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<span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> 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class="mw-page-title-main">Obshchina</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A" title="مجتمع الفلاحيين الروسي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مجتمع الفلاحيين الروسي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Сельская грамада – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сельская грамада" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsxina" title="Obsxina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Obsxina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ob%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Obščina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Obščina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_(Dorfgemeinschaft)" title="Mir (Dorfgemeinschaft) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mir (Dorfgemeinschaft)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_(comunidad)" title="Mir (comunidad) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mir (comunidad)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_(communaut%C3%A9)" title="Mir (communauté) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mir (communauté)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EB%A5%B4_(%EA%B3%B5%EB%8F%99%EC%B2%B4)" title="미르 (공동체) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미르 (공동체)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%93%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE" title="ओब्श्चीना – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ओब्श्चीना" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ob%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Obščina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Obščina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsjtsjina" title="Obsjtsjina – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Obsjtsjina" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9F%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB_(%E8%BE%B2%E6%9D%91%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%93)" title="ミール (農村共同体) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ミール (農村共同体)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_(comunautat)" title="Mir (comunautat) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Mir (comunautat)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obszczina" title="Obszczina – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Obszczina" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obshchina" title="Obshchina – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Obshchina" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ob%C8%99cina" title="Obșcina – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Obșcina" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Сельское общество – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сельское общество" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ob%C4%8Dina_(Rusko)" title="Občina (Rusko) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Občina (Rusko)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%88%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Обшчина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Обшчина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyl%C3%A4kunta" title="Kyläkunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kyläkunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ob%C5%9Fina" title="Obşina – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Obşina" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_(%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%83)" title="Община (система миру) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Община (система миру)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF%E6%9D%91%E7%A4%BE" title="俄罗斯村社 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="俄罗斯村社" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1038910#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> 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For the Moscow branch of the Chechen mafia, see <a href="/wiki/Chechen_mafia" title="Chechen mafia">Chechen mafia</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Obshchina" title="Special:EditPage/Obshchina">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Obshchina%22">"Obshchina"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Obshchina%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Obshchina%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Obshchina%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Obshchina%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Obshchina%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2008</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p> An <b><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">obshchina</i></span></b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text"><a href="/wiki/Intentional_community" title="Intentional community">commune</a></span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>; Russian: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">община</span></span>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ru-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[ɐpˈɕːinə]</a></span>) or <b><span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">mir</i></span></b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ɪər/: 'ear' in 'near'">ɪər</span></span>/</a></span></span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">world, peace</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>; Russian: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">мир</span></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ru-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[mʲir]</a></span>), also officially termed as a <b><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural community</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">сельское общество</span>; <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>: <span lang="uk">сільське товариство</span>) between the 19th and 20th centuries, was a peasant village community (as opposed to an individual farmstead), or a <a href="/wiki/Khutor" title="Khutor">khutor</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Imperial