burzlaff 2020</a>, p. 1065.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoanna_Tokarska-Bakir2023" class="citation book cs1">Joanna Tokarska-Bakir (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9781501771484/cursed/#bookTabs=1"><i>Cursed: A Social Portrait of the Kielce Pogrom</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781501771484" title="Special:BookSources/9781501771484"><bdi>9781501771484</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cursed%3A+A+Social+Portrait+of+the+Kielce+Pogrom&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781501771484&rft.au=Joanna+Tokarska-Bakir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cornellpress.cornell.edu%2Fbook%2F9781501771484%2Fcursed%2F%23bookTabs%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosman" class="citation web cs1">Rosman, Moshe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Poland/Poland_before_1795">"Poland: Poland before 1795"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/YIVO_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="YIVO Encyclopedia">YIVO Encyclopedia</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YIVO+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Poland%3A+Poland+before+1795&rft.aulast=Rosman&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyivoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle.aspx%2FPoland%2FPoland_before_1795&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201813-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201813_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-YIVO_interwar-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-YIVO_interwar_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-YIVO_interwar_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacon" class="citation web cs1">Bacon, Gershon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Poland/Poland_from_1795_to_1939">"Poland: Poland from 1795 to 1939"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/YIVO_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="YIVO Encyclopedia">YIVO Encyclopedia</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YIVO+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Poland%3A+Poland+from+1795+to+1939&rft.aulast=Bacon&rft.aufirst=Gershon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyivoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle.aspx%2FPoland%2FPoland_from_1795_to_1939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201812-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201812_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201814-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201814_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003188-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003188_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003188_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003188_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHilberg2003">Hilberg 2003</a>, p. 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŻebrowski" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Żebrowski, Rafał. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://delet.jhi.pl/pl/psj/article/18865/ostjuden?_locale=en">"Ostjuden"</a>. <i>Polski Słownik Judaistyczny</i> (in Polish)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 14,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Polski+S%C5%82ownik+Judaistyczny&rft.atitle=Ostjuden&rft.aulast=%C5%BBebrowski&rft.aufirst=Rafa%C5%82&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdelet.jhi.pl%2Fpl%2Fpsj%2Farticle%2F18865%2Fostjuden%3F_locale%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder2010122-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder2010122_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSnyder2010">Snyder 2010</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKliymuk2018101-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKliymuk2018101_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKliymuk2018">Kliymuk 2018</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKliymuk2018101-103-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKliymuk2018101-103_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKliymuk2018">Kliymuk 2018</a>, p. 101-103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKliymuk2018104-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKliymuk2018104_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKliymuk2018">Kliymuk 2018</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003189-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilberg2003189_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHilberg2003">Hilberg 2003</a>, p. 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmerman201514-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmerman201514_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZimmerman2015">Zimmerman 2015</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluth202113-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluth202113_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornbluth2021">Kornbluth 2021</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmerman201519–20-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmerman201519–20_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZimmerman2015">Zimmerman 2015</a>, pp. 19–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankl2020" class="citation journal cs1">Frankl, Michal (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=916130">"Citizenship of No Man's Land? Jewish Refugee Relief in Zbąszyń and East-Central Europe, 1938–1939"</a>. <i>S:I.M.O.N. Shoah: Intervention. Methods. Documentation</i>. <b>7</b> (2): 37–49. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2408-9192">2408-9192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=S%3AI.M.O.N.+Shoah%3A+Intervention.+Methods.+Documentation.&rft.atitle=Citizenship+of+No+Man%27s+Land%3F+Jewish+Refugee+Relief+in+Zb%C4%85szy%C5%84+and+East-Central+Europe%2C+1938%E2%80%931939&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=37-49&rft.date=2020&rft.issn=2408-9192&rft.aulast=Frankl&rft.aufirst=Michal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ceeol.com%2Fsearch%2Farticle-detail%3Fid%3D916130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201656-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201656_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201657-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201657_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201898-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201898_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201899,_101-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201899,_101_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, pp. 99, 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008110_28-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŻbikowski2008">Żbikowski 2008</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008107-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008107_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŻbikowski2008">Żbikowski 2008</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201896-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201896_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010148-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010148_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrunerOsterloh20156-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrunerOsterloh20156_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrunerOsterloh2015">Gruner & Osterloh 2015</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201657–58-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201657–58_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, pp. 57–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018102–103-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018102–103_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, pp. 102–103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201658-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201658_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201846,_73-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201846,_73_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, pp. 46, 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008106-107-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008106-107_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŻbikowski2008">Żbikowski 2008</a>, p. 106-107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008109_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŻbikowski2008">Żbikowski 2008</a>, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201886-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201886_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008108-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008108_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŻbikowski2008">Żbikowski 2008</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrajewski2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Krajewski" title="Stanisław Krajewski">Krajewski, Stanisław</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181030035635/http://web.ceu.hu/jewishstudies/pdf/01_krajewski.pdf">"Jews, Communism, and the Jewish Communists"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Kovács, András (ed.). <i>Jewish Studies at the CEU: Yearbook 1996–1999</i>. <a href="/wiki/Central_European_University" title="Central European University">Central European University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.ceu.hu/jewishstudies/pdf/01_krajewski.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on October 30, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jews%2C+Communism%2C+and+the+Jewish+Communists&rft.btitle=Jewish+Studies+at+the+CEU%3A+Yearbook+1996%E2%80%931999&rft.pub=Central+European+University&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Krajewski&rft.aufirst=Stanis%C5%82aw&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.ceu.hu%2Fjewishstudies%2Fpdf%2F01_krajewski.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201889–90-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201889–90_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, pp. 89–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018108-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018108_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018107–109-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018107–109_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, pp. 107–109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023201-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023201_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023201_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023201_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartov2023">Bartov 2023</a>, p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008113-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008113_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008113_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008113_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŻbikowski2008">Żbikowski 2008</a>, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008111-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008111_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŻbikowski2008">Żbikowski 2008</a>, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010164-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010164_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010164_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018109,_117-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018109,_117_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, pp. 109, 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008117-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008117_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008117_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŻbikowski2008">Żbikowski 2008</a>, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn201887,_103-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn201887,_103_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, pp. 87, 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018116-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018116_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018116_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018115-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018115_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiron2020247,_251,_254-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiron2020247,_251,_254_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiron2020">Miron 2020</a>, pp. 247, 251, 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018117-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018117_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiron2020252-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiron2020252_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiron2020">Miron 2020</a>, p. 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiron2020253-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiron2020253_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiron2020">Miron 2020</a>, p. 253.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiron2020253–254-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiron2020253–254_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiron2020">Miron 2020</a>, pp. 253–254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiron2020254-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiron2020254_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiron2020">Miron 2020</a>, p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngel2020240-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngel2020240_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEngel2020">Engel 2020</a>, p. 240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CRB/Path-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CRB/Path_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowning1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Browning" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Browning">Browning, Christopher</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d9Wg4gjtP3cC&q=Warsaw%2BCracow%2BItaly"><i>The Path to Genocide: Essays on Launching the Final Solution</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55878-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55878-5"><bdi>978-0-521-55878-5</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Path+to+Genocide%3A+Essays+on+Launching+the+Final+Solution&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-521-55878-5&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd9Wg4gjtP3cC%26q%3DWarsaw%252BCracow%252BItaly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gutman12-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gutman12_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutman1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yisrael_Gutman" class="mw-redirect" title="Yisrael Gutman">Gutman, Yisrael</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4U_OcvXvhF4C&q=%22Warsaw%27s+conditions+of+surrender%22"><i>The First Months of the Nazi Occupation</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20511-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-20511-7"><bdi>978-0-253-20511-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Months+of+the+Nazi+Occupation&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-253-20511-7&rft.aulast=Gutman&rft.aufirst=Yisrael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4U_OcvXvhF4C%26q%3D%2522Warsaw%2527s%2Bconditions%2Bof%2Bsurrender%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Laqueur-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Laqueur_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter_LaqueurJudith_Tydor_Baumel2001" class="citation cs2">Walter Laqueur; Judith Tydor Baumel (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nPbr0XzlTzcC&q=Warsaw+caloric+rations"><i>The Holocaust Encyclopedia</i></a>, Yale University Press, pp. 260–262, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300138115" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300138115"><bdi>978-0300138115</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Holocaust+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=260-262&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0300138115&rft.au=Walter+Laqueur&rft.au=Judith+Tydor+Baumel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnPbr0XzlTzcC%26q%3DWarsaw%2Bcaloric%2Brations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016255-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016255_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 255.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Browning2005-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Browning2005_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Browning2005_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowning2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Browning" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Browning">Browning, Christopher</a> (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/20050823-ghettos-symposium.pdf"><i>Before the "Final Solution": Nazi Ghettoization Policy in Poland (1940–1941)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, pp. 13–17 of 175 in current document, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161222011246/https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/20050823-ghettos-symposium.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on December 22, 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+the+%22Final+Solution%22%3A+Nazi+Ghettoization+Policy+in+Poland+%281940%E2%80%931941%29&rft.pages=pp.+13-17+of+175+in+current+document&rft.pub=Center+for+Advanced+Holocaust+Studies.+United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fm%2Fpdfs%2F20050823-ghettos-symposium.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-holocaust-education.dk-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-holocaust-education.dk_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_VogelsangBrian_Larsen2002" class="citation cs2">Peter Vogelsang; Brian Larsen (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306055255/http://www.holocaust-education.dk/holocaust/ghettoer.asp"><i>The Ghettos of Poland</i></a>, The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.holocaust-education.dk/holocaust/ghettoer.asp">the original</a> on March 6, 2016 – via Internet Archive</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ghettos+of+Poland&rft.pub=The+Danish+Center+for+Holocaust+and+Genocide+Studies&rft.date=2002&rft.au=Peter+Vogelsang&rft.au=Brian+Larsen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.holocaust-education.dk%2Fholocaust%2Fghettoer.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008120-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008120_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008120_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŻbikowski2008">Żbikowski 2008</a>, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201667-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201667_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEŻbikowski2008127_69-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFŻbikowski2008">Żbikowski 2008</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010265-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010265_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016108-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016108_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopsteinWittenberg20182,_121-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopsteinWittenberg20182,_121_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKopsteinWittenberg2018">Kopstein & Wittenberg 2018</a>, pp. 2, 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201669,_440-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201669,_440_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, pp. 69, 440.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023105,_107–108-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023105,_107–108_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKopstein2023">Kopstein 2023</a>, pp. 105, 107–108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023104-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023104_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKopstein2023">Kopstein 2023</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023107-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023107_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKopstein2023">Kopstein 2023</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023202-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023202_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartov2023">Bartov 2023</a>, p. 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023106-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKopstein2023106_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKopstein2023">Kopstein 2023</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201691-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201691_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201691_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010342-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010342_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 342.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010335-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010335_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018220-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018220_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021200-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021200_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021200_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKay2021">Kay 2021</a>, p. 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163_84-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163_84-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163_84-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202163_84-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLehnstaedt2021">Lehnstaedt 2021</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010340-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010340_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 340.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010339_86-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 339.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010338-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010338_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010338_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabowski2022" class="citation journal cs1">Grabowski, Jan (2022). "Estimates of the Losses of Polish Jews in Hiding, 1942–1945: Revisiting Yehuda Bauer's Observations". <i>The Journal of Holocaust Research</i>. <b>36</b> (1): 96–109. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F25785648.2021.2014673">10.1080/25785648.2021.2014673</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246652977">246652977</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Holocaust+Research&rft.atitle=Estimates+of+the+Losses+of+Polish+Jews+in+Hiding%2C+1942%E2%80%931945%3A+Revisiting+Yehuda+Bauer%27s+Observations&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=96-109&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F25785648.2021.2014673&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246652977%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Grabowski&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiatr2017" class="citation journal cs1">Wiatr, Ewa (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=707987">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Turning Jews Over' – the Participation of 'Blue' Policemen in Deportations of Jews Illustrated with the Example of the Radomsko County"</a>. <i>Holocaust Studies and Materials</i> (4): 302–314. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1689-9644">1689-9644</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Holocaust+Studies+and+Materials&rft.atitle=%27Turning+Jews+Over%27+%E2%80%93+the+Participation+of+%27Blue%27+Policemen+in+Deportations+of+Jews+Illustrated+with+the+Example+of+the+Radomsko+County&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=302-314&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=1689-9644&rft.aulast=Wiatr&rft.aufirst=Ewa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ceeol.com%2Fsearch%2Farticle-detail%3Fid%3D707987&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023209-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023209_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023209_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartov2023">Bartov 2023</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010279-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010279_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 279.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018209-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018209_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010290–291-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010290–291_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, pp. 290–291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018210-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018210_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018210_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010280,_293–294,_302-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010280,_293–294,_302_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, pp. 280, 293–294, 302.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010280–281,_292-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010280–281,_292_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, pp. 280–281, 292.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016208–209-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016208–209_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, pp. 208–209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016243-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016243_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 243.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010330-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010330_100-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010330_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 330.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergen2016247,_251-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergen2016247,_251_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBergen2016">Bergen 2016</a>, pp. 247, 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016286–287-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016286–287_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, pp. 286–287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021204-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021204_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021204_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKay2021">Kay 2021</a>, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016283-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016283_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021204–205-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021204–205_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKay2021">Kay 2021</a>, pp. 204–205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021199-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021199_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKay2021">Kay 2021</a>, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone2010153–154-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStone2010153–154_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStone2010">Stone 2010</a>, pp. 153–154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016199-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016199_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016211-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016211_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016273-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016273_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021209-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021209_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKay2021">Kay 2021</a>, p. 209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016274-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016274_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016121-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016121_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021247-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021247_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKay2021">Kay 2021</a>, p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016111-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016111_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021208-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021208_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKay2021">Kay 2021</a>, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202162-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202162_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202162_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLehnstaedt2021">Lehnstaedt 2021</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016120_118-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674,_120-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674,_120_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674,_120_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201674,_120_119-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, pp. 74, 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach201693–94,_120-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201693–94,_120_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach201693–94,_120_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, pp. 93–94, 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010281–282-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010281–282_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, pp. 281–282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010330–331-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010330–331_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, pp. 330–331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010332–333-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010332–333_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, pp. 332–333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010331-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010331_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010334-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010334_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 334.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010335–336-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010335–336_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, pp. 335–336.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKay2021203-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKay2021203_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKay2021">Kay 2021</a>, p. 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010337-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010337_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010341,_353–354-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010341,_353–354_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, pp. 341, 353–354.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngel2020241–242-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEngel2020241–242_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEngel2020">Engel 2020</a>, pp. 241–242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016110-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016110_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010378–380-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010378–380_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, pp. 378–380.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016214-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016214_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELongerich2010343-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELongerich2010343_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLongerich2010">Longerich 2010</a>, p. 343.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tot-Fein/Gersh-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tot-Fein/Gersh_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTottenFeinberg2009" class="citation book cs1">Totten, Samuel; Feinberg, Stephen (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4vcnDwAAQBAJ&q=dehumanizing+conditions+dignity"><i>Teaching and Studying the Holocaust</i></a>. IAP. pp. 52, 104, 150, 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1607523017" title="Special:BookSources/978-1607523017"><bdi>978-1607523017</bdi></a>. Human dignity and spiritual resistance.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teaching+and+Studying+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=52%2C+104%2C+150%2C+282&rft.pub=IAP&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1607523017&rft.aulast=Totten&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.au=Feinberg%2C+Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4vcnDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Ddehumanizing%2Bconditions%2Bdignity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span> <i>Also in:</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGershenson2013" class="citation book cs1">Gershenson, Olga (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4vcnDwAAQBAJ&q=dignity"><i>The Phantom Holocaust</i></a>. Rutgers University Press. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813561820" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813561820"><bdi>978-0813561820</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phantom+Holocaust&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0813561820&rft.aulast=Gershenson&rft.aufirst=Olga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4vcnDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Ddignity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_Browning2001" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Browning" class="mw-redirect" title="Christopher Browning">Christopher Browning</a> (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pOWtjeac3mYC&q=Yehuda+Bauer+Unanswered">"Raul Hilberg"</a>, <i>Yad Vashem Studies</i>, Wallstein Verlag, pp. 9–10, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0084-3296">0084-3296</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yad+Vashem+Studies&rft.atitle=Raul+Hilberg&rft.pages=9-10&rft.date=2001&rft.issn=0084-3296&rft.au=Christopher+Browning&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpOWtjeac3mYC%26q%3DYehuda%2BBauer%2BUnanswered&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trunk-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Trunk_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsaiah_Trunk1972" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Trunk" title="Isaiah Trunk">Isaiah Trunk</a> (1972), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D7bobfzrcCoC&q=Council+smuggling+arms">"The Attitude of the Councils toward Physical Resistance"</a>, <i>Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation</i>, U of Nebraska Press, pp. 464–466, 472–474, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0803294288" title="Special:BookSources/978-0803294288"><bdi>978-0803294288</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103084453/http://books.google.com/books?id=D7bobfzrcCoC">archived</a> from the original on January 3, 2014, <q>The highest degree of cooperation was achieved when chairmen, or other leading <a href="/wiki/Judenrat" title="Judenrat">Council</a> members themselves actively participated in preparing and executing acts of resistance, particularly when the ghettos were liquidated. Examples included <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_Ghetto" title="Częstochowa Ghetto">Częstochowa</a>, Radomsko, Pajęczno, Sasów, <a href="/wiki/Pi%C5%84sk_Ghetto" title="Pińsk Ghetto">Pińsk</a>, Mołczadź, Iwaniska, <a href="/wiki/Wilno_Ghetto" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilno Ghetto">Wilno</a>, Nieśwież, <a href="/wiki/Zdzi%C4%99cio%C5%82_Ghetto" class="mw-redirect" title="Zdzięcioł Ghetto">Zdzi3</a>, Tuczyn (Równe), and Marcinkańce (<a href="/wiki/Grodno_Ghetto" title="Grodno Ghetto">Grodno</a>) among others.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Attitude+of+the+Councils+toward+Physical+Resistance&rft.btitle=Judenrat%3A+The+Jewish+Councils+in+Eastern+Europe+Under+Nazi+Occupation&rft.pages=464-466%2C+472-474&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0803294288&rft.au=Isaiah+Trunk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD7bobfzrcCoC%26q%3DCouncil%2Bsmuggling%2Barms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span> <i>Also in:</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin_Gilbert1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Gilbert" title="Martin Gilbert">Martin Gilbert</a> (1986), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hRJnAAAAMAAJ&q=brutalizing"><i>The Holocaust: the Jewish tragedy</i></a>, Collins, p. 828, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780002163057" title="Special:BookSources/9780002163057"><bdi>9780002163057</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Holocaust%3A+the+Jewish+tragedy&rft.pages=828&rft.pub=Collins&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780002163057&rft.au=Martin+Gilbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhRJnAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dbrutalizing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ushmm2011-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ushmm2011_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ushmm2011_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Holocaust_Encyclopedia2011" class="citation cs2">The Holocaust Encyclopedia (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005213"><i>Jewish Resistance</i></a>, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120718225143/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/media_nm.php?ModuleId=10005213&MediaId=430">see map.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120126200522/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005213">archived</a> from the original on January 26, 2012 – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Resistance&rft.pub=United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum&rft.date=2011&rft.au=The+Holocaust+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fwlc%2Fen%2Farticle.php%3FModuleId%3D10005213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span> <i>Also in:</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShmuel_Krakowski2010" class="citation cs2">Shmuel Krakowski (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Armed_Resistance"><i>Armed Resistance</i></a>, YIVO, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110602091431/http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Armed_Resistance">archived</a> from the original on June 2, 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armed+Resistance&rft.pub=YIVO&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Shmuel+Krakowski&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yivoencyclopedia.org%2Farticle.aspx%2FArmed_Resistance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LermanCenter-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LermanCenter_139-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LermanCenter_139-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum" class="citation cs2">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/20000831-resistance-bklt.pdf"><i>Resistance during the Holocaust</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, The Miles Lerman Center for the Study of Jewish Resistance, p. 6 of 56 in current document, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829054516/https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/20000831-resistance-bklt.pdf">archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on August 29, 2017</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Resistance+during+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=p.