Russia</a>. The term derives from the word <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">obshchiy</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">общий</span>, literally "common"). </p><p>The mir was a community consisting of former <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">serfs</a>, or <a href="/wiki/State_serf" title="State serf">state peasants</a> and their descendants, settled as a rule in a single village, although sometimes a village included more than one mir and, conversely, several villages were sometimes combined in a single mir. The title of the land was vested in the mir and not in the individual peasant. Members of the mir had the right to the allotment, on some uniform basis, of a holding that each member cultivated separately. A holding could not be sold or bequeathed without the consent of the mir. As a consequence of its collective tenure, the mir had the power to repartition the land from time to time among its constituent households. The mir dealt primarily with the household and not with the individual. The peasant had a right to a holding but not to a particular holding, and he could not dispose of it freely.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vast majority of Russian peasants held their land in <a href="/wiki/Open-field_system" title="Open-field system">communal ownership</a> within a mir community which acted as a village government and a cooperative. Arable land was divided in sections based on <a href="/wiki/Soil_quality" title="Soil quality">soil quality</a> and distance from the village. Each household had the right to claim one or more strips from each section depending on the number of adults in the household. The purpose of this allocation was not so much social (to each according to his needs) as it was practical (that each person pay his taxes). Strips were periodically re-allocated on the basis of a census to ensure equitable share of the land. This was enforced by the state which had an interest in the ability of households to pay their taxes. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obshchina&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of Obshchina was an important part in Old Russia and had its roots in Slavic communities.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A detailed statistical description of the Russian village commune was provided by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Ivanovich_Chuprov" title="Alexander Ivanovich Chuprov">Alexander Ivanovich Chuprov</a>. Communal land ownership of the mir predated <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>, surviving emancipation and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>. Until the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">abolition of serfdom in 1861</a>, the <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">mir</i></span> could either contain <a href="/wiki/Serfs" class="mw-redirect" title="Serfs">serfs</a> or free peasants. In the first case, lands reserved for serf use were assigned to the <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">mir</i></span> for allocation by the proprietor. </p><p>Even after the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">1861 emancipation of the serfs</a>, a peasant in his everyday work normally had little independence from obshchina, governed at the village level (<span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">mir</i></span>) by the full assembly of the community (<span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">skhod</i></span>). Among its duties were control and redistribution of the common land and forest (if such existed), levying recruits for military service and imposing punishments for minor crimes. Obshchina was also held responsible for taxes underpaid by members. This type of shared responsibility was known as <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">krugovaya poruka</i></span> (mutual responsibility), although the exact meaning of this expression has changed over time and now in Russian it has a negative meaning of mutual cover-up. </p><p>In 1905, repartitional tenure did not exist in the Baltic provinces, but it was used by a quarter of western and southwestern (i.e. Ukrainian) peasants, two thirds of steppe peasants and 96.9% elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The institution was undermined by the <a href="/wiki/Stolypin_reform" title="Stolypin reform">Stolypin agrarian reforms</a> (1906–1914). The ambitious reforms however failed to make a significant dent in the structure of peasant life in Russia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obshchina&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire#Local_elected_administrative_bodies" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire § Local elected administrative bodies</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KorovinS_NaMiru.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/KorovinS_NaMiru.jpg/300px-KorovinS_NaMiru.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/KorovinS_NaMiru.jpg/450px-KorovinS_NaMiru.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/KorovinS_NaMiru.jpg/600px-KorovinS_NaMiru.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1554" /></a><figcaption><i>Obshchina Gathering</i> by <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Korovin" title="Sergei Korovin">Sergei Korovin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The organization of the peasant <a href="/wiki/Mode_of_production" title="Mode of production">mode of production</a> is the primary cause for the type of social structure found in the obshchina. The relationship between the individual peasant, the family and the community leads to a specific social structure categorized by the creation of familial alliances to apportion risks between members of the community. In the obshchina, alliances were formed primarily through marriage and common descent of kin. Usually, the eldest members of the household made up the mir to govern the redistribution of land. The families came together to form a community that depended on making taxes more equitable and the concept of mutual help. Jovan E. Howe writes: "The economic relations so established are essentially distributive: through various categories of exchanges of both products and labor, temporary imbalances such as those occasioned by insufficient labor power of a newly-established family unit or a catastrophic loss, which places one unit at an unfair reproductive disadvantage in relation to its allies, are evened out".