+6+of+56+in+current+document&rft.pub=The+Miles+Lerman+Center+for+the+Study+of+Jewish+Resistance&rft.au=United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fm%2Fpdfs%2F20000831-resistance-bklt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Holocaust_Encyclopedia2017" class="citation cs2">The Holocaust Encyclopedia (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005173"><i>Resistance in the Vilna Ghetto</i></a>, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170803220421/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005173">archived</a> from the original on August 3, 2017</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Resistance+in+the+Vilna+Ghetto&rft.pub=United+States+Holocaust+Memorial+Museum&rft.date=2017&rft.au=The+Holocaust+Encyclopedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ushmm.org%2Fwlc%2Fen%2Farticle.php%3FModuleId%3D10005173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELáníček201274–75,_81-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELáníček201274–75,_81_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLáníček2012">Láníček 2012</a>, pp. 74–75, 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018236-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018236_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brethour-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brethour_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrethour2019" class="citation journal cs1">Brethour, Miranda (2019). "Jewish–Gentile Relations in Hiding during the Holocaust in Sokołów County, Poland (1942–1944)". <i>The Journal of Holocaust Research</i>. <b>33</b> (4): 277–301 [299–300]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F25785648.2019.1677090">10.1080/25785648.2019.1677090</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211662916">211662916</a>. <q>close contacts in the Polish community and decent knowledge of the Polish language were extremely useful, if not essential, for securing shelter... A few other cases were uncovered wherein a local Pole committed to hiding a group of Jews and then subsequently denounced or murdered the charges, transitioning from helper to perpetrator.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Holocaust+Research&rft.atitle=Jewish%E2%80%93Gentile+Relations+in+Hiding+during+the+Holocaust+in+Soko%C5%82%C3%B3w+County%2C+Poland+%281942%E2%80%931944%29&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=277-301+299-300&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F25785648.2019.1677090&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211662916%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Brethour&rft.aufirst=Miranda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabowski2008" class="citation book cs1">Grabowski, Jan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dkMpAQAAMAAJ&q=paid+help+marginal"><i>Rescue for Money: Paid Helpers in Poland, 1939-1945</i></a>. Yad Vashem. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-308-325-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-308-325-7"><bdi>978-965-308-325-7</bdi></a>. <q>Files of postwar trials of collaborators, many of whom committed crimes against Jews, and other materials show that the phenomenon of paid help was far from marginal. A Jew with money and other assets had much greater chances of being rescued than a penniless one.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rescue+for+Money%3A+Paid+Helpers+in+Poland%2C+1939-1945&rft.pub=Yad+Vashem&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-965-308-325-7&rft.aulast=Grabowski&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdkMpAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dpaid%2Bhelp%2Bmarginal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206_145-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBartov2023206_145-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBartov2023">Bartov 2023</a>, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrydel2018190–191-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrydel2018190–191_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrydel2018">Frydel 2018</a>, pp. 190–191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018269-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018269_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, p. 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016360-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016360_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 360.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018269–270-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeorn2018269–270_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeorn2018">Beorn 2018</a>, pp. 269–270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurzlaff20201065,_1075-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurzlaff20201065,_1075_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurzlaff2020">Burzlaff 2020</a>, pp. 1065, 1075.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrydel2018197-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrydel2018197_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrydel2018">Frydel 2018</a>, p. 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google12-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google12_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCesaraniKavanaugh" class="citation book cs1">Cesarani, David; Kavanaugh, Sarah. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22monthly+relief+payments+to+a+few+thousand+Jewish+families+in+Warsaw%2C+Lwow+and+Cracow%22"><i>Holocaust</i></a>. Routledge. p. 64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holocaust&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.aulast=Cesarani&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Kavanaugh%2C+Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fsearch%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3D%2522monthly%2Brelief%2Bpayments%2Bto%2Ba%2Bfew%2Bthousand%2BJewish%2Bfamilies%2Bin%2BWarsaw%252C%2BLwow%2Band%2BCracow%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shoa-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shoa_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a> Shoa Resource Center, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206392.pdf">Zegota</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131020062021/http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206392.pdf">Archived</a> October 20, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, page 4/34 of the Report.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPodbielska2019" class="citation journal cs1">Podbielska, Alicja (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=820618">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"That's for harboring Jews!" Post-Liberation Violence against Holocaust Rescuers in Poland, 1944–1948"</a>. <i>S:I.M.O.N. Shoah: Intervention. Methods. Documentation</i>. <b>6</b> (2): 110–120. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2408-9192">2408-9192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=S%3AI.M.O.N.+Shoah%3A+Intervention.+Methods.+Documentation.&rft.atitle=%22That%27s+for+harboring+Jews%21%22+Post-Liberation+Violence+against+Holocaust+Rescuers+in+Poland%2C+1944%E2%80%931948&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=110-120&rft.date=2019&rft.issn=2408-9192&rft.aulast=Podbielska&rft.aufirst=Alicja&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ceeol.com%2Fsearch%2Farticle-detail%3Fid%3D820618&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJan_Grabowski2013" class="citation book cs1">Jan Grabowski (October 9, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oVmSAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3"><i>Hunt for the Jews: Betrayal and Murder in German-Occupied Poland</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. pp. 2–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-01087-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-01087-2"><bdi>978-0-253-01087-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hunt+for+the+Jews%3A+Betrayal+and+Murder+in+German-Occupied+Poland&rft.pages=2-4&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2013-10-09&rft.isbn=978-0-253-01087-2&rft.au=Jan+Grabowski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoVmSAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsBuckley-Zistel2018" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Timothy; Buckley-Zistel, Susanne, eds. (April 17, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=USBWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT337"><i>Perpetrators and Perpetration of Mass Violence: Action, Motivations and Dynamics</i></a>. Routledge. p. 337. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351175845" title="Special:BookSources/9781351175845"><bdi>9781351175845</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Perpetrators+and+Perpetration+of+Mass+Violence%3A+Action%2C+Motivations+and+Dynamics&rft.pages=337&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018-04-17&rft.isbn=9781351175845&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUSBWDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT337&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grabowski_2016-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grabowski_2016_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabowski2013" class="citation book cs1">Grabowski, Jan (2013). <i>Hunt for the Jews: betrayal and murder in German-occupied Poland</i>. Bloomington, Indiana: <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-01074-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-01074-2"><bdi>978-0-253-01074-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hunt+for+the+Jews%3A+betrayal+and+murder+in+German-occupied+Poland&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-253-01074-2&rft.aulast=Grabowski&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oVmSAAAAQBAJ&q=200000">Hunt for the Jews: Betrayal and Murder in German-Occupied Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Grabowski" title="Jan Grabowski">Jan Grabowski</a>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KPF_2005-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KPF_2005_159-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KPF_2005_159-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedrich2005" class="citation journal cs1">Friedrich, Klaus-Peter (Winter 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3649910">"Collaboration in a 'Land without a Quisling': Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Review" title="Slavic Review">Slavic Review</a></i>. <b>64</b> (4): 711–746. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3649910">10.2307/3649910</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3649910">3649910</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=Collaboration+in+a+%27Land+without+a+Quisling%27%3A+Patterns+of+Cooperation+with+the+Nazi+German+Occupation+Regime+in+Poland+during+World+War+II&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=711-746&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3649910&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3649910%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Friedrich&rft.aufirst=Klaus-Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2307%252F3649910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haaretz_interview_11-02-2017-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Haaretz_interview_11-02-2017_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/europe/.premium.MAGAZINE-orgy-of-murder-the-poles-who-hunted-jews-and-turned-them-in-1.5430977">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Orgy of Murder': The Poles Who 'Hunted' Jews and Turned Them Over to the Nazis"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Haaretz" title="Haaretz">Haaretz</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=%27Orgy+of+Murder%27%3A+The+Poles+Who+%27Hunted%27+Jews+and+Turned+Them+Over+to+the+Nazis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fworld-news%2Feurope%2F.premium.MAGAZINE-orgy-of-murder-the-poles-who-hunted-jews-and-turned-them-in-1.5430977&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180329184358/http://policjapanstwowa.pl/policja-polska-w-gg/">"Policja Polska w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie 1939-1945 – Policja Panstwowa"</a>. <i>policjapanstwowa.pl</i> (in Polish). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://policjapanstwowa.pl/policja-polska-w-gg/">the original</a> on March 29, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 29,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=policjapanstwowa.pl&rft.atitle=Policja+Polska+w+Generalnym+Gubernatorstwie+1939-1945+%E2%80%93+Policja+Panstwowa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpolicjapanstwowa.pl%2Fpolicja-polska-w-gg%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garlinsky_1985-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Garlinsky_1985_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarlinski1985" class="citation book cs1">Garlinski, Josef (August 12, 1985). <i>Poland in the Second World War</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-09910-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-09910-8"><bdi>978-1-349-09910-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland+in+the+Second+World+War&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1985-08-12&rft.isbn=978-1-349-09910-8&rft.aulast=Garlinski&rft.aufirst=Josef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmerman2015-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmerman2015_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZimmerman2015">Zimmerman (2015)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiskupski2000" class="citation book cs1">Biskupski, Mieczysław (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofpoland00bisk/page/110"><i>The history of Poland</i></a>. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofpoland00bisk/page/110">110</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313305719" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313305719"><bdi>978-0313305719</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42021562">42021562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+Poland&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42021562&rft.isbn=978-0313305719&rft.aulast=Biskupski&rft.aufirst=Mieczys%C5%82aw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofpoland00bisk%2Fpage%2F110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cymet_1999-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cymet_1999_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCymet1999" class="citation journal cs1">Cymet, David (June 1999). "Polish state antisemitism as a major factor leading to the Holocaust". <i>Journal of Genocide Research</i>. <b>1</b> (2): 169–212. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14623529908413950">10.1080/14623529908413950</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-9494">1469-9494</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Genocide+Research&rft.atitle=Polish+state+antisemitism+as+a+major+factor+leading+to+the+Holocaust&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=169-212&rft.date=1999-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14623529908413950&rft.issn=1469-9494&rft.aulast=Cymet&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cooper_2000-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cooper_2000_166-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooper_2000_166-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2000" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Leo (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://site.ebrary.com/id/10263153"><i>In the shadow of the Polish eagle: the Poles, the Holocaust, and beyond</i></a>. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York, N.Y.: Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-280-24918-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-280-24918-1"><bdi>978-1-280-24918-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 26,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+shadow+of+the+Polish+eagle%3A+the+Poles%2C+the+Holocaust%2C+and+beyond&rft.place=Houndmills%2C+Basingstoke%2C+Hampshire%3B+New+York%2C+N.Y.&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-280-24918-1&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsite.ebrary.com%2Fid%2F10263153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmerman2015371-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmerman2015371_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZimmerman2015">Zimmerman (2015)</a>, p. 371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWładysław_Bartoszewski2004" class="citation book cs1">Władysław Bartoszewski, ed. (2004). <i>Poles and Jews: perceptions and misperceptions</i>. Polin (1. issued in paperback ed.). Oxford: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. p. 356. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904113-19-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904113-19-5"><bdi>978-1-904113-19-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poles+and+Jews%3A+perceptions+and+misperceptions&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Polin&rft.pages=356&rft.edition=1.+issued+in+paperback&rft.pub=Littman+Library+of+Jewish+Civilization&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-904113-19-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchatz1991" class="citation book cs1">Schatz, Jaff (1991). <i>The generation : the rise and fall of the Jewish communists of Poland</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520071360" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520071360"><bdi>978-0520071360</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22984393">22984393</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+generation+%3A+the+rise+and+fall+of+the+Jewish+communists+of+Poland&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=204&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22984393&rft.isbn=978-0520071360&rft.aulast=Schatz&rft.aufirst=Jaff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECymet1999-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECymet1999_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCymet1999">Cymet (1999)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper2000141-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper2000141_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooper2000">Cooper (2000)</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMushkat1992" class="citation book cs1">Mushkat, Marion (1992). <i>Philo-Semitic and anti-Jewish attitudes in post-Holocaust Poland</i>. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0773491762" title="Special:BookSources/978-0773491762"><bdi>978-0773491762</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26855644">26855644</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philo-Semitic+and+anti-Jewish+attitudes+in+post-Holocaust+Poland&rft.place=Lewiston&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Edwin+Mellen+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26855644&rft.isbn=978-0773491762&rft.aulast=Mushkat&rft.aufirst=Marion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Getter-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Getter_173-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCantorovich2012" class="citation web cs1">Cantorovich, Irena (June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170510065038/http://kantorcenter.tau.ac.il/sites/default/files/ukraine-collaborators_3.pdf">"Honoring the Collaborators – The Ukrainian Case"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Roni Stauber, Beryl Belsky. Kantor Program Papers. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kantorcenter.tau.ac.il/sites/default/files/ukraine-collaborators_3.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on May 10, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 25,</span> 2016</span>. <q>When the Soviets occupied eastern Galicia, some 30,000 Ukrainian nationalists fled to the General Government. In 1940 the Germans began to set up military training units of Ukrainians, and in the spring of 1941 Ukrainian units were established by the Wehrmacht.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Honoring+the+Collaborators+%E2%80%93+The+Ukrainian+Case&rft.pub=Kantor+Program+Papers&rft.date=2012-06&rft.aulast=Cantorovich&rft.aufirst=Irena&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkantorcenter.tau.ac.il%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fukraine-collaborators_3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreitman2005" class="citation book cs1">Breitman, Richard (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GnkBYN8ipYcC&q=recruit+Ukrainians+1940"><i>U.S. Intelligence and the Nazis</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521617949" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521617949"><bdi>978-0521617949</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=U.S.+Intelligence+and+the+Nazis&rft.pages=249&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0521617949&rft.aulast=Breitman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGnkBYN8ipYcC%26q%3Drecruit%2BUkrainians%2B1940&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2003" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, Timothy (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC&q=UPA+1943+Jews"><i>The Reconstruction of Nations. Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999</i></a>. Yale University Press. pp. 162–170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10586-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10586-5"><bdi>978-0-300-10586-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160603161012/https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC">Archived</a> from the original on June 3, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reconstruction+of+Nations.+Poland%2C+Ukraine%2C+Lithuania%2C+Belarus%2C+1569%E2%80%931999&rft.pages=162-170&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10586-5&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxSpEynLxJ1MC%26q%3DUPA%2B1943%2BJews&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpectorWigoder2001" class="citation book cs1">Spector, Shmuel; Wigoder, Geoffrey (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tumlOiOZvSUC&q=Himmler+Ostland+ghettoes+July"><i>The Encyclopedia of Jewish Life Before and During the Holocaust</i></a>. Vol. III. NYU Press. p. 1627. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0814793787" title="Special:BookSources/978-0814793787"><bdi>978-0814793787</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131231083024/http://books.google.com/books?id=tumlOiOZvSUC">Archived</a> from the original on December 31, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Jewish+Life+Before+and+During+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=1627&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0814793787&rft.aulast=Spector&rft.aufirst=Shmuel&rft.au=Wigoder%2C+Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtumlOiOZvSUC%26q%3DHimmler%2BOstland%2Bghettoes%2BJuly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossolinski2014" class="citation book cs1">Rossolinski, Grzegorz (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6OXJCQAAQBAJ&q=thousand+Jews+forests"><i>Stepan Bandera: The Life and Afterlife of a Ukrainian Nationalist : Fascism, Genocide, and Cult</i></a>. Columbia University Press. p. 290. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3838206844" title="Special:BookSources/978-3838206844"><bdi>978-3838206844</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stepan+Bandera%3A+The+Life+and+Afterlife+of+a+Ukrainian+Nationalist+%3A+Fascism%2C+Genocide%2C+and+Cult&rft.pages=290&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3838206844&rft.aulast=Rossolinski&rft.aufirst=Grzegorz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6OXJCQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dthousand%2BJews%2Bforests&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergen2016155-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergen2016155_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBergen2016">Bergen 2016</a>, p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620_179-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620_179-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620_179-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrzyb2020">Grzyb 2020</a>, p. 620.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joc/Lew2010-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Joc/Lew2010_180-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Joc/Lew2010_180-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJockuschLewinsky2010" class="citation book cs1">Jockusch, Laura; Lewinsky, Tamar (Winter 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1777909"><i>Paradise Lost? Postwar Memory of Polish Jewish Survival in the Soviet Union</i></a>. Vol. 24. Full text downloaded from the <i>Holocaust and Genocide Studies</i> (with signup). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141220122806/http://www.academia.edu/1777909/_Paradise_Lost_Postwar_Memory_of_Polish_Jewish_Survival_in_the_Soviet_Union_">Archived</a> from the original on December 20, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paradise+Lost%3F+Postwar+Memory+of+Polish+Jewish+Survival+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Jockusch&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft.au=Lewinsky%2C+Tamar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1777909&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tr-Maz-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tr-Maz_181-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrela-Mazur1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/El%C5%BCbieta_Trela-Mazur" title="Elżbieta Trela-Mazur">Trela-Mazur, Elżbieta</a> (1998) [1997]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wGq1AAAAIAAJ&q=38%25+Polak%C3%B3w"><i>Sovietization of educational system in the eastern part of Lesser Poland under the Soviet occupation, 1939–1941</i></a> [<i>Sowietyzacja oświaty w Małopolsce Wschodniej pod radziecką okupacją 1939–1941</i>]. Kielce: Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna im. Jana Kochanowskiego. pp. 43, 294. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7133-100-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7133-100-8"><bdi>978-83-7133-100-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sovietization+of+educational+system+in+the+eastern+part+of+Lesser+Poland+under+the+Soviet+occupation%2C+1939%E2%80%931941&rft.place=Kielce&rft.pages=43%2C+294&rft.pub=Wy%C5%BCsza+Szko%C5%82a+Pedagogiczna+im.+Jana+Kochanowskiego&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-83-7133-100-8&rft.aulast=Trela-Mazur&rft.aufirst=El%C5%BCbieta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwGq1AAAAIAAJ%26q%3D38%2525%2BPolak%25C3%25B3w&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span> <i>Also in:</i> Trela-Mazur (1997), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cY0dAQAAMAAJ&q=%28tj.+1300+tys.%29">Wrocławskie studia wschodnie.</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw" title="Wrocław">Wrocław</a>: Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego. Volume 1, pp. 87–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berendt-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Berendt_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerendt2006" class="citation journal cs1">Berendt, Grzegorz (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rcin.org.pl/Content/59632/WA303_78922_B155-Polska-T-7-2005_Berendt.pdf">"Emigration of Jewish people from Poland in 1945–1967"</a> [Emigracja ludności żydowskiej z Polski w latach 1945–1967] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Polska 1944/45–1989. Studia I Materiały</i>. <b>VII</b>. pp. 25–26 (pp. 2–3 in current document). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171201043934/http://rcin.org.pl/Content/59632/WA303_78922_B155-Polska-T-7-2005_Berendt.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on December 1, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Polska+1944%2F45%E2%80%931989.+Studia+I+Materia%C5%82y&rft.atitle=Emigration+of+Jewish+people+from+Poland+in+1945%E2%80%931967&rft.volume=VII&rft.pages=pp.+25-26+%28pp.+2-3+in+current+document%29&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Berendt&rft.aufirst=Grzegorz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frcin.org.pl%2FContent%2F59632%2FWA303_78922_B155-Polska-T-7-2005_Berendt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GSPau-JHE-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GSPau-JHE_183-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunnar_S._Paulsson1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gunnar_S._Paulsson" title="Gunnar S. Paulsson">Gunnar S. Paulsson</a> (Summer–Autumn 1998). "The Rescue of Jews by Non-Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland". <i>Journal of Holocaust Education</i>. <b>7</b> (1&2): 19–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17504902.1998.11087056">10.1080/17504902.1998.11087056</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/document/357827375/Gunnar-S-Paulsson-The-Rescue-of-Jews-by-Non-Jews-in-Nazi-Occupied-Poland">Relevant excerpt about the 'chances of survival in hiding.'</a>. <q>Keeping in mind that these cases are drawn from published memoirs and from cases on file at Yad Vashem and the Jewish Historical Institute, it is probable that the 5,000 or so Poles who have been recognised as 'Righteous Among the Nations' so far represent only the tip of the iceberg, and that the true number of rescuers who meet the Yad Vashem 'gold standard' is 20, 50, perhaps even 100 times higher (p. 23, § 2; available with purchase).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Holocaust+Education&rft.atitle=The+Rescue+of+Jews+by+Non-Jews+in+Nazi-Occupied+Poland&rft.chron=summer%E2%80%93fall&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1%262&rft.pages=19-44&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17504902.1998.11087056&rft.au=Gunnar+S.+Paulsson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Engel2005-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Engel2005_184-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Engel2005_184-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Engel2005_184-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Engel2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Engel_(historian)" title="David Engel (historian)">David Engel</a> (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203033626/http://www.yivo.org/pdf/poland.pdf">"Poland"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Liberation, Reconstruction, and Flight (1944–1947)</i>, <i>The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe</i>, pp. 5–6 in current document, <a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO</a>, The largest group of Polish-Jewish survivors spent the war years in the Soviet or Soviet-controlled territories., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300119039" title="Special:BookSources/9780300119039"><bdi>9780300119039</bdi></a>, <i>[see also:]</i> <a href="#Nazism2000">Golczewski (2000)</a>, p. 330, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yivo.org/pdf/poland.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on December 3, 2013</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poland&rft.btitle=Liberation%2C+Reconstruction%2C+and+Flight+%281944%E2%80%931947%29&rft.series=%27%27The+YIVO+Encyclopedia+of+Jews+in+Eastern+Europe%27%27%2C+pp.+5%E2%80%936+in+current+document&rft.pages=The+largest+group+of+Polish-Jewish+survivors+spent+the+war+years+in+the+Soviet+or+Soviet-controlled+territories.&rft.pub=YIVO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780300119039&rft.au=David+Engel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yivo.org%2Fpdf%2Fpoland.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lukas1989-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lukas1989_185-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLukas1989">Lukas (1989)</a>, pp. 5, 13, 111, 201, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lz9obsxmuW4C&q=Another+informed+estimate">"Introduction"</a>. <i>Also in:</i> <a href="#CITEREFLukas2001">Lukas (2001)</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nazism2000-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nazism2000_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Nazism2000" class="citation book cs1">Golczewski, Frank (2000). Gregor, Neil (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WNFFAwAAQBAJ&q=Reference+census+subtraction"><i>Nazism</i></a>. OUP Oxford. pp. 329–330. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0191512032" title="Special:BookSources/978-0191512032"><bdi>978-0191512032</bdi></a>. Prof. <a href="/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Madajczyk" title="Czesław Madajczyk">Czesław Madajczyk</a> ascribed 2,000,000 Polish-Jewish victims to extermination camps, and 700,000 others to ghettos, labour camps, and hands-on murder operations. His stated figure of 2,770,000 victims is regarded as low but realistic. Madajczyk estimated also 890,000 Polish-Jewish survivors of World War II; some 110,000 of them in the Displaced Person camps across the rest of Europe, and 500,000 in the USSR; bringing the number up to 610,000 Jews outside the country in 1945.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nazism&rft.pages=329-330&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0191512032&rft.aulast=Golczewski&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWNFFAwAAQBAJ%26q%3DReference%2Bcensus%2Bsubtraction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span> <i>Note:</i> some other estimates, see for example: <a href="#Engel2005">Engel (2005)</a>, are substantially different.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BP285-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BP285_187-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BP285_187-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerthonPotts2007" class="citation book cs1">Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q45EBArmpRYC&q=Livadia+Palace%2C+Poland&pg=PA285"><i>Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-Creation of World War II</i></a>. Da Capo Press. p. 285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0306816505" title="Special:BookSources/978-0306816505"><bdi>978-0306816505</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warlords%3A+An+Extraordinary+Re-Creation+of+World+War+II&rft.pages=285&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0306816505&rft.aulast=Berthon&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Potts%2C+Joanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq45EBArmpRYC%26q%3DLivadia%2BPalace%252C%2BPoland%26pg%3DPA285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fertacz-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fertacz_188-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fertacz_188-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFertacz2005" class="citation journal cs1">Fertacz, Sylwester (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090425133017/http://www.alfa.com.pl/slask/200506/s19.html">"Carving of Poland's map"</a> [Krojenie mapy Polski: Bolesna granica]. <i>Magazyn Społeczno-Kulturalny Śląsk</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alfa.com.pl/slask/200506/s19.html">the original</a> on April 25, 2009 – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>, June 5, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Magazyn+Spo%C5%82eczno-Kulturalny+%C5%9Al%C4%85sk&rft.atitle=Carving+of+Poland%27s+map&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Fertacz&rft.aufirst=Sylwester&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alfa.com.pl%2Fslask%2F200506%2Fs19.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Slay2014-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Slay2014_189-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Slay2014_189-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlay2014" class="citation book cs1">Slay, Ben (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FEUABAAAQBAJ&q=20+percent+prewar+area"><i>The Polish Economy: Crisis, Reform, and Transformation</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 20–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400863730" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400863730"><bdi>978-1400863730</bdi></a>. <q>The Second Republic was obliterated during the Second World War (1939–1945). As a consequence of seven years of brutal fighting and resistance to Nazi and Soviet military occupation, Poland's population was reduced by a third, from 34,849 at the end of 1938, to 23,930 in February 1946. Six million citizens...perished.<sup>[pp.19–20]</sup> (<i>See <a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_resistance_in_Poland_(1944%E2%80%9346)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–46)">Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–46)</a> for supplementary data.</i>)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish+Economy%3A+Crisis%2C+Reform%2C+and+Transformation&rft.pages=20-21&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1400863730&rft.aulast=Slay&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFEUABAAAQBAJ%26q%3D20%2Bpercent%2Bprewar%2Barea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016354-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016354_190-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerlach2016354_190-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGerlach2016">Gerlach 2016</a>, p. 354.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluth2021273-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluth2021273_191-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornbluth2021">Kornbluth 2021</a>, p. 273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCichopek2014" class="citation book cs1">Cichopek, Anna (2014). <i>Beyond Violence: Jewish Survivors in Poland and Slovakia, 1944–48</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03666-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03666-6"><bdi>978-1-107-03666-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Violence%3A+Jewish+Survivors+in+Poland+and+Slovakia%2C+1944%E2%80%9348&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-107-03666-6&rft.aulast=Cichopek&rft.aufirst=Anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECichopek2014116-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECichopek2014116_193-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCichopek2014">Cichopek 2014</a>, p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluth2021274-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluth2021274_194-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornbluth2021">Kornbluth 2021</a>, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TWł2010-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TWł2010_195-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWłodarczyk2010" class="citation book cs1">Włodarczyk, Tamara (2010). "2.10 Bricha". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/37156/004.pdf"><i>Osiedle żydowskie na Dolnym Śląsku w latach 1945–1950 (na przykładzie Kłodzka)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. pp. 36, 44–45 (23–24 in PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160413055637/http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/37156/004.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on April 13, 2016. <q><i>The decision originated from the military circles (and not the party leadership). The <a href="/wiki/Berihah" class="mw-redirect" title="Berihah">Berihah</a> organization under Cwi Necer was requested to keep the involvement of MSZ and MON a secret.</i><sup>(24 in PDF)</sup> <i>The migration reached its zenith in 1946, resulting in 150,000 Jews leaving Poland.</i><sup>(21 in PDF)</sup></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2.10+Bricha&rft.btitle=Osiedle+%C5%BCydowskie+na+Dolnym+%C5%9Al%C4%85sku+w+latach+1945%E2%80%931950+%28na+przyk%C5%82adzie+K%C5%82odzka%29&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=W%C5%82odarczyk&rft.aufirst=Tamara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl%2FContent%2F37156%2F004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochavi-175-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kochavi-175_196-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAleksiun" class="citation web cs1">Aleksiun, Natalia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/printarticle.aspx?id=219">"Beriḥah"</a>. YIVO. <q>Suggested reading: Arieh Josef Kochavi, "Britain and the Jewish Exodus ... ," <i>Polin</i> 7 (1992): pp. 161–175.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Beri%E1%B8%A5ah&rft.pub=YIVO&rft.aulast=Aleksiun&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yivoencyclopedia.org%2Fprintarticle.aspx%3Fid%3D219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeHakoh2003-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DeHakoh2003_197-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeHakoh2003_197-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHakohen2003">Hakohen (2003)</a>, p. 70, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hCw6v0TFhdMC&dq=%22Poland+opened+its+gates+to+Jewish+emigration.%22&pg=PA70">'Poland'.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marrus-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Marrus_198-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarrusAristide_R._Zolberg2002" class="citation book cs1">Marrus, Michael Robert; Aristide R. Zolberg (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ssrLM0yWD1kC&q=%22accelerated+powerfully+after+the+Kielce+pogrom%22&pg=PA336"><i>The Unwanted: European Refugees from the First World War Through the Cold War</i></a>. Temple University Press. p. 336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56639-955-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56639-955-5"><bdi>978-1-56639-955-5</bdi></a>. <q>This gigantic effort, known by the Hebrew code word <i>Brichah</i>(flight), accelerated powerfully after the Kielce pogrom in July 1946</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Unwanted%3A+European+Refugees+from+the+First+World+War+Through+the+Cold+War&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-56639-955-5&rft.aulast=Marrus&rft.aufirst=Michael+Robert&rft.au=Aristide+R.+Zolberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DssrLM0yWD1kC%26q%3D%2522accelerated%2Bpowerfully%2Bafter%2Bthe%2BKielce%2Bpogrom%2522%26pg%3DPA336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ther-Siljak-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ther-Siljak_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiljakTher2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ana_Siljak" title="Ana Siljak">Siljak, Ana</a>; Ther, Philipp (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oGmTs2SceAgC&q=%22agreements+on+the%22+%22mutual+evacuation+of+citizens%22&pg=PA137"><i>Redrawing nations: ethnic cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944–1948</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-1094-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-1094-4"><bdi>978-0-7425-1094-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Redrawing+nations%3A+ethnic+cleansing+in+East-Central+Europe%2C+1944%E2%80%931948&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-1094-4&rft.aulast=Siljak&rft.aufirst=Ana&rft.au=Ther%2C+Philipp&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoGmTs2SceAgC%26q%3D%2522agreements%2Bon%2Bthe%2522%2B%2522mutual%2Bevacuation%2Bof%2Bcitizens%2522%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MS109-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MS109_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinlauf1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Steinlauf" title="Michael C. Steinlauf">Steinlauf, Michael C.</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U6KVOsjpP0MC&q=%22began+to+emerge+from+concentration+camps+and+places+of+refuge%22&pg=PA109"><i>Poland</i></a>. JHU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801849695" title="Special:BookSources/9780801849695"><bdi>9780801849695</bdi></a>. In: David S. Wyman, Charles H. Rosenzveig. <i>The World Reacts to the Holocaust</i>. The Johns Hopkins University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poland&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780801849695&rft.aulast=Steinlauf&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU6KVOsjpP0MC%26q%3D%2522began%2Bto%2Bemerge%2Bfrom%2Bconcentration%2Bcamps%2Band%2Bplaces%2Bof%2Brefuge%2522%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stankowski-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stankowski_201-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albert Stankowski, with August Grabski and Grzegorz Berendt; <i>Studia z historii Żydów w Polsce po 1945 roku</i>, Warszawa, <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBydowski_Instytut_Historyczny" class="mw-redirect" title="Żydowski Instytut Historyczny">Żydowski Instytut Historyczny</a> 2000, pp. 107–111. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-85888-36-5" title="Special:BookSources/83-85888-36-5">83-85888-36-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochavi-xi-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kochavi-xi_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKochavi2001" class="citation book cs1">Kochavi, Arieh J. (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/postholocaustpol00koch"><i>Post-Holocaust Politics: Britain, the United States & Jewish Refugees, 1945–1948</i></a></span>. The University of North Carolina Press. pp. xi, 167–169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-2620-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-2620-1"><bdi>978-0-8078-2620-1</bdi></a>. <q>Britain exerted pressure on the governments of Poland.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Post-Holocaust+Politics%3A+Britain%2C+the+United+States+%26+Jewish+Refugees%2C+1945%E2%80%931948&rft.pages=xi%2C+167-169&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-2620-1&rft.aulast=Kochavi&rft.aufirst=Arieh+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpostholocaustpol00koch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_W._Hagen2023" class="citation journal cs1">William W. Hagen (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/expulsion-of-jews-from-communist-poland-memory-wars-and-homeland-anxieties-by-anat-plocker-bloomington-indiana-university-press-2022-xvi-219-pp-notes-index-8000-hard-bound-3000-paper/6958E35A6F3C044942D211F3EF687F69">"The Expulsion of Jews From Communist Poland: Memory Wars and Homeland Anxieties"</a>. <i>Slavic Review</i>. <b>82</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: 519–520<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=The+Expulsion+of+Jews+From+Communist+Poland%3A+Memory+Wars+and+Homeland+Anxieties.&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=519-520&rft.date=2023&rft.au=William+W.+Hagen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fslavic-review%2Farticle%2Fexpulsion-of-jews-from-communist-poland-memory-wars-and-homeland-anxieties-by-anat-plocker-bloomington-indiana-university-press-2022-xvi-219-pp-notes-index-8000-hard-bound-3000-paper%2F6958E35A6F3C044942D211F3EF687F69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2018-03-08/ty-article/polands-president-apologizes-for-1968-expulsion-of-jews/0000017f-f067-df98-a5ff-f3ef89f60000">"Poland's President Apologizes for 1968 Purge of Jews"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Haaretz" title="Haaretz">Haaretz</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Poland%27s+President+Apologizes+for+1968+Purge+of+Jews&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fisrael-news%2F2018-03-08%2Fty-article%2Fpolands-president-apologizes-for-1968-expulsion-of-jews%2F0000017f-f067-df98-a5ff-f3ef89f60000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/poland-marks-50-years-since-1968-anti-semitic-purge/a-42877652">"Poland: 50 years since 1968 anti-Semitic purge"</a>. <i>DW News</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=DW+News&rft.atitle=Poland%3A+50+years+since+1968+anti-Semitic+purge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Fpoland-marks-50-years-since-1968-anti-semitic-purge%2Fa-42877652&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBazyler_''et_al.''2019311-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBazyler_''et_al.''2019311_204-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBazyler_et_al.2019">Bazyler <i>et al.</i> 2019</a>, p. 311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202166-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202166_205-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLehnstaedt2021">Lehnstaedt 2021</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202162,_66-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELehnstaedt202162,_66_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLehnstaedt2021">Lehnstaedt 2021</a>, pp. 62, 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620–621-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020620–621_207-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrzyb2020">Grzyb 2020</a>, pp. 620–621.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020630-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020630_208-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020630_208-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrzyb2020">Grzyb 2020</a>, p. 630.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020628-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrzyb2020628_209-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrzyb2020">Grzyb 2020</a>, p. 628.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluth2021269–270-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluth2021269–270_210-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornbluth2021">Kornbluth 2021</a>, pp. 269–270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluth20211-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluth20211_211-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornbluth2021">Kornbluth 2021</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornbluth20211,_271-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornbluth20211,_271_212-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKornbluth2021">Kornbluth 2021</a>, pp. 1, 271.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartov2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Omer_Bartov" title="Omer Bartov">Bartov, Omer</a> (2023). "The Holocaust". <i>The Oxford History of the Third Reich</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 190–216. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-288683-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-288683-5"><bdi>978-0-19-288683-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Holocaust&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.pages=190-216&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-19-288683-5&rft.aulast=Bartov&rft.aufirst=Omer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBazyler_et_al.2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Bazyler" title="Michael Bazyler">Bazyler, Michael J.</a>; Boyd, Kathryn Lee; Nelson, Kristen L. (2019). <i>Searching for Justice After the Holocaust: Fulfilling the Terezin Declaration and Immovable Property Restitution</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-092306-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-092306-8"><bdi>978-0-19-092306-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Searching+for+Justice+After+the+Holocaust%3A+Fulfilling+the+Terezin+Declaration+and+Immovable+Property+Restitution&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-19-092306-8&rft.aulast=Bazyler&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft.au=Boyd%2C+Kathryn+Lee&rft.au=Nelson%2C+Kristen+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeorn2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Waitman_Wade_Beorn" title="Waitman Wade Beorn">Beorn, Waitman Wade</a> (2018). <i>The Holocaust in Eastern Europe: At the Epicenter of the Final Solution</i>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloomsbury Academic">Bloomsbury Academic</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-3219-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-3219-7"><bdi>978-1-4742-3219-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Holocaust+in+Eastern+Europe%3A+At+the+Epicenter+of+the+Final+Solution&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-4742-3219-7&rft.aulast=Beorn&rft.aufirst=Waitman+Wade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergen2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Doris_Bergen" title="Doris Bergen">Bergen, Doris</a> (2016). <i>War & Genocide: A Concise History of the Holocaust</i>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4228-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-4228-9"><bdi>978-1-4422-4228-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+%26+Genocide%3A+A+Concise+History+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-4228-9&rft.aulast=Bergen&rft.aufirst=Doris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurzlaff2020" class="citation journal cs1">Burzlaff, Jan (2020). "Confronting the Communal Grave: a Reassessment of Social Relations During the Holocaust in Eastern Europe". <i>The Historical Journal</i>. <b>63</b> (4): 1054–1077. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X19000566">10.1017/S0018246X19000566</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Historical+Journal&rft.atitle=Confronting+the+Communal+Grave%3A+a+Reassessment+of+Social+Relations+During+the+Holocaust+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1054-1077&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0018246X19000566&rft.aulast=Burzlaff&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngel2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Engel_(historian)" title="David Engel (historian)">Engel, David</a> (2020). "A Sustained Civilian Struggle: Rethinking Jewish Responses to the Nazi Regime". <i>A Companion to the Holocaust</i>. Wiley. pp. 233–245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97052-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97052-2"><bdi>978-1-118-97052-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Sustained+Civilian+Struggle%3A+Rethinking+Jewish+Responses+to+the+Nazi+Regime&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=233-245&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-118-97052-2&rft.aulast=Engel&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrydel2018" class="citation book cs1">Frydel, Tomasz (2018). "Judenjagd: Reassessing the role of ordinary Poles as perpetrators in the Holocaust". <i>Perpetrators and Perpetration of Mass Violence</i>. Routledge. pp. 187–203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-17586-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-17586-9"><bdi>978-1-351-17586-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Judenjagd%3A+Reassessing+the+role+of+ordinary+Poles+as+perpetrators+in+the+Holocaust&rft.btitle=Perpetrators+and+Perpetration+of+Mass+Violence&rft.pages=187-203&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-351-17586-9&rft.aulast=Frydel&rft.aufirst=Tomasz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerlach2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christian_Gerlach" title="Christian Gerlach">Gerlach, Christian</a> (2016). <i>The Extermination of the European Jews</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-70689-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-70689-6"><bdi>978-0-521-70689-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Extermination+of+the+European+Jews&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-521-70689-6&rft.aulast=Gerlach&rft.aufirst=Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrzyb2020" class="citation book cs1">Grzyb, Amanda F. (2020). "The Changing Landscape of Holocaust Memorialization in Poland". <i>A Companion to the Holocaust</i>. Wiley. pp. 619–637. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97052-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97052-2"><bdi>978-1-118-97052-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Changing+Landscape+of+Holocaust+Memorialization+in+Poland&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=619-637&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-118-97052-2&rft.aulast=Grzyb&rft.aufirst=Amanda+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrunerOsterloh2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Gruner" title="Wolf Gruner">Gruner, Wolf</a>; <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Osterloh" title="Jörg Osterloh">Osterloh, Jörg</a> (2015). "Introduction". <i>The Greater German Reich and the Jews: Nazi Persecution Policies in the Annexed Territories 1935–1945</i>. War and Genocide. New York: Berghahn Books. pp. 1–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78238-444-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78238-444-1"><bdi>978-1-78238-444-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Greater+German+Reich+and+the+Jews%3A+Nazi+Persecution+Policies+in+the+Annexed+Territories+1935%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=War+and+Genocide&rft.pages=1-12&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-78238-444-1&rft.aulast=Gruner&rft.aufirst=Wolf&rft.au=Osterloh%2C+J%C3%B6rg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHakohen2003" class="citation book cs1">Hakohen, Devorah (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hCw6v0TFhdMC&q=%22Poland+opened+its+gates+to+Jewish+emigration.%22&pg=PA70"><i>Immigration from Poland</i></a>. Syracuse University Press, 325 pages. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2969-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2969-6"><bdi>978-0-8156-2969-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immigration+from+Poland&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press%2C+325+pages&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-2969-6&rft.aulast=Hakohen&rft.aufirst=Devorah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhCw6v0TFhdMC%26q%3D%2522Poland%2Bopened%2Bits%2Bgates%2Bto%2BJewish%2Bemigration.%2522%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilberg2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raul_Hilberg" title="Raul Hilberg">Hilberg, Raul</a> (2003). <a href="/wiki/The_Destruction_of_the_European_Jews" title="The Destruction of the European Jews"><i>The Destruction of the European Jews</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Destruction+of+the+European+Jews&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Hilberg&rft.aufirst=Raul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKay2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alex_J._Kay" title="Alex J. Kay">Kay, Alex J.</a> (2021). <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Destruction" title="Empire of Destruction"><i>Empire of Destruction: A History of Nazi Mass Killing</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-26253-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-26253-7"><bdi>978-0-300-26253-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Destruction%3A+A+History+of+Nazi+Mass+Killing&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-300-26253-7&rft.aulast=Kay&rft.aufirst=Alex+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKliymuk2018" class="citation journal cs1">Kliymuk, Alexander (2018). "The Construct Ostjuden in German Anti-Semitic Discourse of 1920–1932". <i>Scripta Judaica Cracoviensia</i>. <b>16</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scripta+Judaica+Cracoviensia&rft.atitle=The+Construct+Ostjuden+in+German+Anti-Semitic+Discourse+of+1920%E2%80%931932&rft.volume=16&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Kliymuk&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKopsteinWittenberg2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_S._Kopstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeffrey S. Kopstein">Kopstein, Jeffrey S.</a>; Wittenberg, Jason (2018). <i>Intimate Violence: Anti-Jewish Pogroms on the Eve of the Holocaust</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-1527-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-1527-3"><bdi>978-1-5017-1527-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intimate+Violence%3A+Anti-Jewish+Pogroms+on+the+Eve+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-5017-1527-3&rft.aulast=Kopstein&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+S.&rft.au=Wittenberg%2C+Jason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKopstein2023" class="citation book cs1">Kopstein, Jeffrey S. (2023). "A Common History of Violence?: The Pogroms of Summer 1941 in Comparative Perspective". <i>Politics, Violence, Memory: The New Social Science of the Holocaust</i>. Cornell University Press. pp. 104–123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-6676-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-6676-3"><bdi>978-1-5017-6676-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Common+History+of+Violence%3F%3A+The+Pogroms+of+Summer+1941+in+Comparative+Perspective&rft.btitle=Politics%2C+Violence%2C+Memory%3A+The+New+Social+Science+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=104-123&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-5017-6676-3&rft.aulast=Kopstein&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKornbluth2021" class="citation book cs1">Kornbluth, Andrew (2021). <a href="/wiki/The_August_Trials" title="The August Trials"><i>The August Trials: The Holocaust and Postwar Justice in Poland</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-25988-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-25988-1"><bdi>978-0-674-25988-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+August+Trials%3A+The+Holocaust+and+Postwar+Justice+in+Poland&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-674-25988-1&rft.aulast=Kornbluth&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLáníček2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_L%C3%A1n%C3%AD%C4%8Dek" title="Jan Láníček">Láníček, Jan</a> (2012). "Governments-in-exile and the Jews during and after the Second World War". <i><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Studies_(journal)" title="Holocaust Studies (journal)">Holocaust Studies</a></i>. <b>18</b> (2–3): 73–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17504902.2012.11087307">10.1080/17504902.2012.11087307</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Holocaust+Studies&rft.atitle=Governments-in-exile+and+the+Jews+during+and+after+the+Second+World+War&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=73-94&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17504902.2012.11087307&rft.aulast=L%C3%A1n%C3%AD%C4%8Dek&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehnstaedt2021" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephan_Lehnstaedt" title="Stephan Lehnstaedt">Lehnstaedt, Stephan</a> (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/temoigner/9886">"Aktion Reinhardt – Sources, Research and Commemoration in the last 30 years"</a>. <i>Témoigner. Entre histoire et mémoire. Revue pluridisciplinaire de la Fondation Auschwitz</i> (132): 62–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Ftemoigner.9886">10.4000/temoigner.9886</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2031-4183">2031-4183</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256347577">256347577</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=T%C3%A9moigner.+Entre+histoire+et+m%C3%A9moire.+Revue+pluridisciplinaire+de+la+Fondation+Auschwitz&rft.atitle=Aktion+Reinhardt+%E2%80%93+Sources%2C+Research+and+Commemoration+in+the+last+30+years&rft.issue=132&rft.pages=62-70&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256347577%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2031-4183&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Ftemoigner.9886&rft.aulast=Lehnstaedt&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Ftemoigner%2F9886&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongerich2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Longerich" title="Peter Longerich">Longerich, Peter</a> (2010). <i>Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280436-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280436-5"><bdi>978-0-19-280436-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holocaust%3A+The+Nazi+Persecution+and+Murder+of+the+Jews&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280436-5&rft.aulast=Longerich&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLukas1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Lukas" title="Richard C. Lukas">Lukas, Richard C.</a> (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/outofinferno00rela"><i>Out of the Inferno: Poles Remember the Holocaust</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_Kentucky" title="University Press of Kentucky">University Press of Kentucky</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/outofinferno00rela/page/13">13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-1692-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-1692-1"><bdi>978-0-8131-1692-1</bdi></a>. <q>The estimates of Jewish survivors in Poland.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+the+Inferno%3A+Poles+Remember+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-1692-1&rft.aulast=Lukas&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foutofinferno00rela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (May 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLukas2001" class="citation book cs1">Lukas, Richard C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lv1mAAAAMAAJ&q=editions:lC7HhINUjXIC%20Google"><i>The forgotten Holocaust: the Poles under German occupation, 1939–1944</i></a>. Hippocrene Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7818-0901-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7818-0901-6"><bdi>978-0-7818-0901-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+forgotten+Holocaust%3A+the+Poles+under+German+occupation%2C+1939%E2%80%931944&rft.pub=Hippocrene+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7818-0901-6&rft.aulast=Lukas&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLv1mAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Deditions%3AlC7HhINUjXIC%2520Google&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (May 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiron2020" class="citation book cs1">Miron, Guy (2020). "Ghettos and Ghettoization – History and Historiography". <i>A Companion to the Holocaust</i>. Wiley. pp. 247–261. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97052-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-97052-2"><bdi>978-1-118-97052-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ghettos+and+Ghettoization+%E2%80%93+History+and+Historiography&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=247-261&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-118-97052-2&rft.aulast=Miron&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dan_Stone_(historian)" title="Dan Stone (historian)">Stone, Dan</a> (2010). <i>Histories of the Holocaust</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956679-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956679-2"><bdi>978-0-19-956679-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histories+of+the+Holocaust&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956679-2&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Snyder, Timothy</a> (2010). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bloodlandseurope0000snyd_e5a3/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>Bloodlands. Europe between Hitler and Stalin</i></a></span>. Bodley Head. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780224081412" title="Special:BookSources/9780224081412"><bdi>9780224081412</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bloodlands.+Europe+between+Hitler+and+Stalin&rft.pub=Bodley+Head&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780224081412&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbloodlandseurope0000snyd_e5a3%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmerman2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joshua_D._Zimmerman" title="Joshua D. Zimmerman">Zimmerman, Joshua D.</a> (2015). <i>The Polish Underground and the Jews, 1939–1945</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-29825-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-29825-1"><bdi>978-1-316-29825-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Polish+Underground+and+the+Jews%2C+1939%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-316-29825-1&rft.aulast=Zimmerman&rft.aufirst=Joshua+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŻbikowski2008" class="citation book cs1">Żbikowski, Andrzej (2008). "Polscy Żydzi w latach drugiej wojny światowej" [Polish Jews in the years of the Second World War]. <i>Wysiedlenia, wypędzenia i ucieczki 1939-1959. Atlas ziem Polski</i> [<i>Displacements, expulsions and escapes 1939-1959. Atlas of the lands of Poland</i>]. Warsaw.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Polscy+%C5%BBydzi+w+latach+drugiej+wojny+%C5%9Bwiatowej&rft.btitle=Wysiedlenia%2C+wyp%C4%99dzenia+i+ucieczki+1939-1959.+Atlas+ziem+Polski&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=%C5%BBbikowski&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li></ul> </div> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Poland_during_World_War_II" title="Bibliography of Poland during World War II">Bibliography of Poland during World War II</a></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Sasson2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Havi_Dreifuss" title="Havi Dreifuss">Ben-Sasson, Havi</a> (2017). <i>Relations Between Jews and Poles During the Holocaust: The Jewish Perspective</i>. Jerusalem: Yad Vashem. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-965-308-524-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-965-308-524-4"><bdi>978-965-308-524-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relations+Between+Jews+and+Poles+During+the+Holocaust%3A+The+Jewish+Perspective&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pub=Yad+Vashem&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-965-308-524-4&rft.aulast=Ben-Sasson&rft.aufirst=Havi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiskupska2022" class="citation book cs1">Biskupska, Jadwiga (January 27, 2022). "Chapter 7 - Matters of Faith — Catholic Intelligentsia and the Church". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/survivors/matters-of-faith/622753B288C972B0DBBD5DC7D66A8E6D"><i>Survivors: Warsaw Under Nazi Occupation</i></a> (Hardcover) (New ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 192–225. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009026017.008">10.1017/9781009026017.008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1316515587" title="Special:BookSources/978-1316515587"><bdi>978-1316515587</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7+-+Matters+of+Faith+%E2%80%94+Catholic+Intelligentsia+and+the+Church&rft.btitle=Survivors%3A+Warsaw+Under+Nazi+Occupation&rft.pages=192-225&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022-01-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781009026017.008&rft.isbn=978-1316515587&rft.aulast=Biskupska&rft.aufirst=Jadwiga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fsurvivors%2Fmatters-of-faith%2F622753B288C972B0DBBD5DC7D66A8E6D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyndorfZieliński2023" class="citation book cs1">Tyndorf, Ryszard; Zieliński, Zygmunt (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repozytorium.kul.pl/items/86f916e2-4bcd-4b40-ab19-32dddf8842fc"><i>Wartime Rescue of Jews by the Polish Catholic Clergy: The Testimony of Survivors and Rescuers</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Vol. 1. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-8288-040-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-8288-040-3"><bdi>978-83-8288-040-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wartime+Rescue+of+Jews+by+the+Polish+Catholic+Clergy%3A+The+Testimony+of+Survivors+and+Rescuers&rft.place=Lublin&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+KUL&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-83-8288-040-3&rft.aulast=Tyndorf&rft.aufirst=Ryszard&rft.au=Zieli%C5%84ski%2C+Zygmunt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepozytorium.kul.pl%2Fitems%2F86f916e2-4bcd-4b40-ab19-32dddf8842fc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span> — Free downloadable book.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyndorfZieliński2023" class="citation book cs1">Tyndorf, Ryszard; Zieliński, Zygmunt (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/document/685331495/Rescue-of-Polish-Jews-by-Clergy-Vol-2"><i>Wartime Rescue of Jews by the Polish Catholic Clergy: The Testimony of Survivors and Rescuers</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Vol. 2. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-8288-088-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-8288-088-5"><bdi>978-83-8288-088-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wartime+Rescue+of+Jews+by+the+Polish+Catholic+Clergy%3A+The+Testimony+of+Survivors+and+Rescuers&rft.place=Lublin&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+KUL&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-83-8288-088-5&rft.aulast=Tyndorf&rft.aufirst=Ryszard&rft.au=Zieli%C5%84ski%2C+Zygmunt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdocument%2F685331495%2FRescue-of-Polish-Jews-by-Clergy-Vol-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThe+Holocaust+in+Poland" class="Z3988"></span> — Free downloadable book.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_Holocaust" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:The_Holocaust" title="Template:The Holocaust"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:The_Holocaust" title="Template talk:The Holocaust"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:The_Holocaust" title="Special:EditPage/Template:The Holocaust"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Holocaust" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Albania" title="The Holocaust in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Austria" title="The Holocaust in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belgium" title="The Holocaust in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bulgaria" title="The Holocaust in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li>Czechoslovakia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bohemia_and_Moravia" title="The Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia">Bohemia and Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="The Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Sudetenland" title="The Holocaust in the Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_the_Danish_Jews" title="Rescue of the Danish Jews">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Estonia" title="The Holocaust in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_France" title="The Holocaust in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Germany" title="The Holocaust in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Greece" title="The Holocaust in Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bulgarian-occupied_Greece" title="The Holocaust in Bulgarian-occupied Greece">Bulgarian-occupied Greece</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Hungary" title="The Holocaust in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Italy" title="The Holocaust in Italy">Italy</a> and colonies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Libya" title="The Holocaust in Libya">Libya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Latvia" title="The Holocaust in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Lithuania" title="The Holocaust in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Luxembourg" title="The Holocaust in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Netherlands" title="The Holocaust in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Norway" title="The Holocaust in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Romania" title="The Holocaust in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belarus" title="The Holocaust in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Russia" title="The Holocaust in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Yugoslavia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_German-occupied_Serbia" title="The Holocaust in German-occupied Serbia">Serbia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_and_documentation_for_the_Holocaust" title="Evidence and documentation for the Holocaust">Evidence and documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_of_the_Holocaust_in_Nazi_Germany_and_German-occupied_Europe" title="Knowledge of the Holocaust in Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe">Contemporary knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_children_during_the_Holocaust" title="Hidden children during the Holocaust">Hidden children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Holocaust" title="Timeline of the Holocaust">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Response</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_response_to_the_Holocaust" title="International response to the Holocaust">International response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japan_and_the_Holocaust" title="Japan and the Holocaust">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines_and_the_Holocaust" title="Philippines and the Holocaust">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_and_the_Holocaust" title="Portugal and the Holocaust">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_and_the_Holocaust" title="Spain and the Holocaust">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden_and_the_Holocaust" title="Sweden and the Holocaust">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_and_the_Holocaust" title="Turkey and the Holocaust">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_and_the_Holocaust" title="United States and the Holocaust">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Vatican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust">Rescue of Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Catholics_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Catholics during the Holocaust">by Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_by_Poles_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust">by Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Camps_and_ghettos" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Camps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">ghettos</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Concentration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp" title="Bergen-Belsen concentration