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe199125_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe199125-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the alliance system had residual communal rights, sharing exchanges during shortages as well as certain distributive exchanges. Furthermore, the structure defined by these alliances and risk-sharing measures were regulated by scheduling and the ritualization of time. Howe writes that "the traditional calendar of the Russian peasants was a guide for day-to-day living. The names attached to calendar dates, the calendrical periods into which they were grouped, the day on the week on which each fell, and the sayings connected with them encoded information about when to undertake tasks, but also about when not to work, when it was necessary to perform symbolic actions, take part in rituals and compulsory celebrations".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe199140_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe199140-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Peasants" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasants">Peasants</a> (i.e. three-quarters of the population of Russia) formed a class apart,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> largely excepted from the incidence of the ordinary law and governed in accordance with their local customs. The mir itself, with its customs, is of immemorial antiquity, but it was not until the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">1861 emancipation of the serfs</a> that the village community was withdrawn from the patrimonial jurisdiction of the landowning nobility and endowed with self-government. The assembly of the <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">mir</i></span> consists of all the peasant householders of the village.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These elect a Village Elder (<span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Starosta" title="Starosta">starosta</a></i></span>) and a collector of taxes who was responsible, at least until the <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">ukaz</i></span> of October 1906 which abolished communal responsibility for the payment of taxes, for the repartition among individuals of the taxes imposed on the commune. A number of <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">mirs</i></span> are united into a <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Volost" title="Volost">volost</a></i></span> which has an assembly consisting of elected delegates from the <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">mirs</i></span>. </p><p>The mir was protected from insolvency by the rule that the families cannot be deprived of their houses or implements necessary for agriculture; nor can the mir be deprived of its land. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="View_on_obshchinas">View on obshchinas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obshchina&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: View on obshchinas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mir or obshchina became a topic in political philosophy with the publication of <a href="/wiki/August_von_Haxthausen" title="August von Haxthausen">August von Haxthausen</a>'s book in 1847. It was in the mid-19th century that <a href="/wiki/Slavophiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavophiles">Slavophiles</a> discovered the mir. <a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Romantic nationalists</a> and the Slavophiles hailed the mir as a purely Russian collective, both ancient and venerable; free from what they considered the stain of the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> mindset found in western Europe. Not surprisingly, it was but a short step from this to the mir being used as a basis for Slavophilic idealist theories concerning communism, communalism, communal lands, history, progress and the nature of mankind itself.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the second half of the 19th century, the Slavophiles were challenged by the opposing Western faction. <a href="/wiki/Boris_Chicherin" title="Boris Chicherin">Boris Chicherin</a>, a leading spokesman for the Western school, argued that the mir was neither ancient nor particular to Russia. The mir, the Western school argued, had arisen in the late 17th to early 18th century and was not based on some sort of social contract or communal instinct. Rather, it was a monarchical creation, created and enforced for the purpose of tax collection. Whatever the merits of either case, both schools agreed that the landlord and the state both played a vital role in the development (if not the origin of) the mir: </p> <blockquote><p>Where (arable) land is scarce, the communal form of tenure tends to prevail, but where ever it (arable land) is abundant it is replaced by household or even family tenure.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian philosophers">Russian philosophers</a> attached signal importance to obshchina as a unique feature distinguishing Russia from other countries. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Herzen" title="Alexander Herzen">Alexander Herzen</a>, for example, hailed this pre-<a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> institution as a germ of the future <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a> society. His Slavophile opponent <a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Aleksey Khomyakov</a> regarded obshchina as symbolic of the spiritual unity and internal co-operation of Russian society and worked out a sophisticated "Philosophy of Obshchina" which he called <a href="/wiki/Sobornost" title="Sobornost">sobornost</a>. </p><p>The European socialist movement looked to this arrangement as evidence that Russian peasants had a history of socialization of property and lacked bourgeois impulses toward ownership: </p> <blockquote><p>Russia is the sole European country where the "agricultural commune" has kept going on a nationwide scale up to the present day. It is not the prey of a foreign conqueror, as the <a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a>, and neither does it lead a life cut off from the modern world. On the one hand, the common ownership of land allows it to transform individualist farming in parcels directly and gradually into <a href="/wiki/Collective_farming" title="Collective farming">collective farming</a>, and the Russian peasants are already practising it in the undivided grasslands; the physical lie of the land invites mechanical cultivation on a large scale; the peasant’s familiarity with the contract of artel facilitates the transition from parcel labour to cooperative labour; and, finally, Russian society, which has so long lived at his expense, owes him the necessary advances for such a transition. On the other hand, the contemporaneity of western production, which dominates the world market, allows Russia to incorporate in the commune all the positive acquisitions devised by the capitalist system without passing through its <a href="/wiki/Caudine_Forks" class="mw-redirect" title="Caudine Forks">Caudine Forks</a> [i.e. undergo humiliation in defeat].<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obshchina&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" 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class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obshchina&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVolin1970" class="citation book cs1">Volin, Lazar (1970). <i>A century of Russian agriculture. From Alexander II to Khrushchev</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. pp. 78–79, 81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+century+of+Russian+agriculture.+From+Alexander+II+to+Khrushchev&rft.pages=78-79%2C+81&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Volin&rft.aufirst=Lazar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObshchina" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNickel2012" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nickel, Beatrice (January 2012). "Martin Franzbach: Sozialgeschichte der kubanischen Literatur (1608–1958), Frankfurt am Main: Valentia, 2012 (388 S.)" [Martin Franzbach: Social History of Cuban Literature (1608-1958), Frankfurt am Main: Valentia, 2012 (388 p.)]. <i>Iberoromania</i> (in German). 75–76 (1). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fibero-2012-0035">10.1515/ibero-2012-0035</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1865-9039">1865-9039</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iberoromania&rft.atitle=Martin+Franzbach%3A+Sozialgeschichte+der+kubanischen+Literatur+%281608%E2%80%931958%29%2C+Frankfurt+am+Main%3A+Valentia%2C+2012+%28388+S.%29&rft.volume=75-76&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fibero-2012-0035&rft.issn=1865-9039&rft.aulast=Nickel&rft.aufirst=Beatrice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObshchina" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1932" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Geroid T. (1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.ca/search?kgmid=/g/12brhpy__&hl=en-CA&kgs=3a6f6803851f3c33&q=Rural+Russia+Under+the+Old+R%C3%A9gime:+A+History+of+the+Landlord-peasant+World+and+a+Prologue+to+the+Peasant+Revolution+of+1917&shndl=0&source=sh/x/kp&entrypoint=sh/x/kp"><i>Rural Russia Under the Old Regime: A History of the Landlord-Peasant World and a Prologue to the Peasant Revolution of 1917</i></a>. p. 120.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rural+Russia+Under+the+Old+Regime%3A+A+History+of+the+Landlord-Peasant+World+and+a+Prologue+to+the+Peasant+Revolution+of+1917&rft.pages=120&rft.date=1932&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Geroid+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.ca%2Fsearch%3Fkgmid%3D%2Fg%2F12brhpy__%26hl%3Den-CA%26kgs%3D3a6f6803851f3c33%26q%3DRural%2BRussia%2BUnder%2Bthe%2BOld%2BR%25C3%25A9gime%3A%2BA%2BHistory%2Bof%2Bthe%2BLandlord-peasant%2BWorld%2Band%2Ba%2BPrologue%2Bto%2Bthe%2BPeasant%2BRevolution%2Bof%2B1917%26shndl%3D0%26source%3Dsh%2Fx%2Fkp%26entrypoint%3Dsh%2Fx%2Fkp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObshchina" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe199125-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe199125_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHowe1991">Howe 1991</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe199140-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe199140_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHowe1991">Howe 1991</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Until the <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ukaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukaz">ukaz</a></i></span> of 18 October 1906, the peasant class was stereotyped under the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral law">electoral law</a>. No peasant, however rich, could qualify for a vote in any but the peasants' <a href="/wiki/Electoral_college" title="Electoral college">electoral colleges</a>. The <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">ukaz</i></span> allowed peasants with the requisite qualifications to vote as <a href="/wiki/Landowner" class="mw-redirect" title="Landowner">landowners</a>. At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Governing_Senate" title="Governing Senate">Senate</a> interpreted the law so as to exclude all but heads of families actually engaged in farming from the vote for the <a href="/wiki/Duma" title="Duma">Duma</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">None but peasants—not even the noble-landowner—has a voice in the assembly of the <span title="Russian-language text"><i lang="ru-Latn">mir</i></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brodskii, N. L.; Rannie Slavianofily, Rannie (ed.) (1910). Moscow. p. LIII.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPipes1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Pipes" title="Richard Pipes">Pipes, Richard</a> (1974). <i>Russia Under the Old Regime</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons" title="Charles Scribner's Sons">Charles Scribner's Sons</a>. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+Under+the+Old+Regime&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Pipes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObshchina" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarx1881" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx, Karl</a> (1881). <i>First Draft of Letter to <a href="/wiki/Vera_Zasulich" title="Vera Zasulich">Vera Zasulich</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+Draft+of+Letter+to+Vera+Zasulich&rft.date=1881&rft.aulast=Marx&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObshchina" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obshchina&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowe1991" class="citation book cs1">Howe, Jovan E. (1991). <i>The Peasant Mode of Production</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tampere" title="University of Tampere">University of Tampere</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Peasant+Mode+of+Production&rft.pub=University+of+Tampere&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=Jovan+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObshchina" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPipe1974" class="citation book cs1">Pipe, Richard (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiaunderoldre00pipe/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Russia Under the Old Regime</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons" title="Charles Scribner's Sons">Charles Scribner: New York</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+Under+the+Old+Regime&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%3A+New+York&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Pipe&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussiaunderoldre00pipe%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObshchina" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Wikisource" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="wikisource:ru:ЭСБЕ/Поземельная община"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ru:%D0%AD%D0%A1%D0%91%D0%95/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0">"Поземельная община" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Brockhaus_and_Efron_Encyclopedic_Dictionary" title="Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary">Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary</a></i> (in Russian). 1906.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0&rft.btitle=Brockhaus+and+Efron+Encyclopedic+Dictionary&rft.date=1906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObshchina" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Obshchina&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0833361.html">Mir - infoplease</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605044329/http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0833361.html">Archived</a> 2011-06-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Mir"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Mir">"Mir" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1905.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mir&rft.btitle=New+International+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AObshchina" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Administrative_division" title="Administrative division">administrative divisions</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dzielnica" title="Dzielnica">dzielnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gmina" title="Gmina">gmina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hromada" title="Hromada">hromada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krai" title="Krai">krai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kraj" title="Kraj">kraj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krajina" title="Krajina">krajina / pokrajina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%9Bstys" title="Městys">městys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_community_(Bosnia_and_Herzegovina)" title="Local community (Bosnia and Herzegovina)">mjesna zajednica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obec" title="Obec">obec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oblast" title="Oblast">oblast / oblast' / oblasti / oblys / obwód / voblasts'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okr%C4%99g" class="mw-redirect" title="Okręg">okręg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okres" title="Okres">okres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okrug" title="Okrug">okrug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okruha" class="mw-redirect" title="Okruha">okruha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Op%C5%A1tina" title="Opština">opština / općina / občina / obshtina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osiedle" title="Osiedle">osiedle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powiat" title="Powiat">powiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raion" title="Raion">raion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selsoviet" title="Selsoviet">selsoviet / silrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/So%C5%82ectwo" title="Sołectwo">sołectwo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starosta_okruh" title="Starosta okruh">starosta okruh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voivodeship" title="Voivodeship">voivodeship / vojvodina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BDupanija" title="Županija">županija</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darugha" title="Darugha">darugha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gromada" title="Gromada">gromada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guberniya" class="mw-redirect" title="Guberniya">guberniya / gubernia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurydyka" title="Jurydyka">jurydyka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khutor" title="Khutor">khutor</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">obshchina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okolia" title="Okolia">okolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opole_(administrative)" title="Opole (administrative)">opole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogost" title="Pogost">pogost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Povit" title="Povit">povit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prowincja" class="mw-redirect" title="Prowincja">prowincja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorok" title="Sorok">sorok</a></li> <li><a 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