camp">Bergen-Belsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp" title="Buchenwald concentration camp">Buchenwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flossenb%C3%BCrg_concentration_camp" title="Flossenbürg concentration camp">Flossenbürg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gross-Rosen_concentration_camp" title="Gross-Rosen concentration camp">Gross-Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herzogenbusch_concentration_camp" title="Herzogenbusch concentration camp">Herzogenbusch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinzert_concentration_camp" title="Hinzert concentration camp">Hinzert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaiserwald_concentration_camp" title="Kaiserwald concentration camp">Kaiserwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kauen_concentration_camp" title="Kauen concentration camp">Kauen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w-P%C5%82asz%C3%B3w_concentration_camp" title="Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp">Kraków-Płaszów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauthausen_concentration_camp" title="Mauthausen concentration camp">Mauthausen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gusen_concentration_camp" title="Gusen concentration camp">Gusen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mittelbau-Dora_concentration_camp" title="Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp">Mittelbau-Dora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natzweiler-Struthof_concentration_camp" title="Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp">Natzweiler-Struthof </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuengamme_concentration_camp" title="Neuengamme concentration camp">Neuengamme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravensbr%C3%BCck_concentration_camp" title="Ravensbrück concentration camp">Ravensbrück</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sachsenhausen_concentration_camp" title="Sachsenhausen concentration camp">Sachsenhausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stutthof_concentration_camp" title="Stutthof concentration camp">Stutthof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaivara_concentration_camp" title="Vaivara concentration camp">Vaivara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_concentration_camp" title="Warsaw concentration camp">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">Extermination</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz II-Birkenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belzec_extermination_camp" title="Belzec extermination camp">Belzec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp" title="Chełmno extermination camp">Chełmno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majdanek_concentration_camp" title="Majdanek concentration camp">Majdanek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobibor_extermination_camp" title="Sobibor extermination camp">Sobibor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treblinka_extermination_camp" title="Treblinka extermination camp">Treblinka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><span class="smallcaps">be</span></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Breendonk" title="Fort Breendonk">Breendonk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechelen_transit_camp" title="Mechelen transit camp">Mechelen</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Internment_camps_in_France" title="Internment camps in France"><span class="smallcaps">fr</span></a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurs_internment_camp" title="Gurs internment camp">Gurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drancy_internment_camp" title="Drancy internment camp">Drancy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_concentration_camps" title="List of Italian concentration camps"><span class="smallcaps">it</span></a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolzano_Transit_Camp" title="Bolzano Transit Camp">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risiera_di_San_Sabba" title="Risiera di San Sabba">Risiera di San Sabba</a></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">nl</span></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amersfoort_concentration_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Amersfoort concentration camp">Amersfoort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamp_Schoorl" title="Kamp Schoorl">Schoorl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westerbork_transit_camp" title="Westerbork transit camp">Westerbork</a></li> <li><b><span class="smallcaps">sk</span></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sere%C4%8F_concentration_camp" title="Sereď concentration camp">Sereď</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_gas_van" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi gas van">Gas van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chamber" title="Gas chamber">Gas chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_through_labour" title="Extermination through labour">Extermination through labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Human experimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_marches_during_the_Holocaust" title="Death marches during the Holocaust">Death marches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nazi units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde" title="SS-Totenkopfverbände">SS-<i>Totenkopfverbände</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_Camps_Inspectorate" title="Concentration Camps Inspectorate">Concentration Camps Inspectorate</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politische_Abteilung" title="Politische Abteilung">Politische Abteilung</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sanit%C3%A4tswesen" title="Sanitätswesen">Sanitätswesen</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi ghettos">Ghettos</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Nazi_ghettos" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Nazi ghettos">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_German-occupied_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto" title="Białystok Ghetto">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Kraków Ghetto">Kraków</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto" title="Łódź Ghetto">Łódź</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Ghetto" title="Lublin Ghetto">Lublin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lw%C3%B3w_Ghetto" title="Lwów Ghetto">Lwów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radom_Ghetto" title="Radom Ghetto">Radom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto" title="Warsaw Ghetto">Warsaw</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;">Elsewhere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_Ghetto" title="Budapest Ghetto">Budapest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kovno_Ghetto" title="Kovno Ghetto">Kovno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minsk_Ghetto" title="Minsk Ghetto">Minsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riga_Ghetto" title="Riga Ghetto">Riga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theresienstadt_Ghetto" title="Theresienstadt Ghetto">Theresienstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilna_Ghetto" title="Vilna Ghetto">Vilna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;color: #202122;background:#eef;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Judenrat" title="Judenrat">Judenrat</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Ghetto_Police" title="Jewish Ghetto Police">Jewish Ghetto Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Association_of_Jews_in_Germany" title="Reich Association of Jews in Germany">Reich Association of Jews in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Astred%C5%88a_%C5%BDidov" title="Ústredňa Židov">Ústredňa Židov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Victims" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_victims" title="Holocaust victims">Victims</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_during_World_War_II" title="History of the Jews during World War II">Jews</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roundup_(police_action)" title="Roundup (police action)">Roundups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Izieu" title="Izieu">Izieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marseille_roundup" title="Marseille roundup">Marseille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vel%27_d%27Hiv_Roundup" title="Vel' d'Hiv Roundup">Vel' d'Hiv</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Pogroms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_rebellion_and_Bucharest_pogrom" title="Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom">Bucharest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorohoi_pogrom" title="Dorohoi pogrom">Dorohoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ia%C8%99i_pogrom" title="Iași pogrom">Iași</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_pogroms_in_eastern_Poland" title="1941 pogroms in eastern Poland">1941 pogroms in eastern Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom" title="Jedwabne pogrom">Jedwabne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lviv_pogroms_(1941)" title="Lviv pogroms (1941)">Lviv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_pogroms_in_Lithuania" title="1941 pogroms in Lithuania">in Lithuania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaunas_pogrom" title="Kaunas pogrom">Kaunas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">"<a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wannsee_Conference" title="Wannsee Conference">Wannsee Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Reinhard" title="Operation Reinhard">Operation Reinhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trains" title="Holocaust trains">Holocaust trains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mass executions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babi_Yar" title="Babi Yar">Babi Yar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Harvest_Festival" title="Operation Harvest Festival">Harvest Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi_massacre" title="Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre">Kamianets-Podilskyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maly_Trostenets" title="Maly Trostenets">Maly Trostenets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Fort" title="Ninth Fort">Ninth Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Odessa_massacre" title="1941 Odessa massacre">Odesa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacres_in_Pia%C5%9Bnica" title="Massacres in Piaśnica">Piaśnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponary_massacre" title="Ponary massacre">Ponary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumbula_massacre" title="Rumbula massacre">Rumbula</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_resistance_in_German-occupied_Europe" title="Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe">Resistance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_partisans" title="Jewish partisans">Jewish partisans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bielski_partisans" title="Bielski partisans">Bielski partisans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_uprisings" title="Ghetto uprisings">Ghetto uprisings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising" title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising">Warsaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_Ghetto_uprising" title="Białystok Ghetto uprising">Białystok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa_Ghetto_uprising" title="Częstochowa Ghetto uprising">Częstochowa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust">Rescue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aid_and_Rescue_Committee" title="Aid and Rescue Committee">Aid and Rescue Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_the_twentieth_convoy" title="Attack on the twentieth convoy">Attack on the twentieth convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kastner_train" title="Kastner train">Kastner train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Chambon-sur-Lignon" title="Le Chambon-sur-Lignon">Le Chambon-sur-Lignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_of_the_Danish_Jews" title="Rescue of the Danish Jews">Danish underground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Group_(resistance_organization)" title="Working Group (resistance organization)">Working Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBegota" title="Żegota">Żegota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_victims" title="Holocaust victims">Others</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_atrocities_committed_against_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" title="German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet POWs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_Plan" title="Hunger Plan">Soviet urban residents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_security_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi security warfare">Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Euthanasia in Nazi Germany">People with disabilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Romani genocide">Romani people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligenzaktion" title="Intelligenzaktion">Polish leaders and intellectuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_homosexuals_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany">Homosexuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Responsibility" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_for_the_Holocaust" title="Responsibility for the Holocaust">Responsibility</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_major_perpetrators_of_the_Holocaust" title="List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust">List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel"><i>Schutzstaffel</i> (SS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Main_Office" title="Reich Security Main Office">Reich Security Main Office</a> (RSHA) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reich_Security_Head_Office_Referat_IV_B4" title="Reich Security Head Office Referat IV B4">Referat IV B4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst" title="Sicherheitsdienst">Sicherheitsdienst</a> (SD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordnungspolizei" title="Ordnungspolizei">Ordnungspolizei</a> (Orpo)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waffen-SS" title="Waffen-SS">Waffen-SS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_Regiment_Centre" title="Police Regiment Centre">Police Regiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_Police_battalions" title="Order Police battalions">Order Police battalions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">Collaborators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arajs_Kommando" title="Arajs Kommando">Arajs Kommando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Security_Police" title="Lithuanian Security Police">Lithuanian Security Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nederlandsche_SS" class="mw-redirect" title="Nederlandsche SS">Nederlandsche SS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollkommando_Hamann" title="Rollkommando Hamann">Rollkommando Hamann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Brigades" title="Special Brigades">Special Brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topf_and_Sons" title="Topf and Sons">Topf and Sons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trawniki_concentration_camp" title="Trawniki concentration camp">Trawnikis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Auxiliary_Police" title="Ukrainian Auxiliary Police">Ukrainian Auxiliary Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ypatingasis_b%C5%ABrys" title="Ypatingasis būrys">Ypatingasis būrys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Early_elementsAftermathRemembrance" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Early elements</li><li>Aftermath</li><li>Remembrance</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Early elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Nazi racial policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_eugenics" title="Nazi eugenics">Nazi eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haavara_Agreement" title="Haavara Agreement">Haavara Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitler%27s_prophecy" title="Hitler's prophecy">Hitler's prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_war_conspiracy_theory" title="Jewish war conspiracy theory">Jewish war conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emigration_from_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish emigration from Nazi Germany">Jewish emigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kindertransport" title="Kindertransport">Kindertransport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_Plan" title="Madagascar Plan">Madagascar Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisko_Plan" title="Nisko Plan">Nisko Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktion_T4" title="Aktion T4">Forced euthanasia <span style="font-size:85%;">(Action T4)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">Aftermath</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_villages_and_towns_depopulated_of_Jews_during_the_Holocaust" title="List of villages and towns depopulated of Jews during the Holocaust">Depopulated shtetls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_survivors" title="Holocaust survivors">Holocaust survivors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sh%27erit_ha-Pletah" title="Sh'erit ha-Pletah">Sh'erit ha-Pletah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricha" title="Bricha">Bricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_survivors" title="List of Holocaust survivors">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_violence_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe,_1944%E2%80%9346" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Jewish violence in Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–46">Postwar violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazis_and_Nazi_Collaborators_(Punishment)_Law" title="Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law">Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">Nuremberg trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eichmann_trial" title="Eichmann trial">Eichmann trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust restitution">Holocaust restitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_Agreement_between_Israel_and_West_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany">Reparations Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_trivialization" title="Holocaust trivialization">trivialization</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">History and memory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_studies" title="Holocaust studies">Academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_The_Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of The Holocaust">Books and other resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Memorial_Days" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Memorial Days">Days of remembrance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_education" title="Holocaust education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_films" title="List of Holocaust films">Films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lessons_of_the_Holocaust" title="Lessons of the Holocaust">Lessons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_memorials_and_museums" title="List of Holocaust memorials and museums">Memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_uniqueness_debate" title="Holocaust uniqueness debate">Uniqueness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide_and_the_Holocaust" title="Armenian genocide and the Holocaust">Armenian genocide and the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_humor" title="Holocaust humor">Humor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Righteous_Among_the_Nations" title="Righteous Among the Nations">Righteous Among the Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yizkor_books" title="Yizkor books">Yizkor books</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Never_again" title="Never again">Never again</a>"</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_Holocaust_in_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Europe_topic" title="Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topic" title="Template talk:Europe topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Europe_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_Holocaust_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">The Holocaust in Europe</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Albania" title="The Holocaust in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Andorra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Andorra (page does not exist)">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Armenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Armenia (page does not exist)">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Austria" title="The Holocaust in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Azerbaijan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Azerbaijan (page does not exist)">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belarus" title="The Holocaust in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belgium" title="The Holocaust in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Bosnia and Herzegovina (page does not exist)">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Bulgaria" title="The Holocaust in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holocaust in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Cyprus (page does not exist)">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holocaust in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Denmark&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Denmark (page does not exist)">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Estonia" title="The Holocaust in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Finland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Finland (page does not exist)">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_France" title="The Holocaust in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Georgia_(country)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Georgia (country) (page does not exist)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Germany" title="The Holocaust in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Greece" title="The Holocaust in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Hungary" title="The Holocaust in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Iceland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Iceland (page does not exist)">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in the Republic of Ireland (page does not exist)">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Italy" title="The Holocaust in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Kazakhstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Kazakhstan (page does not exist)">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Latvia" title="The Holocaust in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Liechtenstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Liechtenstein (page does not exist)">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Lithuania" title="The Holocaust in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Luxembourg" title="The Holocaust in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Malta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Malta (page does not exist)">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Moldova" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holocaust in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Monaco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Monaco (page does not exist)">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Montenegro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Montenegro (page does not exist)">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_the_Netherlands" title="The Holocaust in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_North_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holocaust in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Norway" title="The Holocaust in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holocaust in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Romania" title="The Holocaust in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Russia" title="The Holocaust in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_San_Marino&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in San Marino (page does not exist)">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holocaust in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Slovakia" title="The Holocaust in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holocaust in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holocaust in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holocaust in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Switzerland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Switzerland (page does not exist)">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holocaust in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Ukraine" title="The Holocaust in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in the United Kingdom (page does not exist)">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Kosovo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Kosovo (page does not exist)">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Transnistria" class="mw-redirect" title="The Holocaust in Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_the_Faroe_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in the Faroe Islands (page does not exist)">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Gibraltar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Gibraltar (page does not exist)">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Guernsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Guernsey (page does not exist)">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_the_Isle_of_Man&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in the Isle of Man (page does not exist)">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Jersey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Jersey (page does not exist)">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Holocaust in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2587808#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85061520">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007562962105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.codfw.main‐565f7699fc‐j4tcq Cached time: 20241125145448 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time usage: 2.867 seconds Real time usage: 3.198 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 37207/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 444601/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 31193/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 17/100 Expensive parser function count: 30/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 457278/5000000 bytes Lua time usage: 1.630/10.000 seconds Lua memory usage: 20771833/52428800 bytes Lua Profile: MediaWiki\Extension\Scribunto\Engines\LuaSandbox\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction 400 ms 21.1% ? 320 ms 16.8% MediaWiki\Extension\Scribunto\Engines\LuaSandbox\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments 260 ms 13.7% dataWrapper <mw.lua:672> 100 ms 5.3% type 80 ms 4.2% MediaWiki\Extension\Scribunto\Engines\LuaSandbox\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode 60 ms 3.2% validateData <mw.lua:728> 40 ms 2.1% MediaWiki\Extension\Scribunto\Engines\LuaSandbox\LuaSandboxCallback::match 40 ms 2.1% newFrame <mw.lua:153> 40 ms 2.1% <mw.lua:694> 40 ms 2.1% [others] 520 ms 27.4% Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1/400 --> <!-- Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 2767.705 1 -total 26.35% 729.168 205 Template:Sfn 20.84% 576.759 1 Template:Reflist 14.72% 407.539 62 Template:Cite_book 7.71% 213.375 8 Template:Navbox 6.80% 188.280 1 Template:Europe_in_topic 5.70% 157.653 49 Template:Iso2country 5.39% 149.223 1 Template:Antisemitism 4.53% 125.475 1 Template:Lang 4.38% 121.315 25 Template:R --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:4700769-0!canonical and timestamp 20241125145448 and revision id 1258519951. Rendering was triggered because: page-view --> </div><!--esi <esi:include src="/esitest-fa8a495983347898/content" /> --><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&oldid=1258519951">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&oldid=1258519951</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:The_Holocaust_in_Poland" title="Category:The Holocaust in Poland">The Holocaust in Poland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:The_Holocaust_by_country" title="Category:The Holocaust by country">The Holocaust by country</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Polish-language_sources_(pl)" title="Category:CS1 Polish-language sources (pl)">CS1 Polish-language sources (pl)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_extended-confirmed-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages">Wikipedia extended-confirmed-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_June_2019" title="Category:Use mdy dates from June 2019">Use mdy dates from June 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_December_2017" title="Category:Use American English from December 2017">Use American English from December 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_October_2024" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from October 2024">Articles lacking reliable references from October 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_German-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing German-language text">Articles containing German-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2023" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2023">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2021" title="Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021">Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements" title="Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements">All articles containing potentially dated statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_May_2023" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from May 2023">Articles lacking reliable references from May 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 November 2024, at 05:00<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Holocaust_in_Poland&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-694cf4987f-zt27g","wgBackendResponseTime":157,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.867","walltime":"3.198","ppvisitednodes":{"value":37207,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":444601,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":31193,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":30,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":457278,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2767.705 1 -total"," 26.35% 729.168 205 Template:Sfn"," 20.84% 576.759 1 Template:Reflist"," 14.72% 407.539 62 Template:Cite_book"," 7.71% 213.375 8 Template:Navbox"," 6.80% 188.280 1 Template:Europe_in_topic"," 5.70% 157.653 49 Template:Iso2country"," 5.39% 149.223 1 Template:Antisemitism"," 4.53% 125.475 1 Template:Lang"," 4.38% 121.315 25 Template:R"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.630","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20771833,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAleksiun\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBacon\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaker2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBartov2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBazyler_et_al.2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBen-Sasson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeorn2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerendt2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerthonPotts2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiskupska2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiskupski2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBreitman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrethour2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowning1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrowning2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurzlaff2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCantorovich2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCesaraniKavanaugh\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristopher_Browning2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCichopek2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooper2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCymet1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdeleWarlick2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngel2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFertacz2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankl2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedrich2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrydel2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarlinski1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerlach2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGershenson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrabowski2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrabowski2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrabowski2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrunerOsterloh2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrzyb2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGunnar_S._Paulsson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGutman1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHakohen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHilberg2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsaiah_Trunk1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJan_Grabowski2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoanna_Tokarska-Bakir2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJockuschLewinsky2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKay2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKliymuk2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKochavi2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKopstein2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKopsteinWittenberg2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKornbluth2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrajewski2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLehnstaedt2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLongerich2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLukas1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLukas2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLáníček2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarrusAristide_R._Zolberg2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin_Gilbert1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiron2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMushkat1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_VogelsangBrian_Larsen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPodbielska2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolonsky1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossolinski2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchatz1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShmuel_Krakowski2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiljakTher2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlay2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnyder2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnyder2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpectorWigoder2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinlauf1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStola2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStone2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Holocaust_Encyclopedia2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Holocaust_Encyclopedia2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTottenFeinberg2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrela-Mazur1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyndorfZieliński2023\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalter_LaqueurJudith_Tydor_Baumel2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaltmanHaas2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiatr2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_W._Hagen2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsBuckley-Zistel2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWładysław_Bartoszewski2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWłodarczyk2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmerman2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŻbikowski2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŻebrowski\"] = 1,\n [\"Engel2005\"] = 1,\n [\"Nazism2000\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Antisemitism\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 4,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 11,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 62,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 9,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Confuse\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Holocaust In Poland\"] = 1,\n [\"Europe in topic\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 3,\n [\"Holocaust by country\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Ill\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Mdash\"] = 3,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Photomontage\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-vandalism\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 25,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 205,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 2,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"•\"] = 4,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","400","21.1"],["?","320","16.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","260","13.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","5.3"],["type","80","4.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","60","3.2"],["validateData \u003Cmw.lua:728\u003E","40","2.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","40","2.1"],["newFrame \u003Cmw.lua:153\u003E","40","2.1"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","40","2.1"],["[others]","520","27.4"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-565f7699fc-j4tcq","timestamp":"20241125145448","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"The Holocaust in Poland","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Holocaust_in_Poland","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2587808","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2587808","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2006-04-11T02:22:11Z","dateModified":"2024-11-20T05:00:43Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Warsaw-Gdansk_railway_station_with_Warsaw_Ghetto_burning%2C_1943.jpg","headline":"the Holocaust of Jews in Nazi-occupied Poland"}</script> </body> </html>